I.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Distillation is a centuries-old separation technique started in the first century A.D. Miller (2019)
stated that the process achieves chemical separation through phase changes, often utilizing varying
boiling of each component in a solution to initiate condensation. It is also important to note that
distillation is a separation process, not a chemical reaction.

In chemical analysis by J.D Green (2005) distillation is a common process for characterizing
materials by determining a purity index and for extracting specific components from a whole matrix.
As a way to purify goods and chemical intermediates, the approach is much more commonly utilized
in preparative chemistry and throughout the manufacturing sector. The semimicro scale to operations
producing "thousands of tons per year" vary greatly in size and complexity for distillation operations.
The scale used for analytical purposes is typically bench-level.

Since the boiling point of a liquid fluctuates with its surrounding environment, temperature, and
pressure are key considerations in distillation. The distillation process for a combination of liquids is
governed by Dalton's law and Raoult's law. According to Britannica's Encyclopedia (2022), Dalton's
law states that the overall pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the
individual component gases. The partial pressure is the pressure exerted by each gas if it occupies the
entire volume of the mixture at the same temperature.

Raoult's law stipulates that the partial vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is equal to or
identical to the pure solvent's vapor pressure multiplied by its mole fraction in the solution. Following
the mentioned laws, when a liquid mixture is heated, the vapor pressure of the individual components
rises, elevating the overall vapor pressure. As a result, the combination cannot have several boiling
points with a given composition and pressure (Distillation, n.d.).

A vapor-liquid equilibrium is another aspect to consider during the distillation process. When a
pure component or combination exists in both liquid and gas phases, it is said to be in vapor-liquid
equilibrium. A liquid combination is poured into a distillation unit or column, then heated. The data
on vapor-liquid equilibrium controls how liquid mixtures separate. Since the boiling points of the
liquids differ, one will boil into a gas and rise in the column, whereas the other will remain liquid and
drain through the unit. Gravity and heat separate the gas and liquid (Benton & Dooley, n.d.).

Distillation has many applications and one of which is in refinery operations that use crude oil.
Refinery operators have encouraged ongoing research into distillation procedures in an effort to meet
the demand for purer products and the need for better efficiency Richardson et al (2003).

Distillation is energy intensive and more so in case of close boiling mixtures. Efficient and
effective use of the operation depends on efficiency and economy. Almost all the separation
processes have some advantages and disadvantages. In many cases it is possible to combine more
than one operation and minimize drawbacks and maximize the positive aspects. Distillation can be
coupled with membrane operations, extraction, and solar energy in order to make it effective.
II. TLO
TLO#7: Discuss the reasons for carrying out distillate of liquid, problems encountered in carrying out
distillation. Differentiate fractional distillation, simple distillation.
III. PROCEDURES
A. Simple Distillation 
1. Set up a simple distillation apparatus, as shown in Fig. 5. Be sure to check the following
details:
a. The top of the thermometer bulb should extend just below the side arm of the distilling
flask so that the entire mercury bulb is bathed in the rising vapor.
b. The side arm should extend beyond the end of the cork in the adapter so that the
distillate does not pick up impurities from the cork.
c. Clamp both the distilling flask and the condenser. The adapter needs not to be clamped.
d. Do not connect the lower end of the adapter to the receiver with the cork. This will
create a closed system, and an explosion might occur when the system is heated.
e. Circulate water through the condenser prior to distillation. Water enters the lower
portion of the condenser and exits from the upper portion.
f. Add 2 or 3 boiling chips to the distilling flask to prevent any major amount of
superheating, which causes bumping.
g. Have your instructor check your distillation apparatus for correct assembly before
applying any heat.

2. Place 100 ml of denatured alcohol in the flask by means of a funnel. 

3. Heat the flask until the contents begin to boil and adjust the temperature so that the distillation
proceeds at 2 to 3 drops per second.
4. Discard the first 2 to 3 ml of distillate, and distill until 60 ml has been collected. 
5. Save the distillate, and record the observed boiling range of the alcohol. Discard the residue in
the distilling flask. Record the observed boiling range on the Data Sheet.

B. Fractional Distillation 
1. Use the same apparatus as in A, and place in the flask a mixture of 50 ml of the distilled
alcohol from A and 50 ml of distilled water.
2. Prepare four Erlenmeyer flasks and label them: (I) to 85°, (II) 85° to 89°, (III) 90° to 95°, (IV)
above 95°.
3. Heat the mixture gently so that the distillate comes over in drops at a rate not faster than 2
drops per second.
4. Watch the temperature and change the receivers when the temperature indicated on the flask is
reached. The portion boiling above 95° need not be distilled but is measured and placed into
receiver IV.
5. Each fraction is measured with a graduated cylinder.
6. Repeat the distillation by placing fraction I in the flask and heating it until the temperature
reaches 85°.
7. Stop heating and cool the flask (below 85°) and add fraction II.
8. Heat the flask and distill at the usual rate.
9. Collect the portion distilling to 85° in receiver I, change to receiver II, and collect that portion
distilling from 85° to 89°.
10. Stop heating and cool, add fraction III, and repeat the distillation in the same manner. 
11. It is not necessary to distill fraction IV, but add to it any residue remaining in the distilling
flask.
12. Record the results in the table. 

C. Distillation with the Use of a Fractionating Column 

1. Pour the distillates from the various fractions (from B) into a 250 ml round-bottom flask. 
2. Attach a fractionating column which contains glass beads or pieces of 4 or 5 mm tubing cut
lengths of 1 cm. Fit the column with a thermometer and attach the column to a condenser.
3. Distill the mixture at the same rate as that observed in the fractionating process (B) and collect
usual fractions.
 4. After one complete fractionation, measure the volumes and record the results in the table. 

IV. DATA AND RESULTS

A. Simple distillation: 
Observed boiling range 60-82oC

B. Fractional Distillation
Fraction I  Fraction II (85° to 89°) Fraction III (90° to 95°) Fraction IV
(to 85°) ml ml (above 95°) ml
ml

First Distillation 45 ml 5.8 ml 12 ml 10 ml

Second 32 ml 8 ml 13.5 ml 23.5 ml

Distillation

Fractionating 22.1 ml (76°C)

Column

V. DISCUSSION
For the purification and separation of organic compounds, distillation was observed. Simple
distillation is a procedure by which two liquids with different boiling points can be separated. Simple
distillation can be used effectively to separate liquids that have at least fifty degrees difference in their
boiling points. Generally, it was observed that distillation is a slow process. However, that pace is
ideal to ensure the best equilibration and heat transfer. A faster rate may defeat the purpose of
purification since impurities might come along with it.

In the simple distillation process, students utilized denatured alcohol. Denatured alcohol is
ethanol or grain alcohol treated with chemicals known as denaturants, rendering it unfit for human
consumption. It is acceptable for some laboratory work and as an ingredient in certain products, but it
is unsafe to consume. Ethanol is a chemical compound that is organic in nature, having attractive
forces between molecules made up of weak London dispersion forces. Because the attractive forces
between molecules are weak, it takes little energy to disrupt them, resulting in the observed boiling
range of 60-82°C which is much lower than the boiling point of water at 100°C. Moreover, the
observed result is a great evidence that the process of simple distillation is incapable of significant
purification since the boiling points of the components are too close.

On the other hand, it was observed that in fractional distillation, the vapors formed from the
boiling mixture rise into the fractionating column where they condense on the column's packing. This
condensation is tantamount to a single run of simple distillation; the condensate is more concentrated
in the lower boiling compound than the mixture in the distillation flask. As vapors continue to rise
through the column, the liquid that has condensed will vaporize.

VI. QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms:
  Evaporation - occurs when a liquid turns into gas
 Distillate - the product of the condensation of vapors during the distillation process  
 Vapor pressure - the pressure exerted by the equilibrium of the water and its vapor at a
given temperature
 Boiling point - the temperature at which the liquid turns into vapor
 Residue - the material that is left behind after a substance has been processed
 Equilibrium vapor pressure - indicates the thermodynamic tendency of a liquid to
evaporate
 Distillation - a purification process in which the liquid is turned into vapor before being
condensed back into its liquid form
 Azeotropic mixture - a mixture containing the same concentration of the substance’s
vapor and liquid phases

2. The entire mercury bulb of the thermometer must be below the level of the side arm in order to
obtain an accurate reading of the distillation temperature. Why is this so?

The entire mercury bulb of the thermometer must be below the level of the side arm to
ensure that the vapors will not condense before they reach the thermometer as well as to
ensure that the thermometer does not cool down before recording the distillation
temperature.

3. Why is cold water circulated through the condenser from the bottom rather than from the top?

Cold water is circulated through the condenser from the bottom so it would have to be
completely filled before the water could leave to ensure efficient cooling. If the cold water is
circulated through the top, only a small amount of the condenser would be sufficiently cold
to perform such condensing action. In addition, it also prevents thermal shock which causes
the glass to crack. 

4. In most distillations, the total volume of liquid obtained (distillate + residue) is not equal to the
volume of the mixture introduced into the flask. What are the possible sources of loss in this
procedure?

There are some instances that distillation cannot be totally achieved due to many factors
that can occur during the procedure. For instance, possible losses can be when the heating
process is extended for a long period of time, the mixture introduced in the flask has a high
chance that it may foam up, making it difficult to separate the mixture. Along with when
the mixture exceeds its maximum volume. In addition, Potential losses may occur if the
water outlets/inlets are not properly situated.  

5. What is the use of boiling chips?

Boiling chips are small pieces of silicon carbide that are added to a solution. The use of
boiling chips in the distillation process helps prevent superheating of the solution being
distilled which results in a more controlled boil since they eliminate the possibility of the
liquid in the distillation to bump into the condenser.

6. List at least 3 limitations of using distillation as a method of purification.

Three limitations of using distillation as a method of purification include differences in boiling
points, azeotropes, and concentrations. 
 Distillation limitations include differences in boiling points; if you are distilling, their
boiling points should be far enough apart for you to tell when one has boiled and the other
is about to boil. Second, in terms of Azeotropes. And at last, it has solid concentrations.  

7. Research on fractional distillation and distillation with the use of a fractionating column; how
it is performed, what is the theory behind it?

Fractional distillation is the separation of a chemical mixture whose components have

different boiling points. This method is used to separate mixtures such as water and
ethanol, or to produce gasoline from crude oil. A mixture of liquids is boiled in a fractional
distillation, and the resulting vapors travel up a glass tube known as a "fractionating
column" and separate. A fractionation column is used to separate liquids based on the
order in which they vaporize, so that they can be separated as they vaporize. The
fractionating column, which is placed between the flask containing the mixture and the "Y"
adaptor, improves separation of the liquids being distilled. Because the glass beads in the
fractionating column provide "theoretical plates" on which the vapors can condense and
then re-evaporate and re-condense, essentially distilling the compound many times over,
fractional distillation produces better separation than simple distillation. One theoretical
plate corresponds to one vaporization-condensation cycle, which corresponds to one simple
distillation. 

VII. CONCLUSION
The experiments involved separating and purifying organic compounds through simple
distillation and fractional distillation. It was observed that distillation is carried out at a slower pace to
ensure the utmost purification of organic compounds. Distillation works on the fundamental principle
that a combination of liquids can be separated based on the difference in their boiling points. The
temperature at which a liquid's vapor pressure equals that of the atmosphere is known as the boiling
point. Using this technique, volatile and non-volatile liquids are separated. The main difference
between simple and fractional distillation are their boiling points and overall complexity. Simple
distillation is carried out with at least 50 degrees boiling point gaps, while fractional distillation
separates and purifies with closer boiling points. A fractional column is also used for fractional
distillation. A fractionating column is fixed because the vapors from such liquids might condense
collectively. This helps separate the mixture based on their differences in volatilities. Distillation has
many industrial applications. It is used in many industries, such as oil refineries and chemical plants.
Therefore, this experiment was conducted as a micro demonstration of large-scale processes that
contribute significantly to society.
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