Received May 24, 2021, accepted June 26, 2021, date of publication June 30, 2021, date of current

version July 26, 2021.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3093696

High-Voltage Stations for Electric Vehicle

Fast-Charging: Trends, Standards, Charging
Modes and Comparison of Unity
Power-Factor Rectifiers
IKER ARETXABALETA , IÑIGO MARTÍNEZ DE ALEGRÍA, JON ANDREU ,
IÑIGO KORTABARRIA , AND ENDIKA ROBLES
Faculty of Engineering, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 48013 Bilbao, Spain
Corresponding author: Iker Aretxabaleta (iker.aretxabaleta@ehu.eus)
This work was supported in part by the Government of the Basque Country through the Fund for Research Groups of the Basque
University System under Grant IT978-16, in part by the Research Program ELKARTEK under Project ENSOL2-KK-2020/00077 and
Project HARVESTGEN-KK-2020/00113, in part by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación of Spain under
Project PID2020-115126RB-I00, and in part by the FEDER Funds.

ABSTRACT Emission of greenhouse gases and scarcity of fossil fuels have put the focus of the scientific
community, industry and society on the electric vehicle (EV). In order to reduce CO2 emissions, cutting-edge
policies and regulations are being imposed worldwide, where the use of EVs is being encouraged. In the best
of scenarios reaching 245 million EVs by 2030 is expected. Extensive use of EV-s requires the installation
of a wide grid of charging stations and it is very important to stablish the best charging power topology
in terms of efficiency and impact in the grid. This paper presents a review of the most relevant issues in
EV charging station power topologies. This review includes the impact of the battery technology, currently
existing standards and proposals for power converters in the charging stations. In this review process,
some disadvantages of current chargers have been identified, such as poor efficiency and power factor.
To solve these limitations, five unidirectional three-phase rectifier topologies have been proposed for fast EV
charging stations that enhance the current situation of chargers. Simulation results show that all the proposed
topologies improve the power factor issue without penalizing efficiency. The topologies with the best overall
performance are the Vienna 6-switch and the Vienna T-type rectifier. These two converters achieve high
efficiency and power factor, and they allow a better distribution of losses among semiconductors, which
significantly increase the life-cycle of the semiconductor devices and the reliability of the converter.

INDEX TERMS Electric vehicle standards batteries charging modes three-phase rectifier Vienna rectifier
power factor.

I. INTRODUCTION by more than 1.5 o C could be achieved. However, accord-

Protection of the environment has become one of the main ing to the projections of the International Energy Agency
concerns of social agents, policy makers and the scientific (IEA), GHG emissions are expected to double by 2050 from
community due to factors such as greenhouse gas (GHG) 2005 levels [2]. In this sense, United States Environmental
emissions, scarcity of fossil fuels and volatility of their prices. Protection Agency (EPA) states in [3] that transportation is
The long-term European Commission strategic vision for one of the sectors that contributes the most to GHG emis-
a modern, competitive and climate-neutral economy indi- sions, producing, nowadays, approximately 28 % of the total
cates the tendency that GHG emissions should follow [1]. emissions.
By 2050 the goal of not raising the planet temperature According to United Nations reports, the world population
will reach 9.7 billion inhabitants in 2050 (which represents an
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and increase of practically 33 % compared to the 2015 population
approving it for publication was Wei Xu . of 7.3 billion inhabitants [4]) and the expected number of

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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road vehicles will be around 2 billion in 2050 [5]. In this these demands will not become a source of problems for
context, the electrification of the transport sector in general, the electrical supply system. Many aspects need to be con-
and that of road vehicles in particular, becomes essential to sidered: change of peak and valley hours in the demand
overcome the environmental problems mentioned above. This curve, re-evaluation of rating of the power grid and others.
challenge demands improvements in all the power chain of During the past few years there has been a focus on increasing
the electric vehicle (batteries, power converters, semiconduc- grid power quality. Today the greatest part of the harmonic
tors, charging stations. . . ), providing innovative solutions that distortion in the electric grid is caused by the input stage of
facilitate end-customer access to the electric vehicle (EV) power electronic converters. International standards, such as
[6], [7]. With this objective, several initiatives and campaigns IEEE 519 and EN 61000, set the limits to power quality-
are being promoted worldwide: Electric Vehicles Initiative related parameters (harmonic currents and voltages). More-
(EVI) [8], EV30@30 campaign [9], EV100 [10], Global EV over, the power factor (PF) is one of the key performance
Pilot City program [2], Drive to Zero campaign [2], GEF-7 parameters for a grid without distortion, where power factor
global program [11], etc. (PF) ' 1 is necessary for that purpose [13].

FIGURE 1. Global electric vehicle stock by scenario 2019-2030 (IEA) [2].

FIGURE 2. Electric vehicle charging energy demand (IEA) [2].

Regarding EV sales, the IEA [2] estimates that the global

stock of EVs can reach 140 million by 2030 with stated policy
scenarios (STEPS), and if ambitious sustainable development
scenarios (SDS) are implemented, it would reach 245 million
units (see Fig. 1). In this sense, the IEA forecasts a surge in the
global electricity demand of EVs, in both stated policies sce-
narios and sustainable development scenarios (Fig. 1-STEPS
and Fig. 1-SDS) [2]. As it can be seen in Fig. 2, an increase
around 550 TWh is expected from 2019 to 2030 according to
STEPS. Conversely, in the SDS scenario reaching 1000 TWh
is expected, which is equivalent to an 11 fold increase com-
pared to 2019. While EVs today represent a small fraction of
total electricity consumption (globally less than 0.5 %), this FIGURE 3. Most relevant vehicle architectures according to their
will change in the future. According [2], in 2030 EVs could propulsion system (adapted from [12]).
represent between 1-4 % of global electricity consumption in
the STEPS scenario and between 2-6 % in the SDS [2]. Regarding the electrification of the vehicles, there are sev-
In such a context, the EV takes on a lot of relevance eral alternatives (see Fig. 3) to internal combustion engines
for the grid. The grid will have to be dimensioned so that (ICE) [14]–[20]: battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug-in

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TABLE 1. Examples of commercial electric vehicle models and their characteristics (BEV and PHEV).

hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), hybrid electric vehicles carried out. In Section IV, a classification of valid power con-
(HEV), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), and fuel cell hybrid verter topologies for the fast-charging application is shown
electric vehicles (FCHEV). Nowadays, there is a trend among from a general perspective. Finally, in Section V, a compar-
manufacturers towards BEV and PHEV and it seems that it ison is made between the most suitable topologies selected
will be maintained in the near future [14], [21]. Table 1 shows with the criteria of high efficiency, unity power factor, and
some examples of commercialized electric vehicles (BEV) high power rating for fast-charging.
and plug-in hybrids (PHEV).
The majority of light EVs are equipped with battery packs II. BATTERIES: CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE
with nominal voltage range between 300 V and 420 V, while PROSPECTS
for heavy EVs this voltage can reach up to 800 V [22]. Batteries play a crucial role in making EVs competitive
However, according to some studies [23]–[27], a change in against ICEs [28], [29]. The batteries, apart from supply-
trend is expected in the battery voltage of light EVs, and ing energy to EVs, can also act as energy storage systems
an increase in the DC bus to 800 V systems1 is expected. (ESS) for the grid. Charging the batteries in the hours of
With this change, a substantial reduction in the conductive less energy demand (off-peak hours) and then providing that
wire weight could be achieved, since half the current will energy in the periods with higher demand [30]–[32] enables
be handled for the same power [23]. Increasing the voltage to make the energy demand curve flatter, with the benefits
of the battery pack would also reduce quadratic conduction that this entails [33]–[37]. According to the International
losses (P = I 2 R). Therefore, with this change in the battery Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), using ESSs would
voltage, the efficiency of the EV will be improved. Battery reduce energy installation costs between 50 % and 66 %
voltage has a great impact in the selection of the charging (see Fig. 4) [38].
station power converter topology. Section II presents the most As far as battery technologies are concerned, there are no
extended types of batteries and their expected evolution for one-size-fits-all solutions in the ESS, and the decision to opt
2030. In section III, the standards applicable to each of the for one storage technology over another depends on several
stages of the recharging system are reviewed. In addition, parameters, such as power density, lifetime, efficiency and
the charging modes that support current EVs and the types operation temperature [39], [40]. In this context, some of
of existing charging stations are reviewed, and also a study the best known materials for battery systems are lead-acid
of DC fast-charge stations from different manufacturers is [41]–[43], nickel-cadmium [44], [45] and lithium-ion
[46]–[48]. Lead-acid batteries are one of the most mature
1 An example is the Porsche Taycan, the first production vehicle with a and inexpensive battery technologies [38], [41], [49] but they
system voltage of 800 V instead of the usual 400 V for electric vehicles. are not as suitable as lithium-ion for EV application, since

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FIGURE 4. Energy cost reduction potential installing ESS classified by battery types [38].

TABLE 2. Evolution of battery technology by 2030 [40].

their energy density is low [42]. Even so, they are still widely Table 2 shows how lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and lithium-
used for the stabilization of the grid [43]. Nickel-cadmium ion batteries will be improved by 2030 [40]. These three types
batteries serve special markets where energy must be stored of batteries tend to improve their efficiencies (here lithium-
in extreme weather conditions, as they work well where ion batteries achieve 95 % efficiency, 5 % and 10 % higher
temperatures are very low (down to −40 o C) [44]. The biggest than lead-acid and nickel-cadmium respectively), power den-
drawback to using them in the application of the EV is its high sities (lithium-ion batteries are expected to reach 1100 Wh/l,
price and low power density [44]. In this context, lithium- more than 7 times greater than its most direct rival, lead-acid),
ion batteries have entered the industrial market (see Table 1), recycling capabilities (lithium-ion is expected to improve
drawing on the extensive experience gained in developing the most, until almost reaching lead-acid batteries recycling
batteries for electric and hybrid vehicles. The choice of capacity of 90 %) and lifetime (here lithium-ion reaches
lithium-ion for EVs is justified by high energy density, low- >10.000 life cycles, twice that of its competitors) [40].
charge operation capability [47], [48] and long lifetime which EV manufacturers are currently selecting lithium-ion bat-
could reach the full EV operating life [40]). This technology teries and it seems that in the near future this trend will
is versatile, highly scalable and can be adapted to almost any not change, since none of the other battery materials reach
power requirement [40], [46]. the levels of power density required in EVs. In addition,
According with the Association of European Automo- according to the international organization Bloomberg-NEF
tive and Industrial Battery Manufacturers (EUROBAT), [50], [51], the price trend of batteries is downward

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TABLE 3. Overview of the most important standards for EV charging stations [52].

is responsible for transmitting the power to the wheels).

Regarding (I) the charging stage, there are standards related
to 1 the grid power-connection, 1 the grid central management
system communications, 4 the EV charging cable power and
communication capability, 5 the vehicle connectors, 5 the
battery management system (it can be an on-board charger,
if not, 6 can act as off-board charger).
FIGURE 5. Battery pack average price projection [50].
Table 3 summarizes the standards(Fig. 6 - 1 to 6) classified
by regions. The EV charging modes are included in the
IEC 62196 (international standard for the set of electrical con-
nectors and charging modes), IEC 61851 (international stan-
dard for conductive electric vehicle systems) and SAE J1772
(general physical, electrical, communication protocol and
performance requirements) standards, used in Europe and in
USA, respectively. These regulations are being updated as
technology matures, adapting to increasing power ratings for
lower charging times.2
Regarding the EV charging modes (see Table 4), some
of best known battery charging modes are described in
the IEC 61851, IEC 62196 and SAE J1772 standards.
FIGURE 6. Electric vehicle charging station standardized stages
(blocks 1 to 6), battery stage and power train stages.
The charger power ranges from 4 kW (IEC 61851-1:2020,
mode 1) to 600 kW (IEC 61851-23:2014, mode 4), which
shows that these regulations contemplate a wide range of
(see Fig. 5), which will make lithium-ion technology much chargers. Special attention should be paid to the fastest charg-
more competitive. ers (120-600 kW) since they would decrease the anxiety of
EV owners caused by the lack of large autonomy-range and
the non-possibility of fast-charging [24], [57]–[63]. In this
III. ELECTRIC VEHICLE: STANDARDS, CHARGING
sense, many manufacturers are working in EV fast-charging
MODES AND CHARGING STATIONS
system development. Some of them are shown in Table 5.
Electric vehicle charging points [1], [2], [8], [9] are spreading
According to the data provided by these manufacturers the
around the world due to the growing demand of EVs. This
power converters have an efficiency of 94-95 %.
has led to the regulation of charging stations. In this context,
Another important aspect that characterizes the charging
there are several standards defined by organizations for EV
station is the power factor (1. A suitable electric vehicle
charging established worldwide [52]–[55]: IEC, SAE, IEEE,
charger is one that demands unity power factor, PF = 1.
GB/T, CHAdeMO, among others. Figure 6 shows the electric
stages of an EV: (I) the charging stage, (II) the battery stage
2 Phoenix Contact is already manufacturing connectors that comply with
(where there is a 7 battery system, which is charged through
the IEC 62196-3-1 standard. These connectors reach 1000 V and 500 A, thus
the stage (I)) and finally, (III) the power train (composed achieving powers of 500 kW, high powers that would accelerate the charging
by the power converter 8 and the electric motor 9 which time of the EVs [56].

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TABLE 4. Charging modes for the most important standards applied in EV charging systems.

TABLE 5. Characteristics of some fast chargers according to the manufacturers.

The distortion factor, (DistF), measures the effect of the IV. UNIDIRECTIONAL THREE-PHASE RECTIFIERS FOR
total harmonic distortion (THD), and the displacement FAST EV CHARGING STATIONS
factor, (DispF), also known as cos(8), measures the effect In the actual stage of development of technology users who
of the phase displacement of the current first harmonic and normally require fast-charging do not act as power suppliers
the grid voltage. Figure 7 shows the different parameters to the grid, and therefore the charger does not have to be
affecting power factor. Assuming that cos(8) is equal to 1 in bidirectional. In the short and medium term there is no ESS
the converters in Table 5, from (1), the PF values provided capability in the grid. Thus, fast-charging stations demand
by the manufacturers, between 0,96 and 0,99, would mean unidirectional rectifiers for users who need a quick emer-
the THDi is between 29 % and 14 %. gency charge, those who do not have electric chargers at their
P 1 homes,3 and customers who are on long routes [65]–[67].
PF = ⇒ PF = DistF · DispF = p · cos(8) In this context, the converters (see Fig. 8) that meet the
S 1 + THDi 2 requirements of the energy demand of this type of customer
(1) can be divided in three main groups [68], [69]: (1) passive,
(2) hybrid and (3) active rectifiers:
There is a need to improve harmonic distortion in the
charging stations (THDi ). In this sense, a niche for improve- 1) Passive rectifiers: these are low complexity rectifiers
ment is the power converter of the battery chargers, where that are divided into two groups: single diode bridges
several topologies can provide power factor close to unity and multi-pulse rectifiers. These type of topologies
(PF ' 1). Section IV analyses alternatives of power con-
verter topologies that can achieve these targets. 3 37 % of U.S. house owners do not have a garage for EV charging [64].

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FIGURE 7. Distortions affecting the power factor: displacement factor (DispF) and distortion factor (DistF).

FIGURE 8. Classification of unidirectional three-phase rectifiers (adapted from [68], [69]).

allow easy implementation, but at the same time lack of extensively in industry; however their use is rarely seen
controllability results in low quality input current and implemented for the EV charging application. This is
output voltages [68], [70], [71], which makes ageing of due to the fact that currently (as Table 1 shows) most
batteries worse [72]–[74]. EVs use battery systems around 300-400 V. However,
2) Many of the unidirectional three-phase rectifiers that there is a change in trend towards 800 V battery sys-
appear in the literature are located in the subset of tems [23]–[27]. In this context, this work focuses on
hybrids rectifiers. They are divided into three groups: boost-type unidirectional three-phase rectifier topolo-
those based on reactance, those obtained by combining gies, adapted to the trend towards 800 V battery sys-
diodes and DC/DC converters and, finally, the topolo- tems [23]–[27]. These topologies are the most suitable
gies that allow injection of the third harmonic [68]. for EV charging stations and they are selected for com-
In general, the hybrid converters are made up of pas- parison in this work.
sive (capacitors and inductors) and active semiconductor The scientific literature proposes several active three-
devices, the latter being found in reduced quantities, phase rectifiers, which can be classified into (Fig. 8):
increasing the degree of controllability compared to pas- Grid-connected rectifiers [82]–[96], Power Factor Correc-
sive rectifiers. However, the quality of the output volt- tor (PFC) [97]–[107] and Vienna rectifiers [108]–[118].
ages given by the hybrid topologies is still not suitable There is a large number of proposed converters, however,
for the EV charging application [68]. in order to reduce the number of studied converters,
3) Active rectifiers are known for their high degree a parallel analysis of those topologies used by manufac-
of controllability, synthesizing better input currents turers has been made. Table 6 shows that most manufac-
(THDi < 5%) and output voltages, and potentially turers use the following topologies: NPC, Vienna 6-switch
they could achieve excellent efficiencies (up to 99%) rectifier, Vienna T-type and the three-phase two-level
[75]–[81]. These converters use higher amounts of active converter (3θ − 2L).
components compared to passive and hybrid rectifiers. As a result of the previous review the most suitable topolo-
Active rectifiers can be divided in two subgroups: direct gies for fast charging of high voltage batteries have been
and phase-modular systems. These topologies are used identified (see Fig. 9):

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TABLE 6. EV fast-charging topologies by manufacturer.

(a) Conventional three-phase two-level rectifier it has six switches and twelve diodes (Fig. 9(c)) and
(3θ − 2L) [119] is characterized by its simplicity can achieve very high efficiency (98%) [75], [76].
and controllability (Fig. 9(a)). This topology is well The semiconductor devices must block half of the
positioned in the market. For this reason, it has voltage of the DC bus and high frequency switching
been used as benchmark in this work. The semi- takes place between one diode and the switch [117].
conductor devices must block the voltage of the This topology greatly facilitates the process of pre-
entire DC bus and the switching takes place between charging their output capacitors due to the path of the
the two devices in each phase (one leg). Modula- diodes [68]. However, one of the main drawbacks of
tion and proper control techniques allow the voltage this topology is the high number of devices.
and current to be maintained in phase [83], [84]. (d) The Vienna 3-switch rectifier [134] (Fig. 9(d)),
However, two-level converters cannot synthe- like the previous topology, is also classified among
size the same waveforms quality as three-level three-level voltage rectifiers. It is built by three
topologies [120], [121]. switches and eighteen diodes. It reduces the num-
(b) Neutral Point Clamped converter (NPC) [122] ber of controlled switches at the cost of increasing
is a topology that can provide three voltage levels the number of simultaneously on devices to three
and is made up of twelve switches and six diodes units. The devices must block half the voltage of the
(Fig. 9(b)). The devices must block half of the volt- entire DC bus and it can achieve a high efficiency
age of the entire DC bus [117]. This allows lower (97-98 %) [77], [78]. The number of semiconductors
voltage rating semiconductors with lower conduc- can be considered its biggest disadvantage compared
tion voltage drop. This topology also applies dou- to other rectifiers. Among the analysed topologies,
ble effective frequency in the output, reducing the this is the one with the least number of active
size of the output capacitors. High levels of effi- switches.
ciency (around 97 %) have been achieved with these (e) The Vienna T-type rectifier [135], together with
converters [123]–[130]. These topologies have some the Vienna 6-switch rectifier, is the most extended
drawbacks such as fluctuations on the output DC bus Vienna-type topology in the scientific literature. This
and mismatches in the distribution of losses between topology is also a three voltage level rectifier. It is
power devices [131], [132]. However, using suitable built by six diodes, making a three-phase diode
modulation techniques or additional control circuits, rectifier and six switches forming three bidirec-
this problems can be minimized [133]. tional switches (Fig. 9(e)). The devices must block
(c) Vienna 6-switch rectifier [68] is an adaptation of all the DC bus voltage and the switching occurs
the original NPC topology in which non-current between the diode and two series connected switches,
switches are turned-off during the rectifying opera- one on diode-mode and the other in MOSFET-
tion. This topology is a three voltage level rectifier, mode [117]. This topology can reach an efficiency

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FIGURE 9. Rectifier topologies for EV fast-charging application.

of 94-98 % [79]–[81], however higher values (99 %) devices have to switch at the same time: a diode, and
can be achieved using advanced modulations like two MOSFETs. Furthermore, the MOSFETs carry
interleaving technique [79]. The drawback of this current in both half cycles, therefore the losses are
topology is that in the fast commutation-cell three highly concentrated in these devices.

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TABLE 7. Simulation setup parameters.

(f)-(g) The Y-switch (Fig. 9(f)) and 1-switch rectifiers

(Fig. 9(g)) are alternatives of the T-type topology with
variations of the composition of the T-type structures
between phases. Since it is a two-level rectifier (the
output bus is not split in two and connected to the
midpoint), it is not possible to obtain the benefits
of three-level rectifiers [120], [121]. For this reason,
these two topologies are not considered as suitable
for the EV charging application.
FIGURE 10. Simulation setup scheme for EV charging application.

V. COMPARISON OF SELECTED THREE-PHASE

BOOST-TYPE RECTIFIERS FOR FAST current-demand 5. The test setup is described in Table 7,
EV CHARGING STATIONS where the parameter values of the simulation models are
This section compares the topologies of interest for fast- detailed.4,5
charging of the EVs reviewed in the previous section through Simulation results are summarized in Table 8. 3θ − 2L
simulations performed with the PSIM simulation tool. For topology presents the lowest component count with only
that purpose, a Forward Oriented Control (FOC) and Pulse six semiconductors, but voltage rating of each one of them
Width Modulation (PWM) have been used. When analysing is the entire bus voltage,VBUS . The Vienna 3-switch is the
the results, several figures of merit have been taken into topology with the highest component count (21). Regarding
account, such as the number of devices and blocking voltage, efficiency, the 3θ − 2L, the Vienna 6-switch and the Vienna
efficiency, quality of input currents (PF ' 1, THDi < 5%, T-type present the highest efficiency with values greater
and cos(8) = 1), quality of output voltage (low voltage ripple
(1Vout ) and capacitor currents (iCrms )) and, finally, a good 4 The SKKD8112 diodes can only be used in Vienna 6-switch (Fig. 9(c))
distribution of semiconductor losses (which is very important and Vienna 3-switch (Fig. 9(d)) topologies, since the input diodes
(D1 , D10 , D2 , D20 , D3 , D30 ) in these topologies do not switch current at high
regarding the lifetime of the converter [136]). frequency. With the implementation of these diodes at the input, conduction
The proposed simulation scheme (Fig. 10) consists of losses are greatly improved due to their low resistance.
a three-phase input source 1, input inductors 1, boost- 5 Silicon Carbide (SiC) MOSFET semiconductors has been used to carry

type three-phase rectifier topology under test 4 (3θ − 2L, out the simulations, since they have better switching performance compared
to the Silicon (Si) devices [51]. In this sense, increasing the switching fre-
NPC, Vienna 6-switch, Vienna 3-switch and Vienna T-type), quency is a suitable technique to reduce the size of the reactive components,
output capacitors 4 and resistive load simulating battery thus improving the power density of the converters.

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TABLE 8. Comparison table for 50 kW rectifier (switching frequency 100 kHz).

FIGURE 11. Input current waveforms and unity-normalized frequency response (FFT) for compared topologies.

than 96 %. The input current and output voltage waveforms required by fast-chargers. Even so, comparing the input cur-
in all the converters (THDi < 5%, 1VBUS < 4.81 V rent and normalized frequency response (FFT) (Fig. 11),
and iCrms ∈ (42.7 A, 47.1 A) are of high quality, and any it can be observed that compared to three-level topologies, the
of these topologies is valid to achieve the figures of merit 3θ − 2L has worse input current quality, as it has the highest

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FIGURE 12. Output voltage waveforms VBUS (V ).

FIGURE 13. Comparison of power losses and temperature increments.

high-frequency current ripple (4 A) and the highest levels of Fig. 13(a) shows that distribution of losses is very different for
distortion (THDi = 4, 04 %). The latter confirms the neg- each of the topologies. The first thing that stands out is that
ative aspect of the two-level voltage converters [120], [121]. the Vienna 6-switch and the Vienna T-type topologies have

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FIGURE 14. Commutation-cell comparison: entire topology and cell zoom-in.

better distribution of losses, the former being the one that In order to analyse how much this increase in temperature
obtains the best results (101 W [Pref ]) compared to the latter affects lifetime, LESIT study curves have been chosen (see
(159 W ≡ Pref + 58 W ). Conversely, the higher power loss Fig. 13(c)) to show an approximation of how a few degrees of
concentration (manly on the MOSFETs) are in the 3θ − 2L temperature can vary the lifetime of a device. In this analysis,
(238 W ≡ Pref +137 W ), the NPC (194 W ≡ Pref +235 W ) referring to a 50 kW charging system, it can be seen that the
and the Vienna 3-switch (202 W ≡ Pref +101 W ) converters. MOSFETs of the Vienna 6-switch can last 1.64 E +06 cycles.
Distribution of losses among semiconductors is a very Conversely, for the Vienna T-type this number is reduced to
relevant aspect for the reliability of the converter. One of 6.18 E + 04. The number of cycles would be much lower in
the most extended model for the estimation of lifetime of the other three topologies.
semiconductors is the Arrhenius and Coffin-Manson combi- According to the defined comparison criteria, the Vienna
nation [136] of laws of degradation (2), 6-switch and the Vienna T-type are the best alternative, due
to their high efficiency, good quality of input currents and
Nf = A 1Tj e(Q/Rgas Tm ) (2)
output voltages, and for their better distribution of losses
where A, and α are device dependent constants, Rgas is the gas between semiconductors. Because of the similar performance
constant (8.314 J /mol.K ), Tmj = Tjmin + (Tjmax − Tjmin )/2 of both topologies (Vienna 6-switch and Vienna T-type),
is the mean cycle temperature expressed in Kelvin, and the an additional aspect has been considered to make a more
internal energy Q is 7.8×104 Jmol −l . 1Tj is the variation accurate comparison, the scalability in switching frequency
of the junction temperature. The constants α = −5, and, of the rectifiers. This aspect is relevant since there is a trend
A=640 are obtained from curve fitting in the LESIT study. towards power converters with higher power densities. In this
Fig. 13(b) shows the temperature change for each vehi- sense, one of the ways to achieve this is by reducing induc-
cle charge using the same semiconductor device in the five tances and capacities by increasing the switching frequency.
topologies. As shown in Fig. 13(b), the differences in temper- The Vienna 6-switch high-frequency commutation-cell con-
ature that occur in the diodes are practically negligible. The sists of a single MOSFET and a diode (Fig. 14(a)). On the
biggest differences occur in the MOSFETs. In this sense the other side, Vienna T-type (Fig. 14(b)) has to commutate two
3θ − 2L, the NPC and the Vienna 3-switch topologies have MOSFETs in series that work as a bidirectional switch. In this
respectively 163,7 o C, 140,8 o C and 145,1 o C junction tem- sense, series connection on the T-type topology results in
perature (Tj ) excursion, which makes these topologies very an increase in resistive and parasitic components such as
sensitive regarding lifetime compared to the Vienna 6-switch inductances, which will cause greater power losses and over-
and Vienna T-type topologies that have respectively 92,5 o C shoots in voltage and current. Additionally, this effect can
and 122,6 o C. Regarding the loss distribution, topologies be increased if discrete devices are used instead of mod-
with best thermal behaviour are the Vienna 6-switch and ules, since they have higher values of parasitic inductances
the Vienna T-type, with a maximum temperature deviation because of their packaging [137]–[139]. Due to the structure
between devices of 27,2 o C and 39,2 o C, respectively. of the Vienna 6-switch, the commutation-cell area is reduced

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 I. Aretxabaleta et al.: High-Voltage Stations for EV Fast-Charging

with the use of a snubber capacitor very near commutation- coils and capacitors, thus improving the power density of
cell. The result of using these cells have been demonstrated the converters. In this context, it is pointed out that using
in several works [140]–[142], where commutation cells of the Vienna 6-switch rectifier has advantages with respect
about 6 nH are implemented. Moreover, the effectiveness of to scalability in switching frequency, since it has a better
using snubber capacitors has been also demonstrated in other commutation-cell if compared to Vienna T-type, the closest
works [143], [144], reducing switching losses produced by rival in the comparison.
parasitic overshoots on voltage.
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IKER ARETXABALETA received the B.Sc. and IÑIGO KORTABARRIA received the M.Sc. degree
M.Sc. degrees in telecommunications engineering in electronics and control engineering from the
from the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, University of Mondragon, Spain, in 1999, and the
Spain, in 2014 and 2016, respectively, with a focus Ph.D. degree in electronics and control engineer-
on electronics, and the Ph.D. degree in electron- ing from the University of the Basque Country,
ics from the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain, in 2013. From 1999 to 2004, he was
in 2021. Since 2016, he has been working as a a research and development staff member in indus-
Researcher with the Applied Electronic Research trial electronics companies. From 2004 to 2014,
Team (APERT), Department of Electronic Tech- he was an Assistant Professor in electronic tech-
nology, University of the Basque Country. His cur- nology with the Department of Electronic Tech-
rent research interest includes the application of power electronics in power nology, University of the Basque Country. In 2014, he became an associate
converters. professor. His current research interests include power converters and appli-
cations of power electronics.
IÑIGO MARTÍNEZ DE ALEGRÍA received the
B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in physics and the Ph.D.
degree from the University of the Basque Country,
Bilbao, Spain, in 1996 and 2012, respectively. For
two years, he was with Ikerlan, a research center
in mechatronics applications. Then, he was with
Azterlan, a metallurgy research center. Since 2000,
he has been an Associate Professor with the Uni-
versity of the Basque Country. His current research
ENDIKA ROBLES received the B.Sc. and M.Sc.
interest includes application of power electronics
degrees in telecommunications engineering from
to renewable energies.
the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao,
Spain, in 2015 and 2017, respectively, with a focus
JON ANDREU received the M.S. degree in elec- on electronics, where he is currently pursuing
tronic and control engineering from the University the Ph.D. degree in power electronics with the
of Mondragon, Mondragon, Spain, in 1997, and Electronic Technology Department. During these
the Ph.D. degree in electronic and control engi- years, he was actively involved with the Applied
neering from the University of the Basque Coun- Electronics Research Team (APERT), Engineering
try, Bilbao, in 2008. He was with Ideko Research School of Bilbao. Likewise, during those years
Center, where he was involved in machine tools he worked closely with Tecnalia Research & Innovation Company, Derio,
applications. Since 2002, he has been an Assis- Spain, as an Educational Cooperation Student, with help from a college
tant Professor in electronic technology with the grant. Since 2017, he has been a Researcher in power electronics with the
Department of Electronic Technology, University Electronic Technology Department, University of the Basque Country. His
of the Basque Country, and became an Associate Professor, in 2011. current research interests include the power conversion topologies and their
His research interests include power converters and applications of power modulation techniques.
electronics.

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