SURVEYING & GEOMATICS Module 2

SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 2 (2.3)- Sullabus

2.3- THEODOLITE SURVEY – Instruments, Measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles, Principles of stadia and tangential tacheometry (introduction only)

THEODOLITE

The Theodolite is the most precise instrument designed for the measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles and has wide applicability in surveying such as laying off horizontal
angles, locating points on line, prolonging survey lines, establishing grades, determining
difference in elevation, setting out curves etc.

Theodolites may be classified as:

i. Transit theodolite
ii. Non- transit theodolite

A transit theodolite (or simply „transit‟) is one in which the line of sight can be reversed by
revolving the telescope through 1800 in the vertical plane. The non-transit theodolites are
either plain theodolites or Y-theodolites in which the telescope cannot be transited. The
transit is mainly used and non- transit theodolites have now become obsolete.

THE ESSENTIALS OF THE TRANSIT THEODOLITE

A transit consists of the following essential parts:

i. The Telescope
ii. The Vertical Circle
iii. The Index Frame ( or T- Frame or Vernier Frame)
iv. The Standards (or A-Frame)
v. The Levelling Head
vi. The Two Spindles (or Axes or Centres)
vii. The Lower Plate (or Scale Plate)
viii. The Upper Plate (or Vernier Plate)
ix. The Plate Levels
x. Tripod
xi. The Plumb Bob
xii. The Compass

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

(1) The vertical axis: The vertical axis is the axis about which the instrument can be
rotated in a horizontal plane. This is the axis about which the lower and upper plates
rotate.

(2) The horizontal axis: The horizontal or trunnion axis is the axis about which the
telescope and the vertical circle rotate in vertical plane.

(3) The line of sight or line of collimation: It is the line passing through the intersection
of the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs and the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation.

(4) The axis of level tube: The axis of the level tube or the bubble line is a straight line
tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre. The axis of the level-tube
is horizontal when the bubble is central.

(5) Centring: The process of setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark is known
as centring.

(6) Transiting: It is the process of turning the telescope in vertical plane through 180 0
about the trunnion axis. Since the line of sight is reversed in this operation, it is also
known as plunging or reversing.

(7) Swinging the telescope: It is the process of turning the telescope in horizontal plane.
If the telescope is rotated in clock-wise direction, it is known as right swing. If telescope is
rotated in the anti-clockwise direction, it is known as the left swing.

(8) Face left observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, the
observation of the angle (horizontal or vertical) is known as face left observation.

(9) Face right observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the right of the observer,
the observation is known as face right observation.

(10) Telescope normal: A telescope is said to be normal or direct when the face of the
vertical circle is to the left and the “bubble (of the telescope) up”.

(11) Telescope inverted: A telescope is said to inverted or reversed when of the vertical
circle is to the right and the “bubble down”.

(12) Changing face: It is an operation of bringing the face of the telescope from left to
right and vice versa.

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 2 (2.4)- Sullabus

2.4 – TRIANGULATION – Triangulation figures, Triangulation stations, Intervisibility

of stations, Satellite stations and reduction to center.

TRIANGULATION

GEODETIC SURVEYING

The object of the Geodetic surveying is to determine very precisely the relative or absolute
positions on the earth's surface of a system of widely separated points. The relative positions
are determined in terms of the lengths and azimuths of the lines joining them. The absolute
positions are determined in terms of latitude, longitude, and elevation above mean sea level.

Triangulation. The horizontal control in Geodetic survey is established either by

triangulation or by precise traverse. In triangulation, the system consists of a number of inter-
connected triangles in which the length of only one line, called the base line, and the angles
of the triangles are measured very precisely. Knowing the length of one side and the three
angles, the lengths of the other two sides of each triangle can be computed. The apexes of the
triangles are known as the triangulation stations and the whole figure is called the
triangulation system or triangulation figure. The defect of triangulation is that it tends to
accumulate errors of length and azimuth, since the length and azimuth of each line is based
on the length and azimuth of the preceding line. To control the accumulation of errors,
subsidiary bases are also selected. At certain stations, astronomical observations for azimuth
and longitude are also made. These stations are called Laplace Stations.

The objects of Geodetic Triangulation are:

1) To provide the most accurate system of horizontal control points on which the less
precise triangles may be based, which in turn may form a framework to which
cadastral, topographical, hydro-graphical, engineering and other surveys may be
referred.

2) To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making
observations for latitude, longitude and gravity.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM

The basis of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy with which the length
and azimuth of a line of the triangulation are determined. Triangulation systems of different
accuracies depend on the extent and the purpose of the survey.

The accepted grades of triangulation are:

1) First order or Primary Triangulation

2) Second order or Secondary Triangulation

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3) Third order or Tertiary Triangulation

(1) First Order or Primary Triangulation

The first order triangulation is of the highest order and is employed either to determine the
earth's figure or to furnish the most precise control points to which secondary triangulation
may be connected. The primary triangulation system embraces the vast area (usually the
whole of the country). Every precaution is taken in making linear and angular measurements
and in performing the reductions. The following are the general specifications of the primary
triangulation:

1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second

2. Maximum triangle closure : Not more than 3 seconds

3. Length of base line : 5 to 15 kilometers

4. Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 kilometers

(2) Second Order or Secondary Triangulation

The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the triangles
formed are smaller than the primary triangulation. The instruments and methods used are not
of the same utmost refinement. The general specifications of the secondary triangulation are:

1. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 8 sec

3. Length of base line : 1.5 to 5 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km

(3) Third-Order or Tertiary Triangulation

The third-order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
secondary triangulation, and form the immediate control for detailed engineering and other
surveys. The sizes of the triangles are small and instrument with moderate precision may be
used. The specifications for a third-order triangulation are as follows:

1. Average triangle closure : 6 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 12 sec

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3. Length of base line : 0.5 to 3 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 1.5 to 10 km

TRIANGULATION FIGURES OR SYSTEM

A triangulation figure is a group or system of triangles such that any figure has one side, and
only one, common to each of the preceding and following figures. The common Figures or
Systems are:

(1) Single chain of triangles

(2) Double chain of triangles

(3) Central point Figures

(4) Quadrilaterals

(i) Single chain of triangles:

This figure is used-where a narrow strip of terrain is to be covered. Though the system is
rapid and economical, it is not so accurate for primary work since the number of conditions to
be fulfilled in the figure adjustment is relatively small. Also, it is not possible to carry the
solution of triangles through the figures by two independent routes. If the accumulation of
errors is not be become excessive, base lines must be introduced frequently.

(ii) Double chain of triangles:

It is used to cover greater area.

(iii) Centred figures:

Centred figures are used to cover area, and give very satisfactory results in flat country. The
centred figures may be quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central stations. The
system provides the desired checks on the computations. However, the progress of work is
slow due to more settings of the instrument.

(iv) Quadrilaterals:

The quadrilateral with four corner stations and observed diagonal forms the best figures.
They are best suited for hilly country. Since the computed lengths of the sides can be carried
through the system by different combinations of sides and angles; the system is the most
accurate.

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