HHS 520

Reflections Ch 1-3 
Sabrina Benfaida, Bren Joyce, Gabby Puran & Jaclyn Kateridge

Chapter 1:
1. Speech, language, and communication are different aspects of the same process. Can
you contrast all three?
 While in everyday conversation, we may consider speech, language and communication
to be similar, they are actually very different. Speech is a verbal mode of communication that
encompasses different spoken aspects, such as pitch, fluency and phonemes (page 4). Language,
however, is an agreed upon code that represents different concepts through symbols and rules
(page 5). Moreover, language can be found in a written form and also has the ability to evolve
overtime or die out. On the other hand, communication encompasses speech and language and
involves the exchange of ideas between two or more individuals (page 10). Communication
involves pitch, stress, and rate, which can affect the way a message is perceived. Therefore,
while saying a sentence may involve all three of these elements, they all represent different
aspects.

2. Not all of the message is carried by the linguistic code. How do the other aspects of
communication contribute?
 There are various ways in which language is altered. One of these ways is through
emphasis (page 11). Emphasis on a different word can change the meaning of the phrase entirely.
For example, in the question “You ate the sandwich?”, by stressing the word “you” one is
questioning if it was that person who did the action. On the other hand, by stressing the word
“ate”, you are questioning if the action they completed was eating. Similar techniques are used
with intonation (page 11). Increasing the pitch towards the end of a phrase can turn a sentence
into a question. Another factor is the rate in which we speak, such as through speaking faster
when communicating with someone we are comfortable with (page 12).

3. Language is a social tool that is rule governed and generative. Explain these three
properties of language.
Language can be defined as a social tool because without communication, language is
useless (page 14). Language allows for the transfer of ideas from person to person (page 12).
Language is rule-governed due to the specific classifications that restrict the usage of the
symbols (page 15). There are rules to any given language that prevent certain phonemic,
syntactic and morphological combinations. Language is also generative because it allows
speakers to expand the vocabulary (page 16). More words and sentences can always be created,
so the possibilities are infinite.

4. Language consists of five interrelated components. Describe these components as

well as the units of morpheme and phoneme.
 The five components that make up language are the following: syntax, morphology,
phonology, semantics and pragmatics. Syntax involves sentence structures and its rules and
limitations (page 18). Sentences can fall into a variety of different categories which all include
various rules. Morphology is the breakdown of how words are organized (page 20). Morphemes
are the smallest meaningful unit of language (page 20). Phonology is the structure and
distribution of speech sounds (page 21). This involves rules which state which phonological
sequences are permitted, and which are not. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound
that is contrastive to all other sounds (page 21). Semantics is the component that governs the
meaning of words and how they are able to be combined (page 22). Lastly, pragmatics is the
component that focuses on the social use of language (page 24). 

5. How do dialects relate to each other and to the parent language?

  Dialects relate to each other and the parent language because they are all the same
language. For example, all dialects in the United States of America are based off of Mainstream
American English (MAE), but different geographical regions will use different words to
represent the same object (page 31). However, the core of the language is the same across
dialects and they are able to communicate with one another. 

6. What factors contribute to the development of dialects? Relate these to the dialects
found in the United States.
 There are many factors that contribute to different dialects forming. Among these is
geography, socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity. Geographically speaking, in New York we
may call a sandwich a hero, but in Pennsylvania they may call it a hoagie. The use of different
words is due to geographic separation. Socioeconomic status can influence speech, as well. For
example, many individuals with a lower SES will drop the final “-ing” in different phrases,
saying that they are “workin’” (page 32). Race and ethnicity can play a role in dialectical
development, such as with the example of African American English (page 32). Moreover, these
dialectal changes can be due to countless factors, such as from living in largely industrial areas
(page 32).

Chapter 2:

1. Explain the differences between the Generativist/Nativist and Constructionist

models of language with regard to the brain.

 The Generativist or Nativist approach states that children are innately born with the rules
and principles relating to structured languages, which allows them to acquire language (page 41).
This means that these rules are pre-established in the brain. This theory argues that individuals
would not be able to learn language from the environment due to the errors and lack of complete
information. The Constructionist approach states that language is composed of symbols that
when combined, hold form and meaning (page 44). The difference is that with this process,
language structure emerges from the use of language (page 44). Therefore, the contrast between
the two approaches is that Generativist models state that we are innately born with language
whereas the Constructionist model says we are innately born with the ability to learn language. 

2. Describe the different ways in which a child is assumed to learn grammar in the
Generativist/Nativist and Interactionalist theories.
 When using the Generativist approach, grammar is learned through a semantic-cognitive
basis from the child’s early childhood (page 41). Children communicate using agents, such as
actions, what caused the action and objects (page 41). When using the Constructionist approach,
grammar is learned through rule-based constructions that they encounter during their lives (page
45). This approach also mentions that there is no universal grammar (page 45).

3. Compare the three types of learning theory.

Behavioral Learning Theory stems from the idea that learning happens when new
behaviors arise or there are changes in current behaviors (page 47). This occurs through the
association of stimuli and responses (page 47). Cognitivist Learning Theory says that humans
don’t only respond to stimuli, but instead, process the information that is contained within it
(page 48). This method assumes that the learner plays a role in attempting to understand and
process the information (page 48). Social Constructivist Learning Theory states that knowledge
is constructed within social contexts through interactions with others (page 51). The social aspect
is crucial for the exposure to language that children need (page 51). 

4. Explain the two primary methods of data collection and the types of data generated
by each.

 There are two types of data collection that are typically used, structured testing or
experimental manipulation and spontaneous conversational sampling or natural observation.
Structured testing or experimental manipulation is when different linguistic components are
analyzed after verbal and nonverbal stimuli are presented (page 55). These results must be
examined considering the context and which behaviors the stimuli were trying to provoke (page
56). Spontaneous conversational sampling or natural observation is a natural approach to
analyzing speech which analyzes the child’s real-life language use (page 56). These results can
be insufficient when trying to elicit the child’s systematic knowledge of language (page 58).

5. Explain the way in which language sample and population sample size and
variability affect the data collected.

 There are several factors that can influence data collection, which include language
sample, population sample size and variability. Sampling spontaneous conversation is found to
be more naturalistic than testing. Population size can influence results because too small of a
sample size can lead to inconclusive results (page 58). The sample size must be large enough to
show individual differences but also lead to group conclusions to be drawn (page 58). Further,
language sample can impact data collection because it must be an age appropriate sample for the
age group being tested. 

6. Why are natural and representative language samples desired, and what are the
potential problems that can interfere with collecting these types of samples?

 Natural and representative language samples are desirable because it allows the
professionals to analyze the child’s spontaneous speech and acknowledge how the individual
sounds on a daily basis. However, there are problems that are associated with collecting this
specific type of sample. For example, being that there is no specific script to follow, it may be
unclear what the child is intending to say. 
 7. How can the method of collection affect the language sample collected?

The method of collection can impact a language sample that is collected because if the
examiner is focused on one element, they may disregard another area of the speech sample.
Additionally, depending on the method and what is asked of the student, there could be gaps in
the child’s speech production that are not present in the final data. 

8. Discuss the primary areas of investigation undertaken in cross-language studies.

 The primary areas of investigation undertaken in cross-language studies are universality,

linguistic specificity, relative difficulty, and language acquisition principles. Universality refers
to determining which aspects of language appear in all languages (page 59). Linguistic
specificity studies try to determine if development is due to universal cognitive development or
unique linguistic knowledge (page 59). Relative difficulty refers to the language-development
differences that can be explained by the level of difficulty of learning structures and forms in
different languages (page 59). Finally, language acquisition principles attempt to find the
language-learning strategies that children apply regardless of the acquired language (page 59). 

Chapter 3: 

1. Describe three basic brain functions: regulation, processing, and formulation.

Explain how these functions, especially processing, relate to linguistic material.

 The brain is responsible for three major functions, which are regulation, processing, and
formulation. Regulation is responsible for energy levels and the overall tone of the cortex (page
67). Regulation aids in the performance of the other two functions and enables you to monitor,
evaluate and adjust behavior (page 67). The processing aspect controls information analysis,
coding and storage (page 68). This is important linguistically because all of these processes are
critical for communication and language synthesis. Lastly, formulation is responsible for the
formation of intentions and programs for behavior (page 68). This portion also regulates
attention and concentration (page 68). 

2. In most humans the left hemisphere is dominant for linguistic processing. Can you
name the major areas responsible for this processing?

The areas in the brain that are responsible for linguistic processing are Wernicke’s area,
 
Herschel’s area, angular gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, and Broca’s area.

3. Few theorists would argue with the notion of brain lateralization for language. Can
you explain the major theories on how this lateralization occurs?

The major theory of how brain lateralization was discovered was through the study of
patients who had physical defects in certain parts of their brain. Paul Broca was one of the
earliest individuals to delve into this investigation. Through the study of additional individuals, it
was found that many individuals who experienced language problems also had lesions on the left
side of their brain (page 70). Once certain areas of the brain were pinpointed, it was then
understood that certain areas of the brain give us the ability to perform specific actions. Carl
Wernicke, another individual inspired by Broca, discovered another region related to linguistic
understanding promptly named Wernicke’s area.  Both regions are most likely located on the left
side. Some fields of study related to this are neurolinguistics and psycholinguistics which
provide a deeper understanding of how the brain functions in correlation to linguistic
processing. 

4. Explain briefly how language is processed relative to specific areas of the brain.

There are a few areas in the brain that are involved in language processing. Of these is
Heschl’s area, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, angular gyrus and the supramarginal gyrus. Firstly,
Heschl’s area is responsible for auditory processing. Secondly, Broca’s area is responsible for
auditory working memory. Next, Wernicke’s area is responsible for linguistic analysis. Finally,
the angular gyrus and supramarginal gyrus are responsible for linguistic processing, integrating
visual, auditory, and tactile input with linguistic information. 

5. Describe information processing theory and the several models of language

comprehension and production processes associated with it?

  Information processing theory can be described as the way that information is processed
for later retrieval (page 76). There are also several models of language comprehension and
production processes associated with this theory, such as discrimination, working memory and
attention (pages 76 and 77). Attention is both the awareness of a learning situation and cognitive
processing (page 76). Discrimination is the ability to identify stimuli that are different and
working memory holds a message during processing (page 77). Further, organization of
information allows for retrieval later on and memory is the ability to recall information (page
79). Finally, problem solving, and transfer is the ability to apply prior knowledge to a current
activity (page 80). 

References: Owens Jr., R. (2020). Language Development: An Introduction (10th ed.). Pearson.