3D1.

1
A DEPLETION LAYER ACTUATOR
James H. T. Ransley1*, Colm Durkan1, and Ashwin A. Seshia1
1
Cambridge University Nanoscience Center, Cambridge, CB3 0FF, UNITED KINGDOM
(*Corresponding author: Tel : +44-1223-760313; E-mail: jhtr2@cam.ac.uk)

Abstract: The uncompensated donor or acceptor atoms present within the depletion layer of a diode can
be employed in an electrostatic actuator which utilizes the force between them and their opposing charges
on the other side of the junction. In this paper we describe the theory of such a depletion layer actuator
and demonstrate its application for the simple case of a diode located on the top surface of a cantilever
resonator. Good agreement between the experimental results and the theory is obtained. These devices
offer a new route for the integration of MEMS resonators with CMOS processing.

Keywords: CMOS Compatible Micromechanical Resonators, Actuators, Cantilevers, MEMS Oscillators.

The 14th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Lyon, France, June 10-14, 2007

1. INTRODUCTION the junction is much greater than that on the

It has been known for some time that the opposing side and it is a reasonable to assume the
current-voltage characteristics of Shottky and p-n charge resides on a plane rather than throughout a
junction diodes are highly sensitive to both volume on this side of the junction. Shottky
hydrostatic [1] and anisotropic [2] stresses. diodes always form one sided abrupt junctions,
Despite the extensive literature on the use of due to the much larger carrier density in the metal
TRANSDUCERS & EUROSENSORS ’07

junctions as stress sensors [4-6], to the authors’ than in the semiconductor. Figure 1 illustrates the
knowledge their application as an actuator has not charge density per unit volume, qv, and the electric
yet been reported. There has recently been field, Ef, within a p+-n junction with dopant
significant interest in the use of capacitive densities Na and Nd in the p and n regions
actuators embedded within devices for integrated respectively. Such a junction has a depletion
circuit compatible silicon resonators in filters [7- width, Wd= √(2ε Vj /e Nd), where ε is the dielectric
8] and frequency references [9]. Such devices are, constant of silicon, e is the electronic charge and
however, not straightforward to integrate with Vj is the sum of the reverse bias on the diode and
CMOS processes and the presence of the the built in potential.
dielectric layer may significantly reduce the Consider the element of charge at position ze
quality factor obtainable. In this paper we and with thickness dze, as shown in Fig. 1. The
demonstrate the use of a reverse biased diode as force per unit area on this element of charge is:
an alternative, easily fabricated, CMOS N d e 2 ( z e − Wd )
2

compatible internal actuator. dFA = Eqv dze = dze . (1)

ε
As the junction is strained, this force does a work
2. DEPLETION LAYER ACTUATOR
per unit area given by (equation overleaf):
The carrier depleted layer present in both
Shottky diodes and p-n junctions acts as the
dielectric in widely employed variable capacitor
or varactor devices [10]. In contrast to a
conventional capacitor with a distinct insulating
dielectric layer, the charge is stored over the
whole volume of the insulating region in the form
of uncompensated donors or acceptors embedded
within the lattice. For the case of an abrupt
junction (e.g. a Shottky barrier or a shallow
implanted p-n junction), the electric field varies Fig. 1 Charge and electric field distribution within
linearly over the depletion region. For a one-sided a one sided abrupt p+-n junction. Based on Fig.
abrupt junction, the carrier density on one side of 4.9 in [10].

1393
1-4244-0842-3/07/$20.00©2007 IEEE
 3D1.1
N d e 2ε zz (Wd − z e )z e
2

dW A = −dFA ε zz z e = dz e (2)
ε
The total work per unit area done by the forces on
all the elements of charge as the junction is
strained is given by:

(N d eε )2 (2V j )2 ε zz
1 3
2 3
Wd N d e 2 ε zzWd
W A = ³ dW A = = Fig. 2 a) Schematic of cantilever device with metal
0 6ε 6
. (3) electrodes numbered and other layers labeled (not
This expression can be used within a Lagrangian to scale). b) SEM of actual device.
framework to calculate the work done by the The work done by the external force on the
actuator on any given mode shape, and hence the
The 14th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Lyon, France, June 10-14, 2007

system, VF, can similarly be found by integrating

effective force. WAdA along the length of the cantilever for the
given mode shape (where dA is the element of
3. CANTILEVER RESONATOR area). We have:
In this paper we demonstrate the use of the
(N d eε ) 2 (2V j )2 w
1 3
L L
actuator to drive a cantilever device similar to the VF = ³ W A wdx =
one shown in Fig. 2a. A Shottky diode is 0 6 ³ 0
ε zz dx (7)
TRANSDUCERS & EUROSENSORS ’07

fabricated on the top of the cantilever by To a good approximation, the stress distribution
depositing metal onto a specially prepared surface within the beam consists of a plane stress parallel
(see fabrication details below). This diode is then to the x-direction that increases linearly with
employed to drive the cantilever in its distance from the neutral plane in the z-direction.
fundamental flexural mode. For this mode the The strain in the z-direction, εzz, is given by:
vertical displacement of the neutral axis, u(x), as a
h ∂ 2u
function of the distance from the cantilever's base, ε zz = ν ⊥ ε xx = ν ⊥ (8)
x, is known to be: 2 ∂x 2
where ν⊥ is the x to z Poisson's ratio. Substituting
§ § 1.875 x · § 1.875 x · · equations 8 and 4 into equation 7 leads to:
u ( x) = a ¨¨ 0.367 sin ¨ ¸ − 0.367 sinh ¨ ¸ ¸¸
© © L ¹ © L ¹¹
hwν ⊥ ( N d eε ) V j
1/ 2 3/2

§ 1.875 x · § 1.875 x · · V F = 0.324 a. (9)

− 0.5 cos¨ ¸ + 0.5 cosh ¨ ¸ ¸¸ L
© L ¹ © L ¹¹
The equation of motion can now be found by
(4)
means of Lagrangian mechanics to yield:
where a is the displacement of the tip and other
dimensions are as defined in Fig. 2a. h 3 wE
The kinetic energy (T ) and the elastic potential 0.25 ρwhLa + 0.258 a
L3
energy (VE) can be derived from the mode shape . (10)
hwν ⊥ ( N d eε ) V j
1/ 2 3/ 2
and are given by: = 0.324
1 L
1 L
T = ρwh ³ u 2 dx = ρwhLa 2 , (5)
2 0
8 If we assume that the voltage across the junction
3 L 2 consists of a DC component, VDC, together with a
1 wh § d 2u · h 3 wE 2 much smaller AC component, VAC, we can
VE = E
2 12 ³0 ¨© dx 2 ¸¹
¨ ¸ dx = 0 .129
L3
a . (6)
linearise the force term on the right hand side of
where ρ is the density of the silicon, E is the equation 11 to obtain the following equation.
Young's modulus of the silicon along the (Strictly speaking this linearisation involves a
x-direction and the dimensions are as defined in change of variables from a to b in equation 11,
Fig. 2a. such that b=a+a0, where the constant a0 reflects

1394
1-4244-0842-3/07/$20.00©2007 IEEE
 3D1.1
the static bending of the beam due to the contacts were then deposited through another
application of the DC voltage. Here for clarity we shadow mask – resulting in a structure similar to
will continue to use the variable a for the the schematic in Fig. 2a.
amplitude of vibration of the tip.)
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
h 3 wE
0.25 ρwhLa + 0.258 a The current voltage characteristic of the diode
L3
. (11) was measured using a Keithly 2400 sourcemeter
hwν ⊥ ( N d eεVDC )
1/ 2

= 0.486 V AC and a probe station. Referring to the schematic in

L Fig. 2a current was applied between probes on
From this equation of motion we can identify the electrodes 1 and 2 and the voltage was measured
effective mass, meff =0.25ρ whL, the spring between electrode 3 and a second probe on
constant, keff =0.258 h3wE/L3, the electrode 1. Figure 3 shows the results obtained
The 14th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Lyon, France, June 10-14, 2007

electromechanical coupling factor, from the cantilever measured in this study. A good
diode characteristic is obtained.
η =0.486 hwν⊥(NdeεVDC)1/2/L, and the resonant
In order to measure the mechanical response of
frequency ω0=√(keff /meff)=1.015 h(ρ/E)1/2/L2 (note
the cantilevers, they were mounted in an atomic
that these parameters can also be used to produce
force microscope (AFM) and electrical
an equivalent circuit model of the resonator). If
connections were made to the contacts using silver
we divide the equation through by the effective
dag and wire. The deflection of the cantilever with
mass it is straightforward to add a damping term
TRANSDUCERS & EUROSENSORS ’07

an applied bias was then measured using the

leaving us with the standard equation for a
AFM’s optical lever and electronics. Figure 4
damped harmonic oscillator:
shows the response of the device as it is driven at
ω0 2 ν ⊥ ( N d eεV DC )1 / 2 V AC its resonant frequency of 12.1 kHz in air, with a
a + a + ω 0 a = 1.947 . DC reverse bias of 800mV and an AC bias of
Q L2 ρ
140mV (100mV r.m.s.). The cantilever’s quality
(12) factor under these conditions was Q=32 and its
The amplitude of vibration of the cantilever at measured amplitude response of 2.3±0.1 nm is in
resonance, ares, can be found by substituting good agreement with the value predicted by
a=ares cos( ω0t) into equation 12, yielding: Equation 13 (2.26 nm). The background drift of
the phase in this measurement, is not currently
L2 Qν ⊥ ( N d eεV DC ) V AC
1/ 2

a res = 1.890 . (13) fully understood, although it may be related to the

h2E device interconnects. We also observed a linear
dependence of the amplitude with VAC and, at low
4. FABRICATION
voltages, a square root dependence of the
amplitude with VDC. These measurements
Au-Si Shottky diodes were prepared on 1.5
uncoated µMasch series 38 commercial AFM
1
cantilevers. The cantilever used in this study had
Current (mA)

h=1.1µm, w=35µm, E=170GPa, ν⊥=0.36, 0.5

Nd=10 cm and ε=1.1×10-10 Fm-1. First, the
17 -3
0
cantilever’s native oxide layer was removed by an
HF etch. The sample was rinsed in methanol and -0.5
then stored under methanol until it was loaded
(still wet) into a vacuum system for the deposition -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
of the gold. This procedure has previously been
Voltage (V)
shown to prevent oxide formation on the silicon
[11]. After deposition of the gold over the entire Figure 3. Current-Voltage characteristic of the
cantilever, part of the gold was removed by an ion diode fabricated on the cantilever used in this
mill through a shadow mask. Additional Cr-Au study.

1395
1-4244-0842-3/07/$20.00©2007 IEEE
 3D1.1
were performed shortly after the device was shape, and have derived the response for the
fabricated. We also measured the device several particular case of a diode on the surface of a
months later. While qualitatively similar cantilever. We have presented initial results
behaviour was observed, quantitative agreement showing that the actuator functions and that its
with the initial results was not obtained, in both response is consistent with the model.
the magnitude of the resonant amplitude and in the We are currently working to completely validate
reverse bias dependence. One possible explanation our model by measuring the dependence of the
for this is that oxygen diffused through the gold response on the DC bias, the AC bias and the
layer to produce a thin oxide at the interface, length of the cantilevers with a newly fabricated
significantly changing the characteristics of the device.
device. Commercial silicon Shottky diodes are The use of pn junction internal actuators for
typically encapsulated in silicon nitride to prevent silicon resonators and oscillators is attractive
oxidation from occurring due to oxygen diffusing because the absence of additional deposited layers
The 14th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Lyon, France, June 10-14, 2007

through the metal and this seems a likely offers the promise of similar quality factors to gap
explanation for the changing device behaviour actuated devices. Since the implants required to
over this timescale. fabricate the actuators are already performed in
From these initial results a proof-of-concept standard CMOS processes, these devices provide
demonstration of the actuator has been obtained an attractive alternate route for the fabrication of
and the model developed by the authors provides a CMOS-compatible integrated silicon oscillators.
good basis for understanding its operation for the
TRANSDUCERS & EUROSENSORS ’07

resonant actuation of micromechanical devices. REFERENCES

6. CONCLUSIONS [1] H. Hall and J Bardeen and G. L. Pearson,

Phys. Rev., vol. 84(1), pp. 129-132, 1951.
In this paper we have described a new actuator [2] W. Rindner, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 33(8), pp.
that utilizes the force between the two oppositely 2479-2480, 1962.
charged depletion layers present in a pn junction [3] W. Rindner and I. Braun, J. Appl. Phys.,
or a Shottky diode. We have developed a vol. 34(7), pp. 1958-1970, 1962.
comprehensive model for the operation of the [4] J. F. Creemer and P. J. French, J. Appl.
device that can be applied to any mode Phys., vol. 96(8), pp. 4530-4538, 2004.
[5] G. C. M. Meijer G. Wang and F. Fruett,
IEEE Sens. J., vol. 1(3), pp. 225-234, 2001.
[6] J. F. Creemer, F. Fruett, G. C. M. Meijer
and P. J. French, IEEE Sens. J., vol. 1(2), pp. 98-
108, 2001.
[7] S. A. Bhave and R. T. Howe, Proc.
Transducers 2005, Seoul, Korea, June 5-9, 2005,
pp. 2139-2142.
[8] H. Chandrahalim, D. Weinstein, L. F.
Cheow, and S. A. Bhave, Proc. MEMs 2006,
Istambul, Jan. 22-26, 2006, pp. 894-897.
[9] Y.-W. Lin, S.-S. Li, Y. Xie, Z. Ren, and C.
T.-C. Nguyen, Proc IEEE Int. Frequency
Control/Precision Time & Time Interval Symp.,
Vancouver, Aug. 29-31, 128-134 (2005).
[10] S. M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices,
Physics and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 2002.
Figure 4. Amplitude and phase response of the
[11] P. O. Hahn and M. Henler, J. Vac. Sci.
cantilever with VAC=0.14V and VDC=0.8V.
Technol. Vol. 2(2), 574-583 (1984).

1396
1-4244-0842-3/07/$20.00©2007 IEEE