batteries

Article
Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Unit Made
of Cylindrical Cells
Morena Falcone 1, * , Nicolò Federico Quattromini 2, * , Claudio Rossi 2, * and Beatrice Pulvirenti 1, *

1 Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Risorgimento, 2,
40136 Bologna, Italy
2 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering “Guglielmo Marconi”, Alma Mater
Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Risorgimento, 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
* Correspondence: morena.falcone@unibo.it (M.F.); nicolo.quattromini@studio.unibo.it (N.F.Q.);
claudio.rossi@unibo.it (C.R.); beatrice.pulvirenti@unibo.it (B.P.)

Abstract: Saving energy is a fundamental topic considering the growing energy requirements with
respect to energy availability. Many studies have been devoted to this question, and life cycle
assessment (LCA) is increasingly acquiring importance in several fields as an effective way to
evaluate the energy demand and the emissions associated with products’ life cycles. In this work, an
LCA analysis of an existent lithium-ion battery pack (BP) unit is presented with the aim to increase
awareness about its consumption and offering alternative production solutions that are less energy
intensive. Exploiting the literature data about cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-gate investigations, and
after establishing reasonable approximations, the main BP sub-elements were considered for this
study, such as the plastic cells support, the Li-ion cells brick, the PCBs for a battery management
system (BMS), the liquid-based battery thermal management system (BTMS) and the BP container.





 For each of these components, the impacts of the extraction, processing, assembly, and transportation
Citation: Falcone, M.; Quattromini, of raw materials are estimated and the partial and total values of the energy demand (ED) and
N.F.; Rossi, C.; Pulvirenti, B. Life global warming potential (GWP) are determined. The final interpretation of the results allows one
Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion to understand the important role played by LCA evaluations and presents other possible ways of
Battery Pack Unit Made of reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emissions.
Cylindrical Cells. Batteries 2022, 8, 76.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: life cycle assessment; energy demand; global warming potential; cradle-to-gate; battery
batteries8080076 pack; lithium-ion; energy saving
Academic Editors: Burçak Ebin,
Martina Petranikova and Carlos
Ziebert
1. Introduction
Received: 13 June 2022
Accepted: 20 July 2022
In a society where the energy demand is constantly growing hand in hand with
Published: 25 July 2022
technological development and, at the same time, awareness of environmental issues is
rising, studies of life cycle assessment (LCA) have become fundamental. Before 2015, when
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
the EU Circular Economy Action Plan had not yet come into play [1], the LCA was already
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
a discussion topic but mainly in research environments. The outdated and most common
published maps and institutional affil-
way of approaching goods production was mainly focused on performances and costs
iations.
in “linear life thinking”, which caused dramatic results in terms of raw material usage.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) stated that, in the last 40 years,
raw material consumption tripled, going from 27 billion tons in 1970 to 98 billion tons
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
in 2018 [2]. In the last decade, the LCA has generated more and more interest not only
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. in the academic world but also among industry stakeholders who have begun to change
This article is an open access article their mindset, switching to the new “circular life thinking” or life cycle thinking (LCT) [3].
distributed under the terms and Both private realities (industries, companies) and public ones (governments) have started
conditions of the Creative Commons to embrace green economy principles, establishing and regulating business models so
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// that both materials and products can keep their highest value throughout their whole life
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ cycles [4,5]. This new way of thinking about the product impact does not only consider its
4.0/). disposal stages [6] but also all the production phases from the extraction of raw materials

Batteries 2022, 8, 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080076 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/batteries

Batteries 2022, 8, 76 2 of 24

to the manufacturing processes, including the use of energy and water [7,8], wastes and
transportation emissions [9]. Finally, the disposal of the product is investigated, taking into
account the possibility of recycling all or part of it [10,11]. This last consideration is the
key-point that allows distinguishing two different approaches to the product impact: the
cradle-to-grave (CTG) and the cradle-to-cradle (CTC).
The CTG approach dates from the 1990s [6] and takes into account the whole life cycle
of a product up to the disposal stage. It has increased producers’ awareness of the real
consumption related to their production, teaching the LCT and motivating them not to
waste resources. Regarding the CTC approach, it does not consider the analysis impact of
a real final disposal phase as what is considered waste in CTG studies is “food” for CTC
ones. It was in 2002 that the definition of CTC was given by the chemist Michael Braungart
and the architect William McDonough: drawing a parallel with nature where “the waste
of one system becomes food for another” [12], they suggested a product impact approach
where the products which arrived at the end of their lives would have become a sort of
raw material to produce something of equal or even better quality. This innovative LCT
implied recycling processes which, in recent decades, have been significantly developed
and improved in every field. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
includes widely recognized procedures to conduct valid and extensive LCA studies [13]. In
particular, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 represent the basis of the International Reference Life
Cycle Data System (ILCD), a technical guideline to carry on accurate LCAs considering
product-specific criteria [3].
To complete a detailed and useful LCA, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 suggest to proceed
by following four different phases which are often dependent on each other. Nevertheless,
none of these stages should be considered as concluded until the entire study is complete.
The aforementioned stages are the following: goal and scope; life cycle inventory (LCI); life
cycle impact assessment (LCIA); and interpretation. During the goal and scope stage, the
intended application and audience, the reason for the study and whether the results will be
used in a comparative dissertation intended for public release must be defined. This is a
fundamental preliminary phase which saves time during the following ones by focusing
the attention on the real core of the investigation. The LCI is the data collecting phase
resulting from an input and output analysis and quantification: this is the moment when a
real inventory is compiled [14] considering raw materials, energy and water requirements,
atmospheric emissions, resource usage and all the other flows involved in a product or
process life cycle. Flow charts, such as the Sankey diagram, are very helpful during
this phase [15]. Knowing the methods to extract or machine the materials, it is possible
to work on the impact assessment. First, it is necessary to classify the kind of impact
associated with the considered material (climate change, ozone depletion, or toxicity related
to anthropogenic activity). Then, all the inventory items (flows) have to be characterized:
this means that every flow related to a certain impact has to be classified under a common
unit of comparison [13]. For instance, considering the global warming potential (GWP) as
the impact, the unit is the equivalent CO2 weight which has to be assigned to all the items in
the inventory. This procedure is usually performed with the help of databases. Finally, there
is the interpretation of the collected data: the LCI and the LCIA are checked, evaluated and
all the issues coming from the investigation of these two previous phases are identified and
faced by choosing among a broad repertoire of methodological alternatives [16]. A series of
limitations and recommendations represents the final result of the interpretation phase.
Nowadays, LCA studies focus on extremely varied fields of services and products,
such as packaging [17], tourism [18], textile industry [19,20], food processes [21–24], drink
consumption [25,26], electronics [27], and materials [28]. Transportation is another huge
sector in which LCA analysis is applied [29], and particularly when considering the issue
of sustainable urban and commercial development, many studies have investigated the
benefits brought by the electrification of the public means compared to the impacts of
more ordinary thermal-engine-powered vehicles [30–32]; on the other hand, other studies
have analyzed the positive environmental and economic impacts resulting from a ships
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 3 of 24

electrification campaign, considering factors, such as the kind of fuel/propulsion, the

chemistry of the BPs, and the average cruise speed [33–36]. A great deal of effort is also
focused on the automotive field, studying the effects of car lightening [37], the benefits of
using recycled natural materials [38], and, when it talks about green mobility [39–41], the
attention is often focused on the Li-ion BP. Several researches deal with the environmental
impact of a whole electric vehicle (EV) BP [42], other studies focus on the constituent
materials [43] or components [44–46].
In this paper, LCA literature results are used to carry on a cradle-to-gate analysis
regarding the LiBER [47] BP based on the modular integration of lithium-ion cylindrical
cells. This prototype is based on an international patent [48], whose main innovations are
the modularity of the system, the thermal control of each cell in order to prevent thermal
runaway events and some novel processes for the assembling of the cells and the bricks
which avoid the use of wires. A custom-made battery pack based on the concept of the
LiBER group has been installed on Emilia 4 [49], the solar car of the University of Bologna
built by the sport association Onda Solare. Emilia 4 is a 4-seats competitive vehicle, fully
made of carbon fibers, whose main characteristics are: two rear in-wheel electric motors,
5 m2 of monocrystalline silicon solar panels and a 32 kWh Li-ion battery pack. Several
studies have already been devoted to design, environmental, mechanical, and electrical
aspects related to Onda Solare solar cars [50–58]. Taking into account Emilia 4, the aim of this
work is to deepen the knowledge regarding the environmental impact of its BP. This study
deals with the raw materials extraction, their processing, the assembly of the components,
and the products transportation. All these stages are evaluated in terms of energy demand
(ED) and GWP impact. A final interpretation of the results proposes several energy saving
solutions to lower the ED and GWP values.

2. Materials and Methods

Figure 1 shows the Li-ion battery (LIB) considered for this analysis, which is made of
2 modules, both of them composed of a stack of 15 bricks which, in turn, contains 48 cells
each. Figure 2 shows a detailed view of the LiBER brick: the 48 cells are inserted into the
slots of the support structure, which is made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).

Figure 1. A scheme of the LiBER modular approach.

In the brick, as shown in Figure 2, the cells are separated from the ABS by means of
thin aluminum liners, locked in the right position by two bus-bar plates and electrically
connected to the positive and negative bus-bars by means of laser welded tabs. Additional
holes in the support structure host the cooling piping. A printed circuit board called
BMS-brick is installed on the side of each brick and it is used for the acquisition of the cells
voltage and temperature. The bus-bars host the power connections which allow the direct
connection in series of the bricks forming a stack of bricks. At the two ends, the stack is
completed with electrical terminations, BMS control boards, and ancillaries. The module
is formed by inserting the complete stack into a container made of composite material.
The container is closed at the two sides with two metal plates to guarantee mechanical
protection and to seal the modules. Finally, the two modules are connected either in series
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 4 of 24

or in parallel by using external power wiring to form the BP. The LiBER battery design for
simple disassembling and reassembly operations, combined with a distributed State of
Health (SOH) estimator, allows an easy reuse of the bricks in second life applications. This
analysis regarding the LCA over a longer life time that includes disassembly, reassembly,
and reuse will be addressed in a next work.

Figure 2. A scheme of the LiBER brick (left) and a section of the LiBER brick plastic support (right).

The analysis is divided into five main research macro-topics usually taken into con-
sideration in this genre of studies [59]: the cells support, the Li-ion cells, the BMS system,
the liquid-based BTMS and the container. The other parts of the BP, such as the electrical
components (fuses, switches, connectors) are not considered in this LCA analysis. The LCA
is conducted as a cradle-to-gate analysis (a partial cradle-to-grave without the study of
the product disposal) and, concerning the kind of resultant impact, the ED and the GWP
values are considered.

2.1. Cells Support

In Figure 2, a section of the LiBER cells support is shown: it is a plastic structure with
48 holes for the Li-ion cells arranged in a 6 × 8 configuration and one aluminum liner
in each hole to better dissipate the heat generated by the cells. About the aluminum, it
is assumed to be all primary aluminum as the majority of the literature data about the
impact evaluations (ED and GWP) deal with that kind of metal. The LCA about the plastic
part of the support involves the analysis of two different materials: the polyoxymethylene
(POM) usually used in the manual production line and the ABS common in the automatic
production line.

2.2. Li-Ion Cells

The cells chosen for this LCA analysis are the cylindrical INR 21700 P42A produced
by Molicel [60] and based on LiNiMnCoO2 cathode. This kind of cells is a quite common
choice in the BP mass production when frequent charging/discharging cycles are required
(energy storage, automotive): the reason is that the low cobalt content brings to lower
costs [61]. The LiBER BP concept and assembly processes do not depend on the cells used.
Then, the study presented in this paper is designed so that the section concerning the cradle-
to-gate analysis of the Li-ion cells can be replaced with a new one focused on a different
type of cells instead of the ones analyzed in this work, with the other sections remaining
the same. It has to be specified that the following analysis does not take into account
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 5 of 24

the environmental impacts coming from the use of the Li-ion cells (charging/discharging
phases), as well as the battery post-processing. In addition to the anode and the cathode
components, the study of a cell deals with many other materials: the constituents of the
binder, the separator ones, the electrolyte salt and its additives, and, enclosing the whole
assembly, the nickel-plated steel cell casing. Before starting with the impact evaluation
some assumptions are completed: the binder is considered as made of polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) and represents a negligible mass percentage (<1%) [60] in the selected
NMC cells [59]; among the data found in the literature, a separator composition equal to
50% of polypropylene (PP) and 50% of polyethylene (PE) is selected; the electrolyte solvent
is considered as 50% dimethyl carbonate (DMC) made and 50% ethylene carbonate (EC)
made as the other carbonates which usually compose the NMC cell solvent are in much
lower and negligible percentages. Furthermore, the cell casing is not taken into account
as in the overall CO2 emissions balance its impact is lower than 1% [59]. The resulting
inventory includes: the anode (graphite coating on a copper foil), the cathode (cobalt(III)
lithium oxide (CoLiO2 ), Mn, Ni coating on an Al foil), the electrolyte salt LiPF6 (lithium
hexafluorophosphate), and the electrolyte solvent (50% DMC, 50% EC) [60]. Studies
demonstrate that the ED and CO2 emissions related to the cell assembly are much lower
than the those coming from the cell processing (in particular, the processes involving the
anode and the cathode) [45]. Other studies highlight how reasonable this thesis is compared
to the extremely low emissions for the entire BP assembly and those associated with the
overall LCA (GWPASSEM ' 0.7 · GWPTOT ) [62]. Finally, in this study the manufacturing
phase is evaluated only concerning the Li-ion cells, instead this contribution is considered
irrelevant regarding the cells support and the liquid-cooled BTMS.

2.3. BMS
Each brick is realized with a 1.8 mm thick FR4 layer and a 35 µm copper thick sheet.

2.4. Liquid-Cooled BTMS

The BTMS considered in this study is based on the real liquid cooling system installed
on the LiBER BP prototype: it is a water-based BTMS with a coolant circuit made of a
silicone rubber tube passing through the holes of the brick. As seen in the brick scheme
(Figure 2), among the bigger holes for the cells there are smaller ones for the cooling circuit
which passes through 12 of them while the coolant flows along it. The liquid duct holes
have a diameter dhole = 10 mm, so the chosen silicone rubber tube has an external and an
internal diameter equal to dtube, ext = 10 mm and dtube, int = 8 mm, respectively, resulting in
a thickness stube = 1 mm. The LCA regarding the BTMS is here facilitated just considering
the silicon rubber tube in terms of raw materials extraction, processing and transportation.

2.5. Container
The battery pack container is made of pultruded composite materials and it has also a
structural function. The container cap is not considered as it gives a negligible contribution
with modules composed of a high number of bricks.

2.6. LCA Approach

The system boundary of the study comes from a cradle-to-gate approach: it starts with
the extraction of the raw materials and ends with the assembly of the BP module. Figure 3
depicts the system boundary and shows the details of the sections present in this work.
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 6 of 24

Figure 3. A scheme of the LCA analysis carried on in the paper.

3. Results
3.1. Cell Support
3.1.1. Cell Support: Raw Material Extraction and Processing
Aluminum The production processes involving the primary aluminum are the bauxite
extraction, the Bayer (the conversion from bauxite to alumina), and the Hall–Héroult
process (the smelting of the alumina into molten cryolite, followed by the electrolysis of the
molten salt bath) [63]. Then comes the T6 temper, a heat treatment which consists of two
phases: the quenching (a heating process followed by a sudden cooling) and the artificial
ageing [64]. The ED related to the aluminum cutting process is considered negligible.
POM A block of 4 kg of material is obtained starting from the coarse powder, thanks
to a molding process [65]. Then, the block is machined with a CNC miller, removing the
chips. During the machining process there is an 80% volume reduction: in order to obtain
a realistic analysis, the overall machining process is split into a coarse machining for the
85% of the removed volume, and a fine machining for the 15% of it, resulting in a matrix of
0.8 kg.
ABS The UL 94 V0 is chosen according to the Standard for Safety of Flammability of
Plastic Materials: this kind of ABS shows great performances in case of fire emergency,
succeeding in stopping the burning process on a vertical specimen within 10 s [66]. The
ABS processes deal with a coarse powder molding phase carried on with a hot chamber
injection molding method [65]: this means that the ABS gross mass before the process is
equal to the ABS net mass after the injection.
The ED and the GWP values related to the aluminum, POM, and ABS raw materials
extraction and processes are summarized in Table 1 and shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5
per unit of mass and energy, respectively.
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 7 of 24

Table 1. Average ED and GWP related to the aluminum, POM, and ABS processes [67–71].

ED [MJ/Brick] GWP [kgCO2 /Brick]

Extraction 0.52 0.03
Processing and heat treatments 84.54 4.22

Al
Coarse machining 0.73 −
Total 85.79 4.25
Primary production 344.00 12.80
Block molding 64.00 4.80
POM

Coarse machining 3.50 0.27

Fine machining 4.02 0.30
Total 415.52 18.17
Primary production 83.84 3.11
ABS

Injection molding 15.24 1.14

Total 99.08 4.25

Figure 4. Average ED and GWP per unit of mass related to the ABS, POM, and aluminum extraction
and primary production processes.

Figure 5. Average ED and GWP per unit of energy related to the ABS, POM, and aluminum extraction
and primary production processes.
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 8 of 24

3.1.2. Cells Support: Material Transportation

The transportation impact is evaluated considering a diesel powered IVECO ECOS-
TRALIS Active AS truck for the road transport (whose maximum payload is 10,200 kg) and
a HFO powered MAN S90ME-C9.2-GI ship for the sea transport, a 8000 TEU (Twenty-foot
Equivalent Unit) cargo provided with a two-stroke marine engine [72]. The 1 TEU repre-
sents the dimension of an ordinary container whose maximum payload is 24,000 kg. As
the LiBER headquarter is based in Bologna (Emilia-Romagna, Italy), this has influenced
the choice of where stocking up the materials, aiming to obtain as low transport emissions
as possible. The data related to the impact of the transportation means are shown in
Tables 2 and 3.
Regarding the aluminum transportation impact, two options are considered. The
first one involves the transport of the Al6065: this kind of metal is that selected for the
real LiBER brick but it is expected that it gives a remarkably negative contribution to the
emissions due to the distance of the current stocking up site (Jiangsu, China). The second
option is the Al6063: with almost the same mechanical and physical characteristics of the
Al6065, this metal can be a possible substitute as it is available in Italy (San Colombano al
Lambro). Regarding the plastic materials, both the ABS and the POM are available in Italy
at a relatively short distance from Bologna. The calculations for the transport emissions
are shown step by step into the Supplementary Material, to be taken as example for all the
other transport contributions.

Table 2. Impact evaluation data of a diesel powered IVECO ECOSTRALIS Active AS truck considering
a payload of 10,200 kg.

Unit Value
Emissions [kgCO2 /L] 2.65
Fuel consumption [L/km] 0.3
Fuel calorific value [MJ/kg] 45
Fuel density [kg/L] 0.83

Table 3. Impact evaluation data of a HFO powered MAN S90ME-C9.2-GI cargo ship considering an
average speed vecargo = 23.5 kn = 43.6 km/h [73].

Unit Value
Emissions [gCO2 /km t] 12.5
Fuel consumption [t/d] 206.8
Fuel calorific value [MJ/kg] 42.7

Aluminum 6065 Choosing the Al6065 it is necessary to use both the cargo ship and the
truck to import the material from China (total distance scargo = 19,535 km). The calculations
for the transport evaluation impact are reported in the Supplementary Material. The
overall ED and GWP specific values for the Al6065 are the sum of the cargo and the truck
contributions: GWPs, Al6065 = 0.366 kgCO2 /kgAl , EDs, Al6065 = 2.579 MJ/kgAl .
Aluminum 6063 With the same logic, the ED and GWP values are calculated for the
Al6063, considering a travel distance struck = 175 km. In this case GWPs, Al6063 = 0.013
kgCO2 /kgAl , EDs, Al6063 = 0.196 MJ/kgAl .
POM Studying the most common trade routes, it is assumed that the POM comes from
Brescia (Italy) and travels along the Brescia–Minerbio–Bologna route (sPOM = 238 km).
Considering this, the specific and the overall ED and GWP values are calculated obtaining:
GWPTOT, POM = 189 kgCO2 , GWPs, POM = 0.018 kgCO2 /kgPOM , CEDPOM = 2723.4 MJ,
EDs, POM = 0.267 MJ/kgPOM .
ABS Brescia is chosen as stocking up site for the ABS too but, this time, following the
route Brescia–Ravenna–Bologna (sABS = 353 km). For the ABS it is found: GWPTOT, ABS =
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 9 of 24

280.63 kgCO2 , GWPs, ABS = 0.028 kgCO2 /kgABS , CEDABS = 3978 MJ, EDs, ABS = 0.390
MJ/kgABS .
All the results regarding the transportation impact related to the materials needed for
the cells support (negligible if compared with the values in Table 1) are collected in Table 4.

Table 4. Average ED and GWP related to the transportation impact of the cells support materials.

ED [MJ/kgmaterial ] GWP [kgCO2 /kgmaterial ]

TRUCK CARGO TRUCK CARGO

Al6065 1.72 0.86 0.12 0.24

Materials

Al6063 0.20 − 0.01 −

POM 0.27 − 0.02 −
ABS 0.40 − 0.03 −

3.2. Li-Ion Cells

3.2.1. Li-Ion Cells: Raw Material Extraction
Aluminum For the aluminum extraction it is found that GWPs, Al = 0.078 kgCO2 /kgAl ;
EDs, Al = 1.040 MJ/kgAl [68].
Copper The copper extraction process first involves sulphide ores which, then, are
processed to become pure copper (Section 3.2.2). For the copper (sulphide ores) extraction,
it is estimated that GWPs, Cu = 1.20 kgCO2 /kgCu ; EDs, Cu = 28.3 MJ/kgCu [74].
Lithium Lithium is usually obtained via brine evaporation or it is extracted mining a
pegmatite rock (spodumene or petalite) [75]. A brine extraction is possible in presence of
saline lakes, seawater, saline sedimentary basins, and wherever high-NaCl-concentration
solutions are available. This extraction method is based on the natural ores leaching from
the Andes mountain range, accumulated underground as brines [76] and then pumped
to the surface [77]. The brine is stored inside open pools under the sun, so that the salt
concentration increases thanks to the evaporation. The Chilean brines located in the
Atacama desert are natural water solutions characterized by the highest content of Li and
P and represent the largest lithium extraction site in the world [76] (from 70% up to 80% of
lithium is recovered from brines located in the so-called South America’s lithium triangle
of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia [78,79]).
In Figure 6, this geographical area is shown and the most important extraction sites
are put in evidence. The exploitation of spodumene or petalite ores happens in open-pit
mines and it is more common in countries, such as Bolivia, Zimbawe, Australia, Canada,
and Portugal. Both of these extraction methods lead to obtain lithium carbonate (Li2 CO3 )
and are not so different in terms of environmental impact [75,80] considering favorable
weather conditions. On the contrary, Stamp et al. [80] demonstrates that unfavorable
conditions, such as the solar discontinuity and the consequent inefficient evaporation,
make the ore extraction choice the best one. In this LCA study, a brine extraction carried on
with favorable conditions is considered and it is found GWPs, Li = 4.50 kgCO2 /kgLi [77,81];
EDs, Li = 31.15 MJ/kgLi [80]. The choice of the Atacama desert as lithium extraction site
represents an important contribution in terms of transportation impact (Section 3.2.4). To
minimize the emissions coming from the transport of the other raw materials for the cells it
is considered that these elements are all available in Chile. This is a reasonable hypothesis
considering how rich is the Chilean land in terms of ores and metals [82–85].
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 10 of 24

Figure 6. The South America’s lithium triangle holds the most important lithium extraction sites:
Salar de Atacama (SDA), Salar del Hombre Muerto (SDHM), Salar de Uyuni (SDU), Salar de Olaroz
(SDO), and Salar del Rincon (SDR).

Cobalt This element is produced worldwide as a byproduct of copper, nickel and

silver, and copper-cobalt ores are the most common source where it is possible to extract
this material [86]. Cobalt is never used alone but it is needed to produce NMC powder,
starting from cobalt(II) sulfate (CoSO4 ) which is then mixed with nickel(II) sulfate (NiSO4 ),
manganese(II) sulfate (MnSO4 ) and other chemical compounds present in lower quantities.
For the cobalt extraction it is found GWPs, Co = 38 kgCO2 /kgCo ; EDs, Co = 653 MJ/kgCo [87].
Manganese This is a very abundant element on Earth, available in more than 30 countries.
The manganese is extracted from open-pit mines where there is usually a mixture of
several manganese oxides, such as pyrolusite, romanechite, manganite: considering the
battery cells, the manganese is used as MnO2 , that is the pyrolusite composition. After
the extraction, several steps follow (beneficiation, smelting, refining [75]) before obtaining
the manganese. The final results for the extraction are: GWPs, Mn = 6.20 kgCO2 /kgMn [75];
EDs, Mn = 16.5 MJ/kgMn [88].
Nickel Nickel is the most important material in terms of cathode mass: as a matter of
fact, a NMC cathode is 80% nickel made [89]. Further, it is a natural source and so fully
recyclable, not showing quality and performance decrease issues. For the nickel extraction
there is GWPs, Ni = 8.84 kgCO2 /kgNi ; EDs, Ni = 155 MJ/kgNi [90].
Graphite This is the most stable form of coal (in standard conditions) and it is possible
to extract it from open-pit mines or from the underground. There are two kind of graphite,
the natural and the synthetic one: both produce almost the same CO2 emissions [91].
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 11 of 24

Considering the Molicel datasheet [60], synthetic graphite is chosen as anode constituent
for this study. For the synthetic graphite extraction it is found GWPs, C = 1.80 ÷ 8.20
kgCO2 /kgC [75]; EDs, C = 4.80 ÷ 5.20 MJ/kgC [86].
All the results regarding the extraction impact related to the materials needed for the
cells are collected in Table 5 which shows the values of both ED and GWP.

3.2.2. Li-Ion Cells: Material Processing

Lithium carbonate Once the brine is stored in the open pools (Section 3.2.1) the
purification occurs (it takes about one year): this is the phase when the lithium concentration
increases [77]. Then, a carbonation process follows [80]: this chemical reaction involves
lithium (Li) and sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3 ), producing lithium carbonate (Li2 CO3 ) whose
production chain proceeds with the compound filtration and washing and, finally, it
ends with the packaging phase. For the Li2 CO3 processing it is: GWPs, Li2 CO3 = 2.02
kgCO2 /kgLi2 CO3 ; EDs, Li2 CO3 = 28.43 MJ/kgLi2 CO3 [80]. Li2 CO3 is then used in the chemical
processes to obtain the cathode powders.
Anode graphite powder The synthetic graphite preparation deals with several phases,
such as the initial petroleum coke grinding and sizing, and the following mixing where
the coke is blended with pitch in the desired proportion. After an extrusion process, the
mixture is heated at 800 ÷ 1000 °C in a natural-gas-fired furnace. This baking phase is
often doubled, putting in the middle a further impregnation phase: the mixture is blended
with more pitch to improve the final graphite properties. Finally, the graphitization occurs:
this fully electricity powered phase slowly brings the product to 3000 °C, so the graphite
crystal formation can start [86]. For the anode graphite processing it is: GWPs, gr = 4.86
kgCO2 /kggr ; EDs, gr = 89.87 MJ/kggr [91].
Copper anode current collector After the extraction of the sulphide ores, several pro-
cessing stages occur: the beneficiation to transform the ores into a slurry [75], the drying
and the smelting. Then, for the copper anode collector a refining phase is fundamen-
tal. All the aforementioned stages and the related impacts are discussed more in detail
in the Supplementary Material. For the copper current collector processing it is found:
GWPs, Cuanod = 4.1 kgCO2 /kgCuanod ; EDs, Cuanod = 47 MJ/kgCuanod [92].
Cathode Ni–Mn–Co powders The most common cathode composition in NMC bat-
teries is that of the NMC111 cells (also called NMC333) which means that the Ni–Mn–Co
blend is in the ratio 1:1:1 [93,94]. Regarding the impact evaluation of the cathode powder,
discordant results are present in the literature if considering analytical [95] or experimental
investigations [91]: experimental results are taken into account in this paper and the detailed
reactions to obtain these powders are discussed in the Supplementary Material. For the
Ni–Mn–Co cathode powders processing it is GWPs, Ni–Mn–Co = 16.11 kgCO2 /kgNi–Mn–Co ;
EDs, Ni–Mn–Co = 231.28 MJ/kgNi–Mn–Co [91].
Aluminum cathode current collector The raw aluminum is processed (see Section 3.1.1)
till reaching the ingot casting [75]. Then, the ingot has to be processed too as the thickness
of the final product has to decrease until about 10 ÷ 20 µm [96]. To do this, multiple rolling
stages are necessary. The aluminum rolling exploits steel rolls to dramatically reduce the
ingot thickness which usually ranges from 0.46 m to 0.76 m [68]. All the aluminum rolling
operations are deepened into the Supplementary Material. Considering all the processes
after the mining until the rolling (included), results are: GWPs, Alcath = 8.86 kgCO2 /kgAlcath ;
EDs, Alcath = 137.06 MJ/kgAlcath [68].
PP and PE separators As the separator is 50% PP and 50% PE made, both kinds of
plastic processes are considered so that GWPs, PP = 2.53 kgCO2 /kgPP ; EDs, PP = 78.59
MJ/kgPP ; GWPs, PE = 2.93 kgCO2 /kgPE ; EDs, PE = 80.96 MJ/kgPE [91].
Electrolyte salt The electrolyte salt is made of lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6 ):
it is the reaction product between the phosphorous pentafluoride (PF5 ) and the lithium
fluoride (LiF) previously dissolved in hydrogen fluoride (HF) [97]. For the electrolyte salt
processing it is: GWPs, LiPF6 = 12.15 kgCO2 /kgLiPF6 ; EDs, LiPF6 = 179.07 MJ/kgLiPF6 [91].
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 12 of 24

DMC and EC electrolyte solvents Mixing DMC and EC with LiPF6 allows increasing
the permittivity of the electrolyte salt [98]. For the electrolyte solvent processing it is
found: GWPs, DMC = 1.72 kgCO2 /kgDMC ; EDs, DMC = 37.44 MJ/kgDMC ; GWPs, EC = 0.47
kgCO2 /kgEC ; EDs, EC = 10.19 MJ/kgEC [91].
All the results regarding the processing impact related to the material transformations
needed for the cells are collected in Table 5.

Table 5. Average ED and GWP related to the extraction and processing of the raw materials for one
cell.

Materials ED [MJ/Cell] GWP [kgCO2 /Cell]

Al 0.015 0.080
Cu 0.267 0.011
Extraction

Li 0.065 0.009
Co 4.571 0.266
Mn 0.116 0.043
Ni 1.085 0.062
Graphite 0.053 0.053
Total 6.171 0.446
Li2 CO3 0.060 0.004
Anode graphite powder 0.944 0.051
Cu anode collector 0.444 0.0387
Cathode Ni–Mn–Co powder 4.857 0.338
Processing

Al cathode collector 1.919 0.124

PP separator 0.149 0.0048
PE separator 0.153 0.0055
Electrolyte salt 0.376 0.025
DMC electrolyte solvent 0.157 0.007
EC electrolyte solvent 0.043 0.002
Total 9.459 0.626

3.2.3. Li-Ion Cells: Product Assembly

The manufacturing of the cells is carried out in a large scale and fully automated
production site. The process consists of several operations, such as the manufacturing of
the electrodes, and the assembly and the finishing of the cells [99]. Independently from
the shape of the cells (cylindrical, pouch, prismatic) the electrodes manufacturing always
includes the following steps: the mixing of the powders with additives using intensive
mixers and dispersers; the coating of the Al and Cu electrode foils (the collectors) with the
powder mixture already obtained (Section 3.2.2); the drying of the resulting collectors, a
thermal cycle (50 ÷ 180 °C) useful to improve the quality of the coating and the finishing of
the surface; the calendering (compression and cleaning) and the slitting (cutting, cleaning
and winding) stages. In a NMC111 cell with a graphite anode, the higher active mass
of the cathode with respect to the anode one results in lower ED values for the anode
manufacturing stages. The subsequent steps are specific for cylindrical cells and deal with
the assembly of the cells: the winding of the electrodes with the separator (realization of
the jelly roll); the packing during which the jelly roll is inserted into the nickel plated steel
casing, welded to its top and bottom and sealed in it; the vacuum and the under-pressure
filling processes to inject a precise amount of electrolyte into the cell by means of vibrating
tables; the final cell sealing. Regarding the finishing operations for cylindrical cells there
are the SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) formation; the ageing process at high (30 ÷ 50 °C)
or environmental temperatures which lasts 1.5–3 weeks; the quality control (tests about the
cell characterization); and other possible complementary steps to manage the air conditions
inside the clean rooms used for the assembly process. Considering literature results [45,99]
normalized for 1 Wh cells and scaling them for this case study about INR 21700 P42A
cells (15.12 Wh/cell), it is possible to estimate the ED values in terms of Wh and then
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 13 of 24

converting them into MJ to know how much energy per cell (MJ/cell) is used. Among
all the ED contributions it has to be highlighted that the drying one is the less precise
as strongly influenced by the environmental conditions and the machines used. As a
matter of fact, literature data related to this process greatly differ from each other. The
estimation of the GWP values is much more difficult due to the lack of papers which
deepen the assembly CO2 emissions. The reason is that it is hard to obtain reasonable
GWP average values which take into account all the different existent technologies used for
these stages. Further, the complexity in evaluating the power needed by all the machines
(mixers, centrifuges, ovens) and the fact that they rarely work at standard conditions and/or
continuously (sometimes they are in standby) make the evaluations even harder. Results
in Table 6 are referred to by a single cell, the weight of which is wcell = 70 g [100], so the
approximated ED and GWP values related to 1 kg of cells are EDassem = 28.84 MJ/kgcell
GWPassem = 0.9929 kgCO2 /kgcell . For the same reason as is explained in Section 3.2.1, to
lower the transportation impact the whole cell assembly process is intended as completely
carried out in Chile. In this way, it is possible not to consider transportation impacts
related to the routes from the assembly sites (different from Chile) to the purchaser location
(Bologna). The assumption of a single geographical site as an extraction, processing,
and assembling place is reasonable considering the increasing amount of companies and
institutions which commission investigations about the economical benefits coming from
this strategy [79]. Results related to the impact of the electrode manufacturing (EM), the
cells assembly (CA), and cells finishing (CF) are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Average ED and GWP related to the assembly stages of the cells.

Assembly Stages ED [MJ/Cell] GWP [kgCO2 /Cell]

Mixing 0.0020 n.a.
n.a.
Anode

Coating 0.0004
Drying 0.2856 n.a.
Calendering 0.0001 n.a.
Slitting negl. n.a.
EM

Mixing 0.0036 n.a.

Cathode

Coating 0.0004 n.a.

Drying 0.8893 n.a.
Calendering 0.0001 n.a.
Slitting negl. n.a.
Winding 0.0136 0.0011
CA

Filling and packing 0.0865 0.0073

Washing 0.1078 0.0091
SEI formation 0.5536 0.0462
CF

Aging 0.0218 0.0012

Testing 0.0539 0.0046
Total 2.0187 0.0695

3.2.4. Li-Ion Cells: Product Transportation

In this evaluation, the same logic used for the cells support transportation impact
(Section 3.1.2) is followed. Among the most common existing trade routes, the chosen one
is Santiago de Compostela (Chile) to Rio Grande do Sul (Brasil) to Antwerp (Belgium) to
Bologna (Italy), with the first and the third road stages and one sea stage in the middle.
The ED and GWP values related to the transportation impact of the cells are collected in
Table 7 considering all the travelled stages by truck or cargo: the first road stage T1, the
second sea stage C and the third road stage T2 (see Supplementary Material for the all the
partial ED and GWP contributions).
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 14 of 24

The overall results related to the cells raw materials extraction and processing, to the
product assembly and transportation are shown in Figure 7.

Table 7. Average ED and GWP related to the transportation of the cells considering all the travelled
stages.

Route ED [MJ/Cell] GWP [kgCO2 /Cell]

T1 2.080 0.148
C 0.022 0.006
T2 1.076 0.076
Total 3.179 0.230

Extraction/Primary Prod.
Processing
Assembly
Trasportation

GWP [kgCO2 /cell]

ED [MJ/cell]

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 7. Average ED and GWP related to the raw materials extraction and processing, and the
assembly and transportation of the cells.

3.3. BMS
3.3.1. BMS: Raw Material Extraction and Processing
The circuits and components of the electronic boards are made of copper, aluminum,
silicon, and ceramic (X7R) and the boards are realized with glass-reinforced laminate
material (FR4). For the evaluations of the copper and the aluminum extraction and pro-
cessing, the discussion presented in Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 is taken as reference. The
X7R is a multi-layer material used for the capacitors electrodes. It is composed of bar-
ium carbonate (BaCO3 ), titanium (IV) oxide (TiO2 ), dysprosium(III) oxide (Dy2 O3 ), and
borosilicate glass. There is also the usage of a solvent (methyl ethyl ketone), a cationic
polymeric dispersant (Hypermer KD1), a plasticizer (PEG-400), and a binder (Butvar).
The total carbon footprint is GWPs, BMS, X7R = 4.19 kgCO2 /kgX7R [101]. The process for
the X7R production involves a drying and a sintering stage, with a correspondent energy
demand value of EDs, BMS1 , X7R = 79.56 MJ/kgX7R . To produce X7R capacitors some auxil-
iary processes are needed, such as milling and tape-casting: their contribution is equal to
EDs, BMS2 , X7R = 12.24 MJ/kgX7R . All the results regarding the raw material extraction and
processing impacts related to the BMS are collected in Table 8.
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 15 of 24

Table 8. Average ED and GWP related to the extraction and processing of the raw materials for the
BMS of one brick.

Materials ED [MJ/Brick] GWP [kgCO2 /Brick]

Al 0.034 0.001
Cu 3.633 0.154

Extraction
Ni 2.089 0.118
Si 0.444 0.053
X7R 0.792 0.009
FR4 0.108 0.060
Total 7.100 0.395
Al 0.682 0.112
Cu 0.109 0.539
Processing

Ni 1.044 0.119
Si 0.444 0.066
X7R 0.122 0.177
FR4 0.108 0.001
Total 2.510 1.015

3.3.2. BMS: Product Transportation

The city of Regensburg (Germany) is chosen as a FR4 production site as it represents
the headquarter of one of the biggest factories in Europe. The distance from Regensburg to
Bologna is equal to 692 km and for this route it is found: EDs, BMS = 0.76 MJ/kgBMS and
GWPs, BMS = 0.054 kgCO2 /kgBMS . As links and BMS boards contain 129 g and 20 g of FR4,
respectively, (the 1.31 × 10−3 % and the 2 × 10−4 % of the truck payload) and considering
th transportation of some other additional components (1.5 × 10−3 % of the payload), the
emissions related to the transportation of each brick are summarized in Table 9.

Table 9. Average ED and GWP related to the extraction, processing and transportation for the BMS
of one brick.

Impact ED [MJ/Brick] GWP [kgCO2 /Brick]

Extraction and processing 9.610 1.410
Transportation 0.485 0.044
Total 10.095 1.454

3.4. BTMS
3.4.1. BTMS: Raw Material Extraction and Processing
The state of the art about the silicone rubber production impact does not provide any
information about the ED and GWP values which regard the transformation of the raw
materials alone: the majority of the papers propose data related to the extraction of the
raw materials and their processing together. There are lots of stages before arriving at
the silicone rubber tube production: the whole process starts with a thermal phase which
involves the silicon(IV) oxide (SiO2 ) and allows to obtain silicon metal; then, several other
chemical and mechanical processes occur with a descending energy requirement [102].
One of the final products is the silicone rubber, the material used to produce the silicone
rubber tubes by extrusion. In the Supplementary Material the attention is focused on
the SiO2 reaction as it is the most energy-intensive process due to the exploitation of
a submerged arc furnace (SAF). The overall ED and GWP values reported in Table 10
regard the entire silicone rubber tube production. Thanks to openLCA (an open source
software useful to conduct LCA studies) [103] and exploiting the ELCD and the Idemat
databases, for the final silicone rubber tube it is found: GWPs, tube = 3.745 kgCO2 /kgtube ;
EDs, tube = 118.920 MJ/kgtube (Table 10).
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 16 of 24

3.4.2. BTMS: Product Transportation

The selected silicone rubber supplier is located in Milan (Italy) so the transport impact
concerns just a road travel (216 km). For the route Milano-Bologna it is found: GWPs, tube =
0.017 kgCO2 /kgtube ; EDs, tube = 0.237 MJ/kgtube (Table 10).

Table 10. Average ED and GWP related to the extraction, processing, and transportation for the
silicone rubber tube of the BP liquid cooling system.

Impact ED [MJ/kgmaterial ] GWP [kgCO2 /kgmaterial ]

Extraction + processing 118.92 3.75
Transportation 0.24 0.02
Total 119.16 3.77

High values of ED and GWP are shown in Table 10 regarding the material extraction
and processing to realize the silicone rubber tube of the BTMS. In this case energy-intensive
thermal and chemical processes are exploited to obtain the final product, so the aim of
reducing the energy demand represents a hard challenge. Further, the use of the SAF
does not help in lowering the GWP: to face this problem, some effectiveness cutting-edge
filters [104] can be used both to reduce CO2 emissions and to recycle it, transforming this
end-of-life (EoL) product in feeding material for the life cycle of a new product.

3.5. Container
3.5.1. Container: Raw Material Extraction and Processing
Composites are made of two or more different materials (fibers and reinforcements),
their production techniques are different from the more ordinary ones (metal or polymer
processes) and the production rates are not so high. Energy-intensive chemical processes are
necessary to realize thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer matrices (the reinforcements)
for composite structures, such as the container one. However there are some thermosetting
polymers, including polyester and epoxy resins (often used in fiber-reinforced composites),
which present relatively low energy intensity values [105]. Once prepared the matrices and
after obtaining the fibers there are further stages, such as the textile manufacturing and the
pre-preg preparation needed before the fibers are reinforced with the matrix. The impacts
related to the raw materials extraction and processing for the BP container results to be:
GWPs, cont = 9.104 kgCO2 /kgcont and EDs, cont = 169.69 MJ/kgcont (Table 11).

3.5.2. Container: Product Transportation

The selected poltruded composite structure supplier is located in Milan (Italy), so the
results found in Section 3.4.2 for the BTMS transportation impact are valid for the container
transportation impact, too (Table 11).

Table 11. Average ED and GWP related to the extraction, processing and transportation of the
container.

Impact ED [MJ/kgmaterial ] GWP [kgCO2 /kgmaterial ]

Extraction and processing 169.69 9.104
Transportation 0.237 0.017
Total 169.927 9.121

3.6. Module Assembly

The LiBER BP module is assembled according to a semi-automatic procedure. In the
first automated line, the cells are captured by a Delta robot and placed in the cells support.
The electrodes are then laser welded on the PCB. The more energy-intensive stages are
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 17 of 24

those related to the cells placement and to the electrodes welding but the overall ED of
these processes is negligible if compared with the contributions assessed in the previous
sections. The brick obtained with this automated process is then moved by an operator and
inserted into the module container. The whole process is highly innovative and does not
require any wires welding. The bricks are easily removable from the final assembly as the
entire product is designed with a circular economy approach.

4. Discussion
The results presented in the previous sections can be referred to the whole BP, visualiz-
ing the contributions of the five sub-systems, and then discussing the possible strategies to
reduce the overall environmental impact. The results related to the entire BP are collected
in Table 12 and shown in Figure 8 per unit of energy.

Table 12. ED and GWP related to the battery pack.

Impact ED [(MJ/kWh) · 10−9 ] GWP [(kgCO2 /kWh) · 10−9 ]

Cells support 24.084 1.071
Cells 75.474 4.641
BMS 3.677 0.170
BTMS 4.773 0.151
Container 6.806 0.365
Total 114.814 6.398

Figure 8. ED and GWP per unit of energy related to the entire LiBER battery pack.

The contribution of the cells is the most relevant due to the results obtained for the
extraction of the raw materials (Table 5). For instance, cobalt extraction has a deep impact
in terms of both ED and GWP, followed by the nickel which has a high ED value, too.
These are two fundamental elements to produce the cathode powder for the NMC111 cells,
so it is not possible to lower this contribution if the use of this kind of cells is mandatory
for the application. However, when it is possible to use another type of NMC cells, the
more innovative NMC622 or NMC811 batteries represent a better choice. The NMC622
cathode is composed of 60% of Ni, 20% of Mn, and 20% of Co; the NMC811 cathode is
composed of 80% of Ni, 10% of Mn, and 10% of Co. Both of them have a lower weight
(lower transport impact) and a higher energy density with respect to the NMC111. The
extremely reduced quantity of Co in NMC811 cells, their lowest weight and highest energy
density may suggest that this is the best choice. However, on the other hand, the high Ni
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 18 of 24

percentage is responsible for a more sensitive chemistry and, consequently, the need of
additional post-processing phases and a more expensive manufacturing process [94]. Plus,
NMC811 cells are sensitive to moisture and air so, in an automotive application, a further
sealed structure would be necessary to insulate them from the outside. All these additional
processes and components would increase the ED and GWP values, nullifying the benefits
brought by the lower Co percentage. From this point of view, the NMC622 represent a good
compromise and this is the reason why the Molicel cells have been chosen for the LiBER BP.
About the processing of the cells materials (Table 5), results show high values of
ED and GWP for several processed materials, but it is possible to lower only some of
them. One of the initial assumptions is considering the separator as 50% PP-made and
50% PE-made, but looking at the related ED and GWP, the results show that the use of a
100% PP-made separator brings to a decrease in both energy demand (∆ED = −2.93%)
and CO2 emissions (∆GWP = −13.65%). A similar evaluation can be completed regarding
the electrolyte solvent which is considered 50% DMC-made and 50% EC-made. The use of
a 100% EC-made electrolyte solvent brings to a great decreasing of both energy demand
(∆ED = −72.78%) and CO2 emissions (∆GWP = −72.67%). The processes regarding the
anode and the cathode powders and collectors, as well as the electrolyte salt production
are very energy-intensive as they include several thermal, chemical, and electrochemical
phases. As these treatments are fundamental for the quality of the final components, the
only possible choice to lower the energy demand is the exploitation of the most efficient
available industrial plants. Although during the assembly phase there are stages with a
higher impact than others, the final ED and GWP values do not deeply influence the overall
results of the LCA study. For this reason, and also because the assembly impact is extremely
dependant from several hardly predictable factors, a more effective strategy to lower the
whole cycle ED and GWP is focusing on the other more manageable production steps.
Considering the assumption of the cells assembled in Chile, the transportation impact
includes both truck and cargo stages. As seen before, the sea transport is a better choice
than the road one: although the total distance travelled by the truck (3694 km) represents
the 50.68% of the distance travelled by the cargo (7289 km), the sea transport results in
great ED and GWP decreases equal to ∆ED = −99.29% and ∆GWP = −97.19%. So, the
more it is possible to exploit the sea transport, the better is in terms of impact. Figure 7
shows that the impact of the cells support is about the 20% of the total ED.
Looking at the results obtained for the extraction and production of the aluminum
needed to realize the cells support (Table 1) it is clear that innovative technologies to
process the aluminum could represent an efficient solution to lower the ED value instead
of proceeding with the ordinary and energy-intensive methods (Bayer and Hall–Héroult
processes, Section 3). Cutting-edge technologies would be also promising to reduce the
CO2 emissions. Regarding the plastic material for the cells support, the choice is driven
by both the ED and the GWP value. As a matter of fact, comparing GWP for POM and
ABS in Table 1, results show the values 18.17 kgCO2 /brick for POM and 4.25 kgCO2 /brick
for ABS, with a percentage decreasing ∆GWP = −76.61% choosing ABS. Considering ED
in Table 1, the obtained values 415.52 MJ/brick for POM and 99.08 MJ/brick result in a
percentage decreasing ∆ED = −76.16% with ABS. The ABS is definitely the best choice
in terms of both GWP and ED. Analyzing the transportation impact for the materials of
the cells support, regarding the aluminum it clearly appears that choosing Al6063 instead
of Al6065 represents the more convenient option considering both the energy demand
and the emissions. Indeed, the overall Al6063 ED results to be 0.2 MJ/kgAl6063 instead
of 2.58 MJ/kgAl6065 for Al6065, with a percentage decrease ∆ED = −92.25% and the
overall Al60603 GWP results to be 0.01 kgCO2 /kgAl6063 instead of 0.36 kgCO2 /kgAl6065 for
Al6065, with a percentage decrease ∆GWP = −97.22%. However, it has to be highlighted
how convenient is the cargo transport with respect to the truck one. Focusing on the
Al6065 impact values, the results show that the GWP for the cargo stage is higher by
50% than that related to the truck stage but the distance travelled by the truck is just the
8.01% of the cargo distance. Further, the ED for the cargo stage is lower by 50% than
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 19 of 24

that related to the truck stage. Hence, if it is possible to choose between a road or a sea
transportation, it should be better to go for the second option. Finally, also the module
composite container shows a relevant impact (see Figure 7). To lower the environmental
impact coming from the composite goods production, EoL recycling stages are fundamental
and increasingly adopted as effective strategy [106]. However, there is still a lot to do in the
energy saving direction for composite materials. In particular, considering lower energy-
intensive composites processes and the production of more sustainable matrices, such as
bio-based resins, further investigation needs to be performed to optimize this production
field, trying to overcome the existent drawbacks [107].

5. Conclusions
The whole life cycle of a LiBER BP unit has been studied, carrying on a LCA evaluation
with a cradle-to-gate approach whose result is a series of estimations and suggestions
useful to lower both the ED and the GWP of the entire product chain supply. Five main
research macro-topics are considered: the cells support, the Li-ion cells, the BMS, the liquid
cooling BTMS and the BP container. After discussing about reasonable assumptions useful
for the assessment, the environmental impacts are evaluated focusing on the raw materials
extraction and the processing, the assembly of the components and the transportation of
the final products. The resulting interpretation proposes alternative methods and choices
that can be performed to lower the energy demand and the CO2 emissions, such as using
the ABS instead of the POM as material for the cells support, preferring the sea transport
with respect to the road one, choosing low-cobalt cells, using the PP instead of the PE
for the separator and the EC instead of the DMC for the electrolyte salt. Finally, good
practices would be trying to avoid the extraction and processing of the materials by means
of obsolete machines and installing a recycling line in the production plants. The majority of
the thermal, chemical, and processes electrochemical are characterized by energy-intensive
phases but the choice of cutting-edge technologies could represent a key against the high
values of ED and GWP. The analysis highlights the importance of extending the life span
of battery components through the reuse of parts. In this perspective, there are not only
possible technological changes but also a mindset switch towards a new cycle of thinking,
considering the EoL products as feedstock for the life cycle of the new products.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/batteries8080076/s1.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.F. and N.F.Q.; methodology, M.F. and N.F.Q.; software,
M.F. and N.F.Q.; investigation, M.F. and N.F.Q.; resources, M.F. and N.F.Q.; data curation, M.F., N.F.Q.
and B.P.; writing, M.F.; editing, M.F. and N.F.Q.; review, M.F., N.F.Q., B.P. and C.R. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research has received funding in the frame of the Emilia-Romagna Regional develop-
ment fund POR-FESR 2014-2020 Program under the LiBER project.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Davide Pontara, Matteo Marano, Luca Frigerio,
and Tommaso Brugo for their support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 20 of 24

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

BP Battery pack
BTMS Battery thermal management system
CA Cells assembly
CED Cumulative energy demand
CF Cells finishing
CTC Cradle-to-cradle
CTG Cradle-to-grave
DMC Dimethyl carbonate
ED Energy demand
EC Ethylene carbonate
EM Electrode manufacturing
EoL End of life
EV Electric vehicle
GWP Global warming potential
HFO Heavy fuel oil
ILCD International Reference Life Cycle Data System
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LCA Life cycle assessment
LCI Life cycle inventory
LCIA Life cycle impact assessment
LCT Life cycle thinking
LIB Lithium-ion battery
LiBER Lithium Battery for Emilia–Romagna
NMC Nickel Manganese Cobalt oxide
PCB Printed circuit board
PE Polyethylene
POM Polyoxymethylene
PP Polypropylene
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride
SAF Submerged arc furnace
SEI Solid electrolyte interface
TEU Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

References
1. European Commission. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and
Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions; Towards a Comprehensive Climate Change Agreement in Copenhagen; Additional
Background Information; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2009.
2. Economia Circolare—Perché “Circolare”; Circular Economy Network: Rome, Italy, 2018.
3. JCR. ILCD Handbook: General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment—Provisions and Action Steps; Publications Office of the European
Union: Luxembourg, 2010.
4. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Towards a Circular Economy: Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition; Ellen MacArthur
Foundation: Cowes, UK, 2015.
5. Schulz, M.; Bey, N.; Niero, M.; Hauschild, M. Circular economy considerations in choices of LCA methodology: How to handle
EV battery repurposing? Procedia CIRP 2020, 90, 182–186. [CrossRef]
6. Ashkin, S. Cradle to Grave vs. Cradle to Cradle; ClearLink: Salt Lake City, UT, USA, 2008.
7. Li, J.; Xiong, F.; Chen, Z. An integrated life cycle and water footprint assessment of nonfood crops based bioenergy production.
Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 3912.
8. Gerbens-Leenes, W.; Berger, M.; Allan, J.A. Water footprint and life cycle assessment: The complementary strengths of analyzing
global freshwater appropriation and resulting local impacts. Water 2021, 13, 803. [CrossRef]
9. Trevisan, L.; Bordignon, M. Screening Life Cycle Assessment to compare CO2 and Greenhouse Gases emissions of air, road, and
rail transport: An exploratory study. Procedia CIRP 2020, 90, 303–309. [CrossRef]
10. Corti, A.; Lombardi, L. End life tyres: Alternative final disposal processes compared by LCA. Energy 2004, 29, 2089–2108.
[CrossRef]
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 21 of 24

11. Laitala, K.; Klepp, I. Clothing disposal habits and consequences for life cycle assessment (LCA). In Handbook of Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) of Textiles and Clothing; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 345–365.
12. McDonough, W.; Braungart, M. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things; North Point Press: New York, NY, USA, 2002.
13. Matthews, H.; Hendrickson, C.; Matthews, D. Life Cycle Assessment: Quantitative Approaches for Decisions That Matter; CRC Press:
Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018.
14. Khoo, H.H.; Isoni, V.; Sharratt, P.N. LCI data selection criteria for a multidisciplinary research team: LCA applied to solvents and
chemicals. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2018, 16, 68–87. [CrossRef]
15. Lupton, R.C.; Allwood, J.M. Hybrid Sankey diagrams: Visual analysis of multidimensional data for understanding resource use.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 124, 141–151. [CrossRef]
16. Baumann, H.; Tillman, A.M. The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to LCA: An Orientation in Life Cycle Assessment Methodology and Application;
Studentlitteratur AB: Lund, Sweden, 2004.
17. Sazdovski, I.; Bala, A.; Fullana-i Palmer, P. Linking LCA literature with circular economy value creation: A review on beverage
packaging. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 771, 145322. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Scheepens, A.; Vogtländer, J.; Brezet, J. Two life cycle assessment (LCA) based methods to analyse and design complex (regional)
circular economy systems. Case: Making water tourism more sustainable. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 114, 257–268. [CrossRef]
19. Henry, B.; Russell, S.; Ledgard, S.; Gollnow, S.; Wiedemann, S.; Nebel, B.; Maslen, D.; Swan, P. LCA of wool textiles and clothing.
In Handbook of lIfe Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Textiles and Clothing; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 217–254.
20. Linhares, T.; de Amorim, M.T.P. LCA of textile dyeing with Acacia Dealbata tree bark: a case study research. Procedia Eng. 2017,
200, 365–369. [CrossRef]
21. Lamnatou, C.; Ezcurra-Ciaurriz, X.; Chemisana, D.; Plà-Aragonés, L. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a food-production system
in Spain: Iberian ham based on an extensive system. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 808, 151900. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Notarnicola, B.; Tassielli, G.; Nicoletti, G. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of wine production. Environ.-Friendly Food Process. 2003,
306, 326.
23. Aganovic, K.; Smetana, S.; Grauwet, T.; Toepfl, S.; Mathys, A.; Van Loey, A.; Heinz, V. Pilot scale thermal and alternative
pasteurization of tomato and watermelon juice: An energy comparison and life cycle assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 141,
514–525. [CrossRef]
24. Andersson, K.; Ohlsson, T.; Olsson, P. Screening life cycle assessment (LCA) of tomato ketchup: a case study. J. Clean. Prod. 1998,
6, 277–288. [CrossRef]
25. Amienyo, D.; Camilleri, C.; Azapagic, A. Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK. J. Clean. Prod.
2014, 72, 110–119. [CrossRef]
26. Amienyo, D.; Azapagic, A. Life cycle environmental impacts and costs of beer production and consumption in the UK. Int. J. Life
Cycle Assess. 2016, 21, 492–509. [CrossRef]
27. André, H.; Söderman, M.L.; Nordelöf, A. Resource and environmental impacts of using second-hand laptop computers: A case
study of commercial reuse. Waste Manag. 2019, 88, 268–279. [CrossRef]
28. Samani, P.; van der Meer, Y. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on flame retardants: A systematic review. J. Clean. Prod. 2020,
274, 123259. [CrossRef]
29. Spreafico, C.; Russo, D. Exploiting the scientific literature for performing life cycle assessment about transportation. Sustainability
2020, 12, 7548. [CrossRef]
30. Jakub, S.; Adrian, L.; Mieczysław, B.; Ewelina, B.; Katarzyna, Z. Life cycle assessment study on the public transport bus fleet
electrification in the context of sustainable urban development strategy. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 824, 153872. [CrossRef]
31. Ercan, T.; Tatari, O. A hybrid life cycle assessment of public transportation buses with alternative fuel options. Int. J. Life Cycle
Assess. 2015, 20, 1213–1231. [CrossRef]
32. Nordelöf, A.; Romare, M.; Tivander, J. Life cycle assessment of city buses powered by electricity, hydrogenated vegetable oil or
diesel. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2019, 75, 211–222. [CrossRef]
33. Perčić, M.; Vladimir, N.; Fan, A. Techno-economic assessment of alternative marine fuels for inland shipping in Croatia. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 148, 111363. [CrossRef]
34. Perčić, M.; Vladimir, N.; Fan, A.; Jovanović, I. Holistic Energy Efficiency and Environmental Friendliness Model for Short-Sea
Vessels with Alternative Power Systems Considering Realistic Fuel Pathways and Workloads. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 613.
[CrossRef]
35. Perčić, M.; Frković, L.; Pukšec, T.; Ćosić, B.; Li, O.L.; Vladimir, N. Life-cycle assessment and life-cycle cost assessment of power
batteries for all-electric vessels for short-sea navigation. Energy 2022, 251, 123895. [CrossRef]
36. Park, C.; Jeong, B.; Zhou, P.; Jang, H.; Kim, S.; Jeon, H.; Nam, D.; Rashedi, A. Live-Life cycle assessment of the electric propulsion
ship using solar PV. Appl. Energy 2022, 309, 118477. [CrossRef]
37. Del Pero, F.; Delogu, M.; Pierini, M. The effect of lightweighting in automotive LCA perspective: Estimation of mass-induced fuel
consumption reduction for gasoline turbocharged vehicles. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 154, 566–577. [CrossRef]
38. dos Santos Pegoretti, T.; Mathieux, F.; Evrard, D.; Brissaud, D.; de França Arruda, J.R. Use of recycled natural fibres in industrial
products: A comparative LCA case study on acoustic components in the Brazilian automotive sector. Resour. Conserv. Recycl.
2014, 84, 1–14. [CrossRef]
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 22 of 24

39. Verma, S.; Dwivedi, G.; Verma, P. Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles in comparison to combustion engine vehicles: A
review. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 49, 217–222. [CrossRef]
40. Candelaresi, D.; Valente, A.; Bargiacchi, E.; Spazzafumo, G. Life cycle assessment of hybrid passenger electric vehicle. In Hybrid
Technologies for Power Generation; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2022; pp. 475–495.
41. Vilaça, M.; Santos, G.; Oliveira, M.S.; Coelho, M.C.; Correia, G.H. Life cycle assessment of shared and private use of automated
and electric vehicles on interurban mobility. Appl. Energy 2022, 310, 118589. [CrossRef]
42. Arshad, F.; Lin, J.; Manurkar, N.; Fan, E.; Ahmad, A.; Tariq, M.-u.-N.; Wu, F.; Chen, R.; Li, L. Life Cycle Assessment of Lithium-ion
Batteries: A Critical Review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 180, 106164. [CrossRef]
43. Engels, P.; Cerdas, F.; Dettmer, T.; Frey, C.; Hentschel, J.; Herrmann, C.; Mirfabrikikar, T.; Schueler, M. Life cycle assessment of
natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on industrial primary data. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 336, 130474.
[CrossRef]
44. Zackrisson, M.; Fransson, K.; Hildenbrand, J.; Lampic, G.; O’Dwyer, C. Life cycle assessment of lithium-air battery cells. J. Clean.
Prod. 2016, 135, 299–311. [CrossRef]
45. Degen, F.; Schütte, M. Life cycle assessment of the energy consumption and GHG emissions of state-of-the-art automotive battery
cell production. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 330, 129798. [CrossRef]
46. Raugei, M.; Winfield, P. Prospective LCA of the production and EoL recycling of a novel type of Li-ion battery for electric vehicles.
J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 213, 926–932. [CrossRef]
47. LiBER—Lithium Battery Emilia Romagna. 2021. Available online: www.liberbattery.it (accessed on 12 June 2022).
48. Rossi, C.; Pilati, A.; Marano, M. Electric Power Module and Method for Assembling It. U.S. Patent 17/255,176, 12 August 2021.
49. Ragoni, E. L’auto Solare Emiliana che ha Conquistato l’America, Descritta da chi l’ha Progettata. Forbes 8 June 2018. Avail-
able online: https://forbes.it/2018/08/06/lauto-solare-emiliana-che-ha-conquistato-lamerica-descritta-da-chi-lha-progettata/
(accessed on 12 June 2022).
50. Rossi, C.; Bertoldi, M.; Fabbri, G.; Pontara, D.; Rizzoli, G. Experimental temperature modelization for solar racing vehicle. In
Sustainable Design and Manufacturing 2017, Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Design and Manufacturing,
Bologna, Italy, 26–28 April 2017; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2017; pp. 829–846.
51. Fragassa, C. Progettare e costruire un auto solare. Il Progettista Industriale 2015, 2015, 50–54.
52. Fragassa, C.; Pavlovic, A.; Minak, G. On the structural behaviour of a CFRP safety cage in a solar powered electric vehicle.
Compos. Struct. 2020, 252, 112698. [CrossRef]
53. Pavlović, A.; Sintoni, D.; Minak, G.; Fragassa, C. On the modal behaviour of ultralight composite sandwich automotive panels.
Compos. Struct. 2020, 248, 112523. [CrossRef]
54. Pavlovic, A.; Sintoni, D.; Fragassa, C.; Minak, G. Multi-objective design optimization of the reinforced composite roof in a solar
vehicle. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2665. [CrossRef]
55. Minak, G.; Brugo, T.M.; Fragassa, C. Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene Rods as an Effective Design Solution for the
Suspensions of a Cruiser-Class Solar Vehicle. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2019, 2019, 8317093. [CrossRef]
56. Sorrentino, S.; De Felice, A.; Grosso, P.; Minak, G. First assessment on suspension parameter optimization for a solar–powered
vehicle. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2019; Volume 659, p. 012080.
57. Fragassa, C.; Minak, G.; Lukovic, M.; Maglio, S. Innovation in solar vehicles: from the idea to the prototype in less than 24 months.
Eng. Sci. 2019, 1, 727–730. [CrossRef]
58. Pavlovic, A.; Fragassa, C.; Minak, G.; Lukovic, M. Toward a sustainable mobility: A solar vehicle for a new quality of life. In IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2019; Volume 659, p. 012075.
59. Melin, H.E. Analysis of the Climate Impact of Lithium-Ion Batteries and How to Measure It; Circular Energy Storage: London, UK, 2019.
60. Molicel® . Safety Data Sheet; E-One Moli Energy (Canada) Ltd.: Maple Ridge, BC, Canada, 2019.
61. NMC Battery Material (LiNiMnCoO2); TARGAY: Kirkland, QC, Canada, 2022.
62. Ellingsen, L.A.W.; Majeau-Bettez, G.; Singh, B.; Srivastava, A.K.; Valøen, L.O.; Strømman, A.H. Life cycle assessment of a
lithium-ion battery vehicle pack. J. Ind. Ecol. 2014, 18, 113–124. [CrossRef]
63. Encyclopaedia Britannica, T.E. Paul-Louis-Toussaint Héroult; Britannica: Chicago, IL, USA, 2022.
64. Kapranos, P.; Brabazon, D.; Midson, S.; Naher, S.; Haga, T. Advanced Casting Methodologies: Inert Environment Vacuum Casting and
Solidification, Die Casting, Compocasting, and Roll Casting; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014.
65. Eco-Profiles for Determining Environmental Impacts of Plastics; Plastics Europe: Brussels, Belgium, 2022.
66. Omnexus—The Material Selection Platform. Flammability UL94—Preliminary Screening of Plastics for Fire Performance; Boedeker
Plastics, Inc.: Shiner, TX, USA, 2022.
67. Kabata; Skorek; Rajagopalan. Calculation of the direct energy consumption in heat treatment processes. In Proceedings of the
Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering, Halifax, NS, Canada, 25–28 September 1994; Volume 1, pp. 89–92
68. The Aluminum Association. The Environmental Footprint of Semi-Finished Aluminum Products in North America; The Aluminum
Association: Arlington County, VA, USA, 2013.
69. ecoinvent Database. ei—Ecoinvent. Available online: https://ecoinvent.org/the-ecoinvent-database/ (accessed on 12 June 2022).
70. Das, S.; Liang, C.; Dunn, J.B. Life Cycle Assessment of Polymers and Their Recycling. In Circular Economy of Polymers: Topics in
Recycling Technologies; ACS Publications: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2021; pp. 143–170.
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 23 of 24

71. von der Assen, N.; Lampe, M.; Müller, L.; Bardow, A. Life-Cycle Assessment Principles for the Integrated Product and Process
Design of Polymers from CO2 . In Computer Aided Chemical Engineering; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; Volume 37,
pp. 1235–1240.
72. Turbo, M.D. Propulsion of 8000–10000 TEU Container Vessel; MAN—MAN Energy Solutions: Augsburg, Germany, 2012.
73. Guidelines for Measuring and Managing CO2 Emission from Freight Transport Operations; ECTA —European Chemical Transport
Association: Schaerbeek, Belgium, 2011.
74. Life Cycle Inventory Data; CMP—Center for Environmental Assessment of Product and Material Systems. Available on-
line: https://www.chalmers.se/en/about-chalmers/environmental-science-and-sustainable-development/Pages/center-for-
environmental-assessment-of-product-and-material-systems-cpm.aspx (accessed on 12 June 2022).
75. Manjong, N.B.; Usai, L.; Burheim, O.S.; Strømman, A.H. Life Cycle Modelling of Extraction and Processing of Battery Minerals—A
Parametric Approach. Batteries 2021, 7, 57. [CrossRef]
76. Natural Resources—Brines; SQM—Solution for Human Progress: Santiago, Chile, 2018.
77. Ambrose, H.; Kendall, A. Understanding the future of lithium: Part 2, temporally and spatially resolved life-cycle assessment
modeling. J. Ind. Ecol. 2020, 24, 90–100. [CrossRef]
78. Xu, S.; Song, J.; Bi, Q.; Chen, Q.; Zhang, W.M.; Qian, Z.; Zhang, L.; Xu, S.; Tang, N.; He, T. Extraction of lithium from Chinese
salt-lake brines by membranes: Design and practice. J. Membr. Sci. 2021, 635, 119441. [CrossRef]
79. External Affairs, E.D.D.M. Survey of Lithium Market—Chile. 2019. Available online: https://www.indianembassysantiago.gov.
in/pdf/Survey%20on%20Lithium%20sector%20in%20Chile_compressed.pdf (accessed on 12 June 2022).
80. Stamp, A.; Lang, D.J.; Wäger, P.A. Environmental impacts of a transition toward e-mobility: the present and future role of lithium
carbonate production. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 23, 104–112. [CrossRef]
81. Jiang, S.; Zhang, L.; Li, F.; Hua, H.; Liu, X.; Yuan, Z.; Wu, H. Environmental impacts of lithium production showing the importance
of primary data of upstream process in life-cycle assessment. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 262, 110253. [CrossRef]
82. Encyclopaedia Britannica, T.E. Mineral Resources, Noncarboniferous. Britannica. Available online: https://www.britannica.
com/place/Chile/Mineral-resources-noncarboniferous (accessed on 12 June 2022).
83. Chile Set to Revive Its Dormant Cobalt Sector. Resource World. 2019. Available online: https://resourceworld.com/chile-set-to-
revive-its-dormant-cobalt-sector/ (accessed on 12 June 2022).
84. Majumder, R. Chile’s Export of Aluminium Foil during 2018–20 Marks a Sharp Rise with a Minimal Drop; AICircle: Kolkata, India, 2021.
85. Ossa, A.C. Genesis of manganese deposits in northern Chile. Econ. Geol. 1970, 65, 681–689. [CrossRef]
86. Dunn, J.; James, C.; Gaines, L.; Gallagher, K.; Dai, Q.; Kelly, J.C. Material and Energy Flows in the Production of Cathode and Anode
Materials for Lithium Ion Batteries; Argonne National Laboratory: Lemont, IL, USA, 2014.
87. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Cobalt and Cobalt Compounds; Cobalt Institute: Guildford, UK, 2015.
88. Vega, R.A.D. Exergy Cost Assessment in Global Mining. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain, 2014.
89. Nickel Energizing Batteries; Nickel Institute: Toronto, ON, Canada, 2021.
90. Nickel Metal Life Cycle Data; Nickel Institute: Toronto, ON, Canada, 2020.
91. Dai, Q.; Kelly, J.C.; Gaines, L.; Wang, M. Life cycle analysis of lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications. Batteries 2019,
5, 48. [CrossRef]
92. Copper Environmental Profile; International Copper Alliance: San Marcos, CA, USA, 2022.
93. NMC Powder for Battery Manufacturers. TARGAY. Available online: https://www.targray.com/li-ion-battery/cathode-materials/
nmc (accessed on 12 June 2022).
94. What Do We Know about Next-Generation NMC 811 Cathode? Research Interfaces: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2018.
95. Ahmed, S.; Nelson, P.A.; Gallagher, K.G.; Susarla, N.; Dees, D.W. Cost and energy demand of producing nickel manganese cobalt
cathode material for lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 2017, 342, 733–740. [CrossRef]
96. Nakanishi, S.; Suzuki, T.; Qi, C.; Akikusa, J.; Nakamura, K. Effect of surface treatment for aluminum foils on discharge properties
of lithium-ion battery. Trans. Nonferr. Met. Soc. China 2014, 24, 2314–2319. [CrossRef]
97. Susarla, N.; Ahmed, S. Estimating Cost and Energy Demand in Producing Lithium Hexafluorophosphate for Li-Ion Battery
Electrolyte. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2019, 58, 3754–3766. [CrossRef]
98. Dunn, J.B.; Gaines, L.; Barnes, M.; Sullivan, J.L.; Wang, M. Material and Energy Flows in the Materials Production, Assembly, and
End-of-Life Stages of the Automotive Lithium-Ion Battery Life Cycle; Technical Report; Argonne National Lab. (ANL): Argonne, IL,
USA, 2014.
99. Jinasena, A.; Burheim, O.S.; Strømman, A.H. A Flexible Model for Benchmarking the Energy Usage of Automotive Lithium-Ion
Battery Cell Manufacturing. Batteries 2021, 7, 14. [CrossRef]
100. Molicel® Product Data Sheet. Available online: https://www.molicel.com/products-applications/explore-by-product/ (accessed on
12 June 2022).
101. Smith, L.; Ibn-Mohammed, T.; Koh, L.; Reaney, I.M. Life cycle assessment of functional materials and devices: Opportunities,
challenges, and current and future trends. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2019, 102, 7037–7064. [CrossRef]
102. Silicon-Chemistry Carbon Balance—An assessment gas emissions and reductions. CES—Silicones Europe. Available online:
https://www.silicones.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/SIL_exec-summary_en.pdf (accessed on 12 June 2022).
103. The World’s Leading, High Performance, Open Source Life Cycle Assessment Software. openLCA. Available online: https:
//www.openlca.org/ (accessed on 12 June 2022).
Batteries 2022, 8, 76 24 of 24

104. Senatore, V.; Buonerba, A.; Zarra, T.; Oliva, G.; Belgiorno, V.; Boguniewicz-Zablocka, J.; Naddeo, V. Innovative membrane
photobioreactor for sustainable CO2 capture and utilization. Chemosphere 2021, 273, 129682. [CrossRef]
105. Song, Y.S.; Youn, J.R.; Gutowski, T.G. Life cycle energy analysis of fiber-reinforced composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
2009, 40, 1257–1265. [CrossRef]
106. Yang, Y.; Boom, R.; Irion, B.; van Heerden, D.J.; Kuiper, P.; de Wit, H. Recycling of composite materials. Chem. Eng. Process.
Process. Intensif. 2012, 51, 53–68. [CrossRef]
107. Giorgini, L.; Benelli, T.; Brancolini, G.; Mazzocchetti, L. Recycling of carbon fiber reinforced composite waste to close their life
cycle in a cradle-to-cradle approach. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 2020, 26, 100368. [CrossRef]