TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR

VISUAL ANALYSIS: USING PICTURE

BOOKS TO DEVELOP VISUAL
LITERACY WITH PRE-SERVICE
TEACHERS

CHRISTINE DU TOIT
Faculty of Education Sciences
Northwest University
Potchefstroom Campus
Christine.dutoit@nwu.ac.za

ABSTRACT
This article brings together the connectedness between words and images. It discusses
the increasing impact of semiotics in the field of children’s literature as well as the
way children are thinking and living in the 21st century. The present literacy landscape
demands that teachers understand multimodal texts and are able to interpret and teach
these texts. A central aim of psychology and education is to develop an understanding
of how children learn and how to present teaching materials in ways to help children
learn. Using visual material does not mean that all visually composed teaching materials
will necessarily lead to understanding. Visual literacy skills must be taught, especially
in diverse environments where every child brings to the class his/her own cultural
experiences. Using picture books with diverse beginner readers needs clear and specific
principles to be able to critically interpret the interaction between text and images. The
article explores the integration of text and images through Preller’s picture book Babalela
(2000), illustrated by Andries and Erica Maritz. To explore visual literacy skills, Lohr’s
(2008) principles, actions and tools (PAT) design framework will be used to analyse the
picture book in order to understand the visual sign system and how the visual and the
written text interact to create meaning. This knowledge will enable pre-service teachers
and in-service teachers to build a vocabulary for visual analysis and to develop critical
reading skills, ‘which is essential for any sort of critical thinking in the 21st century’
(Burmark 2002:v).

KEYWORDS
multimodal texts, picture books, interpretation, meaning making, visual literacy,
principles, tools and actions in visual design

© Unisa Press ISSN 0027-2639 Mousaion 32 (2) 2014 pp. 25—47 25

CHRISTINE DU TOIT

1 INTRODUCTION
In South Africa, as in other African countries, most children are not acquainted with
books and stories before they go to school. In Kenya, for example, people have to be
forced to read; they do not read books for pleasure (Commeyras & Inyega 2007:258).
In South Africa, poverty makes the purchasing of books a luxury; therefore, few
children are acquainted with books before they start formal schooling (Hibbert & Crous
2011:100). When they arrive in Grade one, they not only encounter books to read, but
they have to be able to read words and images, and critically evaluate the multimodal
messages they will encounter more and more. Hence, teachers should make an effort
to develop a more explicit understanding of the meaning attached to elements of visual
literacy, such as colour, line, shape and how these elements interact with visual and
multimodal texts (Callow 2008:617).
The goal of the current article is to outline the beginnings of a shared visual literacy
vocabulary that teachers of beginning readers can draw on to evaluate the role issues of
design play in eliciting response to visual text. Children’s literature is characterised by
the use of visual elements. Picture books are ideal to use in this regard. Until recently,
the analysis of picture books was divided into two separate categories: one carried out
by art historians; and the other by children’s literature experts. The first focused on
graphic design aspects; while the latter treated picture books as any other literary book.
However, both disregarded the importance of the text/image interaction (Nikolajeva
2004:235).
I will use Preller’s Babalela (2000), a well-known, popular Afrikaans picture book,
to illustrate the interaction between words and images through an explorative use of a
graphic design framework. I am not saying that this is the only way to analyse picture
books visually, nor do I regard this as taking precedence over other visual elements.
In my experience as a lecturer of pre-service teachers, I have found that some students
lack critical knowledge regarding children’s literature, especially picture books, as well
as critical skills in teaching visual literacy. I will explore the interaction between text
and images to create meaning through the implementation of Lohr’s (2008) principles,
actions and tools (PAT) design framework to assist in-service teachers and pre-service
teachers in this regard.

2 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS
2.1 MULTIMODAL TEXTS IN TEACHER EDUCATION
The digital media has reconfigured the communicative landscape; therefore, the ability
to encode and decode printed text is no longer sufficient (Connors 2011:74). The range
of digital media children use to represent their thoughts and lives is the main reason
why the ability to communicate effectively should entail multiliteracy, especially visual

26
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

literacy. Young children today are growing up in a digital world. They are able to use
iPods, televisions, cellular phones and other devices even before they go to school.
Therefore, these children, as well as pre-service teachers, assume that they are visually
literate. According to Burmark (2002:v), this assumption is wrong, since visual literacy
is a ‘learned skill, not an intuitive one’. The techniques used to create images; to learn
the vocabulary of shapes and colours; and to identify the characteristics of an image that
give it meaning, must all be learned.
Multimodal texts are, according to Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001:20), ‘the use of several
semiotic modes in the design of a semiotic product or event, together with the particular
way in which these modes are combined’. Picture books are a form of multimodal
literature and have several advantages, namely, they can stimulate children’s cognitive
processes of perception, memory, reasoning, reflection and insight (Norton 2011:10),
thereby teaching children how to evaluate a text critically. There is a wide range of
research showing the advantages of using children’s literature, including picture books,
in the teaching of literacy (eg, Arizpe & Styles 2008:363; Kiefer 1995:278; Norton
2011:15; Sipe 2008:131). The changing of a mode of written language to a multimodal
text requires new skills and strategies for constructing meaning.
Picture books hold several advantages for learners who are either learning an additional
language or are being taught through a medium that is not their vernacular. Gregory
(1994) shows how picture books can play an important role in the way bilingual children
construct and negotiate meaning in a new language and how the picture book genre
invites interaction with texts. Coulthard (2003) builds on the work of Gregory and notes
that multilingual children are stimulated by picture books to profound meaning making
and overcome their hesitation to talk. Another researcher, Colledge (2005:24), concludes
that picture books form a bridge between the known culture and the unfamiliar culture.

2.2 THE TEXT/IMAGES INTERACTION IN PICTURE

BOOKS
To define picture books is not an easy task. According to Arizpe and Styles (2003:19),
Bader (1976) offers a succinct definition:

A picturebook is a text, illustrations, total design; an item of manufacture and a commercial

product; a social, cultural, historical document; and foremost an experience for a child. As
an art form it hinges on the interdependence of pictures and words, on the simultaneous
display of two facing pages, and on the drama of the turning page.
In picture books the text and the pictures are inseparable and of equal importance in the
forming of meaning (Arizpe & Styles 2003:22; Martinez & Harmon 2012:323). Picture
books can be categorised into alphabet books, counting books, concept books, wordless
picture books, toy books, pop-up books, easy-to-read books, picture storybooks,
postmodern picture books or non-fiction books (Johnson 2009:79; Kiefer 2008:375).

27
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

Nikolajeva and Scott (2000:225) identify five categories of interaction between text and
images, namely: (1) a symmetrical picture book where the words and the pictures have
a virtual equivalence; (2) a complementary picture book that has words and pictures
which contribute to one story; (3) an expanding or enhancing picture book that has
a visual narrative supporting the verbal narrative, and, in turn, a verbal narrative that
depends on the visual narrative, and extend each other’s meaning; (4) a counterpoint
picture book where the words and pictures tell different stories; and (5) a selleptic
(contradiction) picture book where the words and pictures contradict each other.
Babalela is a complementary picture book where the words and illustrations contribute
to the one story, filling the gaps, as well as an enhancing picture book.
Every feature in a picture book is important and conveys meaning (Nikolajeva & Scott
2000; Sipe 2008:134). The pictures and the text must work together and interact in
the creation of setting; characterisation; narrative perspective; time and movement;
mimesis and modality (literal and symbolic representation); figurative language;
metafiction; intertext (ways that picture books play with expectations about pictures
and words); and picture books paratexts (covers, endpapers). The principles, actions and
tools used in visual design are important aspects that are embedded in the illustrations.
The interpretation of the words and illustrations enhances children’s critical thinking,
inference-making, and visual literacy.

2.3 USING VISUAL DESIGN BASICS TO INTERPRET

VISUAL INFORMATION
The aim of the article is to develop pre-service teachers’ basic visual literacy vocabulary,
comprehension and critical reading abilities and to show how the relationship between
words and images can make meaning. Although pre-service teachers can usually decode
texts and use comprehension strategies, they are not so apt at addressing aspects of
visual literacy or at focusing on the semiotic relationship between text and illustrations.
To achieve the above-mentioned aim I will explore utilising the design framework
proposed by Lohr (2008) in the analysis of Preller’s picture book Babalela (2000).
Lohr’s (2008) framework uses basic concepts of visual design, namely, principles,
actions and tools, to show that visuals and words facilitate learning when information
is meaningfully selected, organised and integrated. This framework is known as the PAT
design framework.
Visual design, in a picture book, is used to interpret the author’s comprehension of the
words and to communicate this comprehension in a nonverbal way. Illustrations often
‘carry deeper and more subtle connotations portrayed through choice of colour, tone,
media, or style’ (O’Neil 2011:214). For the purpose of the current article, the three main
concepts of the PAT design framework have to be combined in order to interpret images.
These concepts are principles, actions and tools and will subsequently be discussed.

28
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

2.3.1 Principles
The first concept principles consists of selection, organisation and integration. The
selection principle describes the focusing of attention and is conveyed through figure
(where learners are paying attention to specific and selective information) and ground
(the information the learners are not paying attention to, ie, background information).
The figure-ground distinctions need to be as clear as possible in order to focus the
learner’s attention onto the most important information.
The organisation principle is explained through the hierarchy of sequence in a specific
order to enhance the remembering of information. This hierarchy is created by using
tools and actions (explained further in the article) as clues or pathways to direct the eye
towards certain information (Lohr 2008:66). There are three steps in creating hierarchy
to enhance children’s perception of image.
Firstly, chunking the information by clustering it. In picture books the author can
manipulate the information with white space (explained further in the article) to create
equal perception of the big picture and focus on detail. When the field is large and the
image is small, the learner is more likely to notice the big picture. When the field is
small and the image is large, the learner will most likely pay attention to the detail (Lohr
2008:126).
Secondly, different levels of information are used for stratifying information (Lohr
2008:122). Instead of numbers and letters, these levels can be created using tools, such
as type, shape, depth, colour and space, and actions, for example contrast, alignment,
repetition, and proximity. These levels focus attention on information from the most
to the least important. These layers provide pathways to the information that must be
looked at first (Lohr 2008:123), for example by using the white space in an image to
create an equal perception of the big picture and detail (Lohr 2008:126).
The third step in creating hierarchy to enhance children’s perception of image is by
organising the information on vertical, horizontal or diagonal planes. The top part of a
plane is perceived as high, powerful, valuable, rare, light and primary. Low positions
have properties of darkness, earthy, heavy, common and secondary in value. If the
planes are vertical, the left-hand side is likely to be associated with cause, problem,
crude and before; while the right side will be associated with effect, solution, refined
and after. The top part of a diagonal alignment can be interpreted as advantageous, far
or symbolising the unknown. The bottom part can be interpreted as near, familiar and
involved (Lohr 2008:128).
The integration principle captures the way the entire picture is combined on the page. It
has to do with the composition of the actions and tools to create balance, using metaphors
and symbols. There are four possibilities:

• closure – where the reader sees the whole/entire picture;

29
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

• contiguity – where the human mind seeks to follow a path, even if it is broken;
• similarity – where consistency is created through alignment, repetition, colour,
or shapes;
• proximity – where items are grouped either together or away from each other.

These principles enhance the learner’s perception of the hierarchy of an image (Lohr
2008:124). The enablement of the principles depends on the actions and tools that are
used.

2.3.2 Actions
Actions form the second concept of the PAT design framework, and they are the changes
or movement to the information to convey the idea. The actions concept consists of four
elements, namely, contrast, alignment, repetition and proximity. These four actions (see
Table 1) do not need to be used together or simultaneously (Lohr 2008:80). Contrast is an
especially important element in graphic design, and crucial for communicating an idea
(Peterson 2003:94). Contrast can be formed through values and colours (such as black
or white, and thin or bold), shapes and typography (such as squares or dots, and capital
letters or small letters), and texture (hard edge or soft flowing, or the medium used).
Alignment tends to group items perceptually. Placing information along an edge or an
imaginary line gives easier access to the information and navigates the eye in a specific
direction. There are various types of alignment – from vertical to circular to centre. In a
text the words should be left-aligned for easier reading (in western cultures). Repetition
is employed when an item is repeated many times. It creates a sense of harmony and
unity and could be used to emphasise the message or a meaning. Proximity involves
moving visual items either closer together or further apart. The closer the items are,
the more related they seem. The further apart they are, the more unrelated they seem.
These actions influence a reader’s perception. Actions can be manipulated by using
tools, which will be discussed next.

Table 1: Actions in graphic design

Contrast Alignment
Manipulate and differentiate through size, colour, Group elements into chunks to line up on various
shape or line. edges or imaginary lines. Different alignments
such as right, left, centred, bottom, top, vertical,
horizontal, circular. In western cultures left-
alignment works best.
Repetition Proximity
Repeat information through colour, depth, line, Create contiguity by placing corresponding words
shape, and space to create associations or chunks. and pictures near each other or further apart.
Create a sense of harmony and unity. The closer the items the more related they are.
Separation relates to isolation or independence.

30
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

2.3.3 Tools
The third concept of the PAT design framework consists of tools to communicate
visual and written information, namely, typography, shape, colour, depth and
space. Typography or letterform can be perceived in various ways by the viewer
(Peterson 2003:37). Typography can create different feelings, for example when
the letterform is flowing and curvaceous, the feeling conveyed is softer than
when the letterform is angular and hard-edged (Peterson 2003:37). The choice of
typeface depends on the content of the text or single words. Children, who start
to read for the first time, should be given texts with a typeface that reflects the
typeface they have to use in writing.
Shape can be defined as ‘any element that’s used to give or determine form’
(Peterson 2003:53). Shape can serve either to break up the picture into smaller
segments or to separate and organise (Peterson 2003:54).
Using colour as a design tool is largely a matter of taste (Peterson 2003:126).
Colours can be divided into warm and cool colours. Warm tones lean to the
red, orange and yellow side of the colour spectrum, while cool tones lean to
the green, blue and purple side. The symbolic meaning of colours is culturally
embedded. For example, in the Western culture, white is associated with purity
or holiness, but in Eastern cultures, white is associated with death and mourning.
Depth refers to scale, dimension and texture (Lohr 2008:270). Depth differentiates
between background and foreground, thus, putting objects closer makes them
bigger, while making objects smaller, puts them in the background, or putting
objects next to other objects can give a perspective of the size of the object.
Scale refers to the proportions of objects and can be achieved through words, for
example the font size, or the illustrations. Dimension can be achieved by means
of shadows. Texture is created by the type of art medium used, for example water
colour or pastels, but can be created by the use of brush type, such as dry strokes
or soft wet strokes.
Space is a tool for clarifying text and has three instructionally related benefits
(Lohr 2008:274). It increases the rate of reading because readers are able to see
redundancies; it helps readers to access more relevant pieces of information; and
it enables readers to see the structure of a text. Space is created through balance.
In art balance can create a powerful mood (Peterson 2003:82). When items are
placed in symmetry, they form an equal balance. If the lines that are formed in
the illustration are not placed perfectly horizontally or vertically, they create an
asymmetrical design and the balance is disturbed.

31
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

When children read or write in Western countries, they start from the left-hand top of
the page. In illustrations the most important information must also be placed there.
Placing items out of balance will immediately cause tension (Peterson 2003:85).
Colour complements the space and can create contrast or sophistication. White space
is challenging because it is hard to see, mainly because it forms the background colour.
White space does not need to be the colour white; it can be any colour. On a page with
black letters on a white background, the white background is the white space. Once the
reader understands to look for the white space, it forms a separate visual element. Many
learners prefer images and text passages that use a huge amount of white space because
they feel less overwhelmed by the volume of information presented (Lohr 2008:275).
It should be clear from the discussion of the PAT design framework that the three
concepts are interconnected and not isolated aspects. In a picture book the different
concepts are used to interpret the words as well as the illustrations, accentuating the
word/image interaction. Therefore, when applying the organisational principle, some
of the actions and tools will be applied simultaneously. In the following section, this
design will be used to analyse Preller’s picture book Babalela (2000).

3 ANALYSIS OF BABALELA BASED ON

THE PAT DESIGN FRAMEWORK
In short, Babalela is the story of a strange little creature, called Babalela, from a forest,
who is discovered by man and taken away from his habitat. In his fury, Babalela succeeds
in escaping and flies back to his forest where he lives happily again. To interpret this
picture book the text and the pictures must be analysed as a unity because the meaning
is conveyed both through words and pictures (Martens et al 2012:285; Martinez &
Harmon 2012:323; O’Neil 2011:214; Prior, Willson & Martinez 2012:196). Each new
page presents the reader with a new set of words and new illustrations to factor into the
construction of meaning (Sipe 1998:106). I will discuss the picture book from the cover
page to the end page.
Genette (1997:5) describes the peritext (such as cover page, endpapers, half-title and
title page and dedication page) as the physical features within a book aside from the
words, as features and conventions that enrich the picture book. Some of these features
are found in every book, but in picture books these features provide aesthetic coherence
to the entire book (Sipe & McGuire 2006:91). Pantaleo (2003:74) states that children
learn peritextual vocabulary and use the information of the peritext to confirm their
interpretations about characters, plot, setting and tone which contribute significantly to
their appreciation and understanding of the book.
It is clear from the abovementioned that the different pages in a picture book consist
of specific vocabulary of which pre-service teachers must take note to enable them
to use the proper vocabulary and interpretation in teaching. When learners are taught

32
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

to understand the visual elements they are better able to interpret the illustrator’s use
of these devices when they encounter them in picture books (Prior et al 2012:196).
Teachers as well as pre-service teachers should take note that they have to include the
peritext as part of their vocabulary for visual analysis. Hence, I will include the peritext
in the analysis of the picture book Babalela, starting from the cover page to the end
page. The three concepts of the PAT design framework will be applied simultaneously
and I will refer to the words in the text, showing the interaction, where applicable.

3.1 COVER PAGE

Due to the application of the selection principle the main character and the setting form
a secure unity of items on the cover page. The reader’s attention is drawn to the main
character (on the foreground) with the forest (the setting) fading towards the top of the
page, forming the background. The integration principle is used in the layout of the
whole picture. Depth is created through the use of dimension, colour and texture. The
overall arrangement of information chunks focuses the reader’s attention on Babalela
where he is placed vertically on the left-hand side on the cover page, facing the reader.
The white of his huge eyes, together with the white space in the middle of the page,
catches the reader’s eye, focusing the attention on Babalela. The reader will probably
notice the detail of Babalela first and then perhaps the background detail of the forest.
The forest greens are arranged in a circle, implying a secure environment surrounding
Babalela.
The information on the moral of the story is chunked on the images on the cover page.
This creates a good figure-ground balance to help the reader enter a visual. The inside
of the book should create pathways or layers through which the reader can travel by
controlling the sequence in which information is displayed to lead to the moral of the
story. In Babalela, the sequence of information is presented very clearly. This control
is established through the organisation of the information on vertical, horizontal and
diagonal planes; contrast, and perceiving relationships based on proximity.
The purple coloured character shows some resemblance to familiar features, but as a
whole differs from anything in particular. It is not clear whether this little character is an
animal, an insect or a reptile; thus arousing the reader’s curiosity to read further. He is
a creature that will appeal to the reader: huge, intelligent eyes, two big humanlike ears,
two legs with feet without toes, and a tail. He places one foot on top of the other in a
rather shy manner.
Colour can convey a certain mood. The purple colour of Babalela catches the reader’s
eye, and the white space in the middle of the top of the page, lures the reader into a
feeling of interest, excitement and mystery. The mysteriousness is intensified through
the use of the faded colour shades of the forest. The blue and green colours add a feeling
of calmness and peacefulness. This correlates with the forest theme throughout the story.

33
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

On the title page of Babalela, the

illustration of Babalela shows texture
through the use of watercolour creating
various shades of purple for the fur on
his skin (the lines on his head, arms,
tummy, legs and feet as well as his
tail). On pages 25 and 26, his little
wings are spread wide open, creating
the illusion of the fragile, transparent
wings of an insect such as a dragonfly.
This texture is created by the high
value of purple and the blue of the
circles on the wings, together with a
large number of white spaces.
Colour is the interpretation of light
which is created in the human eye.
Colour content can be examined
through three elements, namely:
hue, value and saturation. A hue is a
specific wavelength that the human eye
perceives as colour, such as red, blue
and green. When an artist uses colour,
Figure 1: Front cover of Babalela two qualities must be considered,
namely: value and saturation. Value is
related to the light or dark quality of the colour used. A lower value of colour would be
nearer to black, such as navy blue. Saturation shows the brightness or dullness of the
colour (Fellowes & Oakley 2012:499). The more the colour is mixed with other colours,
the less the saturation will be. Colours with high saturation create a brighter effect in
the eye, while lower saturation will create a more subtle effect and appear to be in the
background (Lohr 2008). On the cover page, the forest plants at the top of the page give
an example of low saturation because they seem to fade away.
Colour is often used to symbolise emotions or moods (Fellowes & Oakley 2012:499). It
is important to notice that these symbolic meanings are not universal and may vary from
culture to culture. The colour, purple, for example in Western cultures, is associated with
royalty, luxury, religion or wealth. In this regard, Babalela could be symbolising the
wealth of South Africa’s natural resources, which should be respected. Sipe (2001:28)
adds the universal association between the colour blue and calmness, detachment and
serenity. These associations could all be ascribed to Babalela, and would add to the
description of the end page as well.
According to Sipe (2001:28), the aspects of colour – hue, value and saturation can help
to analyse the colours used in illustrations. Different hues (segments of the spectrum) of

34
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

green, brown and purple are used in the illustrations of Babalela. None of the colours is
too bright, but rather they are used in tinted (addition of white or water to the colours)
and shaded (addition of black to the colours) colour tones. The colours have a low
intensity and are therefore not very saturated (intense or pure). The shades of green
dominate and are usually associated with calmness and peace, adding to the mood
conveyed in a forest. The fading shades of green and purples/blues may connect with
the idea of fantasy.
The type or typography (the letters, words and sentences) can alert the reader to
main ideas, such as important concepts. Fonts can be changed either by making the
letters bold or writing them in italics or altering them by means of colour, dimension,
depth, space and shape (Lohr 2008:214–215). The name of the creature is written on
top of his head, directing the eye from left to right, following the letters of his name.
Babalela means ‘little one’ in Sepedi, according to Preller (2012). The title of the book,
Babalela, is written in a font that resembles the scribbles of young children. The letters
are highlighted with a shadow of the letters, adding dimensional depth. The names of
the author, Martie Preller, and of the illustrators, Andries and Erica Maritz, are written
in another font in white letters with a black shadow. The different fonts and sizes
create contrast, and chunk the information into three parts: the title, the author and the
illustrators. The typography forms part of the organisation principle where the title of
the book resembles the way learners would write in the Foundation Phase, not very
neatly because they are beginner writers. The names of the author and illustrators are
neatly written in an easy to read font, which differs from the font of the title, thus
chunking the different information.
The integration principle of closure is applied on the cover page, because the picture
gives the summary of the theme of the story. Babalela is sitting in a tree, surrounded by
forest greens, and next to a river; therefore, the setting suggests a forest. The back cover
is a continuation of the forest on the front cover. The forest suggests a safe haven for
Babalela who seems to be sitting quite relaxed on the branch. The interaction between
the words and the illustration has already started on the cover page. The mood of
calmness and relaxation is exposed through the illustration; the mood is not explicitly
written in words.

3.2 ENDPAPERS
The endpapers or end pages are the pages affixed to the inside of the front and back
covers. They serve as a transition between the exterior and the interior of the book,
setting the mood of the story (Johnson 2009:86). These endpapers provide a visual
framework and have the same purpose as ‘once upon a time’ and ‘they lived happily
ever after’ – the classical signals of narrative structure in fairy tales (Hearne & Sutton
1992:84). Endpapers may either be a solid colour or illustrated. The endpapers in
Babalela are a blank periwinkle blue, creating the so-called white space, a blank paper,
which contributes to the sense of completion.

35
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

3.3 FRONT MATTER, TITLE PAGE, AND TITLE PAGE

DEDICATION
The pages of a book that lie between the endpapers and the text are called the front
matter and consist of the blank pages before the title page, the title page dedication, and
the copyright information. The blank pages may either be white or coloured. The title
page may either be illustrated or not. In Babalela, the front matter is white.
The title page of Babalela is illustrated: Babalela is standing on the left-hand side of the
page with his back to the reader.
The reader now has a full view of Babalela:
his front view on the cover page and a view
from behind on the title page. This view
adds to a feeling of closure for the reader,
regarding Babalela’s looks. He is facing to-
wards the right, directing the reader to turn
to the next page. His hands are folded be-
hind his back. The reader can see that Ba-
balela has something on his back which
resembles the wings of a ladybird. The ty-
pography repeats the title page on top of
the page in white with a black shadow in an
almost childlike font, but the names of the
author, illustrators and publisher are now
written in purple on the right-hand side of
the page.
The title page dedication and copyright
information that follow the title page are
illustrated with a branch of a tree with
green leaves and a flower, on which is a
ladybird. The branch with the flower is
Figure 2: Title page of Babalela pointing towards the next page on the right,
again forcing the eye to move from left to
right. The ladybird, however, is pointing to the left, navigating the eye towards the
information of the copyright and press information, as well as the ISBN number. This
contributes to the organisation principle of hierarchy which explains the alignment that
directs the eye to the next pages, and to specific chunks of information.
The choice of paper on which the book is printed can influence readers’ responses
because it creates texture. Nobelman (1988:47 cited in Johnson 2009:87) reveals that
glossy paper gives colours a glistening clarity but the light shines equally through all the
colours and creates an overall sheen that attracts attention to the surface of a picture and
makes it more difficult to focus on specific objects depicted. Nobelman (1988:48) states

36
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

that rough-textured paper seems to invite the reader’s touch and supports an atmosphere
of involvement and intimacy. The levels of light vary when the surface is textured.
Babalela is printed on glossy paper; therefore, the levels of light do not vary, but are
equal to create an even shine.

3.4 THE CONTEXT

On page 5 in Babalela, where the story begins, the words are written in a white space
at the top of the page, directing the eye to read the words first. The bird is sitting on a
branch on the left-hand top corner, focusing the eye to start there. The bird is looking to
the right; thus directing the eye to move to the right, down the tree trunk, into the forest
below with the big leaves in brighter colours, directing the eye again towards the left
and then up again towards the bird, forming once again a circle. The circular alignment
is a repeated element throughout the picture book. The function of this alignment may
be to create a feeling of security with the reader, since little ones usually need to feel
secure.
The sense of depth is accentuated through the bright green leaves in the foreground at
the bottom while fading towards the white space. The illustration opens up the words
for the reader, and keeps the reader’s interest through the insects along the way that
navigate the eye. This is an example of the integration principle, that is, the simultaneous
presentation of text and images to facilitate the big picture (Lohr 2008:46). This page
illustrates the importance of the composition of the different elements to make way for
the bigger picture.
On the following pages, the words are placed in similar ways in a white space in
the middle of the top of the pages, repeating the first sentence three times, creating
an integrated similarity. The white space creates a sense of balance and harmony,
contributing to the feeling of the forest as a secluded and safe space where Babalela
lives (Preller 2000:6–7). This perception is secured by the repetition of the illustration
on pages 7, 9 and 31, as well as the illustration on the cover page and pages 5, 28–29
(Preller 2000).
The proportions of a book are chosen for certain reasons, for example, a strongly
horizontal plane where the illustrations include much background or landscape. Strong
vertical planes allow the artist to depict human characters on a large close-up scale
(Doonan 1993). Both these planes are applicable to Babalela. Horizontal planes are
formed when the artist illustrates the story across two pages, for example pages 6 and
7; in fact almost all the illustrations flow across two pages in Babalela. On pages 19,
23 and 32, the illustrations are vertical, and all of these pages show Babalela where he
is captured in a glass ball, where he becomes very cross, and then where he is sleeping
safe and sound in his bed of leaves at the end.
On some of the pages where the illustrations are on a double page, for example pages
10 and 11, a vertical picture is shown of the antagonist, the man who captured Babalela,

37
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

illustrating him as large and close-up. The horizontal illustrations encourage the reader
to take a broader and more objective view of the characters and the situations. The
vertical plane may increase the reader’s empathy and identification with Babalela who
can be portrayed closer within this plane (Sipe 2001:25). On pages 8 and 9, there is a
sudden change in the illustration as well as in the placement of the written text.

Figure 3: Babalela page 8 Figure 4: Babalela page 9

The illustration on page 9 is a repetition of the illustration on page 7, but now the
surrounding space is much brighter because of the white space; and on page 8, the
illustration fills three quarters of the page. The bright red and yellow colours of the
clothes of the character who captures Babalela, represent caution or danger because they
correspond with bright yellow and red colours in nature which are commonly associated
with dangerous animals, such as bees or snakes. This is confirmed on page 11, where the
reader sees how Babalela is captured. According to Sipe (2001:28), very bright primary
colours are vivid and associated with action. In Babalela, the capturing of Babalela is an
act that changes his life and eventually leads to his development in character.
The illustrations enrich the narrative and convey added meaning. The reader meets the
antagonist: a huge man wearing a red cap and a bright yellow shirt is seen filling almost
the whole page. The vibrant colours of his clothes are in stark contrast with the blues
and greens of the forest. He looks nasty, with a huge chin and unfriendly eyes. In the

38
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

foreground, the plants and grasses are a contrasting white and the text is written in black
at the bottom of the page. The words are accentuated and written one by one:

En toe (And then)

een dag (one day)
The next words are placed carefully at the beginning of each sentence:
voetstappe (footsteps)
breek (break)
knars (grit)
staan (stand)
Using the organisational principle by applying the actions of proximity and alignment
(see page 10), the words, echoing the sound of footsteps, are manipulated to create a
feeling of anxiety and suspense, as well as to draw the reader’s attention to the spelling
of the separate words. The next page continues to the climax where the antagonist sees
Babalela:

buk (bend)
en bulder (shout)
dawer (echo, thunder)
Babalela wakened by the shouting, rubbed his droopy eyes.
The words are chunked together strategically: on page 8, the words are placed in
the bottom left. The illustration is placed horizontally. According to the PAT design
framework, this low positioning of the words implies a problem, something dark, which
seems to be the cause why Babalela was captured. The words on the top of page 9 are
associated with effect and rarity, in other words, Babalela is captured because he is
a rare creature nobody has ever seen before. On this page, the illustration is placed
vertically, again emphasising the rarity of the strange creature.
On pages 10 and 11, the illustration shows the antagonist holding a box in his right hand,
looking to the right, directing the reader’s eye to the next page, where the illustration
shows that he has Babalela in his left hand. The placement of the illustration of the
enormous man, covering the whole page, projects fear which is emphasised by the small
Babalela in his huge hand on the next page. Page 10 is an example of chunking where
the illustration fills the entire page, giving a sense of a very large man in contrast with
the tiny Babalela in the man’s hand; therefore, focusing the reader’s attention on how
frightened Babalela looks by means of the detail of his little body.
A good example of depth in Babalela, is found on pages 12 and 13 with the placement of
Babalela in the box. It repeats and therefore emphasises how small Babalela is, especially
if you refer to the previous page where the illustration shows the small box the human

39
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

is holding in his hand. The box is almost as big as the human’s hand, but Babalela looks
very small in the box, which now looks huge in comparison, thus creating contrast.
Pages 12 and 13 are a good example of lines and shapes that contribute to texture. A
shape is the two-dimensional form represented by an object. The three main shapes
are: circle, equilateral triangle, and square. Circles are curvy directions, triangles are
diagonal directions, and squares can be vertical or horizontal directions. Irregular shapes
are easier to draw the attention. Horizontal shapes give a sense of stability and calm.
Vertical shapes are more exciting and suggest energy. Diagonal shapes, like diagonal
lines, create a dynamic sense of motion or tension. The placement of shape – top, centre,
bottom, left, or right – can suggest meaning. Shape placement in the upper half of a
picture implies freedom, happiness, triumph, or spirituality, while centre stage in an
illustration is associated with greater importance (Johnson 2009:90).
In Babalela, the box takes up the space of a double page, using vertical, horizontal
as well as diagonal lines. The texture is shown through the white scratch lines on the
walls and floor of the box. The use of watercolour enhances the texture as well. This
is also found in the texture of Babalela. The use of artistic media such as paint (eg,
watercolour and dyes) and techniques (eg, washes) results in a translucent tone, adding
to characterisation, setting, and the mood in a particular story (Norton 2011:123).The
lines and the white space, created by the high value of colours, and creating the illusion
of space are in sharp contrast with the frightened and perplexed character inside the box.
According to Moebius (1986:149), a character placed on the left-hand page is more
secure in a confined space than a character placed on the right-hand page who runs the
risk of being moved into a situation of risk or adventure. On the title page of Babalela,
he is placed on the left-hand side; therefore, in a confined space. When turning to the
story, most of the time Babalela is on the right-hand page of a double page illustration,
or on the right-hand of a one page illustration. On page 7, Babalela is asleep on his leaf.
According to Moebius’s (1986:149) remark, Babalela runs the risk of moving into an
unwanted situation. Turning to page 8, this remark seems to be correct, as Babalela is
spotted by the human. Again, the illustration shows Babalela who awakens on the right-
hand page of the illustration. On pages 11 and 13, he is captured.
Space and balance are important for composition. Space occurs between visuals and
text, and facilitates reading and perception. Space can be divided into white space,
negative space, counter space, and trapped space (Lohr 2008:272). White space should
be included into a good design as it directs the eye to important information by chunking
and separating the context (Lohr 2008:272). Space also helps in balancing images.
Balance can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. Asymmetrical balance draws more
attention than symmetrical (Lohr 2008:275).
On page 16, the white space in trapped inside a ball, showing Babalela inside the glass
jar, contrary to page 17 where the people are illustrated in bright colours. Pages 18
and 22 consist of white space except for the words. These white spaces draw attention

40
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

to the words, which describe the change in Babalela’s character. He changes from a
frightened, sad character into a furious, confident character, as shown on page 23.

Figure 5: Babalela page 23 Figure 6: Babalela page 25

Pages 25 and 26 show an illustration of Babalela in victorious flight through a white

space. His wings are spread wide open, creating, as previously pointed out, the illusion
of the fragile, transparent wings of an insect such as a dragonfly. The white space adds
to the brightness and high value of Babalela’s colour.
Texture is created by the high value of purple and blue circles on Babalela’s wings.
The dainty wings are in contrast with the little cases they are kept in, and are illustrated
with a darker shade (lower value) of a deep blue-purple to create the illusion of a solid
container with textures of circles on, which protects the wings. Balance is created with
his huge eyes, big black nose, ears and tail.
The last page of Babalela shows the balanced interrelationship between text and
illustrations.
Only one sentence, ‘And thís is where he belongs’ (En dís waar hy hoort), where the
/í/ of /dis/ (this) is accentuated, implying that he belongs on his leaf on the tree trunk in
the forest as illustrated. The white space conveys mood and emotion, in this instance
a feeling of home coming and peace. Babalela is showing his back to the reader,

41
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

emphasising the fact that he wants to be left alone. The sense of isolation is created
through the words on the top left of the page, and the white space in between the words
and the illustration, which is placed on the bottom right of the page.

Figure 7: Babalela page 32

4 CHARACTERISATION THROUGH THE

INTEGRATION OF TEXT AND IMAGE
The illustration on page 23 shows a very furious Babalela. Suddenly, the fear he showed
on the previous page is gone. He is standing straight with his arms folded in front of him
in a very majestic manner. His little feet are planted apart from each other, firmly on the
ground, and he is staring unwaveringly with a dark muddy green cloud above his head,
showing that he is cross and annoyed with the given treatment. To emphasise his fury,
his cheeks and front head are tinted with red. His red little tongue is showing on the side,
probably to accentuate his determination to change his fate. He flies off triumphantly
with his wings and hands spread wide open and his eyes closed (Preller 2000:25).
The illustrations in Babalela are a good example of controlled sequences which create
paths through which the reader can travel. The illustrations in Babalela are compiled
to express progression, specifically emotional progression: a man found and captured

42
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

Babalela. He took him far away where he looked at Babalela through a magnifying glass.
Then he put Babalela into a glass ball so that other people could come and watch. These
people included males, females as well as children. The illustration shows unfriendly,
grotesque men, but then they move into the background with only faded outlines to
show that they are there. The only man in colour is the one who captured Babalela in the
first place. The progression escalates from one man, to more people, to grotesque men,
and then declines to one man. This progression includes time as well. Babalela lived
securely in his forest but then he was captured and taken far, far away. He escaped and
went back to the forest.
The progress in the character of Babalela shifted from a calm, relaxed character, to one
who is captured and taken away. The illustration of the character Babalela after having
been captured reflects emotions of vulnerability, sadness and shyness. This is portrayed
by the look in Babalela’s eyes and his tongue that sticks out, as well as his hands on his
back as if to cover himself from the eyes of the onlookers, and the way he bends to the
front, away from onlookers. Then his character changes (Preller 2000:23). He firstly
becomes furious with these people who took him away and stared at him. This change
is emphasised by means of the illustration on page 23 where Babalela is the only vertical
picture on a white page. From his bending body, he now stands up straight and conveys
a proud and firm, almost majestic attitude which bursts open the moment he escapes
back to his forest.
On the next page, Babalela flies triumphantly through the window. The illustration
shows the man who caught him, reaching out in order to catch him or prevent him
from flying, but he is too late. Babalela is flying with arms open wide on a white page.
The illustration fills the entire page, again with a white background, and shows his
triumphant escape. Page 26 shows an illustration of Babalela flying back to his forest.
The forest is shown underneath him through the vague illustration. The next page is a
continuation of his return to the forest with the river and the plants. Once back in the
forest, he settles down and falls asleep. He has grown to independence. He can look
after himself and he wants to be left alone.
The written words in combination with the illustrations depict a character who has
grown from a tiny little person into a confident and independent person who can look
after himself. He has escaped and therefore overcome the problem in his life. A life
cycle has been completed. The illustration differs from that in the beginning of the story
on page 7. This illustration accentuates Babalela and the fact that he wants to be left
alone (see page 10 on proximity). He is lying with his back turned to the reader, while
he was facing the reader in the beginning. The forest does not encircle him, as if to
protect him as in the beginning. He has conquered being caught and developed into an
independent little creature.

43
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

5 THE LANGUAGE OF THE WRITTEN

TEXT
The language used in Babalela is simple and vivid and interacts with the illustrations.
The brevity of the words evokes depth of meaning rather than using long descriptions.
The words have metaphorical, rhythmic and onomatopoeic language. For example, on
pages 5, 6, 7, 28 and 30, the repetition of the words ‘diep, diep in die donker bos . . .’
(deep, deep in the dark forest . . .) alerts the readers that something is going to happen.
This is made possible through the alliteration of the /d/ [ɗ], as well as the assonance of
/o/ [ͻ] and /ie/ [i]. Babalela uses easy words, but also more advanced words. In Afrikaans
the more syllables there are in words, the more difficult the words are to read and to
write. In Babalela, there are several examples of these conjunctions, such as: Babalela,
diepgroen (deep green), boomstomp (tree trunk), voetstappe (footsteps), vergrootglas
(magnifying glass), eienaardig (strange), petietserig (tiny), pateties (pathetic), gesiggie
(little face).
The words are written in the middle of the page in a white, light spot. The words are
surrounded by trees, branches and leaves that resemble ferns, palms and big leaves, as
well as flowers, a bird and insects: a caterpillar, a dragonfly and a snail. The illustration
shows the reader what the words imply: a thick, dark forest where the sun only sometimes
peeps through the branches. The composition where the plants are surrounding the text
forms a circle that gives a sense of security. The colours of the plants are not dark
colours, but the objects such as leaves are highlighted with black lines. The illustrators
used lower values of blues, greens and browns to give an illusion of darkness. Since
the picture book is for beginner readers, they might be frightened by too dark colours,
and the intention of the book is to show how magical and peaceful the forest is without
intruders.
The next two pages repeat the verse from the previous pages, and again confirm the thick
and wild plant growth. The illustration is continued from the first to the second page to
form a unit. At this stage the reader has the feeling of moving deeper and deeper into
the forest through thick bushes and leaves towards the place where Babalela is sleeping
on a leaf on a branch on a trunk of a tree. Again a dragonfly and caterpillar can be seen.
These insects show the abundance of the forest, keeping the reader interested. They also
balance the size of Babalela. At this stage, the words: diep, diep in ’n donker bos (deep,
deep in a dark forest) are the beginning of each verbal text on each page. They repeat
the feeling of moving deeper and deeper into the forest. This repetition emphasises the
feeling of harmony and peace in the forest (compare the action repetition discussed
previously).
The remarks made by the people make Babalela very cross. These remarks are verbal
insults from people who do not know him, and therefore his progressing anger is
justified. His little face reddens with fury. He has had enough! He growls: I am Babalela.
Leave me alone! Now he is standing there without fear. His arms are folded to say that

44
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

he wants to be left alone; his tail is up in the air and he is looking very brave and angry.
His feet are planted a few inches from each other on the ground. There is a dark cloud
in a muddy green on top of his head, showing the written words on the previous page.

6 FANTASY ELEMENTS IN BABALELA

Children must understand that at the heart of all fantasy lies the truth about ourselves
and the world around us (Johnson 2009:166). In Babalela, the main truth is that
humans should leave the forest (nature) and the wonderful creatures in nature alone.
This truth can engage children in critical thinking, which forms a crucial component
of new multimodal literacies (Lapp, Moss & Rowsell 2012:368). The story connects
to global real-life issues, such as: destroying indigenous forests; capturing strange and
exotic animals; and keeping animals in captivity (eg, in zoos or game reserves). The
content provides openings for questions, queries, wonderings, and ‘what ifs’. Moral
obligations must be met, building on the character of the person. The character Babalela
also represents a child who has to take a journey (which is not always planned), to leave
behind a safe and known world, and to conquer certain problems to become independent.

7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The goal of the article was to show how picture books such as Babalela (Preller 2000)
can be used to equip pre-service teachers with the necessary vocabulary of visual literacy
to eventually enhance young learners’ vocabulary, comprehension and critical reading
skills to prepare them for the digital era in which they live. Babalela was analysed using
the PAT design framework of Lohr (2008) to show how the words and illustrations in a
picture book connect to convey meaning of the entire text. It seems that the PAT design
framework can be a helpful tool to use for the development of visual literacy skills. This
framework of principles, actions and tools assists in expanding learners’ interpretive
repertoires by extending their own understanding of a variety of concepts regarding
visual literacy. The vocabulary of visual design needs to be learned and understood in
order to be taught and understood. Moving beyond the traditional boundaries of literacy
could help expand the perspectives and strategies readers and teachers may need to
become literate in today’s society.

REFERENCES
Arizpe, E & Styles, M. 2003. Children reading pictures. London: Routledge.
Arizpe, E & Styles, M. 2008. A critical review of research into children’s responses to multimodal
texts, in Research on teaching literacy through the communicative and visual arts, vol. 1, ed.
J Flood, S Brice Heath & D Lapp. London: Lawrence Erlbaum: 363–374.

45
CHRISTINE DU TOIT

Burmark, L. 2002. Visual literacy. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Callow, J. 2008. Show me: principles for assessing students’ visual literacy. The Reading Teacher
61(8):616–626.
Colledge, M. 2005. Baby Bear or Mrs Bear? Young English Bengali-speaking children’s
responses to narrative picture books at school. Literacy 39:24–30.
Commeyras, M & Inyega, HN. 2007. An integrative review of teaching reading in Kenyan
primary schools. Reading Research Quarterly 42(2):258–281.
Connors, SP. 2011. Toward a shared vocabulary for visual analysis: an analytic toolkit for
deconstructing the visual design of graphic novels. Journal of Visual Literacy 31(1):71–92.
Coulthard, K. 2003. Image conscious: bilingual readers responding to visual texts. London:
LcaS.
Doonan, J. 1993. Looking at pictures in picturebooks. Stroud: Thimble Press.
Fellowes, J & Oakley, G. 2012. Language, literacy and early childhood education. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Genette, G. 1997. Paratexts: thresholds of interpretation. Translated by JE Lewin. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Gregory, E. 1994. Negotiation as a critical factor in learning to read in a second language, in
Researching language and literacy in social context. Clevedon: Open University Press: 46–
61.
Hibbert, L & Crous, M. 2011. Selecting literature for beginner readers in South Africa. Per
Linguam 27(2):99–110.
Johnson, D. 2009. The joy of children’s literature. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Kiefer, B. 1995. The potential of picturebooks: from visual literacy to aesthetic understanding.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
Kiefer, B. 2008. Reading the art of the picturebook, in Research on teaching literacy through
the communicative and visual arts, vol. 2, ed. J Flood, S Brice Heath & D Lapp. London:
Lawrence Erlbaum: 375–380.
Kress, G & Van Leewen, T. 2001. Multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary
communication. London: Arnold.
Lapp, D, Moss, B & Rowsell, J. 2012. Envisioning new literacies through a lens of teaching and
learning. The Reading Teacher 65(6):367–377.
Lohr, L. 2008. Creating graphics for learning and performance: lessons in visual literacy. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Martens, P, Martens, R, Doyle, MH, Loomis, J & Aghalarov, S. 2012. Learning from picturebooks.
The Reading Teacher 66(4):285–294.
Martinez, M & Harmon, JM. 2012. Picture/text relationships: an investigation of literary elements
in picturebooks. Literacy Research and Instruction 51(4):323–343.
Moebius, W. 1986. Introduction to picturebook codes. Word and Image 2(2):141–158.

46
 TOWARDS A VOCABULARY FOR VISUAL ANALYSIS

Nikolajeva, M. 2004. Verbal and visual literacy: the role of picturebooks in the reading experience
of young children, in Handbook of early childhood literacy, ed. N Hall, J Larson & J Marsh.
London: Sage: 236–243.
Nikolajeva, M & Scott, C. 2000. The dynamics of picturebook communication. Children’s
Literature in Education 31(4):225–239.
Nikolajeva, M & Scott, C. 2001. How picturebooks work. New York: Garland.
Nobelman, P. 1988. Words about pictures: the narrative art of children’s picturebooks. Athens,
GA: University of Georgia Press.
Norton, DE. 2011. Through the eyes of a child. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
O’Neil, KE. 2011. Reading pictures. The Reading Teacher 65(3):214–223.
Pantaleo, S. 2003. ‘Reading’ young children’s visual texts. Early Childhood Research & Practice
7(1).
Peterson, BL. 2003. Design basics for creative results. Cincinnati, OH: How Design Books.
Preller, M. 2000. Babalela. Pretoria: LAPA.
Preller, M. 2012. Extended databases, e-mail to author, 27 May.
Prior, LA, Willson, A & Martinez, M. 2012. Picture this. The Reading Teacher 66(3):195–206.
Sipe, LR. 1998. How picturebooks work: a semiotically frames theory of text-picture relationships.
Children’s Literature in Education 29:97–108.
Sipe, LR. 2001. Picturebooks as aesthetic objects. Literacy Teaching and Learning 6(1):23–42.
Sipe, LR. 2008. Learning from illustrations in picturebooks, in Teaching visual literacy using
comic books, graphic novels, anime, cartoons, and more to develop comprehension and
thinking skills, ed. N Frey & D Fisher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press: 131–148.
Sipe, LR & McGuire, CE. 2006. Picturebook endpapers: resources for literary and aesthetic
interpretation. Children’s Literature in Education 37:291–304.

47