Linear Algebra 2023 1

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Advanced Engineering Mathematics
Advanced Engineering Mathematics BatStateU Alangilan, EIM Department Engr. Jefril M. Amboy, MSECE 1
MATRIX ALGEBRA
LINEAR ALGEBRA FOR ECE
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
AY 2022-2023
Introduction to Matrices
• A matrix is a rectangular array of scalars (numbers or functions) enclosed in a
bracket.
• The numbers (or functions) in a matrix are called entries or elements.
é a11 a12 a13 ù Indices are used to specify the

é0.3 1 -5 ù êa
ê 0 -0.2 16 ú , ê 21 a22 a23 úú , location of the entries in a matrix.
ë û êë a31 a32 a33 úû
𝒂𝟐𝟑 → 2nd row, 3rd column
ée - x é4ù
2x2 ù ê1ú
ê 6x ú, éë a1 a2 a3 ùû , Square matrix – same number of rows
ëe 4x û ê ú
ë2û and columns
• horizontal entries: rows Vectors – matrix having a single row or column

• vertical entries: columns – row vector or column vector
Introduction to Matrices cont.
• Matrices are denoted by capital • Vectors are denoted by lowercase letters
letters
• entries in a vector: components
• A single index is used for vectors
é a11 a12 ! a1n ù
êa a22 ! a2 n úú Row vector a = éë a1 a2 ! an ùû . For in
A = éë a jk ùû = ê 21 .
ê × × ! × ú
ê a = éë a1 ú a2 ! an ùû . For instance, a = éë -2 5 0.8 0 1ùû .
ë am 1 am 2 ! amn û
Column vector
matrix size: m × n é b1 ù
m = no. of rows êb ú é4ù
n = no. of columns b = ê 2 ú. For instance, b = êê 0 úú .
ê!ú
ê ú êë -7 úû
ëbm û
Definitions:
• Two matrices A and B are equal (A = B) iff (1) Rules for Matrix Addition
they have the same size and (2) the
corresponding entries are equal (a) A+B = B+A
• Matrices that are not equal are different. (b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (writte
(c) A+0 = A
• Matrices of different sizes are always different.
(d) A + ( -A ) = 0. → zero matrix
• Two matrices can be added only if they have the
same size.
Rules for Scalar Multiplication
• The sum of two matrices A and B is written A + B
and has the entries obtained by adding the (a) c( A + B) = cA + cB
corresponding entries of A and B. (b) (c + k )A = cA + kA
• The product of any m × n matrix A and any scalar (c) c( kA) = ( ck )A (writte
k is a matrix written as kA having the same size (d) 1A = A.
obtained by multiplying each entry of A by k.
Example 1:
• Given the two matrices A and B, find A + B and A – B.
• Let
• Find kA if k = 3 and k = 2 + 4i
Matrix Multiplication
• Two matrices A and B can be multiplied iff the number of columns of A equals
the number of rows of B
• The product of two matrices A (m × r) and B (r × n) are is an m × n matrix
whose entries are obtained by multiplying each entry in the rows of matrix A
by the corresponding entry in the columns of matrix B.
r n== 33 np ==2 2
𝐌 = 𝐀 × 𝐁 !""#""$ np== 22 !"#" $
𝒎×𝒏 𝒎×𝒓 𝒓×𝒏
ì
ï é a11 a12 a13 ù !"#"$ é c11 c12 ù ü
ï
ï êa ú é b11 b12 ù ê ú ï
ïï a a
ê 21 22 23 ú êb c c
ú = ê 21 22 ú ïï
m=4 í
m = 4 b ý mm
= 4= 4
• Matrix multiplication is ï ê a31 a32 a33 ú ê 21 22 ú êc31 c32 ú ï
not commutative ï
ê ú êëb31 b32 úû ê ú ï
ë a41 a42 a43 û ëc41 c42 û
ï ï
ïî ïþ
• If AB = 0, it does not necessarily

imply BA = 0 or A = 0 or B = 0.
Example 2:
• Determine the product of the two matrices A and B
é 3 5 -1ù é 2 -2 3 1 ù é 22 -2 43 42 ù
AB = êê 4 0 2 úú êê 5 0 7 8 úú = êê 26 -16 14 6 úú
êë -6 -3 2 úû êë 9 -4 1 1 úû êë -9 4 -37 -28 úû
é 2 -2 3 1 ù é 22 -2 43 42 ù
ê 5 0 7 8 ú = ê 26 -16 14 6 ú
ê ú ê ú
êë 9 -4 1 1 úû êë -9 4 -37 -28 úû
Example 3:
• Get the product AB
8 7 −4
𝐴𝐵 =
13 3 −5
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
(a) ( kA)B = k( AB) = A( kB) written kAB or AkB

(b) A(BC) = ( AB)C → associative lawABC
written
(c) (A + B)C = AC + BC
→ distributive law
(d) C(A + B) = CA + CB
EXAMPLE 4:
4 2 3 3 4 2
1 8 5 5 1 8
1 1
3 6 1 2 2 3 6 1
4 4
Commutator
• The commutator of two matrices A and B denoted by [A, B] and is computed
[A, B] = AB – BA
• Example 5:
Transposition
• Obtained by writing the rows as columns and vice versa
• The transpose of matrix A is AT
• Can be used to convert row vectors to column vectors and conversely
Rules for Matrix

Transposition
(a) ( A T )T = A
(b) (A + B)T = A T + BT
(c) cA)T = cA T
(d) ( AB)T = BT A T .
Special Matrices
• Symmetric matrices – square matrices whose transpose is equal to the
original matrix
• Skew-symmetric – square matrices whose transpose quals the negative of the
original matrix
é 20 120 200 ù
A = êê120 10 150 úú is symmetric, and
êë 200 150 30 úû
é 0 1 -3 ù
B = êê -1 0 -2 úú is skew-symmetric.
êë 3 2 0 úû
Special Matrices
• Upper triangular Matrix – square matrix whose elements below the main
diagonal are zeros
• Lower triangular matrix – square matrix whose entries below the main
diagonal are nonzeros
• The entries on the main diagonal of a triangular matrix may be zero or not
é3 0 0 0ù
é1 4 2ù é2 0 0ù ê9 -3
é1 3ù ê0 3 2 ú , ê 8 -1 0 ú , ê 0 0 úú
ê0 2 ú , ê ú ê ú ê1 0 2 0ú
ë û êë0 0 6 úû êë7 6 8 úû ê ú
ë1 9 3 6û
Upper triangular Lower triangular
Special Matrices
• Diagonal matrix – square matrix all of whose entries are zero except the main
diagonal
• Scalar matrix – a diagonal matrix whose main diagonal entries are all the same
𝐀𝐒 = 𝐒𝐀 = 𝑐𝐀
• Identity matrix – scalar matrix whose main diagonal entries are all 1.
𝐀𝐈 = 𝐈𝐀 = 𝐀
Hermitian Conjugate
• The Hermitian conjugate of matrix A is denoted as A† and can be obtained by
• Taking the transpose of the matrix and
• Taking the complex conjugate of the elements
• Example 6: Find A† for
Trace of a Matrix
• The trace of a square matrix is the sum of all the elements in the main
diagonal
• Example 7: Find the trace of matrix B, tr(B)
Inverse Matrix
• The inverse of a square matrix denoted by A-1 satisfies the relation AA-1 = I
• Not all square matrices have an inverse.
• A matrix that has an inverse is called nonsingular.
•Properties of Inverse Matrix

• 𝐴-. -. = 𝐴
-. .
• 𝛼𝐴 = / 𝐴-.
• 𝐴-. 0 = 𝐴0 -.
• 𝐴𝐵 -. = 𝐵 -. 𝐴-.
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Department of Electronics Engineering
AY 2022-2023
Introduction
• A linear system of m equations in n unknowns x1, … , xn is a set of equations
of the form
a11 x1 + ! + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + ! + a2 n xn = b2
!!!!!!!!
am1 x1 + ! + amn xn = bm .
• The system is called linear because each variable xj appears in the first power
only
• If all bj are zero, the system is said to be homogeneous.
• If at least one bj is not zero, then (1) is called a nonhomogeneous system.
• A solution of (1) is a set of numbers x1, … , xn that satisfies all the m equations.
• A solution vector of (1) is a vector x whose components form a solution of (1).
Matrix Form of the Linear System
• The linear system of m equations may also be written in vector form Ax = b
é x1 ù
a11 x1 + ! + a1n xn = b1 é a11 a12 ! a1n ù ê×ú
êa é b1 ù
a21 x1 + ! + a2 n xn = b2 a22 ! a2 n úú ê ú
A = ê 21 , and x=ê × ú and b = êê " úú
!!!!!!!! ê × × ! × ú ê ú
ê ú ê×ú êëbm úû
am1 x1 + ! + amn xn = bm . ë am 1 am 2 ! amn û
êë xn úû
coefficient matrix
é a11 ! a1n b1 ù The augmented matrix Ã determines the system completely.
ê × ! × × úú
" =ê
A
ê × ! × × ú
ê ú
ë am 1 ! amn bm û
augmented matrix
Solution of Linear Systems
• The solution of a linear system can be obtained by performing elementary row
operations in a process known as Gauss elimination.
• Elementary row operation for matrices include:
1. Interchange of two rows
2. Addition of a constant multiple of one row to another row
3. Multiplication of a row by a nonzero constant c
• We now call a linear system S1 row-equivalent to a linear system S2 if S1 can

be obtained from S2 by (finitely many!) row operations.
Theorem 1: Row-equivalent linear systems have the same set of solutions.

• No column operations on the augmented matrix are permitted in this context
because they would generally alter the solution set.
Terminologies
A linear system is called overdetermined if it has more equations than
unknowns, determined if m = n, and underdetermined if it has fewer
equations than unknowns.
Furthermore, a system is called consistent if it has at least one solution (thus,

one solution or infinitely many solutions), but inconsistent if it has no
solutions at all
Example 8: Gauss Elimination
• Solve the linear system
x1 - x2 + x3 = 0
- x1 + x2 - x3 = 0
10 x2 + 25 x3 = 90
20 x1 + 10 x2 = 80.
Example 8:
• Result:
é 1 -1 1 0ù x1 - x2 + x3 = 0
ê0 0 0 0 ú Row 2 - Row 1 0= 0
ê ú
ê0 10 25 90 ú 10 x2 + 25 x3 = 90
ê ú
ë0 30 -20 80 û Row 4 - 20 Row 1 30 x2 - 20 x3 = 80.
• Eliminate x2
Example 8:
• Result
é 1 -1 1 0ù x1 - x2 + x3 = 0
ê0 10 25 90 ú 10 x2 + 25 x3 = 90
ê ú
ê0 0 -95 -190 ú Row 3 - 3 Row 2 -95 x3 = -190
ê ú 0= 0.
ë 0 0 0 0 û
Back Substitution. Determination of x3, x2, x1 (in this order)
Working backward from the last to the first equation of this “triangular”
system, we can now readily find x3, then x2, and then x1:
190
𝑥1 = = 2, 10𝑥2 + 25 2 = 90, 𝑥2 = 4, 𝑥. = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 2
95
Therefore, the solution is unique.
The Row Echelon Form
• At the end of the Gauss elimination the form of the coefficient matrix, the
augmented matrix, and the system itself are called the row echelon form.
• The original system of m equations in n unknowns has augmented matrix
[A | b]. This is to be row reduced to matrix [R | f].
• The two systems Ax = b and Rx = f are equivalent, and the solutions are
identical.
ér11 r12 ! ! ! r1n f1 ù
ê r ! ! ! r f ú
ê 22 2n 2 ú
ê " ! ! # # ú
ê ú
ê rrr
! rrn
f r ú
ê fr +1 ú
ê ú
ê # ú Here, and all entries in the blue
triangle and blue rectangle are zero.
êë fm úû
Example 9:
• Find the solution of the linear system
• Solution:
• Elimination of x1
Continuation
• Elimination of x2
• The false statement shows that the system has no solution.
Example 10:
• Solve the following linear system of three equations in four unknowns whose
augmented matrix is
• Solution:
Continuation
• From the second equation, x2 = 1 – x3 + 4x4.

• From this and the first equation, x1 = 2 – x4.
• Since x3 and x4 and remain arbitrary, we have infinitely many solutions.
Information from the Row-Echelon Form
The number of nonzero rows, r, in the row-reduced coefficient matrix R is
called the rank of R and also the
rank of A. Here is the method for determining whether
Ax = b has solutions and what they are:
• (a) No solution. If r is less than m (meaning that R actually has at least one
row of all 0s) and at least one of the numbers fr+1, fr+2, … , fm is not zero, then
the system Rx = f is inconsistent: No solution is possible. Therefore, the system
Ax = b is inconsistent as well.
• See Example 9, where r = 2 < m = 3 and fr+1 = f3 = 12.
Information from the Row-Echelon Form
If the system is consistent (either r = m, or r < m and all the numbers fr+1, fr+2, … ,
fm are zero), then there are solutions.
(b) Unique solution. If the system is consistent and r = n, there is exactly one
solution, which can be found by back substitution. See Example 8, where r = n
= 3 and m = 4, and Example 11
(c) Infinitely many solutions. To obtain any of these solutions, choose values of
xr+1, … , xn arbitrarily. Then solve the rth equation for xr (in terms of those
arbitrary values), then the (r − 1)st equation for xr−1, and so on up the line. See
Example 10.
Determinants by Reduction to Triangular Form
2 0 -4 6
4 5 1 0
D=
0 2 6 -1
-3 8 9 1
2 0 -4 6
4 5 1 0
D=
0 2 6 -1
-3 8 9 1
Solution of Linear Systems Using Cramer’s Rule
Inverse of a Matrix
• The inverse of an n × n matrix A = [ajk] is denoted by A−1 and is an n × n matrix
such that
(1) AA−1 = A−1A = I
where I is the n × n unit matrix.
• If A has an inverse, then A is called a nonsingular matrix. If A has no inverse,

then A is called a singular matrix.
• If A has an inverse, the inverse is unique.
Theorem for the Existence of the Inverse Matrix
The inverse A−1 of an n × n matrix A exists if and only if rank A = n, thus if and only
if det A ≠ 0. Hence A is nonsingular if rank A = n and is singular if rank A < n.
Inverse of a Matrix: Gauss-Jordan Elimination
• Determine the inverse A−1 of
é -1 1 2 ù
A = êê 3 -1 1 úú .
êë -1 3 4 úû
é -1 1 2 1 0 0ù
ê 1 0 1 0 úú
éë A I ùû = ê 3 -1
êë -1 3 4 0 0 1 úû
é -1 1 2 1 0 0ù
= êê 0 2 7 3 1 0 úú Row 2 + 3 Row 1
êë 0 2 2 -1 0 1 úû Row 3 - Row 1
• Continuation:
é -1 1 2 1 0 0 ù
= êê 0 2 7 3 1 0 úú
êë 0 0 -5 -4 -1 1 úû Row 3 - Row 2
é 1 -1 -2 -1 0 0 ù - Row 1
= êê0 1 3.5 1.5 0.5 0 úú 0.5 Row 2
êë0 0 1 0.8 0.2 -0.2 úû -0.2 Row 3
é 1 -1 0 0.6 0.4 -0.4 ù Row 1 + 2 Row 3

= êê0 1 0 -1.3 -0.2 0.7 úú Row 2 - 3.5 Row 3
êë0 0 1 0.8 0.2 -0.2 úû
• Continuation:
é 1 0 0 -0.7 0.2 0.3 ù Row 1 + Row 2

= êê0 1 0 -1.3 -0.2 0.7 úú
êë0 0 1 0.8 0.2 -0.2 úû
• The last 3 columns constitute the inverse matrix.
• To check:
é -1 1 2 ù é -0.7 0.2 0.3 ù é 1 0 0 ù

ê 3 -1 1 ú ê -1.3 -0.2 0.7 ú = ê0 1 0 ú .
ê úê ú ê ú
êë -1 3 4 úû êë 0.8 0.2 -0.2 úû êë0 0 1 úû
• Hence AA−1 = I. Similarly A−1A = I.

Inverse of a Matrix by Determinants
• The inverse of a nonsingular n × n matrix A = [ajk] is given by
éC11 C 21 ! C n1 ù
êC ! Cn 2 úú
1 T 1 ê 21 C 22
-1
A = éC jk ù = ,
det A ë û det A ê × × ! × ú
ê ú
ëC1n C 2 n ! Cnn û
• where Cjk is the cofactor of ajk in det A.

• In particular, the inverse of
é a11 a12 ù -1 1 é a22 -a12 ù

A=ê is A = .
ë a21 a22 úû det A êë -a21 ú
a11 û
Example: Inverse of a Matrix by Determinants
• Find the inverse of the 2 × 2 matrix
é3 1ù
A=ê ú ,
ë2 4û
-11 é 4 -1ù é 0.4 -0.1ù

A = ê =ê
10 ë -2 3 û ë -0.2 0.3 úû
ú
• Using determinants, find the inverse of the given matrix
é -1 1 2 ù
A = êê 3 -1 1 úú . det A = −1(−7) − 1 · 13 + 2 · 8 = 10
êë -1 3 4 úû
• The cofactors of each element are

-1 1 1 2 1 2
C11 = = -7, C 21 = - = 2, C 31 = = 3,
3 4 3 4 -1 1
3 1 -1 2 -1 2
C12 = - = -13, C 22 = = -2, C 32 = - = 7,
-1 4 -1 4 3 -1
3 1 -1 1 -1 1
C13 = = 8, C 23 = - = 2, C 33 = = -2,
-1 3 -1 3 3 -1
• Continuation:
é -0.7 0.2 0.3 ù

A -1 = êê -1.3 -0.2 0.7 úú .
êë 0.8 0.2 -0.2 úû
Example:
• Find the inverse of the matrix
Matrix Eigenvalue Problems
• A matrix eigenvalue problem considers the vector equation
Ax = λx.
• Where A is a square matrix.
• The λ’s that satisfy the equation are called eigenvalues of A and the
corresponding nonzero x’s that also satisfy are called eigenvectors of A.
Example:
• Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
é -5 2 ù
A=ê ú .
ë 2 -2 û
Eigenvalues
• In matrix notation,
( A - l I ) x = 0.
• This homogeneous linear system of equations has a nontrivial solution if and
only if the corresponding determinant of the coefficients is zero:
a11 - l a12 ! a1n

a21 a22 - l ! a2 n
D(l ) = det( A - lI) = = 0.
× × ! ×
an1 an 2 ! ann - l
• A − λI is called the characteristic matrix and D(λ) the characteristic

determinant of A. Equation (4) is called the characteristic equation of A. By
developing D(λ) we obtain a polynomial of nth degree in λ. This is called the
characteristic polynomial of A.
Example:
• Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
é -2 2 -3 ù
A = êê 2 1 -6 úú .
êë -1 -2 0 úû

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LINEAR ALGEBRA

Advanced Engineering Mathematics

é a11 a12 a13 ù Indices are used to specify the

• horizontal entries: rows Vectors – matrix having a single row or column

• If AB = 0, it does not necessarily

(a) ( kA)B = k( AB) = A( kB) written kAB or AkB

Rules for Matrix

• Example 6: Find A† for

• Example 7: Find the trace of matrix B, tr(B)

•Properties of Inverse Matrix

• We now call a linear system S1 row-equivalent to a linear system S2 if S1 can

Theorem 1: Row-equivalent linear systems have the same set of solutions.

Furthermore, a system is called consistent if it has at least one solution (thus,

Therefore, the solution is unique.

• The false statement shows that the system has no solution.

• From the second equation, x2 = 1 – x3 + 4x4.

• If A has an inverse, then A is called a nonsingular matrix. If A has no inverse,

Theorem for the Existence of the Inverse Matrix

é 1 -1 0 0.6 0.4 -0.4 ù Row 1 + 2 Row 3

é 1 0 0 -0.7 0.2 0.3 ù Row 1 + Row 2

é -1 1 2 ù é -0.7 0.2 0.3 ù é 1 0 0 ù

• Hence AA−1 = I. Similarly A−1A = I.

• where Cjk is the cofactor of ajk in det A.

é a11 a12 ù -1 1 é a22 -a12 ù

-11 é 4 -1ù é 0.4 -0.1ù

• The cofactors of each element are

é -0.7 0.2 0.3 ù

a11 - l a12 ! a1n

• A − λI is called the characteristic matrix and D(λ) the characteristic

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