Engg Physics & Engg Chemistry Manual

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE-Accredited by NBA & NACC-‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad -500100, Telangana State, India
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LABORATORY MANUAL
Student Name:……………………………………………………
RollNo:………………………………………………………………
Branch:……………………………..Section……………………
Year …………………………Semester………………………..
FACULTY INCHARGE
PREFACE
Physics deals with matter and energy. Matter is composed of protons

Electrons in the form of atoms and molecules. Energies are of various forms
like Mechanical, thermal, optical sound magnetic nuclear etc., it is well
established that these energies are inter convertible. The processes of
analysis, understanding and applications of the energies lead to different
branches in engineering and technology. Physics plays a prominent role in
developing different Engineering course. It is obvious that sound
knowledge of this information, available in physics, Chemistry and
Mathematics, is in-evitable for young engineers and technologists. Along
with the theoretical skills practical skills in the basic sciences of physics
and chemistry are unavoidable to become an eminent Engineer or
Technologist. Induction of practical’s in physics and chemistry by the
university is very much appreciable.
A trial of gathering and consolidation of the information of physics

experiments is given in this book to help the first year B.Tech students of
Malla Reddy college of Engineering & Technology.
Faculty of Physics
MRCET
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
A B.Tech –graduate should posses the following program outcomes.
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,
science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the
solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and
analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet
the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling
to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these
to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
 Before entering the lab the student should carry the following things.
1. Identity card issued by the college.
2. Class notes
3. Lab observation book
4. Lab Manual
5. Lab Record
 Student must sign in and sign out in the register provided when attending the lab
session without fail.
 Come to the laboratory in time. Students, who are late more than 15 min., will
not be allowed to attend the lab.
 Students need to maintain 100% attendance in lab if not a strict action will be
taken.
 All students must follow a Dress Code while in the laboratory
 Foods, drinks are NOT allowed.
 All bags must be left at the indicated place.
 The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to
illustrate phenomena in different areas of Physics and to expose you to
measuring instruments, conduct the experiments with interest and an attitude of
learning
 You need to come well prepared for the experiment.
 Work quietly and carefully
 Be honest in recording and representing your data.
 If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully, to get a
better fit for a graph
 All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and
carefully done
 Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes and
display units.
 If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and
drawing graphs. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.
 Do not fiddle with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any
breakage to the Instructor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for the
purpose of your experiment.
L T/P/D C
- - / 4 /- 2
(R18A0082) ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB
(Any 8 experiments compulsory)
OBJECTIVES
1. The engineering students are exposed in physics lab to understand physical

parameters practically.
2. The list of experiments enables the students to know different branches like
mechanics, optics and electronics.
3. The students are thoroughly trained in learning practical skills by completing all
the experiments in physics lab.
This course on physics lab is designed with 10 experiments in an academic year. It is

common to all branches of Engineering in B.Tech 1st year.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS: (Any eight experiments compulsory)
1. Torsional pendulum-Rigidity modulus of given wire.

2. Melde’s experiment –Transverse and Longitudinal modes.
3. Stewart and Gee’s method- Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil.
4. Spectrometer-Dispersive power of the material of a prism
5. Diffraction grating-using laser -Wave length of light.
6. Newton’s Rings –Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens.
7. C-R circuit – Time constant of an RC circuit.
8. Characteristics of LED.
9. Characteristics of a Solar cell.
10. Evaluation of numerical aperture of optical fiber.
Reference practical physics books:

1. Practical physics by Dr. Aparna, V.G.S.publications.
2. Engineering physics practical lab manual – MRCET.
OUTCOMES
1. The students learn the concepts of error analyze and try to formulate new
solutions to the problems related to engineering physics.
2. B.Tech students basically learning the mechanical behavior of the material and
practically determining the elastic constant. Transverse and longitudinal waves
are practically studied. Variation of the magnetic fields along with terrestrial
magnetism is practically studied.
3. Dispersion of the composite light is clearly observed by the students.
Wavelengths of the source of light/laser are determined experimentally.
4. Opto electronic devices and their working are practically realized by the
students. In addition the functioning of optical fiber is practically studied.
5. The students learn experimental skills to design new experiments suitable for
requirements in different fields (industrial, medical, scientific fields etc.)
CONTENTS
PAGE
S.NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT NUMBER
1 The Rigidity modulus   of the material of the wire using

1-9
a Torsional pendulum.
2 Frequency of a vibrating bar, or a tuning fork using Melde’s 10-16
Experimental Arrangement
3 Dispersive power of the material of the given prism-
17-22
Spectrometer
4 Solar cell characteristics 23-28
5 Single slit diffraction Using laser 29-33
6 Time constant of C.R. Circuit- 34-41
7 Determination of the wavelength of sodium light and or (b)
the radius of curvature of the surface of the Plano convex 42-48
lens by forming Newton’s rings.
8 Numerical Aperture In Optical Fibers 49-54
9 LED Characteristics 55-61

10 Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil
62-70
Stewart’s and Gee’s method
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB
1. TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Aim:
To determine the rigidity modulus   of the material of the wire using a Torsional
Pendulum.
Apparatus:
A circular Brass disc provided with a chuck nut at its center, steel wire, brass wire,
another chuck nut fixed to a wall bracket or a rigid clamp, stop watch, meter scale, screw
gauge, vernier calipers.
Description:
The Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to 10cm
diameter with 1 or 2 cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the center of the disc. The lower
end of the wire is gripped into the chuck nut at the center of the disc and the upper end is
gripped into another chuck nut, which is fixed to the wall bracket.
Formula:
4πMR2 L
η= × 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚2
a4 T2
Where
M= Mass of the disc (gm)
R = Radius of the disc (cm)
𝐿 = Length of the wire (cm)
𝑎 = Radius of the wire (cm)
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (sec)
Theory:
The Wire fixed in between the chuck nuts is twisted using the
circular brass disc. When the disc is rotated, the external
couple acts on the wire. Due to this an internal couple develops
in the wire. Because of these couples similar to action and
reaction, the disc starts oscillating about the wire as axis. The
oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.
To determine Rigidity modulus the measurable

parameters are M, R, a, L and T. Since the same disc is used M
and R can be determined. Here M can be weighed using a
balance while R can be measured using vernier calipers as per
the table II. The radius of the wire”a” can be determined using
screwguage and can be tabulated in table III. For different
length(L), the time periods (T) and T2 or determined and
tabulated in the table I. Using the formula 6 substituting all the
values, The RIGIDITY MODULUS can be calculated.
If “a” is the radius of the wire “L” is the length of the wire
between the chuck nuts and the Rigidity modulus ( " " ) of the material of the wire is related
MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 1
to the couple “C” per unit twist of the wire as,

𝑎4 𝜂𝜋
𝐶= … … … … (1)
2𝐿
Time period and Torsional Oscillation is related to couple “C” as,
𝐼
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 … … … … . (2)
𝐶
𝐼
𝐶 = 4𝜋 2 2 … … … … … (3)
𝑇
Where I is Moment of Inertia of the Disc
From equation (3) and (1) we have
8𝜋𝐼 𝐿
𝜂 = 4 × 2 … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝑎 𝑇
The moment of Inertia, “I” of a circular disc whose geometric axis coincides with the axis of
rotation is given by
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼= … … … … … … (5)
2
where
M = Mass of the disc
R = Radius of the disc
Substituting the value of “I” from (5) in (4) we get
4𝜋𝑀𝑅 2 𝐿
𝜂= × 2 … … … … (6)
𝑎4 𝑇
Procedure:
1. The circular metal disc is suspended as shown in figure.Length of the wire between the
chuck nuts is adjusted to 90 cm.
2. When the disc is in equilibrium position, a small mark is made on the curved edge of
the disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by the disc
when the disc oscillates.
3. The disc is set to oscillate by slowly turning the disc through a small angle. Care is to
be taken to see that there is no lateral movement of the disc.
4. When the disc is oscillating, the time (t) taken for 10 oscillations is noted with the help
of a stopwatch and recorded in the observation table in trial 1.
5. The procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again the time taken for
10 oscillations is noted and recorded in the observations table in trial 2 .From trial 1 &
2 the mean for 10 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T) i.e. the time taken for
one oscillation is calculated.
6. The experiment is repeated, by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and
the results are tabulated in table 1.
7. The radius of the wire “a” is to be found accurately using a screw gauge since it occurs
in the fourth power in equation (6).
8. The Radius (r) and the Mass (m) of the disc are found with the vernier calipers and a
L
rough balance respectively. The mean value of 2 is substituted in equation (6) and 
T
can be calculated.
Graph:

A graph is also drawn with “L” on the X- axis and T 2 on the Y-axis. It will be linear. From
L L
the linear graph, the slope 2 is determined. Using 2 the rigidity modulus “ ” can be
T T
calculated.
Observations:
1. Mass of the disc = M = -------------gm
2. Radius of the disc = R = --------------cm.
3. Average radius of the wire = a = --------------cm.
Table 1:
Time taken for 10 Oscillations Time

Length of Period
L
the wire “L ” (t secs)
S.No. between the (T sec) T2
chuck nuts Trial – I Trial – 2 T2
(cm.)
Average t cm/sec2
T
10
Average value of 𝐿⁄𝑇 2 =
Table II:
Determination of diameter and radius of the disc using Vernier calipers:

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
= . . . . . . . . . 𝑐𝑚
Zero error = ......... Zero correction = .........
S.No. Main Scale Reading Vernier (n) x L.C Total Reading

(MSR) Coincidence (n) MSR + (n x L.C) cm
Avg
Diameter of the disc = cm
Radius of the disc = cm
Table III:
Determination of diameter of the wire using SCREW GUAGE:
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = = ⋯ … … … … … … … . 𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Error = Correction =
Pitch Scale Head Scale Reading

Reading Total reading
S.No Observed Corrected H.S.R x.L.C PSR + (HSR x L.C) mm
(PSR)
Average diameter
Average diameter = __________________mm
Radius of the wire (a) = ____________mm………………….cm
Precautions:
1. Ensure the wire is free from kinks.

2. The vibration of the disc must only in the horizontal plane.
3. The amplitude of the disc must be small.
Result:
The modulus of rigidity   of the given metal wire (Brass, Steel)

Experimental =__________________ dynes/cm2
Graphical =__________________ dynes/cm2
. Viva-Voce Questions &Answer:
1. Define Rigidity modulus? Give the formula &explain?

Ans. It is the ratio of tangential stress to tangential strain. It can also be stated as shearing
stress or angular stress to shearing strain or angular strain. It is generally denoted as “n”.
2 .On what factor the rigidity modulus (η) depends?
Ans. It depends on nature of solid material, It depends on mass of the material, It depends on
radius of disc & depends on length, and inversely on fourth power of radius & finally on
square of time period
3. What is Torsional pendulum? Explain in brief?
Ans. A circular metallic disc of steel or brass suspended by means of a wire in between
chuck nuts is known as torsional pendulum. The disc is made to oscillate about the wire as the
axis.
4. Explain need and meaning of the graph.
Ans. As per the formula l/T2 is an important term in this l & T2 are proptional to one another.
Hence the plot is a straight line passing through the origin.
5. How do you show that (η) is constant for a given material?
Ans.
4𝜋𝑀𝑅 2 𝐿
𝜂=
𝑎4 𝑇 2
In the formula 4𝜋 is constant. M –Mass of the disc is is constant. For a given wire radius &
diameter of the disc are constants. In other words first term is constant. In the second term
since L is proptional to T2 , second term is also constant. Finally rigidity modulus 𝜂 must be
definitely a constant
6. Explain the L.C’s of Vernier and screw gauge.
One division on Main Scale
Ans. Least count of Vernier Calipers = Number of Vernier Scale divsions
1
= 𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚𝑚 (𝑜𝑟) 0.01 𝑐𝑚
10
𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
1
= 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚𝑚 (𝑜𝑟) 0.001 𝑐𝑚
100
7. If L vs. 𝑻𝟐 is a straight line, what is the nature of the graph between L& T.
Ans. L & T is not a straight line but it is a curve.

8. What is Zero Error and its correction while using screw gauge?
Ans. Zero of Head scale and zero of the Pitch scale if they are not coinciding then there is zero
error. If zero is above pitch scale error is negative, must give positive correction by adding &
vice-versa.
9. What are the units of η?

Ans. 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑐𝑚2
10. What are three Elastic Modulus?s

Ans. Young’s modulus, rigidity modulus, & bulk modulus.




2. MELDE’S EXPERIMENT–TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL MODES

Aim:
To determine the Frequency of a vibrating bar, or a tuning fork using Melde’s
Arrangement.
Apparatus:
Connecting wires, Meter scale, thread, scale pan, weight box, smooth pulley fixed to a
stand, electrically maintained vibrator or a tuning fork.
Formulae:
√𝑇 1
1. Longitudinal arrangement: 𝑛 = ˟ Hz.
𝐿 √𝑚
1 𝑇
2. Transverse arrangement: 𝑛 = 2𝐿 √𝑚 Hz.
Where, m = mass per unit length of the string or Linear density of the thread(gm/cm)
L = Length of the single loop(cm)
T = Tension in thread.
Description:
An electrically maintained tuning fork consists of an Electromagnet between the

prongs of a tuning fork without touching either of the prongs. To one of the prongs a thin brass
plate with an adjustable screw is riveted on it. By adjusting the screw, contact is established
with the thin brass plate.
Electric current flows through the circuit energizing the electromagnet there by pulling
both the prongs inwards. The circuit is broken immediately at the point “S”. The
electromagnet loses its magnetism and the prongs fly back to its original position. Contact is
once again established at ‘S’ the circuit is closed and the process repeats automatically as
before. This causes the prongs of the tuning fork to vibrate.
One end of the thin thread is connected to a small screw provided on one of the prongs
of the tuning fork, the other end of the thread is connected to a light cardboard pan and the
thread is passed over a small amount pulley fixed on to a stand kept at a distance of 3-4 meters
from the fork. Small weights are placed in the pan so that the sufficient tension is created to
the string. The tension in the string can be altered by changing the weights in the pan.
Longitudinal and Transverse vibrations
The tuning fork is arranged for longitudinal vibrations as shown in figure i.e., the vibrations
of the prong are parallel to the length of the thread. After noting the observations in this
position, the tuning fork is arranged for Transverse vibrations i.e., the vibrations of the prong
are perpendicular to the length of the thread.

Theory:
(A) Longitudinal arrangement:
When the fork is placed in the longitudinal position and the string makes longitudinal
vibrations, the frequency of the stretched string will be Half of the frequency (  ) of the tuning
fork. When well-defined Loops are formed on the string, the frequency of each vibrating
segment of the string is exactly half the frequency of the fork.
Hence, the frequency of each loop is
1 T
1       (1)
2L m
Hence, the frequency of the vibrator is𝜂 = 2𝜂1 = 𝐿 √𝑇⁄𝑚

1
√𝑇 1
𝜂= ˟ … … … … (3)
𝐿 √𝑚
(B) Transverse arrangement:
The fork is placed in the Transverse vibrations position and by adjusting the length of the
thread and weights in the pan; the thread starts vibrating and forms many well defined Loops.
This is due to stationery vibrations set up as a result of the superposition of the progressive
wave from the prong and the reflected wave from the pulley. Well-defined Loops are formed
when the frequency of each segment coincides with the frequency of the fork. The frequency
 of the Transverse vibrations of the stretched string a tension of T dynes is given by:
1 𝑇
𝜂= √
2𝐿 𝑚
Where m = mass per unit length of the string

L = Length of the single loop

Procedure:
1. The apparatus (tuning fork) is first arranged longitudinal vibrations with the length of the
string 1-2 meters and passing over the pulley. The electric circuit is closed and adjusted
till the fork vibrates steadily.
2. The load in the pan is adjusted slowly, till a convenient number of loops (say between
(3–10) with well – defined nodes and maximum amplitude at the antinodes are formed,
the vibrations of the string being in the vertical plane.
3. The No. of Loops (x) formed in the string between the pulley and the fork is noted. The
length of the string between the pulley and the fork (d) is noted.
d
4. The length (L) of a single loop is calculated by: L  Cm
x
5. The experiment is repeated by changing the load M. So that the number of loops
increased or decreased by one. The readings are tabulated in Table I.
6. Next, the fork or vibrator is arranged for the transverse vibrations as in fig(b). The
experiment is repeated as was done for the longitudinal vibrations and the readings are
tabulated in table II.
7. At the end of the experiment, the mass m of the pan, the mass of the string ‘w’ and the
length ‘y’ of the string are noted.
Observations:
Mass of the string (w) = --------------- gm
Length of the string (y) = -------------- cm
Mass of the pan (𝑚′ ) = ------------------ gm
Mass per unit length (or) Linear density ‘m’ = ------------------------gm/cm
Table I: Longitudinal Arrangement:
Length
Load Length
No. of of each
S.No
Applied in Tension
Loops
of (x)
Loop √𝑇
T
the pan M T=(𝑀 + 𝑚′ ) g Loops 𝐿
(x) Ld
gm (d) x
√𝑇
Average value of 𝐿

Table II: Transverse Arrangement:

.
Load No. Length Length of
S. Applied in Tension of of x each loop T
T
No the pan M T = (M+m1) g Loop loops
Ld L
gm s (x) (d) x
T
Average value of
L
Precautions :
1. The loops must be well-defined.
2. The plane of vibration of the thread must be vertical.
3. In counting the loop lengths, the two extreme ends must be taken into account.
Result:
1.Frequency of a vibrating bar (or) a tuning fork in longitudinal arrangement is

____________ HZ.
2. Frequency of a vibrating bar (or) a tuning fork in Transverse arrangement is

_____________ HZ.

Viva-Voce Questions & Answers:
1. Define the term frequency. What are the units and dimensional formula of frequency?
Ans: Frequency is defined as the number of cycles passing through a fixed point (i.e.,
oscillations or vibrations or revolutions) per unit time. Frequency is also defined as the
number of waves that passes a fixed point in the given time.
Its unit is sec-1 or Hertz. Dimensional formula is [M0L0T-1]
2. What are the laws of stretched strings in terms of frequency?

Ans: Frequency is inversely proportional to length of string
Frequency is proportional to the root of the tension
Frequency is inversely proportional to the root of the linear density of the string.
3. Define Resonance?
Ans: When natural frequency of a body is equal to applied frequency due to external periodic
force then the body executes sympathetic vibrations and the phenomenon is known as
resonance.
4. What are longitudinal and transverse waves? Give example for each.
Ans: Longitudinal and transverse waves are Mechanical Waves i.e., the waves which
propagate through a material medium (mostly gases) at a wave speed which depends on the
elastic and inertial properties of that medium.
Longitudinal waves are the waves in which the medium particles vibrate parallel or
along the direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves are the waves in which the medium particles vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: Electromagnetic wave; ripple in water and a waves generated on a musical
instruments.
5. What are nodes and antinodes?

Ans: Region of zero or minimum displacement of wave is called nodes and the region of
maximum displacement of wave is called antinodes.
6. What is a Stationary wave?

Ans: A stationary wave superposition of incident waves and reflected transverse waves in
opposite direction between any two fixed points is known as stationary wave.
7. What is the distance between two consecutive nodes?

Ans: The distance between successive nodes (or successive antinodes) is half a wavelength
(λ/2).
8. What is the distance between a node and next immediate antinode?

Ans: The distance between node and next immediate antinode is quarter of a wavelength (λ/
9. What is linear density?

Ans: It is defined as the mass per unit length of the thread. Its unit is gm/cm in CGS and kg/m
in MKS (or SI).



3. DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A PRISM – SPECTROMETER
Aim: To determine the dispersive power of the material of the given prism.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury vapor lamp, Flint glass prism, reading lens and spirit
level.
Theory:
The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by
sin( A D )
 2
-------- (1)
sin( A / 2)
A is the angle of the equilateral prism and D is the angle of minimum deviation.
When the angle of incidence is small, the angle of deviation is large. As the angle of
incidence is slowly increased, the angle of deviation begins to diminish [progressively, till for
one particular value of the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation decreases to a least
value.The refracted rays takes reverse path. The angle of deviation starts increasing. This
angle is known as angle of minimum of deviation D.
The dispersive power   of the material of the given prism can be written as

 B  R 
-------------- (2)
   1
 B = the refractive index of the blue ray.
 n = the refractive index of the red ray and

 B  R  i.e the mean of  B &  R
2
Noting the angles of minimum deviation D, for any two colors (say) B & R are calculated
using the formula.
sin( A D )
 2
sin( A / 2)
Procedure:
The telescope is focused on to the direct ray (white light) and the readings in Vernier
I and II are noted.
The prism is placed on the prism table with the ground surface of the prism table side
parallel to the collimator as in fig (2). The ray of light passing through the collimator strikes
the polished surface BC of the prism at Q in fig (2) and undergoes deviation along OR if

emerges out of the prism form the face AC as in fig (2). The deviated ray (continuous
spectrum) is seen through the telescope in position T2 .
Looking at the spectrum the prism table is slowly moved on to one side, so that the
spectrum moves towards undedicated path of the beam. The deviated ray (spectrum) also
moves on the same side for some time and the ray starts turning back even though the prism
table is moved in the same direction. The point at which the ray starts turning back is called
the minimum deviation position. In the spectrum, it is sufficient if (green) one color is
adjusted for the minimum deviation position. In this limiting position of the spectrum,
deviation of the beam is minimum. The telescope is fixed on the colour and the tangent screw
is slowly operated until the point of intersection of the crosswire is exactly on the image. The
reading of the blue co lour is noted in Vernier (I) and Vernier (II) and tabulated in table I.
Similar procedure is repeated for other colours & Vernier (I) and Vernier (II) readings are
noted and tabulated in the Table 1.
The difference of readings between the deviated reading for the blue colour and the
direct reading gives the angle of minimum deviation reading for that colour  DB  . The
refractive indices for different (atleast four colours) rays are calculated using equation 1,
(assuming the angle of equilateral prism, A= 600 ), the values of refractive indices are
substituted in equation (2) and the dispersive power of the material of the prism is calculated.

Observations:
If MSR is 10 or 601 and no of VSRs are 60,
601 1
then LC  1.
60
Angle of the prism (A) = 600
Table-I:
Direct ray reading: Vernier I (V1d) =----------------------and Vernier II (V2d) =--------------------
Reading corresponding to
Angle of Minimum
minimum deviation position
Deviation (D) Mean Refractive
Sl.
Colour value of index
No.
D μ
V1 V2 V1~V1d V2~V2d
1 Violet
2 Indigo
3 Blue
4 Green
5 Yellow
6 Orange
7 Red
Precautions:
1. The prism & other arrangement should not be disturbed while doing the experiment.
2. .Spectrometer is to be arranged using the leveling screws given at the bottom of the
spectrometer.
Result: Dispersive power of the material of the prism is ----------------

Viva voce questions & answers:
1. What is the principle of Spectrometer?

Ans: The principle of Spectrometer is principle of the double convex lens to converge the light
rays and diverge the light rays from the parallel rays.
2. Define Prism? What are the different types of prisms?

Ans: Prism is made up of transparent material bounded by geometrical surfaces (triangular &
rectangular).Prisms can be equilateral triangle based, right angle triangle based, and liquid
prismsetc.
3. How do you define the dispersive power of a prism?

Ans: The ability or capacity of the prism to resolve or disperse the spectral lines in terms of
refractive indices.
4. what is” i-d “curve?

Ans: The plot of angle of incidence on X-axis and angle of deviation (d) on Y-axis is parabolic
curve having angle of lowest peak (minimum deviation)
5. What is angle of prism? What is Angle of minimum deviation?

Ans: Angle of prism is angle made at the vertex by the two refracting surfaces of the prism.
Angle of minimum deviation is the lowest angle in I-D curve. At the angle of
minimum deviation angle of incidence and angle of emergence are equal ( 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 )
6. Why is the spectrometer telescope fixed with a Ramsden’s eye- piece and not with
Huygens’s eye- piece?
Ans: Ramsden’s eye- piece is having cross wire to locate position of image; Huygens’s eye-
piece is not having cross wire to locate the image. Hence Ramsden’s eye- piece is used.
7. What are verniers in spectrometer?

Ans: Verniers are circular scales .either one degree or a half a degree divided in to 60 divisions
or 30 divisions. The least count will be one minute (1/60 of a degree).
8. How do you calculate L.C of the spectrometer?

Ans: It can be 1/60 of a degree or 1/30 of a half a degree
9. Define Refractive index?

Ans: It is the ratio of velocity of light in air or vacuum to the ratio of velocity of light in
𝑐
medium. (µ = )
𝑣
10. Give formula for Dispersive power of the prism?

𝜇𝐵−𝜇
Ans: ω = 𝜇−1𝑅



4. SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

Aim : To determine the characteristics of solar cell and calculate fill factor.
Apparatus requried: Solar cell trainer kit, Solar cell, Variable light source
Formula:
𝐼 ×𝑉
Fill factor= 𝐼𝑚×𝑉𝑚
𝑠𝑐 𝑜𝑐
Where, 𝐼𝑚 is maximum current 𝐼𝑠𝑐 is short circuit current
𝑉𝑚 is maximum voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐 open circuit voltage
Theory:
If the depletion of unbiased junction is illuminated, charge separation takes place,
resulting in forward bias on the junction. Such device having large area junction very close to
the surface is capable of delivering power and is known as SOLAR CELL. The cell converts
directly solar energy into electricity.
The Solar Cell radiation is proportional to the delivered power of cell. The efficiency
of a cell is expressed in terms of the electrical power output compared with the power in the
incident Photon Flux. The efficiency of Solar Cell depends on the fraction of light reflected
from the surface and the fraction absorbed before reaching the junction. Silicon is widely used
for Solar Cells.
Procedure:
1. Place solar cell directly in front of variable intensity light source, and connect output of
solar cell to trainer kit.
2. Now gradually increase the intensity of bulb and observe the output of solar cell on the
voltmeter.
3. Connect the circuit as per circuit sketched below.
4. Vary the intensity of light, and note voltage and current in the meters respectively and as
well as the connected load.
5. Plot graph, between voltage and current at different intensities with & without load.
Graphs below show the equivalent circuit to describe a solar cell. The diode current
I d = I0 (e AVd −1) comes from the standard I-V equation for a diode, and is also illustrated in
the Figure 1. It is clear that the current I that flows to the external circuit is
I = I SC − I0 (e AVd −1) (1)
Circuit diagram:
+ -
A
-
+
230V V LOAD
AC -

Table:
S.No Voltage(V) Current(A) Power
Precautions:
1. Handle apparatus gently.
2. Gave connections correctly.
3. The voltage and corresponding current should be noted simultaneously.
Result: V-I characteristics of solar cell were studied.

Fill factor =


1. What is solar cell?

Ans: A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical
energy.
2. What is the phenomenon involved in solar cell?

Ans: Phenonemena involved in solar cel is photo-voltaic effect
3. Is solar cell prepared from a semiconducting material?

Ans: YES solar cell is Prepared from high semiconductor elements such as gallium, indium,
arsenide etc.
4. Write the maximum power output equation?

Ans: Assuming the current/voltage relationship is linear (it's not, but this gives you crude
lower bound), you could measure the short-circuit current and the open-cell voltage and do 1/4
* I * V to obtain the maximum theoretical power given a worst-case 0.25 fill factor. However
a more reasonable value might be obtained by using a different factor
5. Write the equation for the efficiency of solar cell?

Ans: The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one
solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to
input energy from the sun.
6. What is fill factor?

Ans: Fill-factor: The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is
calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that would be
output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together.
7. What are the applications of solar cell?.

Ans: Electrical Grid Power:
Solar cell produces electrical power for the commercial grid, solar cells widely used as,
many traffic, emergency and construction road signs use solar cells for power, reducing the
need for gasoline-powered generators for remote and mobile uses.
Rooftop Solar Panels
Many commercial and residential buildings have solar panels that produce electricity; in most
cases, the building gets its power primarily from a conventional utility connection, but the
solar cells generate enough power to reduce the owner’s conventional electric use and the
associated electric bill. The solar panel connects to a power management system that
automatically switches to the utility when solar power isn’t available.
Satellites
Communications satellites require an electric power source that is lightweight, lasts for years,
and works in the vacuum of space. Because solar energy is abundant above the earth’s
atmosphere, photovoltaic cells have proved an ideal solution for powering satellites. They
generate electricity continually without the need for battery replacements or fuel; this is a

nearly-absolute requirement for satellites, as their maintenance is impractical and prohibitively

expensive.
Solar panel s used for traping the light energy from the sun which is used for domestic usage
such as cooking and heating purpose. Solar calculators can be used as day time application
which consumes less energy compared to normal battery calculators and has longer life and
cost effective.


5. SEMICONDUCTOR LASER
Aim: To determine the wavelength of laser beam.
Apparatus: Laser source, Diffraction Grating, Screen and Meter Scale.
Principle: The wavelength of the laser can be determined by using diffraction due to N Slits.
When light rays are incident on a grating a diffraction pattern with intensity maxima will be
observed on the screen with diminishing intensity in various orders.
Formula:
 = Sin / N n (A0)
Where, ‘’ is the angle of diffraction

‘’ is the wavelength of the laser beam (1 Ao =10-8cm-1)
‘N’ is the number of lines per cm of the grating = 5905.5 /cm
(1 Inch= 2.54 cm)
‘n’ is the order of diffraction.
Procedure:
 Arrange the laser source and grating on the table at the same height.
 Focus the laser beam on the grating and observe the diffraction pattern formed
on the screen.
 It will be observed that central maxima will be of maximum intensity and the other
maxima’s are of decreasing intensities.Measure the distance between the screen and
grating (d cm).
 Measure the distance between the corresponding maxima of the same order (2x cm).
 The experiment is repeated for different values of ‘d’ and the readings are tabulated as
under.
 The value of wavelength is calculated for each value obtained using the formula
Sinθ= x/[(x²+d²)½] and the average value of wavelength is determined.

Tabular form:
Distance The distance

between between
Order 𝒙
Sl No. screen and corresponding Sinθ =
n X cm  cm.
grating maxima (2x) √𝒙𝟐 +𝒅𝟐
(d) cm ( cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Avg
Precautions :
1. Do not view the laser beam through naked eye.
2. The measurements are to be done accurately.
Result :
The wavelength of the laser beam is ______________ A0

Viva-voce Questions & Answers:
1. What is semi conductor diode laser?

Ans: Semiconductor diode laser is a laser which converts electrical energy into light energy
due to recombination of charge carriers.
2. What is LASER?
Ans: The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
It is a device which produces a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light in which
the waves are coherent.
3. What are the characteristic of laser radiation?

Ans: Laser radiations have high intensity, high coherence, high monochoromation and high
directionality with less divergence.
4. What is the principle of LASER?

Ans: The principle of a laser is based on three separate features: a) stimulated emission b)
population inversion and c) an optical pumping.
5. What is diffraction?
Ans: Diffraction is the bending or spreading of light through narrow apertures or corners of
obstacles and enter into the geometric shadow.
6. What is grating element?

Ans: (𝑒 + 𝑑) is known as grating element where e is the slit width and d is the separation
between the two ruled lines or slits.
7. What is wavelength?
Ans: The distance between any two successive points in the wave train which have the same
phase is called the wavelength.
8. What is monochromatic light?

Ans: Light source having single colour or single wavelength or single frequency is called
monochromatic light.
9. What is the function of optical resonator?

Ans: To amplify or increase the intensity of active medium.
10. What is metastable state?

Ans: Meta stable state is intermediate state and it has a longer lifetime
11. What is population inversion?

Ans: The number of atoms in exited state is more than that of ground state.



6 CR CIRCUIT
Aim: To study the growth and decay of current in a C-R Circuit and to determine RC time
constant.
Apparatus:
Micro Board consisting of fixed power supply, switch, Ammeter, combinations of

Resistor & capacitors.
Theory:
Current, when passed by keeping key closed CR circuit, current will not reach maximum
value immediately. It takes certain time to attain maximum value. Theoretically it is shown
that Either CURENT or VOLTAGE or CHARGE Grows exponentially as per the equation 1
below.
When the key is opened the circuit will be broken. Charge in the condenser decays or
discharges. The discharge is also exponentially as per the equation 2 below
In CR circuit when switch on put on the charge on the condenser (c) grows exponentially as
per
Q = Q0 (1-e -t/CR)
where Q is the charge in time t; and

Q0 is the maximum charge.
The charge grows to maximum value 0.632 of the total charge (Q0) in t sec. This , t, is called
time consistent. It depends on product of R & C. t , can be determined by measuring values of
R & C as shown in the table.1.
Similarly when current is switched of the charge on the condenser is also discharged as
per Q = Q0 e –t/RC.
In both the cases of charging and discharging, the equations represent exponential nature
as shown in the graphs below.
Procedure:
1. To study the charge of a capacitor. By charging and discharging
The experiment arrangement for the study of the charging and discharging of a
condenser through a resistance is shown in fig. A condenser of capacity C, resistance R, a tap
key K are to be connected to a battery B. Connect a voltmeter, V parallel to the condenser, by
means of which the potential difference across the plates of the condenser can be measured.
Adjust the voltmeter knob so that it reads zero. Switch on the power supply, press the tap key
K and simultaneously start a stop a clock. When the tap key, K is pressed the current flows
and the plates of the condenser get charged. Note the voltmeter reading, V at suitable regular
intervals of time ( say 5 seconds) till the voltage a maximum value V 0 i.e., the condenser gets
fully charged. Note the observations in table .1. Repeat the experiment for different sets of R
and C values.
Observations:
Table to determine the PD.developed across the plates of the condenser during charging and
discharging.
SET 1 SET 2
C= µF C= µF
R= KΩ R= KΩ
CR = SEC CR = SEC

Readings: Set-1:
Readings: Set-2:
S.NO Time Voltmeter reading S.NO Time Voltmeter reading
t V t V
(sec) ( volt) (sec) ( volt)
Charging Discharging Charging Discharging
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
13 13
14 14
15 15

Result table:
S. R Time constant (t) tgraphical / ttheoritical

C (Farad)
No. (Ohm) Theoretical Graphical
1.
2.
1. What is capacitor?
Ans: A capacitor is a device which stores electric energy at very low potential.
2. What is the purpose of Capacitors?

Ans: Capacitors are used to store electrical energy to improve the efficiency of electrical
gadgets.
3. What the resistor will do?

Ans: It will oppose the flow of charge.
4. What is Time constant?

Ans: It is the time taken for exponential growth or decay of charge in an RC circuit is known
as time constant. It is given by the product of resistance and capacitance of CR-circuit
denoted by 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶.The time constant determines nature of the charging and discharging.
5. What is capacitance?
Ans: The ratio of magnitude of the charge to the applied voltage of a capacitor.
𝑄
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑄 𝛼 𝑉  𝐶 =
𝑉
6. Define potential?
Ans: The electric potential at a point in the electric field is defined as the work done to the
magnitude of the charge within the electric field.
7. What is the nature of Time Vs Voltage (or current) graph?

Ans:Exponentially voltage or charge are increasing during charging and exponential
decreasing during discharging of the RC circuit.
8. Describe the types of capacitor?

Ans: Non electrolyte capacitors and electrolyte capacitors.
9. Give the unit of capacitor?

Ans: Farad




MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD 41

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7. NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim:
To determine the radius of curvature of Plano convex lens by using Newton’s rings
arrangement.
Apparatus:
Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, Plano convex lens, a thick glass plate
(P1), a thin glass plate (P2), a black paper and reading lens.
Formula:
The radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens can be related to diameters of the
Newton’s rings as,
D22  D12
R
4 (n2  n1 )
R = Radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens
D1 = Diameter of the n1th ring.
D2 = Diameter of the n2th ring.
𝜆 = Wavelength of the light source
Description:
A black paper is laid on the base of the traveling microscope over which the thick
glass plate p1 is placed. Over this thick glass plate, a Plano convex lens F of large focal
length is placed. A parallel beam of light from the sodium lamp is made to fall on the glass
plate P2 , inclined at 450 with the horizontal as shown in the figure 1. A beam of light is
reflected on to the large focus lens by the glass plate P2 . As a result of interference between
the light reflected from the lower surface of the lens and the top surface of the thick glass
plate, concentric rings called the Newton’s rings are formed. The observed rings are with
alternate bright and dark rings, having a central black spot as seen through the microscope.

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Procedure:
1.The point of intersection of the cross-wires in the microscope is brought to the center of
the ring system, The wire may be set tangential to any one of the ring; and starting from
the center of the ring system.
2.The microscope is moved on to one side (say) left across the field of view counting the
number of rings.
3.After passing beyond 10th or 15th ring, the direction of motion of the microscope is
reversed and the cross-wires is set at the 10th or 15th dark ring, tangential to it.
4.The reading on the microscope scale is noted, using a magnifying glass.
5.Similarly, the readings with the cross-wires is set on 9th, 8th, 7th --- --- --- 2nd dark ring
the readings are noted.
6.The microscope is moved in the same direction and the readings corresponding to the
2nd, 4th, 6th --- --- --- 10th, dark ring on right side are noted.
7.Readings are to be noted with the microscope moving in one and the same direction to
avoid errors due to backlash.
8.The observations are tabulated in table 1.
Graph:
A graph is drawn with number of rings as abscissa (x-axis) and the square of diameter of the
ring as the ordinate (y-axis). The graph will be a straight line. From graph, the value of
( D12 and D22 ) corresponding to two numbers n1 and n2 are noted. Using these
values in equation (2) the radius of curvature is calculated
Observations:
Value of 1 M.S.D = 0.1 cm
Total No. of division on the vernier = 100 divisions
Value of one Main Scale division
Least count of T.M =
To ta l no of divisions on the var ies
wavelength,  of the source is 5896 x 10-8 cm

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Table I:
MICROSCOPE READINGS
Left Right
No.
S.No
of M.S.R VCXLC T1 M.S.R VCXLC T2
Diameter D2
D= T1 ~ T2
ring
1.
2.
3.
4.
Precautions :
1. While taking observations, the microscope should be moved only in one direction to avoid
the error due to back-lash.
2. The lens and glass plate must be perfectly clean.
3. The slow motion screw of the microscope must be used while taking readings.
4. The central spot must be dark.
RESULT:
The radius of the curvature of the given Plano convex lens is R experimental = ________cm.
R graphical = ________cm.

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Viva-voce Questions & Answers:
1. What is the basic principle of Newton’s rings experiment?

Ans: The basic principle of Newton’s rings experiment is Interference phenomenon in thin
films. The phenomenon of Newton’s rings is an illustration of the interference of light waves
reflected from the opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable thickness.
2. Define Interference?
Ans: It is superposition of two or more coherent waves giving rise for bright and dark
fringesof equal width.
3. Why the rings are circular?

Ans: The air film formed below the plano convex lens where the rings are observed, is plano
concave. The path difference along the circle is constant that’s why the rings are circular in
this experiment
4. What are Newton’s Rings?

Ans: Alternate dark and bright rings with central dark spot are called Newton’s rings.
5. Why it is necessary for the light to fall normally on Plano convex lens?
Ans: In the path difference 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 of thin films ,angle of refraction r should be
zero(𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = 1).Thi is possible only when light rays are made to incident vertically on the
air film enclosed, by means of the glass plate kept at 450 with respect to the incident beam
from the source.
6. What is constructive interference and destructive interference?
Ans: When two light waves interfere at each other such that the resultant intensity at a point
increases due to crest falling on crest or trough falling on the trough. This interference is
called constructive interference.
If crest falls on the trough or trough falls on the crest, there is annihilation or
cancellation of the wave. Hence the resultant intensity is zero and it is called destructive
interference.
7. What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450 in this experiment?

Ans: For normal incidence of light wave.
8. Why the centre of the rings is dark?

Ans: Because the Plano convex lens and the plane glass plate are in contact and
corresponding to that particular point of contact the centre ring appears dark.
9. Which light do we use in this experiment?

Ans: Monochromatic light. Example: Sodium light, refractive index, radius of curvature of
the lens, in designing interferometer.
10. What will happen if we use white light in this experiment?

Ans: Colored fringes will form.
11. If we replace yellow light with green light, is there any difference in the formation of
rings?
Ans: No, because both are monochromatic lights only.
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Graph paper

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8. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRE
Aim: To determine the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
Apparatus: Optical fiber trainer module, Numerical Aperture (NA) Jig (screen with
concentric circles) and mandrel.
Theory:
Optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape
consists of core, cladding and protective shield. The light launched inside the core through its
one end propagates to the other end due to total internal reflection at the core-clad interface.
This is the principle of optical fiber. The angle at which the light ray is incident on the fiber
such that it is transmitted through the fiber in guided mode is called the “acceptance angle”
(maximum launching angle “α”). The cone defined by twice the acceptance angle is called
acceptance cone. The light collecting capacity of the fibre is expressed in terms of acceptance
angle using parameter called Numerical Aperture (NA). The Sin of the acceptance angle is
called NA of the fibre. Thereby the NA of an optical system/device is a measure of how
much light is collected by system/device.
Formula:
The NA of the optical is NA= sin α = ----- ------ (1)
Therefore, α = sin NA --------------
-1
(2)
Where n1 -- refractive index of the core,
n2 -- refractive index of cladding, and
n0 -- is the refractive index of medium outside the core (air).
From the above diagram the acceptance angle can

be calculated by measuring the diameter of the circular
region over which the far-field intensity is distributed at the
other end of the fibre. Light from the fibre end A fall on the
screen. Let the diameter of the light falling on the screen
BC= D.
From triangle ABO sin α = OB/AB =
Circuit diagram:
Fig: Focusing of light on the circles of given screen (NA jig)

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Procedure:
1. One end of the optical fibre is connected to the power output of LED. And the other
end of the fibre is connected to NA Jig through the connector.
2. The AC main is switched on. The light emitted by LED passes through the optical
fibre cable to the other end. The set Po knob is adjusted such that, maximum intensity
is observed on the screen and it should not be further disturbed.
3. A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is moved along the length of the
NA Jig to observe the circular spreading of the light intensity on the screen.
4. The screen is adjusted such that, the first circle from the centre of the screen is
completely filled with the light. At this position, the distance (L) from this fibre end to
the screen is noted on the NA Jig.
5. The experiment is repeated for the subsequent circles by adjusting the length L along
NA jig and the readings are noted in table.
Table:
S. No Distance from Diameter of the Acceptance angle

screen(L) mm circle (D) mm α= Sin-(NA)
Avg Value= _______ Avg Value=_______
Precautions:
1. Adjust the distance from the screen properly and measure the diameter of the rings.
2. Handle the optical fibre cable carefully.
3. Use maximum intensity of the light while doing the experiment.
4. Tabulate the readings without parallax
Result:
The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber is found to be __________.
The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber is found to be ___________.

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Viva- Voce Questions:
1. What is numerical aperture?

Ans: Numerical aperture is thus considered as a light gathering capacity of an optical fibre.
Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fibre's light acceptance cone.
i.e. NA= Sin θa where θa, is called acceptance cone angle.
2. What is acceptance angle?

Ans: The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined: It is the maximum angle of a ray
(against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by
the core.
3. How do you explain total internal reflection?

Ans: When light goes from a denser medium to a less dense medium, as the angle of
incidence
exceeds the critical angle, the ray reflects back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is
called Total Internal Reflection. Total Internal Reflection is a very efficient reflection, as the
loss of light energy is almost negligible. Example: such as glass to air or water to air
4. Give some lively examples which use total internal reflection?

Ans: Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibers, which are used in
endoscopes and telecommunications.
5. What is optical fibre?

Ans: An optical fiber is a very thin strand of plastic or glass that is used to transmit messages
via light
6. Mention the types of optical fiber.

Ans: Single mode fiber is optical fiber that is designed for the transmission of a single ray or
mode of light as a carrier and is used for long-distance signal transmission.
Multimode fiber is optical fiber that is designed to carry multiple light rays or modes
concurrently, each at a slightly different reflection angle within the optical fiber core.
Multimode fiber transmission is used for relatively short distances because the modes tend to
disperse over longer lengths (this is called modal dispersion).
7. What are the applications of optical fiber?

Ans: Internet: Fiber optic cables transmit large amounts of data at very high speeds. This
technology is therefore widely used in internet cables. As compared to traditional copper
wires, fiber optic cables are less bulky, lighter, more flexible and carry more data.
Cable Television:
The use of fiber optic cables in the transmission of cable signals has grown explosively over
the years. These cables are ideal for transmitting signals for high definition televisions,
because they have greater bandwidth and speed. Also, fiber optic cables are cheaper as
compared to the same quantity of copper wire.

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Telephone: Calling telephones within or outside the country has never been so easy. With the
use of fiber optic communication, you can connect faster and have clear conversations
without any lag on either side.
8. What is attenuation?
Ans: Attenuation or loss in optical fibers basically refers to the loss of power. During transit,
light pulse loses some of their photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber
is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. The degree of attenuation depends on the
wavelength of light transmitted.
Attenuation measures the reduction in signal strength by comparing the output power with
input power. Measurements are made in decibels (dB). The basic measurement for loss is
done by taking the logarithmic ratio of input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).
9. What is bending loss and types of bending loss in optical fibers?

Ans: Transmission loss in the fiber during its propagation through the optical fiber cable.
Types of bending losses in optical fiber are
1. Addition of impurity to fiber.
2. Material composition loss.
3. Absorption & scattering loss.
4. Radiation loss
10. What are the advantages of optical fiber?

Ans: 1. Greater bandwidth.2. Low attenuation and greater distance3. Security
11. What is step index and graded index fiber of an optical fiber?
Ans: Step Index fiber : A step-index profile is a refractive index profile characterized by a
uniform refractive index within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive index at the core-
cladding interface so that the cladding is of a lower refractive index.
In fiber optics, a graded index is an optical fiber whose core has a refractive index that
decreases with increasing radial distance from the optical axis of the fiber.

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9. LED CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.
Apparatus: LED characteristic board, Power supply, Digital voltmeter, DC Digital
Ammeter, LED & connectors.
Formula:
𝑽
Forward resistance R = Ω
𝑰
Where R is resistance
V is voltage and
I is current
Theory:
LED is an Opto-electronic device which works on the principle of electroluminescence, the
process that converts electrical input into a light output. This device basically consists of a
direct band gap Semiconductor material doped with impurities to create a structure called p-n
junction.
Under forward bias, the positive voltage is applied to the p-region and
negative to the n-region. The holes and electrons are pushed towards the junction. The charge
carriers that diffuse through p-n junction recombine with the majority carriers on the other
side and emit photons whose energy is equal to the difference of conduction and valence
band of the semiconductor (band gap of semiconductor).
Eg = Ec – Ev = h
= Eg/h = frequency of emitted photons, h is plank’s constant

LED:
At low injection process these electrons and holes recombine radiatively and through
spontaneous emission process emit photons. Depending on the band gap, different
wavelengths of light may be produced. The spectra of the available LEDs cover the entire
range from infrared to ultraviolet region.
Circuit diagram:

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Procedure:
 Connect the LED circuit as shown in fig, through patch cords.
 Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel.
 Vary the input voltage in small steps & note down the observations in table.
 Plot a graph between Voltage v/s Current and find dynamic resistance of diode.
Table :
Sl. VOLTAGE CURRENT Graph:

No. (V) I (m A)
V-I characteristics of LED is studied by
considering the forward current(I) along y-
axis & variation of voltage(V) across a diode
on x- axis at constant temperature as shown
in Fig below.
Precautions:
1. Do not Exceed current limit of 30mA else the laser diode may get damaged.
2. Do not look at the laser directly with the laser turned on.
3. It is extremely damaging to apply a large reverse bias to a laser diode.
4. Applying a reverse voltage greater than 3V may destroy or degrade LED characteristics

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Result:
V-I Characteristics of laser diode and LED are studied. From graph,
𝛥𝑉
Resistance = R = Ω
𝛥𝐼
R=----------- Ω

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1. What is a LED?
Ans: LED is a Light Emitting Diode which works on the principle of electroluminescence.
2. How is a LED different from other light sources?

Ans: LED consumes less energy and is in toxic compared to incandescent fluorescent light
bulbs. It has much longer life time. For example, a 60-watt incandescent light bulb draws
more than $300 worth of electricity per year and provides about 800 lumens of light; an
equivalent compact fluorescent uses less than 15 watts and costs only about $75 of electricity
per year. LED bulbs are even better, drawing less than 8 watts of power, costing about $30
per year, and lasting 50,000 hours or longer.
3. What is the principle involved behind the emission of light from LEDs?
Ans: Electroluminescence
4. If we increase the LED voltage what happened to LED current?

Ans: LED current increases non-linearly.
5. What is dynamic resistance?

Ans: Due to the non-linear nature of Current-Voltage curve, there exists a unique value of
resistance at every point of the curve which is called dynamic resistance.
6. What are the materials used in LED?

Ans: GaAs, GaAsP, GaP
7. What are the applications of LED?

Ans: LEDs, indicator lamps in electronic devices , traffic signals, digital display, burger
alarams etc.

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Graph paper

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10. MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF CURRENT CARRYING COIL

STEWART’S AND GEE’S METHOD
Aim: To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current.
Apparatus: Stewart and Gees, Rheostat, Ammeter, Battery eliminator, plug key single,
commutator four plugs.
Formula:
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑒 tan 𝜃 Oersted
2𝜋𝑛𝑖𝑎2
𝐵= Oersted (Since we are measuring in CGS system we can
10(𝑎2 +𝑥 2 )3⁄2
use the formula)
Where, B = magnetic field due to circular coil carrying current.
𝐵𝑒 = Earth’s horizontal magnetic field (𝐵𝑒 = 0.38 Oersted)
n is the number of turns in the coil
a the mean radius of the coil and
x is the distance of the point from the center of the coil along the axis.
Theory: -
The apparatus consists of a circular frame “c” in figure made up of non-magnetic
substance. An insulated Copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are
connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals the number of turns
used can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long base B at the middle in a vertical plane
along the breadth side. The base has leveling screws. A non-magnetic metal frame is
supported on the uprights. The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame
passes through the circular coil. A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection
magnetometer is supported on a movable wooden platform. This platform can be moved on
the frame along the axis of the coil.
The compass is so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lie on
the axis of the coil. The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic
meridian. The frame with compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated so
that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The compass is
rotated so that the aluminum pointer reads zero zero. Now the wooden frame is along East-
West directions. When a current “i” flows through the coil the magnetic field produced is in
the perpendicular direction to the plane of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is
under the influence of two magnetic fields. “B” due to coil carrying current and the earth’s
magnetic field “Be” which are mutually perpendicular. The needle deflects through an angle
‘θ‘satisfying the tangent law.
𝐵
= tan ɵ (by Tangent law)
𝐵𝑒
Thus B=𝐵𝑒 tan ɵ
2𝜋𝑛𝑖𝑎2
and 𝐵= Oersted
10(𝑎2 +𝑥 2 )3⁄2

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Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. With the help of magnetic compass and a chalk, a long line of about one meter is
drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian.
2. Another line perpendicular to the line is also drawn to represent East and West
directions.
3. The Stewart and Gees galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian as
shown in the fig.
4. The external circuit is connected as shown in the circuit diagram, keeping the
ammeter, rheostat away from the deflection magnetometer.
5. The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum
pointer reads, (0,0) deflection in the magnetometer.
6. The key K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the
magnetometer is about 60°.
7. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflections in the magnetometer are
observed.
8. The deflections in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current should not
differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 2° to 5°, necessary adjustments
are to be made.
9. The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when x = 0 and the
experiment is repeated by moving the deflection magneto meter in steps of 2cm, east
as well as west directions. The readings are noted in Table 1.
10. The mean deflections are denoted as θE and θw .
11. A graph is drawn between x (the distance of the deflection magnetometer from the
center of the coil) along x-axis and the corresponding Tan θE and Tan θW along Y-
axis. The shape of the curve is shown in the fig below.
12. The point A and B marked on the curve lie at distance equal to half of radius of the
coil (a/2) on either side of the coil.

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Model graph:
Observations:
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field Be =0.38 ergs or 0.38 X 10-4 Tesla (or) Wb-
m-2
Radius of coil ‘a’ = Diameter of coil /2 = ----------cm
Current carrying in the ammeter = ------------Amp
μ0 = 4 π X 10-7 Henry/m
Table:
Distance
From the Mean Mean
Centre of TanөE
Coli X
Deflection in East өE Deflection in West
Direction өW Tan өW
Direction
(cm)
ө1 ө2 ө3 ө4 ө1 ө2 ө3 ө4

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Precautions:
1. The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2. All the magnetic and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable
distances from the apparatus.
3. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value as to produce a deflection of
nearly 750.
4. Current should be checked from time to time and for this purpose an ammeter should
be connected in series with the battery.
5. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer. Both ends of the
pointer should be read.
6. The curve should be drawn smoothly.
Result:
From the graph it is clear that intensity of magnetic field decreases symmetrically
on either side of the coil on Y-axis in the graph
1.What is Faraday’s law?

Ans:The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time
rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit. It is a basic law of electromagnetism
predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (EMF).
2.What is Biot Savart’s Law?

Ans:According to this law, the magnetic induction field
strength (the magnetic field) at a point P, which is at a
distance of R unit away from a current carrying conductor,
varies as follows,
dB is directly proportional to current (I);
dB is directly proportional to the sine of angle of θ
dB is directly proportional to dl; and
dB is inversely proportional to R2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
3. What is magnetic permeability?

Ans:It is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied
magnetic field.
4. What is the purpose of a plane mirror in the deflection magnetometer?
Ans: It is used to avoid the parallax error while taking readings.
5. What is the unit of ‘B’?

Ans:Tesla or Weber/m2 or Gauss. 1Gauss= 10-4 Tesla

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6. What is a null point?

Ans:A null point is a point at which the resultant or total magnetic field induction B
Is zero.
7. What happens to the value of ‘B’ if the current value is doubled?
Ans: The value of B also gets doubled.
8. What is the purpose of using a rheostat in this experiment?

Ans: Rheostat is a variable resistor device, which helps to increase or decrease the current
across the magnetic galvanometer.
9. What is a commutator?
Ans: It is a device used to reverse the direction of current.
10. What is the importance of Stewart gee’s galvanometer?

Ans: To verify the variation of magnetic field due to a circular current carrying coil.
11. What is Tangent law?

Ans: 𝐵 = 𝐵𝐻 tanθ
12. How do you arrange the instrument to satisfy the law?

Ans: The arms of the Stewart gee’s galvanometer must be kept in East west direction so that
the circular coil is North south magnetic meridian direction.With out passing the current the
aluminum pointer should read 0-0 in the compass box.
13. Formula for magnetic field due to circular coil?

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
14. What is the nature of variation of magnetic field due to circular coil?
15. Why the curve is parabolic?

Ans:As per the formula the field decreases about the y-axis since the denominator value ‘x’
increases

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B
 Tan
Be
thus B  BeTan
and
2 nia 2
B 3
ergs
(a 2  x 2 ) 2
16. Explain the curve?

Ans: The curve is parabolic in nature and symmetric about Y-axis.in other words the
1
magneticfield decreases symmetrically on either side of the coil w.r.t the distance ( 3 ) on
𝑥
either side of the coil.
17. What is the importance of magnetic component of earth’s field?

Ans: For all practical purposes horizontal component (𝐵𝐻 = 0.38 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑) is taken in to
account, as the resultant magnetic field of earth B = 0.4 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑.
The suspended magnet or magnetic needle aligns in the direction of 𝐵𝐻 practically.
18. What is the Application of magnetic field due to circular coil?

Ans. The magnetic field due to circular coil is mainly used in designing galvanometers,
electric motors, e.t.c.

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Graph paper:

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(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE-Accredited by NBA & NACC-‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2008 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad -500100, Telangana State, India
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
LABORATORY MANUAL
StudentName:………………………………………
RollNo:………………………………………………
Branch:…………………Section……………………
Year ………………Semester………………………..
FACULTY INCHARGE
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course
 Students are able to estimate the total hardness present in a sample of water.
 Ability to select lubricants for various purposes.
 Ability to determine the surface tension of a given liquid.
 Ability to prepare synthetic drug molecule.
 Ability to know the strength of an acid by conductometric and potentiometric method.
 Ability to find the Fe+2 and Cu2+ present in unknown substances using titrimetric and
instrumental methods.
PREFACE
Chemistry is an experimental science. Thus, it is vital for the students of all Engineering branches to lay
more emphasis on conducting chemistry practical,in order to realize that the theories they study in
lecture and in their textbook are developed from the critical evaluation of experimental data.
This book entitled “Engineering Chemistry Lab Manual” is intended for the use of first year B.Tech.
students of Mallareddy College of Engineering and Technology,Secunderabad. The main objective of
the Engineering Chemistry Lab Manual is to furnish the conceptual understanding of the basic principles
of chemical analysis involved, before the students carry out laboratory experiments. This book lays
foundation of certain basic concepts and skills that can be repeatedly employed by the students in their
future endeavors. The main aim of this book is to develop the habit of scientific reasoning and providing
answers to all the doubts that arise during the course of conducting experiments.
These laboratory exercises are designed with a dual purpose: (1) to provide the student with “hands-on”
experience in the application of chemical principles through instrumentation and titrimetry, and (2) to
provide an atmosphere where the student will be required to communicate, both in written and oral form,
the experimental problem and results in a formal, peer-reviewed form.
Keeping in view, the latest developments in Engineering science and the present needs in Industries, the
JNTU, Hyderabad, has introduced Engineering Chemistry practical in the curriculum. The faculty of the
Chemistry Department at MRCET is committed to this component of your education and hopes that you
will take full advantage of this opportunity to explore the science of chemistry. We hope you find this
laboratory manual helpful in conducting chemistry practical.
By, Faculty of Engineering Chemistry,

MRCET
“Chemistry is necessarily an experimental science: its conclusions are drawn from data, and its
principles supported by evidence from facts”.
MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791 TO 1867
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. The safe way is the right way to do your job. Plan your work. Follow instructions. If you do not
know how to do the experiment safely, ask your laboratory instructor.
2. No one is allowed in the laboratory without the supervision of a laboratory assistant, course
instructor, or Supervisor. Perform only authorized experiments, and only in the manner
instructed: Do not alter experimental procedures, except as instructed.
3. Laboratory aprons must be worn at all times.
4. Close-toed shoes must be worn at all times.
5. It is strongly recommended that you wear clothing that completely covers your arms, legs, and
feet while working in the laboratory. Inadequate protection often leads to injury. Avoid wearing
expensive clothing to lab as it may get damaged.
6. Absolutely NO food or drinks are allowed into the laboratory.
7. All accidents, injuries, explosions, or fires must be reported at once to the laboratory instructor.
8. Horseplay and carelessness are not permitted. Do not run in laboratory areas.
9. If you see a colleague doing something dangerous, point it out to him or her and to the laboratory
instructor.
10. Report to your laboratory instructor all unsafe conditions, unsafe acts, and "near misses" that
might cause future accidents. Report any accident or fire, no matter how trivial, to the laboratory
instructor.
11. Maintain your working area in a reasonable state of neatness. Clean off your lab work bench
before leaving the laboratory.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
(Any Eight Experiments are Compulsory)
S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE NO.
COMMON APPARATUS AND TERMS USED IN CHEMISTRY 1-7

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
1 ESTIMATION OF HCl BY CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION 8 -12
2 ESTIMATION OF ACETIC ACIDIN A MIXTURE OF HCl AND 13 -17

ACETIC ACID BY CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION
3 ESTIMATION OF HCl BY POTENTIOMETRY 18 - 22
4 ESTIMATION OF Fe2+ BY POTENTIOMETRY USING KMnO4 23 - 26
5 ESTIMATION OF IRON Fe2+ IN CEMENT BY COLORIMETRY 27 - 32
6 ESTIMATION OF COPPER BY COLORIMETRIC METHOD 33 - 37
7 PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN 38 - 40
8 ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA METHOD 41- 48
9 DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION OF A GIVEN LIQUID 49 -53

USING STALAGMOMETER
10 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF LUBRICATING OIL AT 54-60

DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES BY REDWOOD VISCOMETER
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LAB
COMMON APPARATUS AND TERMS USED IN CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

EXPERIMENTS
Pipettes: Pipettes permit the transfer of accurately known volumes from one container to another.
Commonly we use volumetric pipettes
Burettes: Burettes like measuring pipettes make it possible to deliver any volume up to the
maximum capacity of the device. A burette consists of a calibrated tube to hold titrant and a
valve arrangement by which the flow of titrant is controlled.
Volumetric Flask: Volumetric flasks are manufactured with capacities ranging from 5ml to 5
liter and are usually calibrated to contain a specific volume when filled in line etched on the neck.
They are used for the preparation of standard solution and for dilution of samples to a fixed
volume prior to taking aliquots with pipettes.
The Burette Stand
Standard Flask: The flask filled with standard solution known as standard flask.
Titrations: Titrations are widely used in analytical chemistry to determine the concentration of
acids, bases, proteins, metal ions, oxidants, reductants and many other species. Titrations are
based on a reaction between the analyte and a standard reagent known as “TITRANT”. Titrimetry
includes a group of analytical methods that are based on determining the quantity of a reagent of
known concentration that is required to react completely with the analyte. Volumetric titrimetry is
a type of titrimetry in which the volume of a standard reagent is the measured quantitatively.
Titration:The process of finding out the volume of one of the solution required to react
completely with a definite volume of other solution of known concentration is a called as titration.
Titrant: The solution of known strength is called titrant
Titrate: The solution which contains the substance to be estimated
Standard Solution: A solution of known concentration that is exactly used in titrimetry is known
as “standard solution”.
Equivalence Point: It is the point in a titration when the amount of added standard reagent is
exactly equivalent to the amount of analyte. The end point at which physical changes occurs is
known as equivalence point
End Point: It is the point which indicates the completion of reaction
Titration Error: The difference in volume (or) mass between the equivalence point and the end
point is the titration error.
Indicators: Indicators are added to the analyte solution to produce an observable change at near
equivalence point. Large changes in the relative concentration of analyte (or) titrant occur in the
equivalence point region. These concentrations changes cause the indicator to change in
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appearance. During titration, the titrant is added to the flask, with swirling until the colour of the
indicator persists.
Primary Standard: Any substance stable, pure, readily soluble in water, with high equivalent
weight and the composition of its solution should not change on standing or during storage is
called primary standard and it serves as the reference material for a titrimetric method of analysis.
For example crystalline oxalic acid, potassium dichromate and anhydrous sodium carbonate etc.
are the primary standard substances.
Secondary Standard: The substance which do not fulfill the requirements of primary standard,
their solutions are not directly prepared by weighing and the exact strength of the solution is
found by titrating it against some primary standard is called secondary standard and the process is
called standardization.
For example: NaOH, KOH which are hygroscopic, KMnO4which undergoes auto decomposition
in permanganate solution on standing and inorganic acids like HCl, H2SO4 whose concentrations
are known approximately.
Volumetric Calculations: For expressing the concentrations of the solutions MOLARITY and
NORMALITY are usually employed.
(a)Molarity: The number of moles of solute present in 1 liter of the solution is known as
“MOLARITY”.
(b)Normality: The number of gram equivalent weights of the solute present in one liter of the
solution is known as the Normality of the solution. Normality of the solution is denoted by
‘N’.
Calculation of the Molarity of Solution : If ‘n’ be the number of moles of solute and ‘V’ be the
liters of solution then Molarity is given by
n
M
V
W
Where n 
M .W
Where W is the weight of solute in grams, M.W is the gram molecular weight of the solute.
W 1
M X
M .W V
Calculation of Normality of Solution: If ‘n’ gm equivalent weight of solute is dissolved in ‘V’
liters of the solution, then the normality of the solution is given by
n
N
V
W
But n 
E.W
E.W is the gram equivalent weight of the solute.
W 1
Hence N  X
E.W V
For example, what is the molarity of 25.5 grams of NaCl dissolved in water, total volume of the
solution being 100 mL?
First calculate molecular weight of the solute, NaCl. Recall that the atomic mass on the periodic
table is the same number as how much a mole of the substance would weigh, in grams. So:
Na: 23.0 g/mol Cl: 35.5 g/mol therefore NaCl: 58.5 g/mol
Write down what you are given in grams and convert into moles.
25.5 g x1 mol = mol

58.5 g
= 0.436 mol
This 0.436 mol is dissolved in 100. mL, so:
100. mL x 1 L = L
1000mL
= 0.100 L
now set up the fraction so it is in terms of mol/L:
0.436 mol = M
0.100 L
4.36 mol = 4.36 M

L
Example 2: Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride
MwtNaCl = 58.5 g/mol (The molecular weight or molar mass of NaCl)
Volume in ml x ml to L x Molarity x Molecular weight= grams needed
800 ml x 1L x 2 mol x 58.5 g = g of NaCl needed

1000 mL mol
93.6 g of NaCl is needed; bring the total volume up to 800 mL.
Example 3: Dilution with molarity:
M1V1 = M2V2 or CiVi = CfVf
M1 = starting molarity M2 = ending molarity C= concentration

V1 = starting volume V2 = ending volume i = initial f = final
In this equation, the volume goes with its molarity on the same side of the equals sign.

Prepare 100 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid from concentrated, 12.1 M, hydrochloric acid.
So to solve this problem, you would put 100 mL and 1.0 M on the same side of the equals sign
because they go together. 12.1 M would go with a variable on the other side of the equals sign.
We need to figure out how much of the really concentrated acid we need to only have 100 mL of
a 1.0 M solution of acid.
M1V1 = M2V2
(12.1 M) V1 = (1.0 M)(100 mL)
divide both sides by 12.1 M
V1 = 8.26 mL of concentrated HCl
Molality, m:
Number of moles of solute divided by the number of kilograms of SOLVENT (not of solution.)
Note for water, 1 kg of solvent is 1L.
To make a liter of a molal solution with water, you would add one liter of water because 1 L of
water weighs 1 kg.
The difference between molar and molal is that when making 1 liter of a solution, with molar, the
total volume is 1 liter, whereas with molal the total volume is slightly larger than 1 liter because
you added 1 liter of water to the solute. It is a small difference, but for some reason chemists
think it is important.
Normality, N
The number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
For example, 1 M HCl is 1 N, but 1 M H2SO4 is 2 N because 2 hydrogen ions are given off per
mole of H2SO4.
I’ve only seen normality used in reference to acids and bases. Essentially it is the number of
hydrogens that can come off in solution as the acid dissociates.
So, a 3 M H2SO4 solution would be 6 N
3 mol x 2 H+ ions released = 6 equivalents of H+ ions being released= 6 N

L mole liter
The equivalent weight or the molecular weight expressed in grams is called gram equivalent
weight or gram molecular weight.
1) Equivalent weight of an acid
Molecular wt of an acid
=
No.of replaceable hydrogen atoms in one molecule of acid

2) Equivalent weight of base
Molecular wt of base
=
No.of replaceable OH−groups in one molecule of base
Example:
The equivalent weight of HCl is 36.5/1 = 36.5
The equivalent weight of H2SO4 is 98/2 = 49
The equivalent weight of oxalic acid is 126/2 = 63
The equivalent weight of NaOH is 40/1 = 40
The equivalent weight of Ca(OH)2 is 74/2 = 37
3) Equivalent weight of oxidising / reducing agents = Molecular mass/ Number of electrons lost
or gained in the redox reaction)
Examples:
a) Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) oxidizes
Cr2O72-+14 H+ + 6e- 2Cr 3+ + 7H2O
Hence its equivalent wt = 294/6 = 49
b) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) oxidizes
MnO22- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O
Hence its equivalent weight = 158/5 = 31.6
Types Of Titrations
a) Permanganometric Titrations: The titrations involving addition of potassium permanganate

as a standard reagent to the analyte whose titer value is to be determined are known as
Permanganometric titrations.
Ex: Preparation of standard solution of oxalic acid and estimate the amount of ferrous iron by
Permanganometric titrations
KMnO4 is a powerful oxidizing agent and in acidic medium, it oxidizes oxalic acid to CO2 
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2C2O4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 10CO2
Here KMnO4 acts as a self indicator
(b) Potassium Dichromate titrations: The titrations involving the addition of Potassium
Dichromate as a standard reagent to the analyte whose titer value is to be determined are
known are known as Potassium Dichromate titrations
Potassium Dichromate is a strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium and it is used for
estimation of many reducing salts especially of ferrous salts. Here Di-phenyl amine is used as
an indicator

(c) Conductometric Titrations: The titrations involving the addition of standard reagent from
the burette to the analyte present in the conductivity cell involving the change in the
conductance of the analyte with the addition of the standard reagent. Conductometric
titrations are those in which the conductance can be determined with the help of conductivity
measurements. While carrying out the conductometric titrations, the following apparatus are
to be used.
(i) Thermostat ii) Conductivity cell

(iii) Conductivity water (iv) Conductivity meter.
The conductance of each volume should be corrected for dilution using the
formula.
C’= C (V+µ)
V
Where C‘= corrected conductance
C = observed conductance
V= initial volume of solution in a beaker
µ = volume of titrating solution added
Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. It is denoted by ‘C’.

C=1/R
The unit for conductance is mho.
Conductance Curve:
(a) The curve which is drawn between the volume of the solution added in ml & corrected
conductance C’ is known as “conductance curve”.
For ex: - (1) for strong acid vs. strong base the conductance curve is given by
(b) Conductance curve of mixture of acids vs. strong base is given by

Potentiometric Titrations: A Potentiometric titration involves measurement of the potential of a

suitable electrode (indicator) as a function of titrant volume. While carrying out the
Potentiometric titrations the following apparatus are to be used.
(a) Potentiometer
(b) Magnetic stirrer
(c) Calomel electrode
(d) Pipette
(e) Burette
Potentiometric titrations offer additional advantages over potentiometry as the measurement is
based on the titrant volume that causes a rapid change in potential near the equivalence point for
detecting end point.
Potentiometric Curve : A graph is drawn between EMF and the volume of the titrant added near
the endpoint 0.1ml portions of the titrant is added each time and measure. The sudden increment
in the EMFvalues indicated as end point. From the graphs the concentrations are calculated.
These graphs are called “Potentiometric titrations curves”. For example Potentiometric curve of
strong acid vs. strong base is shown by

Instrumental Methods
1. Conductometry
1. ESTIMATION OF HCl BY CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION
AIM: To determine the neutralization point in an acid base titration and strength of HCl by
titrating with NaOH using conductivity meter.
APPARATUS: Conductivity meter, Conductivity Cell, Burette, Beaker and Glass Rod.
CHEMICALS: HCl solution, 1 N NaOH and distilled water.
PRINCIPLE: As the alkali is added from the burette into the beaker containing acid, the
concentration of H+ ions change in a graphical manner, which leads to a considerable change in
the electrical conductance of the solution, which is measured using a conductivity meter. Then
from the plot of conductance versus volume of alkali, the precise neutralization point is
determined. The titration of strong acid verses strong base involves the following equation.
In the titration of HCl against NaOH, initially the conductance of HCl solution is maximum due
to complete ionization. As the alkali is added, the conductance of solution decreases and after the
neutralization point the conductance starts increasing. This is because during addition of alkali,
the fast moving H+ ions are replaced by slow moving Na+ ions, hence conductance decreases.
Once the neutralization point is reached, addition of alkali introduces fast moving OH - ions, there
by increasing the conductivity of the solution.
PROCEDURE: Pipette out 200ml of HCl into a clean 250ml beaker. Fill the burette with 1M
NaOH solution. Dip a conductivity cell in the HCl solution and connect it to the conductivity
meter and note the initial conductance of solution. Run down the NaOH solution from the burette
in small volumes of 1ml and 0.5ml at the end point to be expected in to the cell and note the
conductance.
GRAPH: A plot of conductance on Y-axis versus volume of alkali on X-axis is drawn.

Extrapolate the straight lines and note the neutralization point from the graph.

OBSERVATION:
S.NO. Volume of NaOH (ml) Conductance (µs)
1 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
7. 6
8. 7
9. 8
10. 9
11. 10
12 11
13. 12
14. 13
15. 14
16. 15
17. 16
18. 17
19. 18
20. 19
21. 20

Experimental diagram for conductometric Titrations:
CALCULATION:
N1V1 = N2V2
Where N1= Strength of the acid =?
V1 = Volume of acid taken in the beaker = 200 ml
N2= Strength of alkali = 1N
V2= Volume of alkali from the graph.
Normality of HCl = Volume of NaOH (equivalence point) X Normality of NaOH

Volume of HCl taken
= ………………….. N
RESULT:
1. From the graph the volume of NaOH required for the neutralization of HCl is ----------- ml
2. The Normality of HCl by titrating with NaOH using conductometer is …………. N
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by conductometric titration
Titrations involving conductivity measurements of electrolytes to get endpoint are called
conductometric titrations.

2. Define conductance and give its units.

It is a measure of ability of a material to carry electric current. For direct current, conductance
is called conductivity and is equal to 1/R, where R is the resistance of the material. For
alternating current, conductance is called admittance. Conductance is measured in mhos.
3. Why the conductance at first decreases and then increases during the titration
Conductance decreases initially because the fast moving H+ ions are replaced by slow moving
OH- ions on titrating with NaOH and it again increases after the end point due to the increase
in OH- ion concentration.
4. Explain why equivalent conductivity increases with dilution.

The equivalent and molar conductance increases with dilution because these are the products
of specific conductance and volume of the solution containing 1 g equivalent of the
electrolyte. (λeq= K x V). Hence they are directly proportional to volume.
5. Why specific conductance decreases with dilution.

Conductance of solution increases with increase in the number of ions, charge on the ions and
mobility of ions. Specific conductance is the conductance offered by unit volume of an
electrolyte. So when dilution increases number of ions present in the unit volume of an
electrolyte decreases, so specific conductance decreases.
6. Write down the equation involved in the titration of strong acid vs. strong base.
7. What is the end point in this titrations.

End point or neutralization point is the point at which all H+ ions reacts with OH- ions to form
salt or the lowest possible conductance that can be observed for a titration is known as end
point of that titration
.
8. What are the factors that influence the conductance of an electrolytic solution.
Charge of the ion, mobility of the ion and number of ions.
9. What are the advantages of conduct metric titrations over volumetric titrations.
1. Colored solutions where no indicator is found can be successfully titrated by this method.
2. This method is more useful for titration of weak acid against weak base, where no
indicators are available in volumetric analysis.
3. More accurate results are obtained because; the end point is obtained from the graph.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

2. ESTIMATION OF ACETIC ACID IN A MIXTURE OF HCl AND

ACETIC ACID BY CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION
AIM: To determine the neutralization points in the titration of mixture of acids by

conductometric titration.
APPARATUS: Conductivity meter, Conductivity Cell, Burette, Beaker and Glass Rod.
CHEMICALS: HCl solution, CH3COOH solution, 1 N NaOH and distilled water.
PRINCIPLE: When a mixture containing CH3COOH and HCl is titrated against an alkali, strong
acid will be neutralized first, the neutralization of weak acid (CH3COOH) commences only after
the complete neutralization of strong acid (HCl). Then conductance titration curve will be marked
by two breaks, the first one corresponds to neutralisation of HCl and second one to that of
CH3COOH. Let V1 and V2 ml be volume of alkali corresponding to first and second breaks,
respectively.
V1 ml of NaOH = HCl
(V2– V1) ml of NaOH = CH3COOH
The titration of mixture of acids verses strong base involves the following equations.
(salt, strong electrolyte)
The conductance of the mixture falls on the addition of NaOH due to neutralization of highly
mobile H+ ions with the base, till all the strong acid is neutralized. Then the conductivity raises
due to neutralization of the weak acid to salt, which is a strong electrolyte. Finally the
conductivity rises rapidly as the alkali is introduced in excess after the neutralization of the weak
acid
PROCEDURE:
Prepare 0.1N CH3COOH, 0.1N HCl and 1N NaOH solutions and take them in separate beakers.
Fill the micro-burette with 1N NaOH solution. Place the conductivity cell in distilled water and
adjust the display to 1.000 with calibration knob. Take a beaker and add 20ml of CH3COOH and
20ml of HCl. Titrate the mixture against 1N of NaOH solution. Now measure initial conductance
of solution. Then 0.5ml of NaOH is added every time from burette into the solution and stirred

well each time. Note down the conductance values till the conductance values decrease and
increase considerably.
GRAPH: A plot of conductance on Y-axis versus volume of alkali on X-axis is drawn.
Extrapolate the straight lines and note the two neutralization points from the graph.
Observations and Graph:
S.NO. Volume of NaOH (ml) Conductance (µs)

1 0
2. 0.5
3. 1
4. 1.5
5. 2
6. 2.5
7. 3
8. 3.5
9. 4
10. 4.5
11. 5
12 5.5
13. 6
14. 6.5
15. 7
16. 7.5
17. 8
18. 8.5
19. 9
20. 9.5
21. 10
The volume of NaOH corresponding to the first point of inflection is X1ml and that corresponding
to the second point of inflection is X2 ml
X2-X1 = V2 ml

Conductance X2
X1
Volume of NaOH
CALCULATION:
N1V1 = N2V2
Where N1= Strength of acetic acid =?
V1 = Volume of acetic acid taken in the beaker = 20 ml
N2= Strength of NaOH = 1N
V2= Volume of NaOH required for the neutralization of acetic acid from the graph,
i.e X2 - X1
Normality of CH3COOH = Volume of NaOH (V2) X Normality of NaOH

Volume of Acetic Acid
= ………………….. N
RESULT:
1. Volume of NaOH required for the neutralization of HCl is X1------ml.
2. Volume of NaOH required for neutralization of weak acid (CH3COOH), X2-X1 = ----- ml.
3. The Normality of CH3COOH by titrating with NaOH using conductometer is …………. N.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define conductance and give its units.
It is a measure of ability of a material to carry electric current. For direct current,
conductance is called conductivity and is equal to 1/R, where R is the resistance of the
material. For alternating current, conductance is called admittance. Conductance is
measured in mhos.

2. Give the examples of strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes.

Examples for a strong electrolyte are HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, H3PO4 etc.
Examples for weak electrolytes are H2CO3, CH3COOH, NH4OH etc.
3. Explain the graph for the titration of mixture of acids vs strong base
First conductance is very high due to H+ ions obtained from the HCl. On titration with
NaOH conductance decreases and it becomes minimum at certain point. This point
represents the first endpoint corresponding to HCl. After the first end point, on addition of
NaOH conductance does not increases and it remains constant due to common ion effect
since solution contains weak electrolyte CH3COOH. On further addition of NaOH,
conductance increases slowly upto a certain point due the formation of CH3COONa. This
represents the second endpoint. After the second end point, on further addition of NaOH
conductance increases rapidly.
4. Write down the equation involved in the titration of mixture of acids vs strong base.
5. What are the two end points in this titration.

First end point corresponds to HCl and second end point corresponds to CH3COOH.
6. Which acid gets neutralized first in the titration

First HCl gets neutralized in this titration because it is a strong electrolyte.
7. Can we use conductometric titrations for the determination of equivalence point of

tribasic acid.
Yes tribasic acids like H3PO4 (orthophosphoric acid) conductance can be determined by
conductometry. In this case three endpoints are obtained.
8. What are the species present at the first and second neutralisation points.
NaCl is present at first neutralization point and CH3COONa is present at second
neutralization point.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

2. Potentiometry
3. ESTIMATION OF HCl BY POTENTIOMETRY
AIM: To determine the equivalence point between strong acid and strong base and normality of
HCl by titrating with NaOH using potentiometer.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, saturated calomel electrode, quinhydrone electrode, beaker,

burette and stirrer.
CHEMICALS: HCl, 0.1N NaOH, quinhydrone powder and distilled water.
PRINCIPLE:
When a solution of strong acid (HCl) is titrated with the solution of a strong base (NaOH),
the change in PH will be reflected in the change in EMF. When a small amount of alkali is added
to the acid, a little change in the EMF is produced in the beginning. This change in electrode
potential depends upon the fraction of hydrogen ions removed. As an equivalence point reaches,
the fraction of the hydrogen ions removed by constant volume of standard alkali increases
rapidly, thereby causing a rapid change in the EMF. Thus if the EMF of the cell is plotted against
the volume of the standard alkali added, a curve is obtained. As the changes in EMF is much
more rapid near the equivalent point, the exact equivalent point is obtained by differential method
where, a graph of ΔE/ΔV vs volume of alkali added, gives the maximum of the curve which
corresponds to equivalence point of the titration.
The cell can be represented as

Pt / Q, QH2 / H+= ? // KCl (saturated solution)(s)/ Hg2Cl2 /Hg (s),
Cell EMF = Ecathode- E anode
2.303 RT log H+
Ecell = 0.2415 - E0 -
F
PROCEDURE: Pipette out 20ml of HCl solution into 100ml beaker and saturate it with
quinhydrone powder and dip the indicator electrode (platinum electrode), connect the indicator
electrode and saturated calomel electrode (reference electrode) to the potentiometer. The two half

cells are connected by means of a salt bridge. The potentiometer is standardized and the used for
measuring the emf directly. 0.1N NaOH is taken in the burette and is added to the HCl solution.
Measure the emf of the acid taken in the beaker initially. First carry out the rough titrations by
adding 1ml of NaOH and measure the emf for each addition. The emf increase gradually and then
shows a sudden increase in the emf. Take enough readings after the sudden increase in emf. From
these rough titrations, the range of end point is determined.
After finding the end point range, fair titrations are carried out by repeatedly adding 1ml
of NaOH as before and near the end point, small additions in the form of 0.1ml is added and emf
is measured for each addition and the readings are tabulated.
Graph is plotted with volume of alkali (NaOH) along X-axis and measured emf along Y-
axis. A sigmoid curve is obtained and the equivalence point is noted at the point of intersection.
To obtain a sharp end point, another graph of volume of alkali (NaOH) along X-axis and ΔE/ΔV
along Y-axis is plotted. The maximum obtained in the curve gives the accurate equivalence point.

CALCULATION:
N1V1 = N2V2
Where N1= Strength of the Acid =?
V1 = Volume of acid taken in the beaker = 20ml
N2= Strength of alkali = 0.1N
V2= Volume of alkali from the graph.
Normality of HCl = Volume of NaOH (equivalence point) X Normality of NaOH

Volume of HCl taken (20ml)
= ………………….. N
OBSERVATION:
Volume of NaOH
S. No EMF (mV)
(ml)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
13 13
14 14
15 15
16 16
17 17
18 18
19 19
20 20

RESULT:
3. The equivalence point of potentiometric titration between strong acid vs strong base is
……………. ml
4. The Normality of HCl by titrating with NaOH using potentiometer is …………. N
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define electrode potential.
It is a measure of tendency of a metallic electrode to lose or gain electrons when it is in
contact with its own ions in solution.
2. What is EMF.
The difference of potentials between the electrodes of a cell which causes flow of current from
an electrode at higher potential to other electrode at lower potential is known as electromotive
force or cell potential.
5. Define a reference electrode.

The electrode of standard potential, with which we can compare the potentials of and other
electrode is called a reference electrode. The best reference electrode used is standard
hydrogen electrodes. The electrode potentials at all temp is taken as zero.
4. Why salt bridge is used in the construction of a cell.

Salt bridge helps to complete the circuit by allowing the ions to flow from one solution to the
other without mixing the two solutions.
It helps to maintain electrical neutrality of the solution in the half cells.
5. What are potentiometric titrations

The potentiometric titrations are those titrations which involve the measurement of electrode
potentials with the addition of the titrant. The end point is detected by measuring the changes
in the potential of a suitable electrode during the course of reaction. No indicator is used in
this titrations. The end point of the reaction is indicated by a sharp change in the potential of
the system.
6. What are the Electrodes used in potentiometric titrations

Calomel electrode, Glass electrode, Ion-selective electrodes, Silver indicating electrodes,
Mercury-coated indicating electrodes, Platinum redox electrodes
7. What is an indicator electrode

The electrode whose potential varies during the reaction and which depends upon the
concentration of ionic species is called indicator electrode.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

4. ESTIMATION OF Fe2+ BY POTENTIOMETRY USING KMnO4
AIM: To estimate the amount of ferrous ion present in a given ferrous solution by potentiometric
titration.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, Pt-electrode, Calomel electrode, Burette, Beakers , Pipette and

Stirrer.
CHEMICALS: FeSO4 solution, KMnO4 solution and H2SO4.
PRINCIPLE: Potentiometric titrations depend on measurement of emf between reference

electrode and an indicator electrode. When a solution of ferrous iron is titrated with a solution of
potassium permanganate, the following redox reaction takes place.
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
During this titration Fe2+ is converted in to Fe3+, whose concentration increases. At the end point,
there will be a sharp change due to sudden removal of all Fe2+ ions. The cell is set up by
connecting this redox electrode with a calomel electrode as shown below.
Hg, Hg2Cl2, KCl (saturated) // Fe2+, Fe3+/Pt
Cell EMF = E Cathode- EAnode

0.0592 Fe3+
Ecell = 0.77 + log - 0.2415
1 Fe2+
A graph between emf measured against the volume of potassium permanganate added is drawn
and the end point is noted from the graph.
PROCEDURE
The given Ferrous solution is made up in a 100ml standard flask. standard potassium
permanganate solution is filled in the burette upto the mark. 20ml of ferrous solution is pipette out
into a 100 ml beaker. 10ml of dil.H2SO4 and 20ml of distilled water are added.
A platinum electrode and a calomel electrode are dipped into this solution and connected to a
potentiometer. Then 1ml of potassium permanganate is added to the solution and stirred well for
30 seconds. The emf is measured and the titration is continued by adding potassium
permanganate in 1ml increments till five measurements after the end point.
A graph is drawn by plotting the emf against the volume of potassium permanganate and the end
point range is fixed. About 20ml of ferrous solution is pipette out and the titration is continued by
adding 0.1ml increments of potassium permanganate in the end point range. The emf is measured
for each 0.1ml after stirring the solution well.
A graph is plotted between emf and the volume of potassium permanganate and also a first
derivative graph is plotted ( ∆E/∆ V against vol. of KMnO4). The strength of ferrous solution and
the amount of ferrous ion present are calculated from the end point.

TABLE:
S.No. Volume of KMnO4 (ml) EMF (mV)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
MODEL
1. GRAPH
EMF (mV)
E/ V
End Point
End Point
Volume of KMnO4 Volume of KMnO4

CALCULATIONS:
Volume of Potassim permanganate (V1) =……. ml (graph)
Normality of Potassium permanganate (N1) =……. N
Volume of Ferrous sulphate (V2) =………. ml
Normality of Ferrous sulphate (N2) = (V2 x N2 ) / V1 = ------------ N
Amount of Ferrous ion present in

1000 ml of the solution = strength x equivalent weight of Fe (55.85)= .......g
RESULT:
The amount of ferrous ion present in 1litre of the solution is ------------ g.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Which electrodes are used in this potentiometric titration.
Calomel and Redox electrode (Pt / Fe2+, Fe3+)
2. Which oxidizing agent is used in this potentiometric titration.

KMnO4 is used as oxidizing agent.
3. Write Nernst equation for cell reaction.

0.0592 Fe3+
Ecell = 0.77 + log - 0.2415
1 Fe2+
4. What is the role of H2SO4.

It initiates and reduces KMnO4.
5. Name the type of titration involved in the titration of Fe2+ vs KMnO4.

Redox Titration.
6. Which electrode act as indicator electrode in this titration.

Pt / Fe2+, Fe3+ .

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

5. ESTIMATION OF IRON (Fe2+) IN CEMENT BY COLORIMETRY

AIM: To estimate the amount of iron (ferrous) present in the given sample of cement by
colorimetry using ammonium thiocyanate as a reagent.
APPARATUS: Photocolorimeter, beaker, standard flask, burette, pipette and sample vial.
CHEMICALS: Cement sample, ferrous ammonium sulphate, 40% potassium thiocyanate, 40%
ammonium thiocyanate, H2SO4, Conc. HCl, dil.KMnO4 and HNO3
PRINCIPLE: The study of variation in the intensity of a given coloured compound with change
in concentration of the compound is termed as colorimetric analysis. When an electromagnetic
radiation is passed through the sample, radiation of characteristic wavelength is absorbed by the
sample. As a result, the intensity of transmitted light is decreased. Spectrophotometer is the
instrument which is used to measure the intensity of radiation. The analysis which involves the
measurement of absorption of light radiation in visible region of the spectrum is called
colorimetry. The intensity of transmitted light is compared with the intensity of incident light.
According to Beer-Lambert’s Law, the decrease in intensity of incident light is proportional to
the thickness of absorbing medium and the concentration of solution. Mathematical expression of
the law is given as
I0
log  A   CL
I
Where Io = intensity of incident light
I = intensity of transmitted light
A = absorbance
L = thickness of the medium
C = concentration in mol/L
ε = molar absorption coefficient
Molar adsorption coefficient is the absorbance of a solution having unit concentration placed in
a cell of thickness one unit. Absorbance is also referred to as optical density. Ammonium
thiocyanate yields a blood red color with ferric ion and the color produced is stable in nitric acid
medium. Its optical density is measured using photocolorimeter and the concentration of ferric ion
is found from a standard calibration curve. A calibration curve is obtained by plotting a graph
between optical densities (absorbance) against concentration.

OD
Concentration
If Beer - Lambert Law is obeyed, the curve between absorbance and concentration is a straight
line passing through the origin.
PROCEDURE:
PART-A: To obtain standard calibration curve.
i) 0.722gm of A.R ferrous ammonium sulphate is dissolved in 100ml of water and 5ml of 1:5
sulphuric acid.
ii) To this add dilute potassium permanganate solution through burette until light pink colour
appears. Then the solution is further diluted to 1 liter, such that 1ml of solution contains 0.1
mg of ferrous ion.
iii) From the above solution, take separately 1ml, 2ml, 3ml, 4ml, 5ml, into five 100ml standard
flask. Add 1ml of HNO3 and 5ml of 40% potassium thiocyanate solution to all the above
sample to get blood red colour and the solutions are made up to the mark by adding distilled
water.
iv) The optical densities of all the solution are determined using photo colorimeter.
v) A graph is plotted by taking the amount of ferric iron on x-axis and optical density on y-axis.
The curve so obtained is called standard calibration curve. The curve is used for determination
of ferric iron present in the unknown sample.
PART-B:
Weigh out accurately about 0.1 g of the given cement sample into a clean 250 ml beaker. Add
about 5 ml of water to moisten the sample. Place a glass rod and add conc. HCl through the walls
of the glass. Stir the solution and cover with a watch glass. Remove the watch glass and keep the
beaker on a small flame and evaporate the solution to dryness to expel the excess acid. Take the
beaker out of the flame and add about 20 ml of distilled water to dissolve the contents. Transfer

the solution into a 100 ml standard flask. Wash the beaker twice with small portions of distilled
water, and add the washing to the standard flask. Make up the solution to 100 ml with distilled
water. Shake the flask well for uniform concentration.
DEVELOPMENT OF COLOUR: Pipette out 10 ml of the solution prepared above, into a 100
ml standard flask, add 1 ml of concentrated HNO3 from a burette. Also add 5ml of 40%
ammonium thiocyanate from a burette. Make up the solution up to the mark and shake well for
uniform concentration. Measure the optical density of the sample using a colorimeter. Let the
optical density of the sample be x. Find out the concentration of iron from the calibration curve.
CALCULATION:
W1 = weight of the weighing bottle + cement
W2 = weight of the weighing bottle (after sample transfer)
W1-W2=Weight of the cement sample = 100 mg
STANDARD VALUES FOR CALIBRATION CURVE:
Conc. of Fe+2 in mg/ml OD
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50

y 10 100
Percentage of ferric iron = in mgs
( w1  w2 )
y----corresponds to amount of ferric iron from the calibration curve.

W1-W2= Wt of cement sample = 100 mg
RESULT:
a) Observed optical density (absorbance) for the cement sample = ------
b) Amount of ferric iron from the calibration curve =- --------
c) Percentage (%) of ferric iron present is the cement sample = ---------
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. On which principle does the colorimeter works.
The colorimeter works on the principle of Beer –lamberts law
2. What is meant by colorimetry.

The study of variation in the intensity of a given coloured compound with change in
concentration of the compound is termed as colorimetric analysis.
3. Explain Lamberts –Beers law.

The decrease in intensity of incident light is proportional to the thickness of absorbing
medium and the concentration of solution. Mathematical expression of the law is given as
I0
I


A = absorbance
C = concentration in mol L-1
4. What is the effect of concentration on absorbance in colorimetry
I0
I
Absorbance is directly proportional to concentration of the solution. Hence absorbance

increase with increase in concentration
5. Which reagent is used to get blood red colour with ferric iron.
Potassium thiocyanate is the reagent used to get blood red colour with ferric iron
6. Why nitric acid is used in this experiment.

To stabilize the solution nitric acid is added in this experiment.
7. How a graph is plotted to obtain the calibration curve and if lamberts –beers law is obeyed
what kind of graph is obtained.
A graph is plotted between amount of Fe2+ on X-axis and optical density on Y-axis. If
Lambert- Beer’s law is obeyed a straight line passing through origin is obtained

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

6. ESTIMATION OF COPPER BY COLORIMETRIC METHOD
AIM: Estimation of Copper in the given sample by Colorimetry
APPARATUS: Colorimeter, Cuvettes, Volumetric flasks and beakers
CHEMICALS: Copper sulphate, Ammonia solution, Test solution
PRINCIPLE: Colorimeter measures the optical density of an absorbing substance where optical
Io
density (O.D) is defined as O.D = log 1
I
Where I o = Intensity of incident light
I = Intensity of transmitted light
As per beers law, optical density of an absorbing substance is related to the concentration by the
equation. O.D  E.C.l
O.D  ( E.l ).C  2
Where ‘C’ is the concentration of the substance, l is the path length, which represents the width of
the cell used and is constant for a given cell used, E is the molar absorption coefficient and is a
constant for given substance. Equation (2) may be written as
O.D.  C  3
Equation (3) represents the quantitative form of Beer’s law. If the optical density of a substance is
determined at varying concentration. A plot of O.D.vs C gives a straight line.
PROCEDURE:
1. Calibrate the instrument by proper selection of the filter in colorimeter.
2. Place a glass cuvette containing distilled water in to the colorimeter hole and select the filter
No. (40) and set the instrument for 100% transmittance (i.e., at Zero).
3. Then take 0.1M CuSO4 solution into an another cuvette, wipe out the outer surface of the
cuvette and place it in the colorimeter. Note the absorbance which is displayed on the
instrument.
4. Repeat the procedure for all the other filters (i.e., at 45, 47, 51, 52, 54, 57, 60, 67) and note the
readings. The filter No. which gives the maximum absorbance is selected and again place the
cuvette with distilled water and adjust to 100% transmittance.

5. After selecting the proper filter, different concentrations of the given CuSO4 solution are
made as follows.
6. Measure the absorbance for each concentration and tabulate the readings.
7. Plot a graph by taking absorbance along Y-axis and concentration along X-axis. A straight
line passing through the origin is obtained.
8. The slope of the curve gives the molar extinction coefficient of the given CuSO4 solution.
Volume of CuSO4 (ml) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Volume of H2O (ml) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Estimation of Unknown CuSO4 Solution

Fill the colorimeter cuvette with the given unknown CuSO4 solution and note the absorbance.
This absorbance is marked on the calibration curve from which the concentration of the given
unknown CuSO4 solution is obtained.
Colorimeter Cuvette
CALCULATIONS & TABULATION:
Step1: Selection of Filter:
Filter No % Absorbance
45
47
51
52
54
57
60
67

Step 2:
Volume of CuSO4 Volume of H2O Concentration of Absorbance

(ml) (ml) CuSO4 (ml)
1 9
2 8
3 7
4 6
5 5
6 4
7 3
8 2
9 1
10 0
Unknown
Standard calibration graph
Optical density of the test solution = x

Amount of copper present in the sample = y mgs
RESULT:
The amount of copper present in given test solution is………..g/L

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. On which principle does the colorimeter works.
The colorimeter works on the principle of Beer –lamberts law
2. What is meant by colorimetry.

The study of variation in the intensity of a given coloured compound with change in
concentration of the compound is termed as colorimetric analysis.
3. Explain Lamberts –Beers law.

The decrease in intensity of incident light is proportional to the thickness of absorbing
medium and the concentration of solution. Mathematical expression of the law is given as
I0
I

A = absorbance
C = concentration in mol L-1

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

7. PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN
AIM: To prepare aspirin from salicylic acid and acetic anhydride in presence of
conc.H2SO4.
CHEMICAL: Salicylic acid, Acetic anhydride, Con. H2SO4.
APPARATUS: Conical flask, Beaker, Buchner funnel, Glass rod, Copper bath.
PRINCIPLE:
Salicylic acid upon acetylation yields acetyl salicylic acid (aspirin). Acetylation proceeds
rapidly with acetic anhydride in presence of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst
OH (CH3CO)2O OCOCH3
CH3COOH
COOH Conc.H2SO4 COOH
Salicylic acid Acetyl salicylic acid
(Aspirin)
PROCEDURE:
Take 2.5 g of salicylic acid and 3.5 ml of acetic anhydride in a 100 ml RB flask. Add 3
drop of conc. H2SO4 and stir well. Heat the flask on water bath keeping temp below 60-
70oC for about 20 min. Cool the mixture in an ice bath with stirring, then add about 20 ml
of ice cold water to decompose excess of acetic anhydride. Pour the contents of the RB
flask into a 250 ml beaker containing 50 g of crushed ice. Stir it until white solid appears.
If white solid does not appear, scratch the sides of the flask with a glass rod or stainless
steel spatula, filter through Buchner funnel and dry by pressing into the folds of filter
paper. Recrystallise the crude acetylsalicylic acid.
RECRYSTALLISATION:
Dissolve the solid in minimum amount of ethanol and dissolve it until clear solution is
obtained. Clear solution is allowed to cool slowly to get needle shaped crystals of
Aspirin.

Calculations:
Molecular Wt of Salicylic acid (C7H6O3) =

Molecular Wt of Aspirin (C9H8O4) =
2.5g x M.Wt of Aspirin

Theoretical yield =
M.Wt of Salicylic acid
Experimental value x 100

% Yield of Aspirin =
Theoretical value
RESULT:
1. The amount of Aspirin obtained = ………… g
2. The yield of Aspirin obtained =……………
3. The melting point of Aspirin = ………… oC
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the medicinal uses of aspirin

Mainly used in treatment of strokes, heart attacks, coronary conditions,
rheumatologic diseases and for pain relief.
2. What chemicals are required for preparation of Aspirin

Salicylic acid, acetic anhydride and conc. H2SO4.
3. Name the process in the preparation of Aspirin.

Friedel Craft’s Acetylation.
4. What is the melting point of Aspirin

It is having melting point in the range between 128˚C to 137˚C
5. Which acetylating agent is used in the synthesis of Aspirin.

In the preparation of Asprin either acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride can be used as
an acetylating agent.
6. Why sulphuric acid is added in the preparation of aspirin

It is used as a source of protons (H+) for use as a catalyst during the esterification of
the alcohol group from salicylic acid, with acetic anhydride.
7. What is the byproduct formed in the preparation of Aspirin.

Acetic acid is produced as byproduct during preparation of Aspirin
8. What is the chemical name of Aspirin.

Chemical name of Aspirin is Acetyl Salicylic acid.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

Titrimetry:
8. ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA METHOD
AIM: To determine the total, permanent and temporary hardness of water by EDTA
method.
APPARATUS: Burette, Conical flask, Pipette and beakers.
CHEMICALS: Standard ZnSO4 solution, EDTA Solution, Ammonia–ammonium
chloride buffer and water sample
INDICATOR: Eriochrome black –T
END POINT: The end point is noted when the colour of the solution changes from wine
red to blue
PRINCIPLE: The hardness of water is due to the presence of salts of Ca2+and Mg2+. The
bicarbonates of Ca2+and Mg2+ impart temporary hardness to water which can be removed
by boiling. The amount of Ca2+ and Mg2+ is estimated by complexometric method using
EDTA. The obtained value gives the total hardness. The permanent hardness is
determined first by precipitating the bicarbonates of Ca2+and Mg2+ by heating and
filtering off and the filtrate is titrated with EDTA. The temporary hardness is obtained by
subtracting permanent hardness from total hardness.
EDTA Titrations (or complexmetric titrations): The titrations involving EDTA as a
complexing agent are known as “EDTA Titrations” (or) “Complex Formation
Titrations”. EDTA stands for ‘Ethylene Di-amino Tetra Acetic acid” or “Di-amino
Ethane Tetra Acetic Acid.
The structure of EDTA is given by
EDTA forms complexes with metal ions like Ca2+, Mg2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+ in aqueous
solution. Complexometric titration is the titration of metal ion with a reagent, usually
EDTA, which forms chelated complex with a metal. The common indicator used is
Erichrome Black-T Indicator (EBT), at the end point the colour generally changes from
wine red to blue.

Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid [EDTA] forms colorless stable complex with Ca+2 and
Mg+2 ions present in water at pH 9-10. To maintain pH of the solution at 9-10, NH3-NH4Cl
buffer solution is used. Eriochrome black –T (EBT) is used as indicator. The hard water
when treated with (EBT) in presence of buffer solution forms unstable wine red color
complex with Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions present in water.
The stability of a metal indicator complex is less than that of metal EDTA complex.
Hence during the titration EDTA extracts the metal ions from the metal ion EBT indicator
complex and forms stable colorless metal EDTA complex releasing free indicator. Hence
the end point of the titration is the color change from wine red to blue color.

Eriochrome-Black T(EBT indicator) Metal-EDTA complex
PROCEDURE:
PART A: STANDARDISATION OF EDTA SOLUTION

10ml of standard Zn2+solution is pipette out into a well cleaned conical flask. To
it one drop of indicator and 1 ml of buffer are added, then the solution is titrated against
EDTA until wine red color changes from wine red to blue. This is taken as end point.
Titrations are repeated until two successively concurrent values are obtained. The
molarity of EDTA is calculated using the formula M1V1=M2V2
PART B: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS OF TAP WATER

50ml of tap water is taken into a well cleaned conical flask. To it 2ml of buffer
and 2-3 drops of EBT indicator are added. The color of resulting solution is wine red.
The contents of the conical flask are titrated against EDTA which is taken in the burette
until the color of the solution changes from wine red to blue. This is the end point.
Repeat the titration until two successively concurrent values are obtained
The molarity of tap water is calculated using the formula M2V2=M3V3 and
the total hardness is calculated using amount of Ca2+ × M.W of CaCO3×103.

OBSERVATION:
PART A: STANDARDISATION OF EDTA SOLUTION
Volume of Burette readings

S.NO standard Zn+2 Volume of EDTA run
Initial Final
solution (ml) down ‘x’ ml
1. 10 0
2. 10 0
M1V1=M2V2
M1= Molarity of standard Zn2 +solution 0.05N
V1 = Volume of standard Zn2 +solution 10ml
V2  Volume of EDTA rundown

M2= Molarity of EDTA Solution
PART B: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS OF TAP WATER
Burette readings (ml)

Volume of tap
S.NO
water (ml) Volume of EDTA run
Initial Final
down ‘x’ ml
1. 50 0
2. 50 0
M2V2=M3V3
M2= Molarity of EDTA solution
V2 = Volume of EDTA rundown
M3= Molarity of tap water
V3= Volume of tap water

The total hardness of tap water = Amount of Ca2+ × M.W of CaCO3×103ppm
DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS OF WATER

Place 250ml of water sample in a 500ml beaker and boil gently for 20-30 minutes. Cool
and filter, collect the filtrate into a 250ml standard flask. Make up the solution to the
mark by adding distilled water and shake the solution well. Pipette out 50ml of this made
up solution into a clean conical flask, which has been rinsed with distilled water. Add 2ml
of pH = 10 buffer solution and 2 to 3 drops of EBT indicator. Titrate this solution against
the standard EDTA solution until the colour changes from wine red to blue. Note down
the reading, repeat the process to get at least two equal titer values. Calculate the
permanent and then temporary hardness as parts per million of CaCO3.
PART C: DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS OF TAP WATER
Volume of Burette readings (ml)

S.NO boiled water Volume of EDTA run
Initial Final
(ml) down ‘x’ ml
1. 50 0
2. 50 0
EDTA BOILED WATER

M2 = calculated in 1ststep M4 = ?
V2 = burette reading V4 = 50 ml
n2 = 1 n4 = 1

CALCULATIONS:
Amount of Ca2+present in water sample = M4×M.W of Ca+2×Vol of EDTA
1000
The permanent hardness of tap water = Amount of Ca2+ × M.W of CaCO3 × 103 ppm
Temporary hardness = Total hardness – Permanent hardness
RESULT:
1. Total hardness of the given water sample= ---------- ppm
2. Permanent hardness of the given water sample= -------- ppm
3. Temporary hardness of the given water sample= -------- ppm
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Which reagent is used to determine hardness of water
EDTA is used as a regent to determine hardness of water
2. What is the difference between hard water and soft water.

The water which does not give lather readily with soap is hard water and the water
which readily gives much lather with soap is soft water.
3. What is the cause of hardness of water.

It is due the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium in water.
4. How is hardness in water classified

Hardness in water is classified as (1) Temporary hardness and (2) permanent
hardness.
5. What is the difference between temporary and permanent hardness.

Temporary hardness is due to unstable bicarbonates of Ca and Mg, while permanent
hardness is due to more stable Cl- and SO42- of Ca and Mg.
6. How is temporary hardness removed

The temporary hardness of water can be removed by boiling water during which
bicarbonates decompose to give carbonates.
7. What is EDTA.
EDTA is ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid.

8. Why is disodium salt of EDTA preferred to EDTA

EDTA is sparingly soluble in water. Its disodium salt is more soluble as it is ionisable
and hence it is preferred.
9. What is a buffer solution.

The solution which resists change in its pH value even after adding small amount of
an acid or a base to it is called a buffer solution.
10. Which buffer solution is added and why it is added during the determination of
hardness of water.
NH3-NH4Cl buffer solution is added to maintain PH around 9-10 to form stable metal
EDTA complex.
11. Name the most commonly employed indicator in EDTA titrations and what is the end
point of titration
Indicator used is Eriochrome Black T. End point of the titration is color changes from
wine red to blue color
12. What is the application of hardness data in environmental engineering practice

a) Hardness of water is an important consideration in determining the suitability of
water for domestic and industrial uses.
b) Determination of hardness serves as a basic for routine control of softening
processes.
13. What are Complexometric titrations.

Titrations which involve the formation of soluble, undissociated, stoichiometric
complex at the equivalence point are called complexometric titrations.
14. What are the units of hardness

1. ppm (parts per million)
2. Degree Clarke
3. Degree French
4. mg/l
15. Does EDTA remove hardness from water.

No, EDTA does not remove hardness but it only determines the hardness of water.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS

Physical Properties
9. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION OF A GIVEN
LIQUID BY STALAGMOMETER
AIM: To determine the surface tension of a given liquid using stalagmometer.
APPARATUS: Stalagmometer, Specific gravity bottle, Rubber bulb and Analytical

balance
CHEMICALS: Distilled water and Methanol (or) Ethanol
PRINCIPLE:
Surface tension is the characteristic property of every liquid and it is due to
intermolecular attraction among molecules of liquid. A molecule in the interior part of the
liquid is attracted by the surrounding molecules in all directions and hence resultant force
on the molecule is zero, whereas the molecules on the surface of the liquid are attracted
only towards the interior i.e., sides and the bottom are in constant tension due to the
downward flow of the molecules in bulk, this tension at the surface is known as surface
tension. It is defined as the force in dynes acting on a surface at right angles to any line of
unit length. It is denoted by “γ” (gamma) and its units are dynes/cm.
Table given below lists the surface tension of several liquids at 200C.
Liquid Surface tension Liquid Surface tension
(dynes/cm) (dynes/cm)
Water 72.8 Ethylene glycol 47.7
Benzene 28.9 Glycerol 63.4
Toluene 28.4 Carbon tetrachloride 27.0
Acetone 23.7 Ethyl iodide 29.9
Methyl alcohol 22.6 Ethyl bromide 24.2
Ethyl alcohol 22.3 Nitrobenzene 41.8
PROCEDURE
The determination of surface tension of a liquid involves the following 2 steps.
DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF A LIQUID
Density of a liquid is mass/unit volume. It is found by using specific gravity bottles. The
specific gravity bottle is first washed with distilled water and finally with alcohol and
dried. The weight of the empty specific gravity bottle is found by using analytical
balance. Let it beW1gm. Then it is filled with the distilled water and its weight is

accurately determined. Let it be W2 gm. Now the given unknown liquid is then filled in
the specific gravity bottles and the weight is found. Let this weight be W3gm, the density
of the unknown liquid (d2) is calculated as:
Weight of liquid
Density of liquid (d2) = × Density of water
Weight of water
DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION OF A GIVEN LIQUID:

The stalagmometer is first washed thoroughly with distilled water and finally with
little alcohol and dried. A clean rubber tube is attached to the upper end of the
stalagmometer. A screw pitch cork is fixed on the rubber tube to regulate the flow of
liquid by lifting the influx of air.
The stalagmometer is dipped in a beaker of water and suck the water till it rises
above the upper mark (X). In the stalagmometer the water level is carefully brought to the
mark (X). The pitch cork is opened in such a way that it allows the flow of 12-18 drops
per minute. Now the stalagmometer is adjusted.
Then water is sucked above the mark and the no of drops of water that flows from the
mark (X) to the mark (Y) are noted. This is repeated 3 to 4 times with water.
Now the stalagmometer is rinsed with the liquid whose surface tension is to be
determined. The liquid is then filled in the stalagmometer as above and no. of drops that
flow from the mark(X) to mark (Y) is noted. This is repeated 3 or 4 times with the liquid
and the experimental results are noted in the tabular form.
Stalagmometer

CALC ULATIONS:
Calculation of density of the liquid
Room temperature = 27oC
Weight of empty specific gravity bottle (W1) =
Weight of specific gravity bottle + water (W2) =
Weight of specific gravity bottle + given liquid (W3) =
Weight of water = (W2-W1) =
Weight of given liquid = (W3-W1) =
Density of water (d1) = 1 gm/cc
Weight of liquid
Density of liquid (d2) = Weight of water
× Density of water
Volume of Number of drops

water + Concentration Surface
S. No. Volume of of liquid Average tension
Exp.1 Exp. 2
liquid solution (N) (dynes/cm)
Solution (ml)
1 50 + 0 Pure water
2 50 + 50 0.5%
Therefore the surface tension of given liquid (γ2) is determined busing the following
equation.
𝑛1𝑑2
𝛾2 = × 𝛾1
𝑛2𝑑1
Where
γ1 = Surface tension of water=72.8 dynes/cm
n1= no. of drops of water
d1= density of water
γ 2= surface tension of given liquid
n2= no. of drops of given liquid
d2= density of given liquid
RESULT:
The surface tension of given test liquid γ2 = …………… dynes/cm

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define surface tension.
The tangential cohesive force acting along the unit length of the surface of a liquid.
T=F/L
Where
F = total force along a line
L = length of the line
2. What are units of surface tension in C.G.S. and S.I. (M.K.S.) system
Dynes / cm (C.G.S.) Newton / meter (M.K.S.)
3. What are cohesion and adhesion force.

Cohesion force is the attractive force between like molecules, whereas, the adhesion
is the attractive force between unlike molecules, e.g. attraction between glass slide
and the liquid.
4. What are the factors affecting the surface tension

a) Nature of liquid b) Nature of the surface in contact c) Temperature
5. What is the effect of temperature on the surface tension.

Surface tension decreases with the rise of temperature.
6. Which instrument is used to find out the surface tension of a given liquid
Stalagmometer is an instrument by which surface tension of a liquid is determined.
7. What is the value of surface tension of water.

72.8 dyne/cm
8. Is surface tension an intensive or extensive property.

Surface tension is an intensive property.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS:

10. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF LUBRICANTING OIL

AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES BY REDWOOD VISCOMETER
INTRODUCTION:
The viscosity of an oil decreases with increase of temperature as result of decrease
in intermolecular attraction due to expansion. Hence it is always necessary to state the
temperature at which the viscosity was determined.
In many applications lubricating oil will have to function in machinery over a
considerably wide range of operating temperatures, if this is due to seasonal variation in
atmospheric temperature.
Adjustments can be affected by selecting different oils of appropriate viscosity for
different seasons. However, in case of internal combustion engines, aeroplanes etc., the
lubricant used must function both at low starting temperatures as well as at very high
operating temperatures. Since the viscosity of lubricating oil decreases with temperature,
it is impossible to select oil having same viscosity over such a wide range of operating
temperatures. However, one can select oil whose variation in viscosity with temperature
is minimum. This variation can either be indicated by viscosity-temperature curves or by
means of the viscosity index. Viscosity index is the numerical expression of the average
slope of the viscosity-temperature curve of lubricating oil between 1000F to 2100F. The
oil under examination is compared with two standard oils having the same viscosity at
2100F as the oil under test. Oils of the Pennsylvanian type crude thin down the least with
increase of temperature; whereas oils of Gulf coast origin thin down the most as the
temperature is increased. Hence the viscosity index of Pennsylvanian oil is taken as 100
and that of the Gulf oil as zero. Then the viscosity of the oil under investigation is
deduced as follows,
V1  VX
Viscosity index of the oil under test = X 100
VL  VH
Where,
Vx = Viscosity of the oil under test.
VL = Viscosity of Gulf oil having VI=0
VH = Viscosity of Pennsylvanian oil having VI=100
Thus, the higher the viscosity index the lower the rate at which its viscosity
decreases with increase of temperature. Hence, oils of high viscosity index i.e., those

having flat-viscosity temperature curves are demanded for air-cooled internal combustion
engines and aircraft engines. In general, oils of high specific gravity have steeper
viscosity-temperature curves. However all oils tend to attain same viscosity above
3000C.
By and large, light oils of low viscosity are used in plain bearings for high-speed
equipment such as turbines, spindles and centrifuges whereas high viscosity oil are used
with plain bearings of low speed equipment.
DESCRIPTION:
The Redwood 1 Viscometer shown in Fig 1 essentially consists of a standard
cylindrical oil cup made of brass and silvered from inside and has 90 mm height and 46.5
mm in diameter. The cup is open at the upper and. It is fitted with agate jet in the base.
The diameter of the orifice is 1.62 mm and the internal length is 10 mm. The upper
surface of the agate is ground concave depression into which a small silver plated brass
ball attached to a stout wire can be placed in such a way that the channel is totally closed
and no leakage of the oil from the cup through the orifice can take place. The cup is
Redwood Viscometer
provided with a pointer which indicates the level upto which the oil should be filled in the
cup. The lid of the cup is provided with the oil cup is surrounded by a cylindrical copper
vessel containing water which serves as a water bath to maintaining the desired oil

temperature with the help of electrical heating coils of by means of a gas burner as the
case may be. A thermometer is provided to measure the temperature of water. A stirrer
with four blades is provided in the water bath to maintain uniform temperature in the bath
and, hence enabling uniform heating of the oil. The stirrer contains a broad curved flange
at the top to act as a shield for preventing any water splashing into the oil cylinder. The
entire apparatus rests on sort of tripod stand provided with leveling screws at the bottom
of the three legs. The water bath is provided with an outlet for removing water as and
when needed. A spirit level used for leveling the apparatus and a 50 ml flask for receiving
the oil from the jet outlet are also provided.
AIM: To determine the viscosity of lubricating oil at different temperatures by redwood

viscometer
APPARATUS: 1. Redwood Viscometer 2.Water bath 3. Stop watch
4. Thermometer
CHEMICALS: Lubricating Oil
PROCEDURE:
1. Level the instrument with help of the leveling screws n the tripod.
2. Fill the water bath with water to the height corresponding to the tip of the
indicator up to which the oil is filled in the cylindrical cup.
3. Keep the brass ball in position so as to seal orifice.
4. Pour the oil under test carefully into the oil cup upto the tip of the indicator
5. Keep the 50 ml flask in position below the jet. Keep the oil and water well stirred
and note their temperatures.
6. When the temperature of the oil and water are steady, raise the ball valve and
suspend it from the thermometer bracket. Simultaneously start a stopwatch.
7. When the level of oil dropping in to the flask reaches the 50 ml mark, stop the
watch and note the time in second.
8. Replace the ball valve in position to seal the cup to prevent overflow of the oil.
9. Refill the oil up to the indicator tip of the oil cup. Repeat the experiment to get
nearly reproducible results. Report the mean value as “Redwood Viscosity No.1
at T0C = t seconds”. This is the viscosity at room temperature, T0C.

10. Repeat the experiment at five elevated temperatures, say 450C, 550C, 650C, 750C
and 850C and note the respective times of efflux as described above. It is
convenient to determine the viscosity at the higher temperature first, and then
coming down to the lower temperatures.
11. For instance, for determining the viscosity at 850C, raise the temperature of the
water bath to about 900C with the help of the heating coil. Switch off the heating
coil. After some time, the oil temperature reaches 850C.
12. Then bring the water temperature to about 850C by running out some water
through the out let and adding cold water from top while stirring constantly.
13. When the oil temperature is steady, note the time of efflux. Now reduce the
temperature water bath by adding more cold water and bring the oil temperature
down 750C. Repeat the experiment as described above. Similarly determine the
efflux times for other lower temperatures.
14. Construct graphs correlating viscosity Vs temperature.
CALCULATION:
Tabulate the result as follows and plot the graphs viscosity Vs temperature
Viscosity, t (Seconds, Redwood No.1)

S.No. Temperature (0C)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
1. Room temp.
2. 75
3. 65
4. 55
5. 45
6 35

RESULT:
From the graph, we can observe that as the temperature increases, the viscosity of the
lubricating oil decreases.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is viscosity.
Viscosity arises due to internal friction between moving layers of molecules. A
moving layer exerts a drag or friction on its nearest moving layer backward. This
property of a liquid by which it retards or opposes motion between the layer is called
viscosity.
2. What are the factors that influence the viscosity of a liquid.

Increase in molecular weight results in an increase in viscosity, Branched chain
compounds have higher viscosity than those involving straight chain compounds,
polar compounds are more viscous than the non polar ones, the presence of hydrogen
bonds causes the viscosity to increase.
3. How does the viscosity vary with temperature.

The viscosity of a liquid usually decreases with the rise of temperature.
4. Why do you require laboratory temperature for viscosity determination

Because, the physical constants like density and viscosity of a liquid vary with
5. How many types of apparatus used to determine viscosity of lubricating oil

The instrument used for measuring the viscosity is known as viscometers
Different types of viscometers are
Saybolt Viscometer, Anglera Viscometer, Ostwald Viscometer, Kinematic
Viscometer and Redwood Viscometer

6. How does the viscosity of a liquid vary with temperature.

Viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature generally for every 10o
rise in temperature this viscosity index decreases by 2%
7. What is the unit of viscosity.

Poise is the unit of viscosity.
8. What is the significance of viscosity.

Viscosity is the only property of the lubricating oils which determines their
performance under the operating conditions.

NOTES/CALCULATIONS


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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

Physics deals with matter and energy. Matter is composed of protons

A trial of gathering and consolidation of the information of physics

1. The engineering students are exposed in physics lab to understand physical

This course on physics lab is designed with 10 experiments in an academic year. It is

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS: (Any eight experiments compulsory)

1. Torsional pendulum-Rigidity modulus of given wire.

Reference practical physics books:

1 The Rigidity modulus   of the material of the wire using

9 LED Characteristics 55-61

To determine Rigidity modulus the measurable

to the couple “C” per unit twist of the wire as,

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 2

1. Mass of the disc = M = -------------gm

2. Radius of the disc = R = --------------cm.

3. Average radius of the wire = a = --------------cm.

Time taken for 10 Oscillations Time

Average value of 𝐿⁄𝑇 2 =

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 3

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

S.No. Main Scale Reading Vernier (n) x L.C Total Reading

Diameter of the disc = cm

Radius of the disc = cm

Pitch Scale Head Scale Reading

Average diameter = __________________mm

Radius of the wire (a) = ____________mm………………….cm

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 4

2. The vibration of the disc must only in the horizontal plane.

3. The amplitude of the disc must be small.

The modulus of rigidity   of the given metal wire (Brass, Steel)

. Viva-Voce Questions &Answer:

1. Define Rigidity modulus? Give the formula &explain?

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 5

9. What are the units of η?

10. What are three Elastic Modulus?s

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 6

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 7

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 8

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 9

2. MELDE’S EXPERIMENT–TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL MODES

An electrically maintained tuning fork consists of an Electromagnet between the

Longitudinal and Transverse vibrations

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 10

(A) Longitudinal arrangement:

Hence, the frequency of the vibrator is𝜂 = 2𝜂1 = 𝐿 √𝑇⁄𝑚

(B) Transverse arrangement:

Where m = mass per unit length of the string

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 11

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 12

Table II: Transverse Arrangement:

1.Frequency of a vibrating bar (or) a tuning fork in longitudinal arrangement is

2. Frequency of a vibrating bar (or) a tuning fork in Transverse arrangement is

MRCET EAMCET CODE:MLRD www.mrcet.ac.in 13

Viva-Voce Questions & Answers:

2. What are the laws of stretched strings in terms of frequency?

5. What are nodes and antinodes?

6. What is a Stationary wave?

7. What is the distance between two consecutive nodes?