Furnace and Boiler Design and Operating Parameters

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
FURNACE AND BOILER DESIGN

AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI-104.06 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Process Design for Instrument Engineers
Furnace and Boiler Design and Operating Parameters
Section Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 3
CALCULATING FURNACE EFFICIENCY...................................................................... 4
Flammability Limits ................................................................................................... 4
Heats of Combustion ................................................................................................ 5
Example Problem 1 ............................................................................................ 6
Furnaces................................................................................................................... 7
Direct Fired .......................................................................................................... 8
Excess Oxygen/Excess Air ..................................................................................... 11
Example Problem 2 .......................................................................................... 11
Draft ........................................................................................................................ 13
Heat Availability Curves .......................................................................................... 15
Flue Gas Curves ..................................................................................................... 16
Furnace Efficiency .................................................................................................. 16
Example Problem 3 .......................................................................................... 18
Efficiency Shortcut............................................................................................. 19
Combustion Air Preheaters................................................................................ 19
Example Problem 4 .......................................................................................... 20
Example Problem 5 .......................................................................................... 22
FURNACE DESIGN VARIABLES ................................................................................ 27
Metal Temperature.................................................................................................. 27
Deposits and Tube Metal Temperature................................................................... 28
Furnace Side Pressure Drop (Draft) ....................................................................... 30
Process Side Pressure Drop................................................................................... 31
FURNACE AND BOILER OPERATION ....................................................................... 32
Startup .................................................................................................................... 32
Optimum Excess Air Levels .................................................................................... 34
Operating Guidelines......................................................................................... 35
Monitoring Devices and Techniques ....................................................................... 39
Controls/Safety Devices/Burners....................................................................... 39
Monitoring Tube Metal Temperature ................................................................. 45
NOMENCLATURE ....................................................................................................... 46
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATING FURNACE
EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................................ 48
WORK AID 2: FLUE GAS OXYGEN VERSUS EXCESS AIR ..................................... 50
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................... 52
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Limits of Flammability of Gases and Vapors, Percent in Air........................... 4

Figure 2. Combustion Equations ................................................................................... 5
Figure 3. Furnace Categories........................................................................................ 7
Figure 4. Examples of Vertical Cylindrical Direct Fired Furnaces.................................. 8
Figure 5. Examples of Cabin Direct Fired Furnaces...................................................... 9
Figure 6. Comparison of Cylindrical and Cabin Furnaces ............................................. 9
Figure 7. Excess Oxygen ............................................................................................ 11
Figure 8. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air ........................................................... 12
Figure 9. Furnace Natural Draft Profiles...................................................................... 14
Figure 10. Combustion Heat Available to Process ...................................................... 15
Figure 11. Steam Boiler System.................................................................................. 20
Figure 12. Steam Boiler System.................................................................................. 23
Figure 13. Furnace Fuel Savings ................................................................................ 25
Figure 14. Allowable Elastic and Creep Rupture Stress for Typical Heater
Tube Materials (Elastic and Creep Rupture Stress, psi) ......................... 27
Figure 15. Boiler Blowdown Nomenclature ................................................................. 29
Figure 16. Optimum Excess Air for a Fired Heater...................................................... 36
Figure 17. Typical Combustibles Emission from Fired Heaters ................................... 37
Figure 18. Cost of Furnace Air Leaks.......................................................................... 38
Figure 19. Example of Direct Fired Reboiler Controls/Safety Devices ........................ 40
Figure 20. Heater Alarm/Shutdown System Description ............................................. 41
Figure 21. Natural Draft Oil/Gas Burner ...................................................................... 44
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INTRODUCTION
A process control engineer will often be asked to design or
troubleshoot control and monitoring systems for furnaces. In
order to do this, it is necessary to understand furnace operation
and how the control variables interact for proper operation. This
module will show the engineer how to identify various furnace
types, the major variables in furnace design, and how to
calculate furnace efficiency Where appropriate, example
problems and their solutions are presented.
A number of topics in the text are not covered in detail, because

they are not frequently used. Should the participant wish to
pursue these topics further, there are many sources such as
textbooks and advanced Saudi Aramco courses that can be
consulted. Because of the short time available for this course,
we will concentrate on the topics that the participant will most
frequently use and briefly cover others that are necessary for
background information only.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

CALCULATING FURNACE EFFICIENCY
Flammability Limits
Control of furnaces involves control of flammability and
combustion to release heat. The limits of flammability were
studied in Module 1. The limits of flammability for mixtures are
calculated by calculating a volumetric (molar) average
flammability limits. Prior to starting a furnace (includes heaters
and boilers) the furnace conditions must be below the limit of
flammability before flame is introduced into the furnace to avoid
explosions. Operation of furnaces requires maintaining furnace
conditions within the limits of flammability in order to burn fuel.
Figure 1 lists the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and the Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL) in air which are limits of flammability in air
at atmospheric pressure.
Gas or Vapor LEL UEL

Hydrogen 4.00 75.0
Carbon Monoxide 12.50 74.0
Ammonia 15.50 26.60
Hydrogen Sulfide 4.30 45.50
Carbon Disulfide 1.25 44.0
Methane 5.30 14.0
Ethane 3.00 12.5
Propane 2.20 9.5
Butane 1.90 8.5
Iso-butane 1.80 8.4
Pentane 1.50 7.80
Iso-pentane 1.40 7.6
Hexane 1.20 7.5
Heptane 1.20 6.7
Octane 1.00 3.20
Nonane 0.83 2.90
Note: More complete tables of data are included in Appendix of “GASEOUS
FUELS” published by A.G.A., 1954 (10).
Figure 1. Limits of Flammability of Gases and Vapors,

Percent in Air

Heats of Combustion
The heating value of a fuel gas or a flue gas can be calculated
from the chemical equations given in Figure 2 and the
composition of the gas. The heating value is calculated using
the equation and the heats of formation for each chemical
species. The heating value of a mixture is determined by
calculating the volumetric (mole) average heating value of the
mixture if the heating values are in Btu/cf. Use weight average
heating values if the heating values are in Btu/lb.
Heating Value (Btu/lb)

HHV LHV
H2 + 1/2 O2 = H20 61,100 51,600
C + O2 = CO2 14,093 14,093
C + 1/2 O2 = CO 4,440 4,440
CO + 1/2 O2 = CO2 4,345 4,345
S + O2 = SO2 10,160 10,160
CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O 23,885 21,500
C2H6 + 3 1/2 O2 = 2 CO2 + 3 H2O 22,263 20,370
C3H8 + 5 O2 = 3 CO2 + 4 H2O 21,646 19,929
C4H10 + 6 1/2 O2 = 4 CO2 + 5 H2O 21,293 19,665
Note that where no water is formed, the HHV and LHV are the same. Using
the composition of air as 21% O2 and 79% N2, the above equations can be
used to calculate the amount of air required for 100% combustion by making
a molar material balance.
Figure 2. Combustion Equations

The heat liberated when one pound of fuel at 60°F is burned,

and the combustion products are cooled to 60°F is called the
lower heating value (LHV) or net heating value. If the water
produced by the combustion is condensed, the higher heating
value (HHV) or gross heating value is obtained. Since process
furnaces do not condense the water of combustion, furnace
calculations are performed on a LHV basis. The heating value
of a fuel gas can be calculated from its analysis and the
component heating values. Typical refinery fuel gas heating
values as a function of their molecular weight are given in
Maxwell, p. 181. Heating values for typical refinery fuel oils as a
function of their API gravity are given in Maxwell, p. 180.
Example
Problem 1
Calculate the lower heating value (LHV) of a refining gas which
has the following analysis:
Vol. %
Hydrogen, H2 = 5.1
Methane, CH4 = 86.4
Ethane, C2H6 = 8.3
Propane, C3H8 = 0.2
Total = 100.0
Answer:
Volume % and molar % are equal for a gas. Use a 100 mole
basis.
LHV Wt% x
Moles MW lbs Wt % Btu/lb LHV/100
Hydrogen 5.1 2.0 10.2 0.62 51,600 319.9
Methane 86.4 16.0 1382.4 83.72 21,300 17832.4
Ethane 8.3 30.1 249.8 15.13 20,370 3082.0
Propane 0.2 44.1 8.8 0.53 19,929 105.6
Total 100.0 16.51 1651.2 100.00 21,507.3 21,339.9
Mixture LHV = 21,340 Btu/lb

Furnaces
All furnaces and heaters are classified in one of two categories;
direct fired heaters (flame outside tubes) or fire tube heaters
(flame inside tubes). Because most furnaces and heaters in a
refinery are direct fired, the following discussion will be limited to
direct fired equipment; however, a brief summary of fire tube
heater types, their characteristics, and how they compare with
direct fired heaters is given below in Figure 3 as general
background.
Direct Fired Fire Tube

Applications
Hot oil heater. Indirect fired water bath heaters (line heaters).
Regeneration gas heaters. Propane and heavier hydrocarbon vaporizers.
Amine and stabilizer reboilers. Hot oil and salt bath heaters
Tank heaters.
Glycol and amine reboilers.
Low pressure steam generators.
Characteristics
More ancillary equipment and controls. Heat duty usually less than 10 MBtu/hr.
Higher thermal efficiency. Easily skid mounted.
Requires less plot space. Forced or natural draft combustion.
Forced or natural draft combustion. Less likely to have hot spots or tube rupture.
With permission from the Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Source: Engineering Data Book.
MBtu/hr = Million Btu/hr which is usual for heat transfer calculations.
Figure 3. Furnace Categories

Direct Fired
There are two basic types of direct fired furnaces, cylindrical
and cabin. Within each type there are many different
configurations. The furnaces can have different coil
arrangements: horizontal, vertical, helical, or serpentine. Also,
the furnace can be all radiant (no convection section) or have a
convection section. Several configurations for the vertical
cylindrical and cabin type furnaces are shown in Figures 4
and 5.
The all radiant cylindrical furnace is the simplest and least

expensive. Typically, an all-radiant furnace operates with about
a 60% efficiency and a stack temperature of about 1200°F.
Adding a convection section to an all-radiant vertical cylindrical
furnace increases the overall furnace efficiency to about 80%
and drops the stack temperature to about 750°F. Of course, the
convection section significantly increases the furnace cost.
With permission from the Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Source:

Engineering Data Book.
Figure 4. Examples of Vertical Cylindrical Direct Fired

Furnaces

Figure 5. Examples of Cabin Direct Fired Furnaces
Some of the advantages for the two types of direct-fired furnaces are identified below in
Figure 6.
Cylindrical Furnace Advantages

• Require the smallest plot area for a given duty.
• The cost is usually 10 to 15% lower in the larger sizes.
• Can accommodate more parallel passes in the process coil.
• For large duties, a cylindrical heater has a taller firebox and more natural draft at
the burner.
• The flue gas velocity is usually higher in the convection section, hence, the flue
gas film coefficient is higher.
• Few expensive tube supports or guides are required in the convection section.
• The noise plenums or preheated combustion air plenums are smaller.
• Fewer soot blowers are required in the convection section. (Soot blowers are not
needed for gaseous fuel.)
• If coil drainage is a problem (vertical tubes), a helical coil may be used when there
is only one pass.
Cabin Furnace Advantages
• The process coil can always be drained.
• Two-phase flow problems are less severe (slug flow can generally be avoided).
• Cabins can accommodate side-firing or end-firing burners instead of only vertically
upward firing. This permits the floor of the heater to be closer to the ground.
(Some burner manufacturers prefer to fire liquid fuels horizontally.)
Figure 6. Comparison of Cylindrical and Cabin Furnaces

The major components of a furnace are the radiant section

(firebox), convection section, stack, burner fuel system, and
process fluid coil. The radiant section provides the high level
heat to the process coil, with the process fluid flow leaving the
furnace via the radiant section. The burner flame is contained in
the radiant section. The combustion gases leaving the radiant
section typically are in the 1500-1900°F temperature range.
Heat is transferred from the flame to the process coil mainly by
radiation from the flame.
The hot gases of combustion leave the radiant section and flow
into the convection section, which transfers the lower-level heat
to the cold process fluid as it enters the furnace. The
combustion gases are cooled in the convection section from the
1500-1900°F range to less than 750°F. Heat is transferred from
the gases of combustion (flue gas) to the process fluid coil via
convection (hot gas moving over pipes).
The stack sits on top of the convection section and generates

sufficient driving force to overcome the friction losses of the hot
flue gas flowing over the convection section tubes. If pollution
considerations set the stack height higher than is needed, a
damper in the stack can absorb the incremental available draft.
Refer to Figure 9 for an illustration of draft in a natural draft
furnace.
The burner/fuel system includes the burner, which mixes air with
fuel and burns the fuel in the radiant section of the furnace. The
burner flame typically is about 60% of the height of the radiant
section. Fuel and air are fed to the burner by separate pipe/duct
systems.
The process fluid coil carries the process fluid being heated in
the furnace from the process inlet in the convection section (flue
gas outlet) to the process outlet in the floor of the radiant
section. The coil changes in configuration (horizontal, vertical,
bare tube, finned tube) and type of materials throughout the
furnace. The coil is exposed to relatively mild conditions at the
process inlet in the convection section and to severe conditions
in the radiant section.

Excess Oxygen/Excess Air

Any amount of oxygen (air) in excess of that required to achieve
full combustion is termed excess oxygen (excess air). All
furnaces require some excess oxygen to ensure complete
combustion. Typically these run about 20% excess oxygen
(excess air) for gas fired furnaces depending on burner
selection and 30% excess oxygen (excess air) for oil fired
furnaces. All air entering the furnace in excess of that required
for complete combustion will lower furnace efficiency, since it
must be heated from ambient temperature conditions to the
stack temperature. Therefore, efforts are made to reduce
excess air to a minimum, while still maintaining stable furnace
operation.
Efficiency calculations for an operating furnace begin with the

determination of excess oxygen. The method is shown in
Figure 7 and is detailed in Example Problem 1.
1. Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.

2. From the percent N2, calculate the total O2 into the furnace.
3. Reduce the free O2 by the amount required to burn the CO to CO2.
The remaining free O2 is excess. (CO is usually negligible)
4. O2 required = (total in) less (excess)
(excess O2 ) (excess)
5. Percent excess O 2 = × 100 = × 100
(required O2 ) ( total − excess)
Figure 7. Excess Oxygen
Example
Problem 2
Calculation Of Excess Oxygen
Flue gas analysis: CO2 9.5

CO 1.8
O2 2.0
N2 86.7
100.0

Air composition: 21% O2, 79% N2
0.21
O 2 int o furnace = 86.7 × = 23.0 moles / 100 moles flue gas
0.79
. CO + 0.9 O 2 → 18
18 . CO 2
(Note: Usually CO is in parts per million and this correction can

be ignored)
Net O2 = 2.0 − 0.9 = 1.1 moles/100 moles flue gas
11
.
Percent excess O 2 = × 100 = 5.02%
(23 − 11
.)
Figure 8 (Work Aid 2) can also be used to calculate excess air

(oxygen) once the oxygen has been adjusted for complete
combustion. For 1.1% O2 Figure 8 gives an excess air of 5%.
Excess air and excess oxygen are numerically equal,
because both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the
same constant to convert between the two. % O2 in fluegas is
not % excess O2. Considering these equal is a common error.
Figure 8. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

Draft
Draft is the negative pressure within the furnace. Without draft,
air would not be inducted into the furnace burners in a natural
draft furnace. In a natural draft furnace, the draft is caused by
the column of hot air within the furnace trying to rise. In
designing a natural draft furnace the total available draft can be
increased by increasing the stack height. Positive pressure in a
natural draft furnace is to be avoided because this usually
results in smoking due to inadequate air for combustion.
Opening a view port with positive pressure in the furnace might
also result in an unsafe condition where an operator could get a
face full of fire. Draft is controlled by two principal means: the
stack damper; and the burner registers. Figure 9 shows a
typical furnace natural draft profile.
Stack
Damper
Hood
Corbel
Convection
section
Shield tubes
Open Damper
Radiant section Closed Damper
Burners –.6 –.4 –.2 0 +.2 +.4

Secondary
Pressure in inches
air registers
of Water Relative to
Typical fired heater is shown in cross-section Atmospheric Pressure


Figure 9. Furnace Natural Draft Profiles
In forced draft furnaces natural draft is supplemented by fans.

The fans may be on the flue gas (induced draft) or on the air
supply (forced draft) or both. Some forced draft furnaces can
have positive pressure within the firebox. Windows must be
supplied on view ports if the furnace is designed to operate with
positive pressure to prevent hot air from burning an operator
when trying to use the view ports.
The furnace should operate at a target draft and excess air. A

low draft (low pressure drop across the burner) will result in poor
mixing of air and fuel at the burner. This will result in long lazy
flames which can damage furnace tubes and result in unstable
furnace operation.

Heat Availability Curves

The combustion heat available to the process in Btu/lb of fuel for
various fuels is shown in Maxwell, Pg. 184-188. Heat available
to the process is maximized when the stack temperature is
equal to the ambient temperature at which air entered the
furnace and when there is no excess air. The amount of heat
available is reduced whenever the stack temperature is above
ambient because heat is being lost in the flue gas. The amount
of heat available is reduced by the volume of excess air, since
heat is required to heat the excess air from ambient to the stack
temperature. Figure 10 shows a typical heat available curve.
Useful in furnace design.

Useful in calculating furnace efficiency.
Figure 10. Combustion Heat Available to Process

Flue Gas Curves

Flue gas curves are used to determine flue gas properties for
detailed furnace calculations. The following list covers the
curves available in Maxwell.
Title Page Number
Heat availability curves 184-188
Enthalpy of flue gas components 182-183
Percent CO2 in flue gas 189
lb flue gas/percent excess air 190
Viscosity of flue gas 191
Thermal conductivity of flue gas 192
Furnace Efficiency
Furnace efficiency is the ratio of the heat absorbed by the
process fluid (QA) to the total heat fired in the furnace (QF) or
efficiency = QA/QF. The heat content of the fuel is expressed
two ways, as a high heating value (HHV) and as a low heating
value (LHV). The LHV is always used in the furnace efficiency
calculation. The heat absorbed by the process fluid (QA) can be
calculated from the furnace operating conditions or by a heat
balance on the process. Once the type of fuel is defined, the
furnace flue gas temperature is measured, and the percent
excess air at the burner is calculated from the flue gas analysis;
heat available (HA) curves are used to determine how much of
the heat fired (QF) is available for absorption by the process
coil. The required quantity of net fuel (FN) has to be fired is:
Q A (Btu hr )
FN = = lb fuel hr
HA (Btu lb fuel)

Figure 10 is a typical heat available (HA) curve. The heat

available is a function of the stack temperature and the excess
air which are the combustion heat losses for the furnace. The
net fuel fired required to meet the QA duty is further adjusted for
heat loss from the furnace firebox (radiant section). This loss
typically is about 2%. Therefore, the gross quantity of fuel fired
(FG) to meet QA duty is FG = (FN) (1.02). The heat fired (QF)
can be determined from the equation:
QF = FG (lb/hr) x LHV (Btu/lb)
Furnace efficiency is:
Q A (100)
Furnace efficiency =
QF
The following backup calculation can be done to check the

furnace efficiency calculation. Fuel to a furnace is measured by
a flowmeter. The actual rate of fuel should be determined from
the fuel meter and a backup of QF value calculated from the fuel
meter reading. If there is a significant disagreement between
QF calculated from the efficiency equation and QF calculated
from the fuel meter, this difference should be reconciled before
the calculated furnace efficiency is accepted as a credible value.
The percent excess air at the burner is calculated from the

furnace flue gas analysis as was done in Example Problem 1.
Furnace efficiency is governed by two things, flue gas exit

temperature (stack temperature) and excess air. The higher the
stack temperature, the lower the efficiency. This is because
heat that should have gone to process is leaving in the flue
gases. Increasing the amount of excess air above the target
lowers efficiency. This is because fuel must be burned to raise
the excess air from ambient conditions to the stack temperature.
Example Problem 3 shows how an operating furnace efficiency

is calculated. It assumes the percentage of excess air has
already been calculated (see Example Problem 2 for this
method) and a process side heat balance has determined the
furnace process heat requirements.

Example
Problem 3
Process heat absorbed = QA = 353 MBtu/hr (Given)
Stack temperature = 600°F (from stack TI) (Given)
Percent excess air = 5% (from flue gas analysis and calculations

of Example Problem 2)
Fuel = 1000 Btu/ft3 fuel gas (Given)
19,700 Btu/lb LHV (from refinery utilities coordinator)

(Given)
From Heat Available Curve: Maxwell, p. 184
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb fuel at 600°F and 5% excess air
Q A 353 x 10 6 Btu / hr
Net fuel = FN = = = 20,643 lb / hr
HA 17,100 Btu / lb
Assume furnace box losses are 2%. (Usually 2 or 3%)
Gross fuel = FG = 1.02 x 20,643 = 21,056 lb/hr
Heat fired = QF = 21,056 x 19,700 Btu/lb = 414.8 x 106 Btu/hr
heat absorbed Q A 353 x10 6

LHV efficiency = = = x100 = 85.1%
heat fired QF 414.8 x10 6

Efficiency
Shortcut
For a quick approximation of furnace efficiency, the following

shortcut formula can be used in conjunction with Figure 8
(percent excess air versus percent O2 in flue gas curve). This
shortcut does not have any adjustment for fuel heating value but
does adjust for the ambient temperature.
[
Percent efficiency = (100 − 0.0237 + (0.000189)(EA ) )( Tst − TA )] 100100 

+ QL 
where:
EA = Percent excess air.
Tst = Stack temperature, °F.
TA = Ambient air temperature, °F.
QL = Casing heat loss.
This shortcut does not have any adjustment for final heating
value but does adjust for the ambient temperature.
For Example problem 3 conditions and assuming that the

atmospheric temperature is 80°F, the furnace efficiency
calculated from the shortcut formula is as follows:
[
Percent efficiency = (100 − 0.0237 + (0.000189)(5 ) )(600 − 80)  ]
100 
100 + 2 
Percent efficiency = [100 − (0.0246)(520)](0.9804) = 85.5
Combustion Air
Preheaters
This method of waste heat recovery is one of the two main
methods of reducing stack temperature to optimize the thermal
efficiency of fired equipment. The other method being waste
heat recovery in the convection section.
An air preheater is a heat exchanger that is used to transfer

heat from the flue gas leaving a fired heater to the air used for

combustion. In this manner, the heater efficiency is increased

by reducing the stack temperature below that normally obtained.
The capital and operating cost of the air preheater system must
be justified by the resulting fuel savings. A 40°F decrease in
stack gas temperature usually produces about a 1% increase in
furnace efficiency. Lowering the stack temperature to improve
efficiency is usually limited by return on investment and the acid
dew point in the flue gas.
In addition to the air preheater itself, the air preheater system

consists of forced and/or induced draft fans, ducting for flue gas
and air, tight shutoff and modulating dampers, and special
safety controls and instrumentation.
Example
Problem 4
Figure 11 is a schematic of a typical steam boiler system which
we have previously solved for the heat absorbed in Module 5.
Now we will complete the calculation for furnace efficiency.
Blowdown is the system purge required to keep solids that were
in the feed water from building up in the system.
Figure 11. Steam Boiler System

Steam Boiler System:
Calculate the fuel required for the boiler in Figure 11. The
enthalpy data from a steam table that is needed for entering and
exiting streams is shown below:
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Stream Temp., °F Psia HL HV
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4
Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --
Heat Balance: Water side/Process
Heat In: Feedwater = 910,000 lb/hr x 158 = 143.78 MBtu/hr

(M = million)
Heat Absorbed = QA
Total = 143.78 + QA
Heat Out: Steam = 805,000 x 1,237.6 = 996.27

Blowdown = 105,000 x 343.5 = 36.07
Total = 1,032.34 MBtu/hr
Heat In = Heat Out

143.78 + QA = 1,032.34
Heat absorbed = QA = 1,032.34 - 143.78 = 888.56 MBtu/hr
The furnace efficiency can be calculated as follows:
Process heat required = 888.56 x 106 Btu/hr (QA)

Stack temperature = 650°F (Given)
Percent excess air = 20 (Given)
Furnace heat loss = 2% (Given)
Fuel LHV = 19,400 Btu/lb (Given)
Heat available at 650°F = 16,450 Btu/lb (Maxwell, p. 185)
888.56 × 10 6
Net fuel = = 54,016 lb/hr
16,450
Gross fuel = 1.02 x 54,016 = 55,096 lb/hr
Heat fired = 19,400 x 55,096 = 1,068.9 x 106 Btu/hr
888.56 × 10 6
LHV efficiency = × 100 = 83.1%
,
1068 .9 × 10 6
Shortcut Calculation:

 100 
Percent efficienc y = [(100 − 0.0237 + (0.000189 )(EA ) )(Tst − TA )] 
 100 + QL 
= [(100 − 0.0237 + (0.000189 )(20 ) )(650 − 80 )][100/ (100 + 2)]

= [100 − 0.02748 (570 ) ][0.9804 ] = 82.7%
What if the ambient temperature was 100°F instead of 80°F?
Percent efficiency = [100 − ( 0.02748 )( 650 - 100 ) ][ 0.9804] = 83.2%
Increasing the ambient temperature by 20°F improved the

efficiency by 0.5% assuming the same stack temperature.
Example
Problem 5
Introduction:
In this example we will perform an energy balance around a

boiler system and calculate the fuel it requires. We will also
examine methods of efficiency improvement.
Directions:
Calculate the fuel and boiler feedwater required for the boiler
system shown in Figure 12. How can the furnace efficiency be
improved?
• Use 2% for heat losses.
• Use 10% blowdown.
• For convenience, the required enthalpy data are given

below:
Stream Temp., °F Psia HL HV

Feed water 180 -- 148.0 --
Steam 700 600 -- 1351.8
Blowdown 492 633 478.5 1203.1

Figure 12. Steam Boiler System
Answer:
Material Balance:
Feedrate = F
Blowdown = 0.1 F
Steam product = 250,000
Material balance, F = 250,000 + 0.1 F
250,000
Feedrate = F = = 277,778 lb / hr
0.9
Blowdown = 0.1F = 27,778 lb/hr
Heat in: Feed water = 277,778 x 148 = 41.11 MBtu/hr

Absorbed Heat = = QA
Total = 41.11 + QA

Heat out: Blowdown = 27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 MBtu/hr

Steam = 250,000 x 1351.8 = 337.95
351.24
Heat in = Heat out 41.11 + QA = 351.24

Heat absorbed QA = 351.24 - 41.11= 310.13 MBtu/hr
Heat loss (Given) = 2%
Fuel LHV (Given) = 19,400
Heat available = 16,725 at 600°F Stack and 20%
excess air (Maxwell, p. 185)
310.13 × 10 6
Net fuel = = 18,543
16,725
Gross fuel = 1.02 x 18,543 = 18,914
Heat fired = 18,914 x 19,400 = 366.93 MBtu/hr
310.13 × 10 6
LHV efficiency = × 100 = 84.5%
366.93 × 10 6
Shortcut efficiency assuming the atmospheric air temperature is

100°F:
Efficiency = [(100 -(0.0237 + (0.000189)(EA)))(TST - TA )][100/(100 +

QL)]
= [(100 -(0.0237 + (0.000189)(20)))(600 - 100)][100/(100 + 2)]
= [(100 - 13.74)][0.9804] = 84.5%
To Increase Efficiency:
• Lower stack temperature.
- Add more surface to convection section and increase

boiler feedwater preheat.
- Add more surface to convection section and preheat

another process stream. A 50°F reduction in stack
temperature would increase efficiency from 84.5% to
85.9%.
• Reduce blowdown rate.

- If boiler feedwater quality allows, the blowdown rate can

be reduced.
- Reduction of blowdown from 10% to 2% would not

increase the efficiency, but would directly reduce fuel
use by decreasing the process heat absorbed.
• Reduce percent excess air.
- A reduction of excess air from 20% to 10% increases

efficiency from 84.5% to 85.4%.
As shown by the table below in Figure 13, the improvements are

all of the same order of magnitude. Which one (or all) is used
depends on the specific furnace under consideration.
Lower Reduce Reduce

Case Base Stack Temp Blowdown Excess Air
Percent blowdown 10 10 2 10
Heat absorbed, MBtu/hr 310.13 310.13 302.63 310.13
Stack temperature, °F 600 550 600 600
Excess air, percent 20 20 20 10
Furnace efficiency, percent 84.5 85.91 84.52 85.40
Fuel savings, percent Base 1.62 2.42 1.04
Figure 13. Furnace Fuel Savings

Calculation for efficiency Improvement:
Case 1 2 3 4
Lower Reduce Reduce %
Base Stack Temp. Blowdown Excess Air
Heat in
277,778 x 148 = 41.11 41.11 255,102 x 148 = 37.76 41.11
Heat out
27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 5,102 x 478.5 2.44
250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95 250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95
351.24 351.24 340.39 351.24
Heat absorbed 310.13 310.13 302.63 310.13

Stack 600 550 600 600
Percent excess air 20 20 20 10
Heat loss 2% 2% 2% 2%
Fuel LHV 19,400 19,400 19,400 19,400
Heat avail.* 16,725 17,000 16,725 16,900
Net fuel 18,543 18,243 18,095 18,351

Gross fuel 18,914 18,608 18,457 18,718
Heat fired 366.93 360.99 358.06 363.13
LHV, percent eff. 84.52 85.91 84.52 85.40
Fuel savings Base 1.62% 2.41% 1.04%
*Maxwell p. 185

FURNACE DESIGN VARIABLES
Metal Temperature
The major design variable in a furnace design is metal
temperature and its relationship to yield strength. Yield and
creep allowable stress decrease as metal temperature
increases as shown in Figure 14. The tube metal temperature
is a function of the duty of the furnace, the area of heat transfer
surface and the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid inside the
tubes. Furnaces are designed with a tube metal temperature
low enough to prevent creep of the metal over the service life.
Metal temperatures over the design temperature will shorten the
tube service life. Creep is the gradual yielding of the metal to
stress over time. Exceeding creep limits can result in sagging
and/or bulging tubes and may necessitate shutdown for tube
replacement.
Medium
Carbon Steel C-1/2 Mo 1-1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo 5 Cr-1/2 Mo
Temp. Elastic Creep Elastic Creep Elastic Creep Elastic Creep Elastic Creep
°F(1) Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress Stress
700 15,800 20,800 15,700 15,250 18,000 16,800
750 15,500 16,900 15,400 15,000 18,000 16,500
800 15,000 13,250 15,000 14,600 17,900 15,900
850 14,250 10,200 14,500 14,250 17,500 15,200
900 13,500 7,500 14,000 17,000 13,800 17,500 17,100 16,70 14,400 13,25
0 0
950 12,600 5,400 13,400 10,250 13,300 10,900 16,500 12,10 13,500 9,600
0
1,000 11,500 3,700 12,700 5,900 12,800 6,700 15,750 8,700 12,400 7,000
1,050 11,900 3,400 12,100 4,150 14,750 6,400 11,300 5,100
1,100 10,900 2,000 11,400 2,600 13,600 4,600 10,250 3,700
1,150 12,300 3,150 9,200 2,700
1,200 10,700 1,750 8,200 1,950
1,250
Note: (1) For intermediate temperatures, stresses can be obtained by graphical interpolation.
Source: API Recommended Practice 530, Calculation of Heater Tube Thickness in Petroleum
Refineries, Third Edition, September 1988. Reprinted courtesy of the American
Petroleum Institute.
Figure 14. Allowable Elastic and Creep Rupture Stress for Typical
Heater Tube Materials (Elastic and Creep Rupture Stress, psi)

The firebox of the radiant section must be large enough so that

flames do not impinge on tubes during normal operation.
Current designs are about 50,000 Btu/cu. ft. of radiant section
volume. Tubes must be at least one tube diameter from the wall
to permit proper reradiation from the wall to the tube.
Like tube side heat transfer in exchangers, the tube side heat
transfer coefficient is increased as the tube side velocity is
increased. As the tube side heat transfer coefficient is
increased the tube wall temperature is decreased. When
operating near thermal reaction temperatures, it is very
important to have high velocities in the tubes to minimize the
tube wall temperatures and thereby minimize the thermal
degradation of the process fluid. One example of this is a Coker
heater. In a Coker heater, the outlet temperature of the heater
is controlled above the temperature at which coke formation
occurs. Coke deposits are minimized in Coker heaters by
adding steam to the process side to increase the process side
velocity and by maintaining a high pressure which suppresses
vaporization and the coke formation reaction.
Deposits and Tube Metal Temperature

Deposits insulate the tube wall from the process fluid. The tube
wall temperature must increase above design to transfer the
design amount of heat because the tube wall is still receiving
the same amount of radiation and convection from the furnace
side. Deposits can result in a sufficient rise in temperature to
cause the tube wall to rupture. Deposits in the tubes are
normally observed as hot spots on the tubes. If the temperature
of the tube wall increases sufficiently, the stress from pressure
in the tube will exceed the yield strength and a rupture can
occur. The furnace tube will normally bulge before the rupture
occurs but weakening of the metal may be so fast that it may
not be observed before a tube failure.
The primary deposit control is proper furnace operation which

includes proper burner operation and maintenance. Improper
burner operation can result in long flames and possible flame
impingement on tubes. Overfiring the furnace above design can
also significantly increase metal temperatures in the radiant
section. Other controls include blowdown in boilers, pressure
control to limit vaporization, proper process side velocities, and
additives.

The amount of blowdown required for a boiler will be a function

of the water quality (degree of water treating) and the additives
used. A boiler system vaporizes feedwater to produce steam.
Any impurities in the feedwater are concentrated in the
remaining liquid. Boiler systems must purge a portion of the
circulating fluid to limit buildup of these impurities. This purge is
called blowdown. In some cases, solids in the feed set the
blowdown rate, in others the chloride content sets it. This purge
requires the feeding of additional water as makeup for the
amount discarded. The total boiler feed is, therefore, equal to
the steam produced plus the blowdown. Additives are used to
prevent solids from dropping out in the boiler tubes and to
prevent corrosion.
Boiler blowdown calculations are given below.
where:
FBFW = Feedwater flow, lb/hr.
FBD = Blowdown flow, lb/hr.
FSTM = Steam flow, lb/hr.
CBFW = Solids concentration in boiler feedwater, ppm.
CBD = Solids concentration of boiler water, ppm.
X = Percent blowdown, as percent of boiler feed water.
Figure 15. Boiler Blowdown Nomenclature

Furnace Side Pressure Drop (Draft)

Calculation of furnace side pressure drops are very complex
and will not be covered here. The furnace side pressure drop
calculation is complex because the flow is through complex
shapes and the temperature of the flue gas (density) is
changing rapidly.
Natural draft furnaces are very limited in the pressure drop

available. In forced convection furnaces, fans supplement the
available natural draft. The fans may be on the air supply
(forced draft) or on the flue gas (induced draft) or both. Forced
draft furnaces are more expensive than natural draft furnaces
but can have the advantage of lower operating costs because
they can operate more efficiently. Forced draft makes more
energy available for mixing in burners which results in better
combustion and the burners can operate at lower levels of
excess air without excessive unburned fuel (Carbon Monoxide,
CO) and long flames. Forced draft furnaces can have more
coils in the convection sections and air preheat because the
pressure drop can be accommodated by fans.
Forced draft furnaces are used when firing fuel oil or when there
is high pressure drop through the furnace and/or burners.
When compared to natural draft furnaces in this service, forced
draft systems have the advantages of fewer burners, less
burner maintenance, better air/fuel mixing, and closer excess air
control because they have a greater pressure drop across the
burners
Different natural draft burners have different excess air

requirements for proper operation. More stages of combustion
(usually more expensive burner) will permit efficient operation at
lower levels of excess air.

Process Side Pressure Drop

Calculation of process side pressure drops are very complex
and will not be covered here. The process side pressure drop is
complex because the temperature and pressure and therefore
the amount of vaporization is changing rapidly along the tubes.
The principle means of reducing process side pressure drop is
by minimizing vaporization, by selecting larger tubes and
providing multiple passes. Vaporization can be minimized by
increasing system pressure in the heater but this increases the
equilibrium temperature which can result in deposits. Heater
tube sizes are limited to a fairly low diameter of about 8″ by a
combination of temperature, heat transfer, and stress
limitations.

FURNACE AND BOILER OPERATION
Startup
The complexity of fired heaters is increasing. Today, furnace
complexity often dictates that a furnace startup advisor be
present for major startups. The advisor, together with
mechanical, instrument, and burner specialists, review in detail
the heater piping and instrumentation. The heater is not ready to
be lit for refractory lining dryout until completion of this review
and the corrective actions required as a result of this review are
completed. The following activities are expected from the
startup personnel during the refractory lining dryout and initial
furnace operation. If refractory dryout proceeds too fast, water
will vaporize inside the refractory which will result in sloughing
off of layers of refractory material.
• Review the Operating Manual and revise the fired heater

section as necessary (prestartup, oil in, normal operations,
shutdown procedures, troubleshooting, and auxiliary
equipment instructions).
• Ensure that hydrostatic test water has been removed from

the coil to the maximum extent practical.
• Ensure that all fuel lines have been steam blown (not
through the burners).
• Check the performance of all the burners during refractory

dryout.
• Monitor thermal movements of tubes, tube support

systems, and refractory during dryout. Watch for debris on
the heater floor.
• Investigate any performance data for the fired heater and

attendant equipment, that appears to differ from design
specification values. Listed below are some of the more
important general observations to be made and problems
to look for during an initial startup.
- Coil and external piping movements.
- Lining condition as heater reaches operating

temperature.

- Pass flows, pass crossover, and outlet temperature.
- Tube hot spots and overheated passes.
- Burner and pilot combustion performance. Watch for

problems such as fuel oil dripback, wet atomizing
steam, burner orifice plugging, burner tip coking,
uneven burner firing rates, leaning flames, flame
impingement, burner noise, etc.
- Draft conditions, particularly at bridgewall.
- Combustion air pressure.
- Expansion joint movement.
- Damper positions.
- Stack vibration.
- Fan-induced vibration and noise.
- Unsafe operating practices.
• Discuss special problems related to the specific fired

heater in the operating manual.
When all prestartup activities have been completed (equipment

checkout completed, linings dried, etc.), when flow has been
established on the process side, and at the appropriate time in
the unit oil-in operation, the furnace will be lit and put on-line.
The following furnace startup steps are listed for background
information and should not be considered complete. In each
startup procedure, certain aspects of the procedure are unique
to a particular service.
• Check to see if all fuel and pilot systems are active up to

unit battery limits.
• Check to see if all drains and vents of the on-fuel/pilot

systems are closed.
• Check to see if all instrumentation is working and that

automatic shutdown devices are deactivated.
• Commission any fuel oil steam tracing and open blinds at

battery limits on fuel/pilot supplies.

• Steam out fuel oil system to bring piping up to temperature.
• Open furnace stack damper fully.
• Start snuffing steam to furnace firebox and shut off snuffing

steam when a good flow of steam can be observed from
the stack.
• Fully open air dampers on each burner.
• Open valves on pilot gas system to purge inert gases.
• Close (blank) fuel valves. Check for explosibility in

furnace. Purge furnace until not explosive.
• Ignite fuel gas pilots, one burner at a time.
• Open valve to bring fuel oil and tracing steam into the
burner supply systems.
• Start atomizing steam to the first burner.
• Slowly open the fuel oil valve to the first burner and
observe ignition. Adjust oil and air rates to give a stable,
nonluminous flame. Set firing at a minimum stable rate
consistent with a good flame pattern.
• Repeat for each burner.
• When all burners are lit, check for proper operation of pilot
and burner flames.
• Activate furnace instrumentation and raise furnace coil

outlet temperature at the rate of about 50°F/hr.
Optimum Excess Air Levels

As part of the discussion on furnace efficiency, some of the
furnace operating variables have been discussed, namely:
• Checking the heat absorption QA by the heat equation

QA = (W) (∆h)
• Utilizing the stack flue gas temperature and oxygen

content as part of burner operating conditions and furnace
efficiency review

• Checking the furnace duty using the fuel rate and LHV.
For these variables operating the burner with the correct amount
of excess air (determined from O2 level in flue gas) has the
most significant effect on the entire operation of the furnace.
Therefore, this discussion will further explore proper excess air
levels for furnace burners.
Figures 16 and 17 show the effect of different levels of excess

air on the furnace efficiency and level of combustibles in the
stack flue gas. An excess air target should be established for
each furnace, and the operating level versus the target level
should be monitored by the plant operator and engineer or by
automatic instrumentation.
The target excess air level is established by plugging air leaks in

the furnace walls and then reducing the air rate to the burner in
increments while monitoring the carbon monoxide and smoke
level in the stack flue gas. When the carbon monoxide level
reaches the 100-200 ppm range, the minimum acceptable
excess air level has been reached. The actual monitored target
level for excess air will be at or close to this minimum level, as
determined by the actual furnace service and associated
instrumentation under study. Significant fuel savings can be
made by maintaining burner excess air at or close to this
minimum level, as determined by the actual furnace service and
associated instrumentation under study. Significant fuel savings
can be made by monitoring burner excess air. The cost effect
of unplugged air leaks is shown in Figure 18.
Operating
Guidelines
Low Draft High Draft
Low Excess Air (O2) Open Damper Open Burner Air
High Excess Air (O2) Close Burner Air Close Damper

Figure 16. Optimum Excess Air for a Fired Heater

Figure 17. Typical Combustibles Emission from Fired Heaters

Figure 18. Cost of Furnace Air Leaks

Monitoring Devices and Techniques

A more extensive discussion on monitoring furnace operations
will be presented in a later course. However, for background
information, the following are some typical items that can be
monitored:
• Process fluid flow pass balancing.
• Tube metal temperatures.
• Bridge wall temperature.
• General firebox conditions.
• Safety equipment.
• Turnaround checklist.
There are computer applications that can be used for furnace

monitoring.
Controls/Safety
Devices/Burners
Furnace controls and safety devices vary considerably
depending on the furnace service and the refinery location.
Figure 19 shows an example control system for a direct fired
heater. It should not be considered complete, but only
representative of the type of instrumentation that should be
carefully considered in designing a control system for a furnace
service.

With permission from the Gas Processors Suppliers Association.

Source: Engineering Data Book.
Figure 19. Example of Direct Fired Reboiler Controls/Safety Devices
The alarms and a description of the shutdown systems shown in

Figure 19 are provided in Figure 20.

Schematic Alarm/Shutdown Regeneration Hot Oil Heater and

Label Description Gas Heater Direct Fired Reboiler
TSH-1 High stack temperature. See Note 1. See Note 1.

TSH-2 High outlet temperature. See Note 1.
FSL Low mass flow through tubes. See Notes 2 and 4. See Notes 3 and 4.
BSL Flame failure detection. See Note 5. See Notes 5 and 6.
PSL Low fuel pressure. See Note 6.
PSH-1 High fuel pressure. See Note 7. See Note 7.
PSH-2 High cabin pressure. See Note 8. Not applicable, if natural
draft.
Caution: The alarms and shutdowns shown do not necessarily meet any minimum safety requirement,
but are representative of the types used for control systems.
Basic Criterion: The failure of any one device will not allow the heater to be damaged.
Notes:
1. A direct immersion jacketed thermocouple is preferred because the response is ten times faster than
a grounded thermocouple in a well. A filled bulb system is a poor third choice. The high stack gas
temperature shutdown should be set approximately 200°F above normal operation.
2. An orifice plate signal should be backed up by a low pressure shutdown to ensure adequate process
stream flow under falling pressure conditions.
3. The measurement should be on the heater inlet to avoid errors from two-phase flow.
4. Differential pressure switches mounted directly across an orifice plate are not satisfactory due to
switch does not turn on at the same pressure as it turns off. An analog differential pressure
transmitter with a pressure switch on the output is recommended. The analog signal should be
brought to the shutdown panel so that the flow level can be readily compared with the shutdown
point.
5. The flame scanner should be aimed at the pilot so that a flameout signal will be generated if the pilot
is not large enough to ignite the main burner.
6. If the heater design precludes flame scanners, a low fuel gas pressure shutdown should be installed
to prevent unintentional flameout. This shutdown should detect gas pressure at the burner.
7. Either burner pressure or fuel control valve diaphragm pressure may be used. This shutdown should
be used whenever large load changes are expected. It prevents the heater from overfiring when the
temperature controller drives the fuel wide open to increase heat output with insufficient air.
8. This shutdown should block in all lines to the heater because the probable cause of its activation is
tube rupture. Gas is probably burning vigorously outside the heater.
Figure 20. Heater Alarm/Shutdown System Description

The parts of the fired heater instrumentation related to safety

should be given special attention and regularly inspected as well
as tested for functionality. The following items, either observed
by the plant engineer or indicated by instrumentation, usually
indicate a problem with furnace operations.
• The burner flame is not symmetrical, pulsates or breathes,

is unusually long or lazy, lifts off the burner, etc.
• The burner is not aligned and/or the flame is too close to

the tubes.
• There is a lack of negative pressure (draft) at the top of the

firebox.
• The stack gas is smoky.
• The gas in the firebox appears hazy.
• There are unequal temperatures, differing by more than

10°F, on the process pass outlets indicating unbalanced
flows.
• The stack temperature increases steadily with no change

in the process heat duty.
• The fuel gas control valve is wide open.
• The fuel gas composition or pressure varies widely.
• The tubes in the heater are not straight.

Burner selection is very important because an improper burner

will reduce furnace efficiency and service life of tubes. Plant
personnel need to have general knowledge of burners so that:
• The proper maintenance will be performed.
• Burner operating problems can be properly diagnosed and

corrected.
• The burner operation can be optimized.
Four types of burners are commonly used in direct fired heaters.

• Aspirating Pre-Mix Burners - The passage of fuel gas

through a venturi pulls in the combustion air. These
burners have short dense flames that are not affected by
wind gusts.
• Raw Gas Burners - Some of the air required for

combustion is pulled in by a venturi. The rest of the air is
admitted through a secondary air register. These burners
have larger turndown ratios, require lower gas pressures,
and are quieter.
• Low NOx Burners - The addition of a tertiary air register

reduces the amount of nitrogen oxides in the flue gas.
This type also can be operated with less excess air than
aspirating pre-mix or raw gas burners.
• Combination Gas and Oil Burner - An oil burner is added to

the gas spider so that fuel oil can also be used. One-tenth
pound of steam per pound of fuel is usually required to
atomize the oil.

Figure 21 shows a cross-sectional view of a combination gas/oil

burner. This module contains limited information on the
selection and operation/maintenance of burners. Future
courses will explore these subjects in greater depth.
Figure 21. Natural Draft Oil/Gas Burner

Monitoring Tube
Metal Temperature
One critical variable to monitor in many furnaces after startup is
the tube metal temperatures (temperature of the process coil on
the firebox side) in the radiant section. Tube failures account for
more than half of the furnace fires and explosions. Excessive
tube metal temperatures accelerate tube creep (sagging tubes),
hydrogen attack, and external (vanadium attack, oxidation) and
internal corrosion of the tubewall. Monitoring tube metal
temperatures also helps define the end of the current furnace
run, the point at which the furnace is due for a shutdown and
decoking.
The measurement of tube wall (tubeskin) temperatures is an

attempt to measure metal temperature and thereby the strength
of the tube during operations. Increases in metal temperature
can be caused by overfiring the furnace, by improper burner
operation (long flames cause high tube metal temperatures), by
low velocity on the fluid side, and by process side deposits such
as coke or salt laydown.
Tube metal temperatures are monitored by thermocouples

attached to the tube, or by a pyrometer that measures the
radiation emitted by the furnace tubewall. An expert on tubewall
temperature instruments should be consulted about the
installation of thermocouples or the purchase of a pyrometer.
Both measuring devices are sophisticated pieces of equipment
that vary in type depending on the service.
Usually, the highest tube metal temperature in a direct fired

heater occurs in the radiant section, where the process fluid
temperature on the inside of the tube is the highest. The
maximum allowable operating tube metal temperature for any
one tube material is a function of the tubewall stress level and
the severity of the tubewall corrosive atmosphere..

NOMENCLATURE
ai Tube inside area, ft2.
Ao Heat transfer surface area based on bare tube O.D., ft2.
ax Tube finned area, ft2.
Cp Specific heat, Btu/lb °F.
De Equivalent diameter of the bank of finned tubes, (P/dr)2 (Nf) (do/12), ft.
di Inside diameter of tube, in.
do Outside diameter of fins, in.
dR Inside diameter of fins, in.
etaf Fan efficiency.
etad Driver efficiency.
FG Gross fuel fired, lb/hr.
FN Net fuel fired, lb/hr.
FT LMTD correction factor, from Figure 5.
HA Heat available from fuel, Btu/lb fuel.
Q Total heat load of exchanger, Btu/hr.
QA Furnace process heat absorbed, Btu/hr.
QF Heat fired, Btu/hr.
R Overall resistance to heat flow, hr ft2 °F/Btu.
rdi Fouling resistance inside tube, hr ft2 °F/Btu.

rdo Fouling resistance outside tube, hr ft2 °F/Btu.
rm Resistance to heat flow of tube wall, hr ft2 °F/Btu.
T1 Inlet temperature of fluid to be cooled, °F.
T2 Outlet temperature of fluid to be cooled, °F.
t1 Inlet temperature of fluid being heated, °F.
t2 Outlet temperature of fluid being heated, °F.
∆te Effective temperature difference, °F.
∆tm Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD), °F.
Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient (related to bare tube O.D.), Btu/hr ft2 °F.
Wt Process fluid rate, lb/hr.

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATING FURNACE

EFFICIENCY
This work aid will assist the Participant in Exercise 1: Calculate Furnace Efficiency.
To determine a furnace thermal efficiency, follow the steps listed below:
Step 1: Calculate oxygen to furnace, using the formula:
 moles N2  moles O 2 
  
 100 moles flue gas   100 moles of air 
O 2 to furnace / 100 moles flue gas =
 moles N2 
 
 100 moles of air 
 moles N2 
  (21)
 100 moles flue gas 
=
79
Step 2: Calculate percent excess oxygen (air), using the formula:
 moles O 2 from furnace 

  (100)
 100 moles flue gas 
Percent excess O 2 =
 moles O 2 to furnace   moles O 2 from furnace 
  − 
 100 moles flue gas   100 moles flue gas 
Percent excess O 2 = percent excesss air.
Note: If there is CO in the flue gas, refer to Example Problem 1 for

adjustment of excess oxygen.
Step 3: Determine heat absorbed, QA:
QA = (W) (∆h)
QA = (W) (Cp) (∆t) if no vaporization
Step 4: Determine heat available (HA) per lb of 10o API fuel oil from Maxwell, p. 187.

Step 5: Calculate net fuel fired, FN:
QA
FN =
HA
Step 6: Calculate gross fuel fired, FG. Assume furnace heat losses are 2 1/2%.
FG = 1.025 (FN)
Step 7: Calculate heat fired, QF, Btu/hr.
QF = (FG) (LHV fuel)
Step 8: Calculate furnace efficiency:
Q A (100)
% efficiency =
QF

WORK AID 2: FLUE GAS OXYGEN VERSUS EXCESS AIR
Figure 22. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

GLOSSARY
acid dew point The temperature at which an acidic component in the
flue gas condenses.
bubble point curve Denotes the family of pressure/temperature points at
which the fluid starts to vaporize.
burner registers The openings, equipped with a regulating device, in the
burner to feed air to the burner.
contamination The quality of a substance is made unacceptable by a
contaminant. This reduction in quality is called
contamination.
corbeled wall An irregular wall in the convection section of a furnace.
The irregularities in the wall match the staggered tubes
in the convection section to prevent flue gas from
bypassing around the tubes.
dew point curve Denotes the family of pressure/temperature points at
which the fluid starts to condense.
extended surface The metal surface area for a tube including the tube fin
area.
flame impingement The burner flames touch the tubes.
furnace bridgewall The top of the radiant section where the hot gases
enter the convection section.
lining dryout Castable furnace refractory linings have been mixed
with water at installation; this excess water is slowly
boiled out of the lining during dryout.
nonluminous flame An improperly adjusted burner flame is yellow and
luminous (it gives off light). A properly adjusted flame
is a light blue and gives off very little light.
serrated fin A fin surface with many cuts, breaks.
slug flow A very uneven flow with alternate slugs (sections) of
liquid followed by vapor.
snuffing steam Steam injected into furnace firebox to extinguish a fire
or purge the firebox to prevent an explosion when
burners are lit.
stack gas Material in the stack gas that was not fully burnt
combustibles (combusted) in the furnace.
toxicity The adverse effect of a substance on human health.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, 6th Edition, R. H. Perry and D. Green

(Physical properties, general information, calc equations).
2. Data Book on Hydrocarbons, J. B. Maxwell (Hydrocarbon physical

properties).
3. Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 10th

Edition, 1987.
4. Process Heat Transfer, Kern, 1950.
5. Furnace Operations, Robert Reed, 1981
6. API RP J30 Calculation of Heater Tube Thickness in Petroleum Refining

Furnace and Boiler Design and Operating Parameters

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