LECTURE NOTES

ON

CSC 215: ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

PROGRAMMING

Lecturer: Ojeyinka T.O.

Department of Computer Science

Adekunle Ajasin University
Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State

1
Contents

Chapter Topic

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of a Computer System

Chapter 2 Assembly language Basics

Chapter 3 Using Debug Program

Chapter 4 Assembly language Programming

Chapter 5 The Assembly Process

Chapter 6 Assembly Language Instructions

Chapter 7 Interruptions and File Managing

Chapter 8 Working with Files

Chapter 9 Macros and Procedures

Chapter 10 Program Examples

2
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of a Computer System

Presentation
This Assembler material will enable beginners to learn the most important language for IBM PC.
The document introduces you to assembly language programming, and it has been thought for
those people who have never worked with this language.
The tutorial is completely focused towards the computers that function with processors of the
x86 family of Intel, and considering that the language bases its functioning on the internal
resources of the processor, the described examples are not compatible with any other
architecture. The information was structured in units in order to allow easy access to each of the
topics and facilitate the following of the tutorial. In the introductory section some of the
elemental concepts regarding computer systems are mentioned, along with the concepts of the
assembly language itself, and continues with the tutorial itself.

Why Learn Assembler Language?

The first reason to work with assembler is that it provides the opportunity of knowing more the
operation of your PC, which allows the development of software in a more consistent manner.
The second reason is the total control of the PC which you can have with the use of the
assembler. Another reason is that the assembly programs are quicker, smaller, and have larger
capacities than ones created with other languages. Lastly, the assembler allows an ideal
optimization in programs, be it on their size or on their execution.

Basic description of a computer system

This section has the purpose of giving a brief outline of the main components of a computer
system at a basic level, which will allow the user a greater understanding of the concepts which
will be dealt with throughout the tutorial.

Computer System
We call computer system to the complete configuration of a computer, including the peripheral
units and the system programming which make it a useful and functional machine for a
determined task.

Central Processor
This part is also known as central processing unit or CPU, which in turn is made by the control
unit and the arithmetic and logic unit. Its functions consist in reading and writing the contents of
3
the memory cells, to forward data between memory cells and special registers, and decode and
execute the instructions of a program. The processor has a series of memory cells which are used
very often and thus, are part of the CPU. These cells are known with the name of registers. A
processor may have one or two dozen of these registers. The arithmetic and logic unit of the CPU
realizes the operations related with numeric and symbolic calculations. Typically these units only
have capacity of performing very elemental operations such as: the addition and subtraction of
two whole numbers, whole number multiplication and division, handling of the registers' bits and
the comparison of the content of two registers. Personal computers can be classified by what is
known as word size, this is, the quantity of bits which the processor can handle at a time.

Central Memory
It is a group of cells, now being fabricated with semi-conductors, used for general processes,
such as the execution of programs and the storage of information for the operations. Each one of
these cells may contain a numeric value and they have the property of being addressable, this is,
that they can distinguish one from another by means of a unique number or an address for each
cell. The generic name of these memories is Random Access Memory or RAM. The main
disadvantage of this type of memory is that the integrated circuits lose the information they have
stored when the electricity flow is interrupted. This was the reason for the creation of memories
whose information is not lost when the system is turned off. These memories receive the name of
Read Only Memory or ROM.

Input and Output Units

In order for a computer to be useful to us it is necessary that the processor communicates with
the exterior through interfaces which allow the input and output of information from the
processor and the memory. Through the use of these communications it is possible to introduce
information to be processed and to later visualize the processed data. Some of the most common
input units are keyboards and mice. The most common output units are screens and printers.

Auxiliary Memory Units

Since the central memory of a computer is costly, and considering today's applications it is also
very limited. Thus, the need to create practical and economical information storage systems
arises. Besides, the central memory loses its content when the machine is turned off, therefore
making it inconvenient for the permanent storage of data.These and other inconvenience give
place for the creation of peripheral units of memory which receive the name of auxiliary or
secondary memory. Of these the most common are the tapes and magnetic discs. The stored
information on these magnetic media means receive the name of files. A file is made of a
variable number of registers, generally of a fixed size; the registers may contain information or
programs.
4
Chapter 2: Assembly Language Basics

Information Units
In order for the PC to process information, it is necessary that this information be in special cells
called registers. The registers are groups of 8 or 16 flip-flops.
A flip-flop is a device capable of storing two levels of voltage, a low one, regularly 0.5 volts, and
another one, commonly of 5 volts. The low level of energy in the flip-flop is interpreted as off or
0, and the high level as on or 1. These states are usually known as bits, which are the smallest
information unit in a computer.
A group of 16 bits is known as word; a word can be divided in groups of 8 bits called bytes, and
the groups of 4 bits are called nibbles.

Numeric systems
The numeric system we use daily is the decimal system, but this system is not convenient for
machines since the information is handled codified in the shape of on or off bits; this way of
codifying takes us to the necessity of knowing the positional calculation which will allow us to
express a number in any base where we need it.
It is possible to represent a determined number in any base through the following formula:
Where n is the position of the digit beginning from right to left and numbering from zero. D is
the digit on which we operate and B is the used numeric base.

Converting binary numbers to decimals

When working with assembly language we come on the necessity of converting numbers from
the binary system, which is used by computers, to the decimal system used by people.
The binary system is based on only two conditions or states, be it on(1) or off(0), thus its base is
two.

For the conversion we can use the positional value formula:

For example, if we have the binary number of 10011, we take each digit from right to left and
multiply it by the base, elevated to the new position they are:
Binary: 1 1 0 0 1
Decimal: 1*2^0 + 1*2^1 + 0*2^2 + 0*2^3 + 1*2^4
= 1 + 2 + 0 + 0 + 16 = 19 decimal.
The ^ character is used in computation as an exponent symbol and the * character is used to
represent multiplication.

5
Converting decimal numbers to binary
There are several methods to convert decimal numbers to binary; only one will be analyzed here.
Naturally a conversion with a scientific calculator is much easier, but one cannot always count
with one, so it is convenient to at least know one formula to do it.
The method that will be explained uses the successive division of two, keeping the residue as a
binary digit and the result as the next number to divide.
Let us take for example the decimal number of 43.
43/2=21 and its residue is 1
21/2=10 and its residue is 1
10/2=5 and its residue is 0
5/2=2 and its residue is 1
2/2=1 and its residue is 0
1/2=0 and its residue is 1
Building the number from the bottom, we get that the binary result is
101011

Hexadecimal system
On the hexadecimal base we have 16 digits which go from 0 to 9 and from the letter A to the F,
these letters represent the numbers from 10 to 15. Thus we count 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,
and F.
The conversion between binary and hexadecimal numbers is easy. The first thing done to do a
conversion of a binary number to a hexadecimal is to divide it in groups of 4 bits, beginning
from the right to the left. In case the last group, the one most to the left, is under 4 bits, the
missing places are filled with zeros.
Taking as an example the binary number of 101011, we divide it in 4 bits
groups and we are left with:
10;1011
Filling the last group with zeros (the one from the left):
0010;1011
Afterwards we take each group as an independent number and we consider its decimal value:
0010=2;1011=11
But since we cannot represent this hexadecimal number as 211 because it would be an error, we
have to substitute all the values greater than 9 by their respective representation in hexadecimal,
with which we obtain:

6
 2BH, where the H represents the hexadecimal base.
In order to convert a hexadecimal number to binary it is only necessary to invert the steps: the
first hexadecimal digit is taken and converted to binary, and then the second, and so on.

Data representation methods in a computer

ASCII code
ASCII is an acronym of American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This code assigns
the letters of the alphabet, decimal digits from 0 to 9 and some additional symbols a binary
number of 7 bits, putting the 8th bit in its off state or 0. This way each letter, digit or special
character occupies one byte in the computer memory.
We can observe that this method of data representation is very inefficient on the numeric aspect,
since in binary format one byte is not enough to represent numbers from 0 to 255, but on the
other hand with the ASCII code one byte may represent only one digit. Due to this inefficiency,
the ASCII code is mainly used in the memory to represent text.

BCD Method
BCD is an acronym of Binary Coded Decimal. In this notation groups of 4 bits are used to
represent each decimal digit from 0 to 9. With this method we can represent two digits per byte
of information. Even when this method is much more practical for number representation in the
memory compared to the ASCII code, it still less practical than the binary since with the BCD
method we can only represent digits from 0 to 99. On the other hand in binary format we can
represent all digits from 0 to 255. This format is mainly used to represent very large numbers in
mercantile applications since it facilitates operations avoiding mistakes.

Floating point representation

This representation is based on scientific notation, this is, to represent a number in two parts: its
base and its exponent. As an example, the number 1234000, can be represented as 1.123*10^6,
in this last notation the exponent indicates to us the number of spaces that the decimal point must
be moved to the right to obtain the original result.
In case the exponent was negative, it would be indicating to us the number of spaces that the
decimal point must be moved to the left to obtain the original result.

7
Chapter 3: Using Debug Program

Program creation process

For the creation of a program it is necessary to follow five steps:
Design of the algorithm, stage the problem to be solved is established and the best solution is
proposed, creating squematic diagrams used for the better solution proposal. Coding the
algorithm, consists in writing the program in some programming language; assembly language in
this specific case, taking as a base the proposed solution on the prior step. Translation to machine
language is the creation of the object program, in other words, the written program as a sequence
of zeros and ones that can be interpreted by the processor. Test the program, after the translation
the program into machine language, execute the program in the computer machine. The last stage
is the elimination of detected faults on the program on the test stage. The correction of a fault
normally requires the repetition of all the steps from the first or second.

CPU Registers
The CPU has 4 internal registers, each one of 16 bits. The first four, AX, BX, CX, and DX are
general use registers and can also be used as 8 bit registers, if used in such a way it is necessary
to refer to them for example as: AH and AL, which are the high and low bytes of the AX
register. This nomenclature is also applicable to the BX, CX, and DX registers.
The registers known by their specific names:
AX Accumulator
BX Base register
CX Counting register
DX Data register
DS Data segment register
ES Extra segment register
SS Battery segment register
CS Code segment register
BP Base pointers register
SI Source index register
DI Destiny index register
SP Battery pointer register
IP Next instruction pointer register
F Flag register

8
Debug program
To create a program in assembler two options exist, the first one is to use the TASM or Turbo
Assembler, of Borland, and the second one is to use the debugger - on this first section we will
use this last one since it is found in any PC with the MS-DOS, which makes it available to any
user who has access to a machine with these characteristics.
Debug can only create files with a .COM extension, and because of the characteristics of these
kinds of programs they cannot be larger than 64 kb, and they also must start with displacement,
offset, or 0100H memory direction inside the specific segment.
Debug provides a set of commands that lets you perform a number of useful
operations:
A Assemble symbolic instructions into machine code
D Display the contents of an area of memory
E Enter data into memory, beginning at a specific location
G Run the executable program in memory
N Name a program
P Proceed, or execute a set of related instructions
Q Quit the debug program
R Display the contents of one or more registers
T Trace the contents of one instruction
U Unassembled machine code into symbolic code
W Write a program onto disk
It is possible to visualize the values of the internal registers of the CPU using the Debug
program. To begin working with Debug, type the following prompt in your computer:
C:/>Debug [Enter]
On the next line a dash will appear, this is the indicator of Debug, at this moment the instructions
of Debug can be introduced using the following command:
-r[Enter]
AX=0000 BX=0000 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFEE BP=0000 SI=0000 DI=0000
DS=0D62 ES=0D62 SS=0D62 CS=0D62 IP=0100 NV EI PL NZ NA PO NC
0D62:0100 2E CS:
0D62:0101 803ED3DF00 CMP BYTE PTR [DFD3],00 CS:DFD3=03
All the contents of the internal registers of the CPU are displayed; an
alternative of viewing them is to use the "r" command using as a parameter
the name of the register whose value wants to be seen. For example:
-rbx
BX 0000
:

9
This instruction will only display the content of the BX register and the Debug indicator changes
from "-" to ":"
When the prompt is like this, it is possible to change the value of the register which was seen by
typing the new value and [Enter], or the old value can be left by pressing [Enter] without typing
any other value.

Assembler structure
In assembly language code lines have two parts, the first one is the name of the instruction which
is to be executed, and the second one are the parameters of the command.
For example: add ah bh
Here "add" is the command to be executed, in this case an addition, and "ah" as well as "bh" are
the parameters.
For example: mov al, 25
In the above example, we are using the instruction mov, it means move the value 25 to al
register.
The name of the instructions in this language is made of two, three or four letters. These
instructions are also called mnemonic names or operation codes, since they represent a function
the processor will perform.
Sometimes instructions are used as follows:
add al,[170]
The brackets in the second parameter indicate to us that we are going to work with the content of
the memory cell number 170 and not with the 170 value, this is known as direct addressing.

Creating basic assembler program

The first step is to initiate the Debug; this step only consists of typing debug [Enter] on the
operative system prompt.
To assemble a program on the Debug, the "a" (assemble) command is used; when this command
is used, the address where you want the assembling to begin can be given as a parameter, if the
parameter is omitted the assembling will be initiated at the locality specified by CS:IP, usually
0100h, which is the locality where programs with .COM extension must be initiated. And it will
be the place we will use since only Debug can create this specific type of programs.
Even though at this moment it is not necessary to give the "a" command a parameter, it is
recommendable to do so to avoid problems once the CS:IP registers are used, therefore we type:
a 100[enter]
mov ax,0002[enter]
mov bx,0004[enter]
10
 add ax,bx[enter]
nop[enter][enter]
What does the program do?, move the value 0002 to the ax register, move the value 0004 to the
bx register, add the contents of the ax and bx registers, the instruction, no operation, to finish the
program.
In the debug program. After to do this, appear on the screen some like the follow lines:
C:\>debug
-a 100
0D62:0100 mov ax,0002
0D62:0103 mov bx,0004
0D62:0106 add ax,bx
0D62:0108 nop
0D62:0109
Type the command "t" (trace), to execute each instruction of this program, example:
-t
AX=0002 BX=0000 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFEE BP=0000 SI=0000 DI=0000
DS=0D62 ES=0D62 SS=0D62 CS=0D62 IP=0103 NV EI PL NZ NA PO NC
0D62:0103 BB0400 MOV BX,0004
You see that the value 2 move to AX register. Type the command "t" (trace),
again, and you see the second instruction is executed.
-t
AX=0002 BX=0004 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFEE BP=0000 SI=0000 DI=0000
DS=0D62 ES=0D62 SS=0D62 CS=0D62 IP=0106 NV EI PL NZ NA PO NC
0D62:0106 01D8 ADD AX,BX
Type the command "t" (trace) to see the instruction add is executed, you will see the follow lines:
-t
AX=0006 BX=0004 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFEE BP=0000 SI=0000 DI=0000
DS=0D62 ES=0D62 SS=0D62 CS=0D62 IP=0108 NV EI PL NZ NA PE NC
0D62:0108 90 NOP
The possibility that the registers contain different values exists, but AX and BX must be the
same, since they are the ones we just modified.
To exit Debug use the "q" (quit) command.

11
Storing and loading the programs
It would not seem practical to type an entire program each time it is needed, and to avoid this it
is possible to store a program on the disk, with the enormous advantage that by being already
assembled it will not be necessary to run Debug again to execute it.
The steps to save a program that it is already stored on memory are:
Obtain the length of the program subtracting the final address from the initial address, naturally
in hexadecimal system.
Give the program a name and extension. Put the length of the program on the CX register. Order
Debug to write the program on the disk.
By using as an example the following program, we will have a clearer idea of how to take these
steps:
When the program is finally assembled it would look like this:
0C1B:0100 mov ax,0002
0C1B:0103 mov bx,0004
0C1B:0106 add ax,bx
0C1B:0108 int 20
0C1B:010A
To obtain the length of a program the "h" command is used, since it will show us the addition
and subtraction of two numbers in hexadecimal. To obtain the length of ours, we give it as
parameters the value of our program's final address (10A), and the program's initial address
(100). The first result the command shows us is the addition of the parameters and the
second is the subtraction.
-h 10a 100
020a 000a
The "n" command allows us to name the program.
-n test.com
The "rcx" command allows us to change the content of the CX register to the value we obtained
from the size of the file with "h", in this case 000a, since the result of the subtraction of the final
address from the initial address.
-rcx
CX 0000
:000a
Lastly, the "w" command writes our program on the disk, indicating how many bytes it wrote.
-w
Writing 000A bytes
To save an already loaded file two steps are necessary:
12
Give the name of the file to be loaded.
Load it using the "l" (load) command.
To obtain the correct result of the following steps, it is necessary that the above program be
already created.
Inside Debug we write the following:
-n test.com
-l
-u 100 109
0C3D:0100 B80200 MOV AX,0002
0C3D:0103 BB0400 MOV BX,0004
0C3D:0106 01D8 ADD AX,BX
0C3D:0108 CD20 INT 20
The last "u" command is used to verify that the program was loaded on memory. What it does is
that it disassembles the code and shows it disassembled. The parameters indicate to Debug from
where and to where to disassemble.
Debug always loads the programs on memory on the address 100H, otherwise indicated.

13
Chapter 4: Assembly Language Programming

Building Assembler programs

In order to be able to create a program, several tools are needed: First, use an editor to create the
source program. Second a compiler, which is nothing more than a program that "translates" the
source program into an object program. And third, a linker that generates the executable
program from the object program. The editor can be any text editor at hand, and as a compiler we
will use the TASM macro assembler from Borland, and as a linker we will use the Tlink
program. The extension used so that TASM recognizes the source programs in assembler is
.ASM; once translated the source program, the TASM creates a file with the .OBJ extension, this
file contains an "intermediate format" of the program, called like this because it is not executable
yet but it is not a program in source language either anymore. The linker generates, from a .OBJ
or a combination of several of these files, an executable program, whose extension usually is
.EXE though it can also be .COM, depending of the form it was assembled.

Assembler Programming
To build assembler programs using TASM programs is a different program structure than from
using debug program.
It's important to include the following assembler directives:

.MODEL SMALL
Assembler directive that defines the memory model to use in the program

.CODE
Assembler directive that defines the program instructions

.STACK
Assembler directive that reserves a memory space for program instructions
in the stack

END
Assembler directive that finishes the assembler program
Let's program
First step
Use any editor program to create the source file. Type the following lines:
First example
; use; to put comments in the assembler program
.MODEL SMALL; memory model
.STACK; memory space for program instructions in the stack
14
 .CODE; the following lines are program instructions
mov ah,1h; moves the value 1h to register ah
mov cx,07h;moves the value 07h to register cx
int 10h;10h interruption
mov ah,4ch;moves the value 4 ch to register ah
int 21h;21h interruption
END; finishes the program code
This assembler program changes the size of the computer cursor.

Second step
Save the file with the following name: examp1.asm Don't forget to save this in ASCII format.

Third step
Use the TASM program to build the object program.
Example:
C:\>tasm exam1.asm
Turbo Assembler Version 2.0 Copyright (c) 1988, 1990 Borland International
Assembling file: exam1.asm
Error messages: None
Warning messages: None
Passes: 1
Remaining memory: 471k
The TASM can only create programs in .OBJ format, which are not executable by themselves,
but rather it is necessary to have a linker which generates the executable code.

Fourth step
Use the TLINK program to build the executable program example:
C:\>tlink exam1.obj Turbo Link Version 3.0 Copyright (c) 1987, 1990 Borland International
C:\> ; Where exam1.obj is the name of the intermediate program, .OBJ. This generates a file
directly with the name of the intermediate program and the .EXE extension.

Fifth step
Execute the executable program
C:\>exam1[enter] Remember, this assembler program changes the size of the cursor.

15
Chapter 5: The Assembly Process

SEGMENTS
The architecture of the x86 processors forces to the use of memory segments to manage the
information, the size of these segments is of 64kb.
The reason of being of these segments is that, considering that the maximum size of a number
that the processor can manage is given by a word of 16 bits or register, it would not be possible
to access more than 65536 localities of memory using only one of these registers, but now, if the
PC's memory is divided into groups or segments, each one of 65536 localities, and we use an
address on an exclusive register to find each segment, and then we make each address of a
specific slot with two registers, it is possible for us to access a quantity of 4294967296 bytes of
memory, which is, in the present day, more memory than what we will see installed in a PC.
In order for the assembler to be able to manage the data, it is necessary that each piece of
information or instruction be found in the area that corresponds to its respective segments. The
assembler accesses this information taking into account the localization of the segment, given by
the DS, ES, SS and CS registers and inside the register the address of the specified piece of
information. It is because of this that when we create a program using the Debug on each line
that we assemble, something like this appears:
1CB0:0102 MOV AX,BX
Where the first number, 1CB0, corresponds to the memory segment being used, the second one
refers to the address inside this segment, and the instructions which will be stored from that
address follow. The way to indicate to the assembler with which of the segments we will work
with is with the .CODE, .DATA and .STACK directives.
The assembler adjusts the size of the segments taking as a base the number of bytes each
assembled instruction needs, since it would be a waste of memory to use the whole segments.
For example, if a program only needs 10kb to store data, the data segment will only be of 10kb
and not the 64kb it can handle.

SYMBOLS CHART
Each one of the parts on code line in assembler is known as token, for example on the code line:
MOV AX,Var
We have three tokens, the MOV instruction, the AX operator, and the VAR operator. What the
assembler does to generate the OBJ code is to read each one of the tokens and look for it on an
internal "equivalence" chart known as the reserved words chart, which is where all the mnemonic
meanings we use as instructions are found.
Following this process, the assembler reads MOV, looks for it on its chart and identifies it as a
processor instruction. Likewise it reads AX and recognizes it as a register of the processor, but
16
when it looks for the Var token on the reserved words chart, it does not find it, so then it looks
for it on the symbols chart which is a table where the names of the variables, constants and labels
used in the program where their addresses on memory are included and the sort of data it
contains, are found.
Sometimes the assembler comes on a token which is not defined on the program, therefore what
it does in these cased is to pass a second time by the source program to verify all references to
that symbol and place it on the symbols chart. There are symbols which the assembler will not
find since they do not belong to that segment and the program does not know in what part of the
memory it will find that segment, and at this time the linker comes into action, which will create
the structure necessary for the loader so that the segment and the token be defined when the
program is loaded and before it is executed.

More assembler programs

Another example

First step
Use any editor program to create the source file. Type the following lines:
;example11
.model small
.stack
.code
mov ah,2h ;moves the value 2h to register ah
mov dl,2ah ;moves de value 2ah to register dl
;(Its the asterisk value in ASCII format)
int 21h ;21h interruption
mov ah,4ch ;4ch function, goes to operating system
int 21h ;21h interruption
end ;finishes the program code

Second step
Save the file with the following name: exam2.asm
Don't forget to save this in ASCII format.

Third step
Use the TASM program to build the object program.

17
 C:\>tasm exam2.asm
Turbo Assembler Version 2.0 Copyright (c) 1988, 1990 Borland International
Assembling file: exam2.asm
Error messages: None
Warning messages: None
Passes: 1
Remaining memory: 471k

Fourth step
Use the TLINK program to build the executable program
C:\>tlink exam2.obj
Turbo Link Version 3.0 Copyright (c) 1987, 1990 Borland International
C:\>

Fifth step
Execute the executable program
C:\>ejem11[enter]
*
C:\>
This assembler program shows the asterisk character on the computer screen

18
Chapter 6: Assembly Language Instructions

Types of instructions
Data movement
In any program it is necessary to move the data in the memory and in the CPU registers; there
are several ways to do this: it can copy data in the memory to some register, from register to
register, from a register to a stack, from a stack to a register, to transmit data to external devices
as well as vice versa.
This movement of data is subject to rules and restrictions. The following are some of them:
• It is not possible to move data from a memory locality to another directly; it is necessary
to first move the data of the origin locality to a register and then from the register to the
destiny locality.
• It is not possible to move a constant directly to a segment register; it first must be moved
to a register in the CPU.
• It is possible to move data blocks by means of the movs instructions, which copies a
chain of bytes or words; movsb which copies n bytes from a locality to another; and
movsw copies n words from a locality to another. The last two instructions take the
values from the defined addresses by DS:SI as a group of data to move and ES:DI as the
new localization of the
data.
To move data there are also structures called batteries, where the data is introduced with the push
instruction and are extracted with the pop instruction. In a stack the first data to be introduced is
the last one we can take, this is, if in our program we use these instructions:
PUSH AX
PUSH BX
PUSH CX
To return the correct values to each register at the moment of taking them from the stack it is
necessary to do it in the following order:
POP CX
POP BX
POP AX
For the communication with external devices the out command is used to send information to a
port and the in command to read the information received from a port.
The syntax of the out command is:
OUT DX,AX
19
Where DX contains the value of the port which will be used for the communication and AX
contains the information which will be sent.
The syntax of the in command is:
IN AX,DX
Where AX is the register where the incoming information will be kept and DX contains the
address of the port by which the information will arrive.

Logic and arithmetic operations

The instructions of the logic operations are: and, not, or and xor. These work on the bits of their
operators.
To verify the result of the operations we turn to the cmp and test instructions. The instructions
used for the algebraic operations are: to add, to subtract sub, to multiply mul and to divide div.
almost all the comparison instructions are based on the information contained in the flag register.
Normally the flags of this register which can be directly handled by the programmer are the data
direction flag DF, used to define the operations about chains. Another one which can also be
handled is the IF flag by means of the sti and cli instructions, to activate and deactivate the
interruptions.

Jumps, loops and procedures

The unconditional jumps in a written program in assembler language are given by the jmp
instruction; a jump is to moves the flow of the execution of a program by sending the control to
the indicated address.
A loop, known also as iteration, is the repetition of a process a certain number of times until a
condition is fulfilled.

Assembler Language Instructions

Transfer instructions
They are used to move the contents of the operators. Each instruction can be used with different
modes of addressing.
MOV
MOVS (MOVSB) (MOVSW)
MOV INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Data transfer between memory cells, registers and the accumulator.
Syntax:
MOV Destiny, Source

20
Where Destiny is the place where the data will be moved and Source is the place where the data
is.
The different movements of data allowed for this instruction are:
Destiny: memory. Source: accumulator
Destiny: accumulator. Source: memory
Destiny: segment register. Source: memory/register
Destiny: memory/register. Source: segment register
Destiny: register. Source: register
Destiny: register. Source: memory
Destiny: memory. Source: register
Destiny: register. Source: immediate data
Destiny: memory. Source: immediate data
Example:
MOV AX,0006h
MOV BX,AX
MOV AX,4C00h
INT 21H
This small program moves the value of 0006H to the AX register, then it moves the content of
AX (0006h) to the BX register, and lastly it moves the 4C00h value to the AX register to end the
execution with the 4C option of the 21h interruption.
MOVS (MOVSB) (MOVSW) Instruction
Purpose: To move byte or word chains from the source, addressed by SI, to the destiny addressed
by DI.
Syntax:
MOVS
This command does not need parameters since it takes as source address the content of the SI
register and as destination the content of DI. The following sequence of instructions illustrates
this:
MOV SI, OFFSET VAR1
MOV DI, OFFSET VAR2
MOVS
First we initialize the values of SI and DI with the addresses of the VAR1 and VAR2 variables
respectively, then after executing MOVS the content of VAR1 is copied onto VAR2.
The MOVSB and MOVSW are used in the same way as MOVS, the first one moves one byte
and the second one moves a word.

21
Loading instructions
They are specific register instructions. They are used to load bytes or chains of bytes onto a
register.
LODS (LODSB) (LODSW)
LAHF
LDS
LEA
LES

LODS (LODSB) (LODSW) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: To load chains of a byte or a word into the accumulator.
Syntax:
LODS
This instruction takes the chain found on the address specified by SI, loads it to the AL (or AX)
register and adds or subtracts , depending on the state of DF, to SI if it is a bytes transfer or if it
is a words transfer.
MOV SI, OFFSET VAR1
LODS
The first line loads the VAR1 address on SI and the second line takes the content of that locality
to the AL register.
The LODSB and LODSW commands are used in the same way, the first one loads a byte and the
second one a word (it uses the complete AX register).

LAHF INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It transfers the content of the flags to the AH register.
Syntax:
LAHF
This instruction is useful to verify the state of the flags during the execution of our program.
The flags are left in the following order inside the register:
SF ZF ?? AF ?? PF ?? CF

LDS INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To load the register of the data segment
Syntax:
LDS destiny, source

22
The source operator must be a double word in memory. The word associated with the largest
address is transferred to DS, in other words it is taken as the segment address. The word
associated with the smaller address is the displacement address and it is deposited in the register
indicated as destiny.

LEA INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To load the address of the source operator
Syntax:
LEA destiny, source
The source operator must be located in memory, and its displacement is placed on the index
register or specified pointer in destiny.
To illustrate one of the facilities we have with this command let us write an equivalence:
MOV SI,OFFSET VAR1
Is equivalent to:
LEA SI,VAR1
It is very probable that for the programmer it is much easier to create extensive programs by
using this last format.

LES INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To load the register of the extra segment
Syntax:
LES destiny, source
The source operator must be a double word operator in memory. The content of the word with
the larger address is interpreted as the segment address and it is placed in ES. The word with the
smaller address is the displacement address and it is placed in the specified register on the
destiny parameter.

Stack instructions
These instructions allow the use of the stack to store or retrieve data.
POP
POPF
PUSH
PUSHF

23
POP INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It recovers a piece of information from the stack
Syntax:
POP destiny
This instruction transfers the last value stored on the stack to the destiny operator, it then
increases by 2 the SP register. This increase is due to the fact that the stack grows from the
highest memory segment address to the lowest, and the stack only works with words, 2 bytes, so
then by increasing by two the SP register, in reality two are being subtracted from the real size of
the stack.

POPF INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It extracts the flags stored on the stack
Syntax:
POPF
This command transfers bits of the word stored on the higher part of the stack to the flag register.
The way of transference is as follows:
BIT FLAG
0 CF
2 PF
4 AF
6 ZF
7 SF
8 TF
9 IF
10 DF
11 OF
These localities are the same for the PUSHF command. Once the transference is done the SP
register is increased by 2, diminishing the size of the stack.

PUSH INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It places a word on the stack.
Syntax:
PUSH source
The PUSH instruction decreases by two the value of SP and then transfers the content of the
source operator to the new resulting address on the recently modified register.

24
The decrease on the address is due to the fact that when adding values to the stack, this one
grows from the greater to the smaller segment address, therefore by subtracting 2 from the SP
register what we do is to increase the size of the stack by two bytes, which is the only quantity of
information the stack can handle on each input and output of information.

PUSHF INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It places the value of the flags on the stack.
Syntax:
PUSHF
This command decreases by 2 the value of the SP register and then the content of the flag
register is transferred to the stack, on the address indicated by SP.
The flags are left stored in memory on the same bits indicated on the POPF command.

Logic instructions
They are used to perform logic operations on the operators.
AND
NEG
NOT
OR
TEST
XOR

AND INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It performs the conjunction of the operators bit by bit.
Syntax:
AND destiny, source
With this instruction the "y" logic operation for both operators is carried
out:
Source Destiny | Destiny
-----------------------------
11|1
10|0
01|0
00|0
The result of this operation is stored on the destiny operator.

25
NEG INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It generates the complement to 2.
Syntax:
NEG destiny
This instruction generates the complement to 2 of the destiny operator and stores it on the same
operator.
For example, if AX stores the value of 1234H, then:
NEG AX
This would leave the EDCCH value stored on the AX register.

NOT INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It carries out the negation of the destiny operator bit by bit.
Syntax:
NOT destiny
The result is stored on the same destiny operator.

OR INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Logic inclusive OR
Syntax:
OR destiny, source
The OR instruction carries out, bit by bit, the logic inclusive disjunction
of the two operators:
Source Destiny | Destiny
-----------------------------------
11|1
10|1
01|1
00|0

TEST INSTRUCTION
Purpose: It logically compares the operators
Syntax:
TEST destiny, source
It performs a conjunction, bit by bit, of the operators, but differing from AND, this instruction
does not place the result on the destiny operator, it only has effect on the state of the flags.
26
XOR INSTRUCTION
Purpose: OR exclusive
Syntax:
XOR destiny, source Its function is to perform the logic exclusive disjunction of the two
operators bit by bit.
Source Destiny | Destiny
-----------------------------------
11|0
00|1
01|1
00|0

Arithmetic instructions
They are used to perform arithmetic operations on the operators.
ADC
ADD
DIV
IDIV
MUL
IMUL
SBB
SUB

ADC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Cartage addition
Syntax:
ADC destiny, source
It carries out the addition of two operators and adds one to the result in case the CF flag is
activated, this is in case there is carried.
The result is stored on the destiny operator.

ADD INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Addition of the operators.
Syntax:
ADD destiny, source
27
It adds the two operators and stores the result on the destiny operator.

DIV INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Division without sign.
Syntax:
DIV source
The divider can be a byte or a word and it is the operator which is given the instruction.
If the divider is 8 bits, the 16 bits AX register is taken as dividend and if the divider is 16 bits the
even DX:AX register will be taken as dividend, taking the DX high word and AX as the low.
If the divider was a byte then the quotient will be stored on the AL register and the residue on
AH, if it was a word then the quotient is stored on AX and the residue on DX.

IDIV INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Division with sign.
Syntax:
IDIV source
It basically consists on the same as the DIV instruction, and the only difference is that this one
performs the operation with sign.For its results it used the same registers as the DIV instruction.

MUL INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Multiplication with sign.
Syntax:
MUL source
The assembler assumes that the multiplicand will be of the same size as the multiplier, therefore
it multiplies the value stored on the register given as operator by the one found to be contained in
AH if the multiplier is 8 bits or by AX if the multiplier is 16 bits. When a multiplication is done
with 8 bit values, the result is stored on the AX register and when the multiplication is with 16
bit values the result is stored on the even DX:AX register.

IMUL INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Multiplication of two whole numbers with sign.
Syntax:
IMUL source
This command does the same as the one before, only that this one does take into account the
signs of the numbers being multiplied.
28
The results are kept in the same registers that the MOV instruction uses.

SBB INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Subtraction with cartage.
Syntax:
SBB destiny, source
This instruction subtracts the operators and subtracts one to the result if CF is activated. The
source operator is always subtracted from the destiny.
This kind of subtraction is used when one is working with 32 bits quantities.

SUB INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Subtraction.
Syntax:
SUB destiny, source
It subtracts the source operator from the destiny.

Jump instructions
They are used to transfer the flow of the process to the indicated
operator.
JMP
JA (JNBE)
JAE (JNBE)
JB (JNAE)
JBE (JNA)
JE (JZ)
JNE (JNZ)
JG (JNLE)
JGE (JNL)
JL (JNGE)
JLE (JNG)
JC
JNC
JNO
JNP (JPO)
JNS
JO

29
 JP (JPE)
JS

JMP INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Unconditional jump.
Syntax:
JMP destiny
This instruction is used to deviate the flow of a program without taking into account the actual
conditions of the flags or of the data.

JA (JNBE) INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump.
Syntax:
JA Label
After a comparison this command jumps if it is or jumps if it is not down or if not it is the equal.
This means that the jump is only done if the CF flag is deactivated or if the ZF flag is
deactivated, that is that one of the two be equal to zero.

JAE (JNB) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: Conditional jump.
Syntax:
JAE label
It jumps if it is or it is the equal or if it is not down.
The jump is done if CF is deactivated.

JB (JNAE) INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump.
Syntax:
JB label
It jumps if it is down, if it is not , or if it is the equal.
The jump is done if CF is activated.

JBE (JNA) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: Conditional jump.
30
Syntax:
JBE label
It jumps if it is down, the equal, or if it is not .
The jump is done if CF is activated or if ZF is activated, that any of them
be equal to 1.

JE (JZ) INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump.
Syntax:
JE label
It jumps if it is the equal or if it is zero.
The jump is done if ZF is activated.

JNE (JNZ) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: Conditional jump.
Syntax:
JNE label
It jumps if it is not equal or zero.
The jump will be done if ZF is deactivated.

JG (JNLE) INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the sign is taken into account.
Syntax:
JG label
It jumps if it is larger, if it is not larger or equal.
The jump occurs if ZF = 0 or if OF = SF.

JGE (JNL) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: Conditional jump, and the sign is taken into account.
Syntax:
JGE label
It jumps if it is larger or less than, or equal to.
The jump is done if SF = OF

31
JL (JNGE) INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the sign is taken into account.
Syntax:
JL label
It jumps if it is less than or if it is not larger than or equal to.
The jump is done if SF is different than OF.

JLE (JNG) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: Conditional jump, and the sign is taken into account.
Syntax:
JLE label
It jumps if it is less than or equal to, or if it is not larger.
The jump is done if ZF = 1 or if SF is defferent than OF.

JC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the flags are taken into account.
Syntax:
JC label
It jumps if there is cartage.
The jump is done if CF = 1

JNC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the state of the flags is taken into
account.
Syntax:
JNC label
It jumps if there is no cartage.
The jump is done if CF = 0.

JNO INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the state of the flags is taken into
account.
Syntax:
32
 JNO label
It jumps if there is no overflow.
The jump is done if OF = 0.

JNP (JPO) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: Conditional jump, and the state of the flags is taken into
account.
Syntax:
JNP label
It jumps if there is no parity or if the parity is uneven.
The jump is done if PF = 0.

JNS INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the state of the flags is taken into account.
Syntax:
JNP label
It jumps if the sign is deactivated.
The jump is done if SF = 0.

JO INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the state of the flags is taken into account.
Syntax:
JO label
It jumps if there is overflow.
The jump is done if OF = 1.

JP (JPE) INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, the state of the flags is taken into account.
Syntax:
JP label
It jumps if there is parity or if the parity is even.
The jump is done if PF = 1.

33
JS INSTRUCTION
Purpose: Conditional jump, and the state of the flags is taken into account.
Syntax:
JS label
It jumps if the sign is on.
The jump is done if SF = 1.

Instructions for cycles: Loop

They transfer the process flow, conditionally or unconditionally, to a destiny, repeating this
action until the counter is zero.
LOOP
LOOPE
LOOPNE

LOOP INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To generate a cycle in the program.
Syntax:
LOOP label
The loop instruction decreases CX on 1, and transfers the flow of the program to the label given
as operator if CX is different than 1.

LOOPE INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To generate a cycle in the program considering the state of ZF.
Syntax:
LOOPE label
This instruction decreases CX by 1. If CX is different to zero and ZF is equal to 1, then the flow
of the program is transferred to the label indicated as operator.

LOOPNE INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To generate a cycle in the program, considering the state of ZF.
Syntax:
LOOPNE label
This instruction decreases one from CX and transfers the flow of the program only if ZF is
different to 0.

34
Counting instructions
They are used to decrease or increase the content of the counters.
DEC
INC

DEC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To decrease the operator.
Syntax:
DEC destiny
This operation subtracts 1 from the destiny operator and stores the new value in the same
operator.

INC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To increase the operator.
Syntax:
INC destiny
The instruction adds 1 to the destiny operator and keeps the result in the same destiny operator.

Comparison Instructions
They are used to compare operators, and they affect the content of the flags.
CMP
CMPS (CMPSB) (CMPSW)

CMP INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To compare the operators.
Syntax:
CMP destiny, source
This instruction subtracts the source operator from the destiny operator but without this one
storing the result of the operation, and it only affects the state of the flags.

CMPS (CMPSB) (CMPSW) INSTRUCTION

Purpose: To compare chains of a byte or a word.
Syntax:

35
 CMP destiny, source
With this instruction the chain of source characters is subtracted from the destiny chain.
DI is used as an index for the extra segment of the source chain, and SI as an index of the destiny
chain.
It only affects the content of the flags and DI as well as SI are incremented.

Flag Instructions
They directly affect the content of the flags.
CLC
CLD
CLI
CMC
STC
STD
STI

CLC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To clean the cartage flag.
Syntax:
CLC
This instruction turns off the bit corresponding to the cartage flag, or in other words it puts it on
zero.

CLD INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To clean the address flag.
Syntax:
CLD
This instruction turns off the corresponding bit to the address flag.

CLI INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To clean the interruption flag.
Syntax:
CLI
This instruction turns off the interruptions flag, disabling this way those maskarable
interruptions.
36
A maskarable interruptions is that one whose functions are deactivated when IF=0.

CMC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To complement the cartage flag.
Syntax:
CMC
This instruction complements the state of the CF flag, if CF = 0 the instructions equals it to 1,
and if the instruction is 1 it equals it to 0.
We could say that it only "inverts" the value of the flag.

STC INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To activate the cartage flag.
Syntax:
STC
This instruction puts the CF flag in 1.

STD INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To activate the address flag.
Syntax:
STD
The STD instruction puts the DF flag in 1.

STI INSTRUCTION
Purpose: To activate the interruption flag.
Syntax:
STI
The instruction activates the IF flag, and this enables the maskarable external interruptions ( the
ones which only function when IF = 1).

37
Chapter 7: Interruptions and File Managing

Internal hardware interruptions

Internal interruptions are generated by certain events which come during the execution of a
program. This type of interruptions are managed on their totality by the hardware and it is not
possible to modify them.
A clear example of this type of interruptions is the one which actualizes the counter of the
computer internal clock, the hardware makes the call to this interruption several times during a
second in order to maintain the time to date.
Even though we cannot directly manage this interruption, since we cannot control the time dating
by means of software, it is possible to use its effects on the computer to our benefit, for example
to create a "virtual clock" dated continuously thanks to the clock's internal counter. We only have
to write a program which reads the actual value of the counter and to translates it into an
understandable format for the user.

External hardware interruptions

External interruptions are generated by peripheral devices, such as keyboards, printers,
communication cards, etc. They are also generated by coprocessors. It is not possible to
deactivate external interruptions.
These interruptions are not sent directly to the CPU, but rather they are sent to an integrated
circuit whose function is to exclusively handle this type of interruptions. The circuit, called
PIC8259A, is controlled by the CPU using for this control a series of communication ways called
paths.

Software interruptions
Software interruptions can be directly activated by the assembler invoking the number of the
desired interruption with the INT instruction.
The use of interruptions helps us in the creation of programs, and by using them our programs
are shorter, it is easier to understand them and they usually have a better performance mostly due
to their smaller size.
This type of interruptions can be separated in two categories: the operative system DOS
interruptions and the BIOS interruptions. The difference between the two is that the operative
system interruptions are easier to use but they are also slower since these interruptions make use
of the BIOS to achieve their goal, on the other hand the BIOS interruptions are much faster but

38
they have the disadvantage that since they are part of the hardware, they are very specific and
can vary depending even on the brand of the maker of the circuit.
The election of the type of interruption to use will depend solely on the characteristics you want
to give your program: speed, using the BIOS ones, or portability, using the ones from the DOS.

Most Common Interruptions

21H Interruption
Purpose: To call on diverse DOS functions.
Syntax:
Int 21H
Note: When we work in TASM program is necessary to specify that the value we are using is
hexadecimal.
This interruption has several functions, to access each one of them it is necessary that the
function number which is required at the moment of calling the interruption is in the AH register.

Functions to display information to the video:

02H Exhibits output
09H Chain Impression (video)
40H Writing in device/file

Functions to read information from the keyboard

01H Input from the keyboard
0AH Input from the keyboard using buffer
3FH Reading from device/file

Functions to work with files

In this section only the specific task of each function is exposed, for a reference about the
concepts used, refer to unit 7, titled : "Introduction to file handling".
FCB Method
0FH Open file
14H Sequential reading
15H Sequential writing
16H Create file
21H Random reading
22H Random writing
39
Handles
3CH Create file
3DH Open file
3EH Close file driver
3FH Reading from file/device
40H Writing in file/device
42H Move pointer of reading/writing in file

02H FUNCTION
Use: It displays one character to the screen.
Calling registers:
AH = 02H
DL = Value of the character to display.
Return registers:
None.
This function displays the character whose hexadecimal code corresponds to the value stored in
the DL register, and no register is modified by using this command.
The use of the 40H function is recommended instead of this function.

09H FUNCTION
Use: It displays a chain of characters on the screen.
Call registers:
AH = 09H
DS:DX = Address of the beginning of a chain of characters.
Return registers:
None.
This function displays the characters, one by one, from the indicated address in the DS:DX
register until finding a $ character, which is interpreted as the end of the chain.
It is recommended to use the 40H function instead of this one.

40H FUNCTION
Use: To write to a device or a file.
Call registers:
AH = 40H
BX = Path of communication
40
 CX = Quantity of bytes to write
DS:DX = Address of the beginning of the data to write
Return registers:
CF = 0 if there was no mistake
AX = Number of bytes written
CF = 1 if there was a mistake
AX = Error code
The use of this function to display information on the screen is done by giving the BX register
the value of 1 which is the preassigned value to the video by the operative system MS-DOS.

01H FUNCTION
Use: To read a keyboard character and to display it.
Call registers
AH = 01H
Return registers:
AL = Read character
It is very easy to read a character from the keyboard with this function, the hexadecimal code of
the read character is stored in the AL register. In case it is an extended register the AL register
will contain the value of 0 and it will be necessary to call on the function again to obtain the code
of that character.

0AH FUNCTION
Use: To read keyboard characters and store them on the buffer.
Call registers:
AH = 0AH
DS:DX = Area of storage address
BYTE 0 = Quantity of bytes in the area
BYTE 1 = Quantity of bytes read
from BYTE 2 till BYTE 0 + 2 = read characters
Return characters:
None.
The characters are read and stored in a predefined space on memory. The structure of this space
indicate that in the first byte are indicated how many characters will be read. On the second byte
the number of characters already read are stored, and from the third byte on the read characters
are written.

41
When all the indicated characters have been stored the speaker sounds and any additional
character is ignored. To end the capture of the chain it is necessary to hit [ENTER].

3FH FUNCTION
Use: To read information from a device or file.
Call registers:
AH = 3FH
BX = Number assigned to the device
CX = Number of bytes to process
DS:DX = Address of the storage area
Return registers:
CF = 0 if there is no error and AX = number of read bytes.
CF = 1 if there is an error and AX will contain the error code.

0FH FUNCTION
Use: To open an FCB file
Call registers:
AH = 0FH
DS:DX = Pointer to an FCB
Return registers:
AL = 00H if there was no problem, otherwise it returns to 0FFH

14H FUNCTION
Use: To sequentially read an FCB file.
Call registers:
AH = 14H
DS:DX = Pointer to an FCB already opened.
Return registers:
AL = 0 if there were no errors, otherwise the corresponding error code will be returned: 1
error at the end of the file, 2 error on the FCB structure and 3 pa
What this function does is that it reads the next block of information from the address
given by DS:DX, and dates this register.

15H FUNCTION
Use: To sequentially write and FCB file.
42
Call registers:
AH = 15H
DS:DX = Pointer to an FCB already opened.
Return registers:
AL = 00H if there were no errors, otherwise it will contain the error code: 1 full disk or
read-only file, 2 error on the formation or on the specification of
The 15H function dates the FCB after writing the register to the present block.

16H FUNCTION
Use: To create an FCB file.
Call registers:
AH = 16H
DS:DX = Pointer to an already opened FCB.
Return registers:
AL = 00H if there were no errors, otherwise it will contain the 0FFH value.
It is based on the information which comes on an FCB to create a file on a disk.

21H FUNCTION
Use: To read in an random manner an FCB file.
Call registers:
AH = 21H
DS:DX = Pointer to and opened FCB.
Return registers:
A = 00H if there was no error, otherwise AH will contain the code of the error: 1 if it is
the end of file, 2 if there is an FCB specification error and 3 if
This function reads the specified register by the fields of the actual block and register of an
opened FCB and places the information on the DTA, Disk Transfer Area.

22H FUNCTION
Use: To write in an random manner an FCB file.
Call registers:
AH = 22H
DS:DX = Pointer to an opened FCB.
Return registers:

43
 AL = 00H if there was no error, otherwise it will contain the error code: 1 if the disk is
full or the file is an only read and 2 if there is an error on the
It writes the register specified by the fields of the actual block and register of an opened FCB. It
writes this information from the content of the DTA.

3CH FUNCTION
Use: To create a file if it does not exist or leave it on 0 length if it exists, Handle.
Call registers:
AH = 3CH
CH = File attribute
DS:DX = Pointer to an ASCII specification.
Return registers:
CF = 0 and AX the assigned number to handle if there is no error, in case there is, CF ill
be 1 and AX will contain the error code: 3 path not found, 4 there This function
substitutes the 16H function. The name of the file is specified on an ASCII chain, which
has as a characteristic being a conventional chain of bytes ended with a 0 character.
The file created will contain the attributes defined on the CX register in the following manner:
Value Attributes
00H Normal
02H Hidden
04H System
06H Hidden and of system
The file is created with the reading and writing permissions. It is not possible to create
directories using this function.

3DH FUNCTION
Use: It opens a file and returns a handle.
Call registers:
AH = 3DH
AL = manner of access
DS:DX = Pointer to an ASCII specification
Return registers:
CF = 0 and AX = handle number if there are no errors, otherwise CF = 1 and
AX = error code: 01H if the function is not valid, 02H if the file was not found, 03
The returned handled is 16 bits.
The access code is specified in the following way:
44
 BITS
7654321
. . . . 0 0 0 Only reading
. . . . 0 0 1 Only writing
. . . . 0 1 0 Reading/Writing
. . . x . . . RESERVED

3EH FUNCTION
Use: Close file (handle).
Call registers:
AH = 3EH
BX = Assigned handle
Return registers:
CF = 0 if there were no mistakes, otherwise CF will be 1 and AX will contain the error
code: 06H if the handle is invalid.
This function dates the file and frees the handle it was using.

3FH FUNCTION
Use: To read a specific quantity of bytes from an open file and store them on a specific buffer.
5.4.2 10h Interruption
Purpose: To call on diverse BIOS video function
Syntax:
Int 10H
This interruption has several functions, all of them control the video input/output, to access each
one of them it is necessary that the function number which is required at the moment of calling
the interruption is in the Ah register.
In this tutorial we will see some functions of the 10h interruption.
Common functions of the 10h interruption
02H Function, select the cursor position
09H Function, write attribute and character of the cursor
0AH Function, write a character in the cursor position
0EH Function, Alphanumeric model of the writing characters

02h Function
Use: Moves the cursor on the computer screen using text model.

45
Call registers:
AH = 02H
BH = Video page where the cursor is positioned.
DH = row
DL = Column
Return Registers:
None.
The cursor position is defined by its coordinates, starting from the
position 0,0 to position 79,24. This means from the left per computer
screen corner to right lower computer screen. Therefore the numeric values
that the DH and DL registers get in text model are: from 0 to 24 for rows
and from 0 to 79 for columns.

09h Function
Use: Shows a defined character several times on the computer screen with a defined attribute,
starting with the actual cursor position.
Call registers:
AH = 09H
AL = Character to display
BH = Video page, where the character will display it;
BL = Attribute to use number of repetition.
Return registers:
None
This function displays a character on the computer screen several times, using a specified
number in the CX register but without changing the cursor position on the computer screen.

0Ah Function
Use: Displays a character in the actual cursor position.
Call registers:
AH = 0AH
AL = Character to display
BH = Video page where the character will display it
BL = Color to use (graphic mode only).
CX = number of repetitions
Return registers:

46
 None.
The main difference between this function and the last one is that this one
doesn't allow modifications on the attributes neither does it change the
cursor position.

0EH Function
Use: Displays a character on the computer screen dates the cursor position.
Call registers:
AH = 0EH
AL = Character to display
BH = Video page where the character will display it
BL = Color to use (graphic mode only).
Return registers:
None

16H interruption
We will see two functions of the 16 h interruption, these functions are
called by using the AH register.
Functions of the 16h interruption
00H Function, reads a character from the keyboard.
01H Function, reads the keyboard state.
00H Function
Use: Reads a character from the keyboard.
Call registers:
AH = 00H
Return registers:
AH = Scan code of the keyboard
AL = ASCII value of the character
When we use this interruption, the program executing is halted until a
character is typed, if this is an ASCII value; it is stored in the Ah
register, Else the scan code is stored in the AL register and the AH
register contents the value 00h.
The proposal of the scan code is to use it with the keys without ASCII
representation as [ALT][CONTROL], the function keys and so on.

47
01h function
Use: Reads the keyboard state
Call registers:
AH = 01H
Return registers:
If the flag register is zero, this means, there is information on the buffer memory, else, there is no
information in the buffer memory. Therefore the value of the Ah register will be the value key
stored in the buffer memory.

5.4.4 17H Interruption

Purpose: Handles the printer input/output.
Syntax:
Int 17H
This interruption is used to write characters on the printer, sets printer
and reads the printer state.

Functions of the 16h interruptions

00H Function, prints value ASCII out
01H Function, sets printer
02H Function, the printer state

00H Function
Use: Writes a character on the printer.
Call registers:
AH = 00H
AL = Character to print.
DX = Port to use.
Return registers:
AH = Printer device state.
The port to use is in the DX register, the different values are: LPT1 = 0,
LPT2 = 1, LPT3 = 2 ...
The printer device state is coded bit by bit as follows:
BIT 1/0 MEANING
----------------------------------------
01 The waited time is over

48
 1-
2-
31 input/output error
41 Chosen printer
51 out-of-paper
61 communication recognized
71 The printer is ready to use
1 and 2 bits are not relevant
Most BIOS sport 3 parallel ports, although there are BIOS which sport 4
parallel ports.

01h Function
Use: Sets parallel port.
Call registers:
AH = 01H
DX = Port to use
Return registers:
AH = Printer status
Port to use is defined in the DX register, for example: LPT=0, LPT2=1, and
so on.

The state of the printer is coded bit by bit as follows:

BIT 1/0 MEANING
----------------------------------------
01 The waited time is over
1-
2-
31 input/output error
41 Chosen printer
51 out-of-paper
61 communication recognized
71 The printer is ready to use
1 and 2 bits are not relevant
Most BIOS sport 3 parallel ports, although there are BIOS which sport 4
parallel ports.

49
02h Function
Uses: Gets the printer status.
Call registers:
AH = 01H
DX = Port to use
Return registers
AH = Printer status.
Port to use is defined in the DX register, for example: LPT=0, LPT2=1, and
so on
The state of the printer is coded bit by bit as follows:
BIT 1/0 MEANING
----------------------------------------
01 The waited time is over
1-
2-
31 input/output error
41 Chosen printer
51 out-of-paper
61 communication recognized
71 The printer is ready to use
1 and 2 bits are not relevant
Most BIOS sport 3 parallel ports, although there are BIOS which sport 4
parallel ports.

50
Chapter 8: Working with Files

Ways of working with files

There are two ways to work with files, the first one is by means of file control blocks or "FCB"
and the second one is by means of communication channels, also known as "handles".
The first way of file handling has been used since the CPM operative system, predecessor of
DOS, thus it assures certain compatibility with very old files from the CPM as well as from the
1.0 version of the DOS, besides this method allows us to have an unlimited number of open files
at the same time. If you want to create a volume for the disk the only way to achieve this is by
using this method.
Even after considering the advantages of the FCB, the use of the communication channels it is
much simpler and it allows us a better handling of errors, besides, since it is much newer it is
very probable that the files created this way maintain themselves compatible through
later versions of the operative system. For a greater facility on later explanations I will refer to
the file control blocks as FCBs and to the communication channels as handles.

File Control Blocks (FCB) Method

Introduction
There are two types of FCB, the normal, whose length is 37 bytes and the extended one of 44
bytes. On this tutorial we will only deal with the first type, so from now on when I refer to an
FCB, I am really talking about 37 bytes FCB. The FCB is composed of information given by the
programmer and by information which it takes directly from the operative system. When these
types of files are used it is only possible to work on the current directory since the FCBs do not
provide sport for the use of the organization by directories of DOS.
The FCB is formed by the following fields:
POSITION LENGTH MEANING
00H 1 Byte Drive
01H 8 Bytes File name
09H 3 Bytes Extension
0CH 2 Bytes Block number
0EH 2 Bytes Register size
10H 4 Bytes File size
14H 2 Bytes Creation date
16H 2 Bytes Creation hour
18H 8 Bytes Reserved
20H 1 Bytes Current register
21H 4 Bytes Random register

51
To select the work drive the next format is followed: drive A = 1; drive B = 2; etc. If 0 is used
the drive being used at that moment will be taken as option.
The name of the file must be justified to the left and in case it is necessary the remaining bytes
will have to be filled with spaces, and the extension of the file is placed the same way.
The current block and the current register tell the computer which register
will be accessed on reading or writing operations. A block is a group of 128 registers. The first
block of the file is the block 0. The first register is the register 0, therefore the last register of the
first block would be the 127, since the numbering started with 0 and the block can contain 128
registers in total.

Opening files
To open an FCB file the 21H interruption, 0FH function is used. The unit, the name and
extension of the file must be initialized before opening it. The DX register must point to the
block. If the value of FFH is returned on the AH register when calling on the interruption then
the file was not found, if everything came out well a value of 0 will be returned.
If the file is opened then DOS initializes the current block to 0, the size of the register to 128
bytes and the size of the same and its date are filled with the information found in the directory.

Creating a new file

For the creation of files the 21H interruption 16H function is used. DX must point to a control
structure whose requirements are that at least the logic unit, the name and the extension of the
file be defined. In case there is a problem the FFH value will be returned on AL, otherwise
this register will contain a value of 0.

Sequential writing
Before we can perform writing to the disk it is necessary to define the data transfer area using for
this end the 1AH function of the 21H interruption.
The 1AH function does not return any state of the disk nor or the operation, but the 15H
function, which is the one we will use to write to the disk, does it on the AL register, if this one
is equal to zero there was no error and the fields of the current register and block are dated.

Sequential reading
Before anything we must define the file transfer area or DTA. In order to sequentially read we
use the 14H function of the 21H interruption. The register to be read is the one which is defined
by the current block and register. The AL register returns to the state of the operation, if AL
contains a value of 1 or 3 it means we have reached the end of the file. A value of 2 means that

52
the FCB is wrongly structured. In case there is no error, AL will contain the value of 0 and the
fields of the current block and register are dated.

Random reading and writing

The 21H function and the 22H function of the 21H interruption are the ones in charge of
realizing the random readings and writings respectively. The random register number and the
current block are used to calculate the relative position of the register to read or write.
The AL register returns the same information for the sequential reading of writing. The
information to be read will be returned on the transfer area of the disk, likewise the information
to be written resides on the DTA.

Closing a file
To close a file we use the 10H function of the 21H interruption. If after invoking this function,
the AL register contains the FFH value, this means that the file has changed position, the disk
was changed or there is error of disk access.

Channels of communication
The use of handles to manage files greatly facilitates the creation of files and programmer can
concentrate on other aspects of the programming without worrying on details which can be
handled by the operative system. The easy use of the handles consists in that to operate o a file, it
is only necessary to define the name of the same and the number of the handle to use, all the rest
of the information is internally handled by the DOS.
When we use this method to work with files, there is no distinction between sequential or
random accesses; the file is simply taken as a chain of bytes.
Functions to use handles: The functions used for the handling of files through handles are
described in unit 6: Interruptions, in the section dedicated to the 21H interruption.

53
Chapter 9: Macros and Procedures

Procedure

Definition of Procedure
A procedure is a collection of instructions to which we can direct the flow of our program, and
once the execution of these instructions is over control is given back to the next line to process of
the code which called on the procedure. Procedures help us to create legible and easy to modify
programs. At the time of invoking a procedure the address of the next instruction of the program
is kept on the stack so that, once the flow of the program has been transferred and the procedure
is done, one can return to the next line of the original program, the one which called the
procedure.

Syntax of a Procedure
There are two types of procedures, the intrasegments, which are found on the same segment of
instructions, and the inter-segments which can be stored on different memory segments.
When the intrasegment procedures are used, the value of IP is stored on the stack and when the
intrasegments are used the value of CS:IP is stored. To divert the flow of a procedure (calling it),
the following directive is used:
CALL NameOfTheProcedure
The part which make a procedure are:
• Declaration of the procedure
• Code of the procedure
• Return directive
• Termination of the procedure
For example, if we want a routine which adds two bytes stored in AH and AL
each one, and keep the addition in the BX register:
Adding Proc Near ; Declaration of the procedure
Mov Bx, 0 ; Content of the procedure
Mov B1, Ah
Mov Ah, 00
Add Bx, Ax
Ret ; Return directive
Add Endp ; End of procedure declaration

54
On the declaration the first word, Adding, corresponds to the name of out procedure, Proc
declares it as such and the word Near indicates to the MASM that the procedure is intrasegment.
The Ret directive loads the IP address stored on the stack to return to the original program, lastly,
the Add Endp directive indicates the end of the procedure. To declare an inter segment procedure
we substitute the word Near for the word FAR. The calling of this procedure is done the
following way:

Call Adding
Macros offer a greater flexibility in programming compared to the procedures, nonetheless, these
last ones will still be used.

Macros
Definition of the macro
A macro is a group of repetitive instructions in a program which are codified only once and can
be used as many times as necessary. The main difference between a macro and a procedure is
that in the macro the passage of parameters is possible and in the procedure it is not, this is only
applicable for the TASM - there are other programming languages which do allow it. At the
moment the macro is executed each parameter is substituted by the name or value specified at the
time of the call.
We can say then that a procedure is an extension of a determined program, while the macro is a
module with specific functions which can be used by different programs.
Another difference between a macro and a procedure is the way of calling each one, to call a
procedure the use of a directive is required, on the other hand the call of macros is done as if it
were an assembler instruction.

Syntax of a Macro
The parts which make a macro are:
• Declaration of the macro
• Code of the macro
• Macro termination directive
The declaration of the macro is done the following way:
NameMacro MACRO [parameter1, parameter2...]
Even though we have the functionality of the parameters it is possible to create a macro which
does not need them.
The directive for the termination of the macro is: ENDM

55
An example of a macro, to place the cursor on a determined position on the
screen is:
Position MACRO Row, Column
PUSH AX
PUSH BX
PUSH DX
MOV AH, 02H
MOV DH, Row
MOV DL, Column
MOV BH, 0
INT 10H
POP DX
POP BX
POP AX
ENDM
To use a macro it is only necessary to call it by its name, as if it were
another assembler instruction, since directives are no longer necessary as
in the case of the procedures.
Example: Position 8, 6

Macro Libraries
One of the facilities that the use of macros offers is the creation of libraries, which are groups of
macros which can be included in a program from a different file.
The creation of these libraries is very simple, we only have to write a file with all the macros
which will be needed and save it as a text file.
To call these macros it is only necessary to use the following instruction Include
NameOfTheFile, on the part of our program where we would normally
write the macros, this is, at the beginning of our program, before the declaration of the memory
model.
The macros file was saved with the name of MACROS.TXT, the instruction Include would be
used the following way:

;Beginning of the program Beginning:

;The code of the program is inserted here
Include MACROS.TXT
.STACK
.MODEL SMALL
;The stack is defined
.DATA
End beginning
;The data goes here
;Our program ends
.CODE

56
Chapter 10:Assembly Language Program Examples on x8086 IBM Machines

Program 1:
; 15 - 1 = 14 (decimal) or hex=0eh or
name “Hello, World!” bin=00001110b
; This program prints a messagae “Hello, sub bl, 1
World!” on the screen.
; print result in binary:
org 100h mov cx, 8
jmp start print: mov ah, 2 ; print function.
msg: db "Hello, World!", 0Dh,0Ah, mov dl, '0'
24h test bl, 10000000b ; test first bit.
start: mov dx, msg jz zero
mov ah, 09h mov dl, '1'
int 21h zero: int 21h
mov ah, 0 shl bl, 1
int 16h loop print
ret
; print binary suffix:
mov dl, 'b'
int 21h
Program 2:
; wait for any key press:
name "add-sub" mov ah, 0
int 16h
; This program is used to demonstrate ret
adition and subtraction arithmetic in
assembly language.
Program 3:
org 100h
name "calc-sum"
mov al, 5 ; bin=00000101b
mov bl, 10 ; hex=0ah or bin=00001010b org 100h

; 5 + 10 = 15 (decimal) or hex=0fh or ; calculate the sum of elements in vector,

bin=00001111b ; store result in m and print it in binary code.
add bl, al
57
; number of elements:
mov cx, 5 ; print result in decimal:
mov al, m
; al will store the sum: call print_al
mov al, 0
; wait for any key press:
; bx is an index: mov ah, 0
mov bx, 0 int 16h
ret
; sum elements:
next: add al, vector[bx] ; variables:
vector db 5, 4, 5, 2, 1
; next byte: m db 0
inc bx
print_al proc
; loop until cx=0: cmp al, 0
loop next jne print_al_r
push ax
; store result in m: mov al, '0'
mov m, al mov ah, 0eh
int 10h
; print result in binary: pop ax
mov bl, m ret
mov cx, 8 print_al_r:
print: mov ah, 2 ; print function. pusha
mov dl, '0' mov ah, 0
test bl, 10000000b ; test first bit. cmp ax, 0
jz zero je pn_done
mov dl, '1' mov dl, 10
zero: int 21h div dl
shl bl, 1 call print_al_r
loop print mov al, ah
; print binary suffix: add al, 30h
mov dl, 'b' mov ah, 0eh
int 21h int 10h
jmp pn_done
mov dl, 0ah ; new line. pn_done:
int 21h popa
mov dl, 0dh ; carrige return. ret
int 21h endp
58
 cmp ah, al
nop
Program 4:
; (unsigned)
name "flags" ; 1 is below 251
mov ah, 1
org 100h mov al, 251
cmp ah, al
; this sample shows how cmp instruction nop
sets the flags.
; (signed)
; usually cmp instruction is followed by any ; -3 is less then -2
relative mov ah, -3
; jump instruction such as: je, ja, jl, jae... mov al, -2
cmp ah, al
; it is recommended to click "flags" and nop
"analyze"
; for better visual expirience before stepping ; (signed)
through this code. ; -2 is greater then -3
mov ah, -2
; (signed/unsigned) mov al, -3
; 4 is equal to 4 cmp ah, al
mov ah, 4 nop
mov al, 4
cmp ah, al ; (unsigned)
nop ; 255 is above 1
mov ah, 255
; (signed/unsigned) mov al, 1
; 4 is above and greater then 3 cmp ah, al
mov ah, 4 nop
mov al, 3
cmp ah, al ; now a little game:
nop game: mov dx, offset msg1
mov ah, 9
; -5 = 251 = 0fbh int 21h

; (signed) ; read character in al:

; 1 is greater then -5 mov ah, 1
mov ah, 1 int 21h
mov al, -5
59
 cmp al, '0'
jb stop name "upper"

cmp al, '9' org 100h

ja stop
jmp start
cmp al, '5'
jb below ; first byte is buffer size,
ja above ; second byte will hold number
mov dx, offset equal_5 ; of used bytes for string,
jmp print ; all other bytes are for characters:
below: mov dx, offset below_5 string db 20, 22 dup('?')
jmp print
above: mov dx, offset above_5 new_line db 0Dh,0Ah, '$' ; new line code.
print: mov ah, 9
int 21h start:
jmp game ; loop.
; int 21h / ah=0ah - input of a string to ds:dx,
; fist byte is buffer size, second byte is
stop: ret ; stop number
; of chars actually read. does not add '$' in
msg1 db "enter a number or any other the
character to exit: $" ; end of string. to print using int 21h /
equal_5 db " is five! (equal)", 0Dh,0Ah, "$" ah=09h
below_5 db " is below five!" , 0Dh,0Ah, "$" ; you must set dollar sign at the end of it and
above_5 db " is above five!" , 0Dh,0Ah, "$" ; start printing from address ds:dx + 2.

lea dx, string

Program 5:
mov ah, 0ah
; this is a program in 8086 assembly int 21h
language that
; accepts a character string from the mov bx, dx
keyboard and mov ah, 0
; stores it in the string array. the program mov al, ds:[bx+1]
then converts add bx, ax ; point to end of string.
; all the lower case characters of the string to
upper case. mov byte ptr [bx+2], '$' ; put dollar to the
; if the string is empty (null), it doesn't do end.
anything.
60
; int 21h / ah=09h - output of a string at ; int 21h / ah=09h - output of a string at
ds:dx. ds:dx.
; string must be terminated by '$' sign. ; string must be terminated by '$' sign.
lea dx, new_line lea dx, string+2
mov ah, 09h mov ah, 09h
int 21h int 21h

lea bx, string ; wait for any key press....

mov ah, 0
mov ch, 0 int 16h
mov cl, [bx+1] ; get string size.
null:
jcxz null ; is string is empty? ret ; return to operating system.

add bx, 2 ; skip control chars.

Program 6:
upper_case:
name "add-2"
; check if it's a lower case letter:
cmp byte ptr [bx], 'a' ; this example calculates the sum of a vector
jb ok with
cmp byte ptr [bx], 'z' ; another vector and saves result in third
ja ok vector.

; convert to uppercase: ; you can see the result if you click the
"vars" button.
; upper case letter do not have ; set elements for vec1, vec2 and vec3 to 4
; third bit set, for example: and show as "signed".
; 'a' : 01100001b
; 'a' : 01000001b org 100h
; upper case mask : 11011111b
jmp start
; clear third bit: vec1 db 1, 2, 5, 6
and byte ptr [bx], 11011111b vec2 db 3, 5, 6, 1
vec3 db ?, ?, ?, ?
ok:
inc bx ; next char. start:
loop upper_case lea si, vec1
lea bx, vec2
lea di, vec3
61
 ; 15 - 8 = 7
mov cx, 4 sub al, cl

sum: ; print result in binary:

mov al, [si] mov bl, al
add al, [bx] mov cx, 8
mov [di], al print: mov ah, 2 ; print function.
mov dl, '0'
inc si test bl, 10000000b ; test first bit.
inc bx jz zero
inc di mov dl, '1'
zero: int 21h
loop sum shl bl, 1
ret loop print
; print binary suffix:
mov dl, 'b'
int 21h
Program 7:
; wait for any key press:
name "hex-bin" mov ah, 0
int 16h
;This program converts numbers from ret
hexadecimal to binary

org 100h Program 8:

; load binary value: name "calc-sum"

; (hex: 5h)
mov al, 00000101b org 100h

; load hex value: ; calculate the sum of elements in vector,

mov bl, 0ah ; store result in m and print it in binary code.

; load octal value: ; number of elements:

; (hex: 8h) mov cx, 5
mov cl, 10o
; al will store the sum:
; 5 + 10 = 15 (0fh) mov al, 0
add al, bl
; bx is an index:
62
mov bx, 0
; wait for any key press:
; sum elements: mov ah, 0
next: add al, vector[bx] int 16h
ret
; next byte:
inc bx ; variables:
vector db 5, 4, 5, 2, 1
; loop until cx=0: m db 0
loop next
print_al proc
; store result in m: cmp al, 0
mov m, al jne print_al_r
push ax
; print result in binary: mov al, '0'
mov bl, m mov ah, 0eh
mov cx, 8 int 10h
print: mov ah, 2 ; print function. pop ax
mov dl, '0' ret
test bl, 10000000b ; test first bit. print_al_r:
jz zero pusha
mov dl, '1' mov ah, 0
zero: int 21h cmp ax, 0
shl bl, 1 je pn_done
loop print mov dl, 10
; print binary suffix: div dl
mov dl, 'b' call print_al_r
int 21h mov al, ah
add al, 30h
mov dl, 0ah ; new line. mov ah, 0eh
int 21h int 10h
mov dl, 0dh ; carrige return. jmp pn_done
int 21h pn_done:
popa
; print result in decimal: ret
mov al, m endp
call print_al

63