ES197 Lecture 1 – Translational Mechanical Systems

Key Variables

 Two basic variables are used to describe the dynamic behaviour of translational
mechanical systems:
 Force, f(t)
o Units are newtons (N)
 Displacement, x(t)
o Units are metres (m)
 Velocity, v(t)
o Units are metres/ second (m/s)

 Mass
o Stores kinetic and potential energy
o Reversible
 Spring
o Stores potential energy (stretching/compression)
o Reversible
 Damper
o Dissipates energy as heat
o Non-reversible
o Critical for stability (takes energy out of the system)
 Any mechanical element that undergoes a change in shape when subjected to a
force can be characterised by a stiffness element
 Frequently used to:
o Reduce oscillations (take kinetic energy out of the system)
o Give a quality feel to a product (reduce harsh events)
 Some assumptions:
o Mass
 Doesn’t bend (velocity on the side is the same on the other)
o Spring
 Doesn’t have a mass
 Doesn’t change with temperature
 Linear
o Damper
 Doesn’t have a mass
 Doesn’t change with temperature
 Linear
 Lecture 2 – Rotational Mechanical Systems

System Models
  Models are used to describe, understand and predict system behaviour
 Models:
o Scaled physical
o Virtual environment
o Mathematical

System and Dynamics

 System:
o Set of interconnected elements
o Energy or information transfer between elements
o System has input and output
 Dynamic system:
o Energy between elements varies with time
 A system interacts with its environment through 2 groups of variables:
o Input variables originate outside the system and do not depend on what
happens in the system
o Output variables are generated by the system

Mathematical Models
 Mathematical model of physical system is a description of a system in terms of
equations:
 No systems can be modelled exactly
 Model should be as simple as possible and be developed with a particular application
in mind

What can models tell us?

 Frequency of vibrations
 Amplitude of vibrations
 Maximum heat transfer
 Maximum acceleration
 Stability of system
 System response to inputs

Lumped vs Distributed System

 Properties concentrated at one or two points in an element, e.g.
o Mass – inelastic, force acts at centre of gravity
o Spring – massless, fore acts at end points
 o Temperature – well stirred tank
 Mathematical model is ordinary differential equation
 Time is an independent variable
 Properties vary throughout an element
 Time and position are independent variables
 An element with distributed parameters can be divided into sub-elements to create
a lumped system

Linear vs Non-linear
 Non-linear
o Mathematical model is non-linear differential equation
 Linear
o Mathematical model is a linear differential equation
o The resultant response of a system caused by two or more input signals is the
sum of the responses which would have been caused by each input
individually

Discrete vs Continuous
 Discrete time system
o Mathematical model is difference equation
 Continuous time system
o Mathematical model is differential equation

Key Variables
 Two basic variables are used to describe the dynamic behaviour of rotational
mechanical systems:
 Torque
 o Units are Newton Metres (Nm)
 Angular velocity/ Angular Displacement
o Units are radians/second (rad/s) or radians (rad)

Key elements
 Inertia (Rotational mass)
o Stores kinetic energy
o Reversible
 Rotational spring
o Stores potential energy (by twisting)
o Reversible
 Rotational damper
o Dissipates energy as heat
o Non-reversible
 Other elements: gears
Lecture 3 – Electrical Systems
Capacitive sensing

Three Basic Elements

 Capacitor
o Stores electrostatic energy
o Reversible
 Inductor
o Stores electromagnetic energy
o Reversible
 Resistor
o Dissipates energy as heat
o Non-reversible
 Other elements
o Transformers
Basic Variables
 2 basic variables are used to describe the dynamic behaviour of electrical systems
 Current, i(t)
o Units are amperes (A)
 Voltage, e(t)
o Units are Volts (V)
 Associated power (Watts), P(t) = i(t)e(t)

Capacitor
Unintentional capacitance
 Unintentional capacitance is formed between the tracks of circuit boards

Inductor

Resistor

Interconnection Laws
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law
o Voltage drops sum to zero around any closed loop (mesh)
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
o Elemental currents sum to zero at connection points (nodes)
 Lecture 4 – Thermal Systems

Elements and Variables

 Two basic elements
o Thermal capacitor
 Stores heat energy
 Reversible
o Thermal resistor
 Dissipates energy
 Non-reversible
 Two basic variables
o Heat flow rate, q(t)
 Through variable
 Units are Watts (W), Joules per second (Js-1)
o Temperature, theta (t)
 Across variable
 Units are Kelvins (K)

Interconnection Laws
 Compatibility Law
o Elemental temperatures are identical at connection points (nodes)
 Equilibrium Law
o Elemental heat flow rates sum at zero at connection points (nodes)

Lecture 5 – Data Driven Models

Three approaches to modelling
 White box – a physical modelling approach
 Grey box – a physical model with unknown parameters (need some
data)
 Black box – a data-driven model

Remarks on Grey-box modelling

 Physical modelling is used to get the form of the model, but data is
required to determine the parameters
 Relies on domain knowledge about problem and data from problem
Black-box modelling

 Useful if data can be gathered about a process, but the process cannot
be directly observed
 Use a general model, and then collect data in order to set model
parameters
 When estimating the model of a dynamic system, this is known as
system identification

Application of Data-Driven models

 Obtaining the model of a physical component

 Obtaining a dynamic model for a river
 Modelling human behaviour - driver modelling
 Pattern recognition algorithms
 Speech recognition algorithms
 Obtaining a performance model for a sailing boat

Driver model
Regression
 Predicting the value of a continuous response variable from a set of predictor
variables
 Examples:
o Predicting the life expectancy (response variable) given smoking, diet or
exercise (predictors)
o Predicting the extension (response variable) of a spring given force,
temperature or age (predictors)
 Learn a function that maps the values of the n predictor(s) variables to the response
variable
Overfitting
 The model is fitting to some of the noise in the data –
known as overfitting
 Overfitting when there are too many parameters in
the model for too few data points
 Solution 1 – use more training data
 Solution 2 – reduce model complexity
 Solution 3 – reduce noise (usually not possible)

Extrapolation from model

 Lecture 6 – 1st Order Step Response
Reasons for modelling
 Gain understanding of how a system will perform in different conditions
 Quicker, cheaper, safer and can test multiple conditions

How can we predict system behaviour?

 Given a system equation, generally we would like to know:

o What is the output for a given input?
o Is the system stable?
o If the input changes quickly, will the output change quickly?

1st order differential equations

2nd order differential equations

  By putting the differential equation from each domain in a standard form, we can
use one set of analysis tools for all domain

Standard forms of differential equation

Components of system response
 Free response:
o The response of the system to its stored energy (springs/capacitors) when
there is no input
o Zero input
o Non-zero initial conditions
o A homogenous differential equation
o Examples:
 Releasing a swing and watching it oscillate
 Turning off the power to a drill and seeing how it slows down

 Forced response:
o The response of the system to an input when there is no energy initially
stored in the system
o Non-zero input
o Zero initial conditions
o A non-homogenous differential equation
o Examples:
 Applying a force to a swing in rest state
 Turning on power to a motor from fest

 The total system response is a linear combination of the free response and the
forced response

Use of standard test inputs

 Simple inputs can tell us a lot about the system
o Step input
o Sine wave input
o Ramp input
o Impulse
Step input
Examples of step input
 Driving up a kerb
 Sudden turning up the thermostat temperature
 Sudden input of constant force to translation system
 Suddenly releasing the brakes on a car

Sine wave

Impulse

Ramp
Step response
 The output from a system when given step input
 System has zero initial conditions:
o All masses stationary
o Capacitors discharged
o Springs not compressed or stretched

Step response – characteristics

 Final value
 Rise time
 Delay
 Overshoot
 Oscillation (Frequency and damping factor)
 Stability
 Lecture 7 – 2nd Order Step Response

Input – Output model

 Input – output model is derived by eliminating all variables except the inputs and
their derivatives
 The standard input – output model describing a second order system is :

 To characterise dynamics of 2nd order systems we need two parameters

o The undamped natural frequency omegan (rad s-1): indicates the speed of the
step response
o The damping factor zeta (dimensionless): governs the shape of step response

Forced response
 Non-zero input, i.e.
o Step input
o Sinusoidal input
 Zero initial conditions
 Solution of non-homogenous differential equation

Effect of damping factor (zeta)

 There are 4 conditions
o Zeta = 0 Undamped
o 0 < Zeta < 1 Underdamped
o Zeta = 1 Critically damped
o Zeta > 1 Overdamped
Free Response
 Free response is the response of a
system to stored energy
o Zero input, i.e.
o Non-zero initial conditions response to stored energy
o Solution of homogenous differential equation
 Lecture 8 – Transfer Functions

Transfer function
 A representation of the system, which maps the input to the output
o Carried out in the Laplace domain
o Used for system analysis
 A key concept in Engineering. Problem cannot be solved in given form so we:
o Transfer into a different domain where problem is easy to solve
o Then transform back to the original domain for the answer
Laplace Transforms
Transfer function
Step input in Laplace Domain
What can we do with this?
 We can calculate the output of a system for any given input
 The transfer function can also give further insights in the behaviour of a system
o Frequency response
o System stability
 We can simulate a system in MATLAB using a transfer function

Entering transfer functions in MATLAB

 Use transfer function block, then feed a step input into the block then observe the
output step response using a scope

Lecture 9 – 1st Order Frequency Response

Time domain vs frequency domain

Response to sine wave input

  Frequency of the input and output is the same
 The amplitude changed (E does not equal A)
 There is a phase shift (phi) between the input and output waves
 The amplitude change and phase shift depend upon the input frequency (omega)
 The dependence of E and phi on the frequency of the input sine wave omega is
called frequency response

Gain and Phase

 Gain is the ratio of the output and input amplitudes

 How much the output signal is attenuated (reduce the force) by the system
compared with the input signal
 The phase difference (phi) shows by how much the output signal is delayed by the
system compared with the input signal

Amplitude and Phase plot for 1st order system

Transfer functions to frequency response

Why s = jw
 In the Laplace domain, both signals and systems are represented by functions of s
 The s-plane is the complex plane on which Laplace transforms are graphed
 Generally, s = phi + jw
 Phi is the Neper frequency – the rate at which the function decays
 W is the radial frequency – the rate at which the function oscillated
 We are using periodic (non-decaying) sinusoidal inputs, so s = jw, i.e., phi = 0

Finding Magnitude of G(jw)