Computer Hardware

BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

UNDERLYING STRUCTURE
6 basic building blocks
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Input Output Memory Arithmetic/logical unit Control unit Storage

Connected via buses

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

(CPU)

CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC/LOGIC UNIT

ROM

CLOCK

RAM

PRIMARY (MAIN) MEMORY

BUSES
CPU
PRIMARY

STORAGE

DATA BUS ADDRESS BUS CONTROL BUS

INPUT DEVICES

OUTPUT DEVICES

SECONDARY STORAGE

Computer Hardware
Motherboard

System Unit
Expansion Slots CPU

Ports

Memory

Input Devices

Storage Devices Peripherals

Output Devices

On the Motherboard
A motherboard CPU

A RAM chip A firewire card

Expansion slots

Pins to attach to The motherboard

Input and Output

Device Driver software Interrupts

INPUT/OUTPUT
TERMINAL POINT-OF-SALES TERMINALS AUTOMATIC TELLER MACHINES PUNCHED CARDS MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR): Used by banks to process checks *

INPUT/OUTPUT
OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION: Scanned material translated into computer characters IMAGING: Forms, documents, photos digitized for computer use BAR CODE LABEL: Product label information read into computer. Can be used to track inventory *

INPUT/OUTPUT
COMPUTER OUTPUT MICROFILM (COM): Computer rapidly generates microfilm documents for archive copies in small space VOICE RESPONSE UNITS: Computer recognizes, generates verbal messages MULTIMEDIA: Combines text, graphics, sound still images, animations, video *

Memories
ROM
Registers R1, R2

Random Access Memory (RAM)

CPU Primary Cache

Secondary Cache System Bus

I/O Bus
External Storage Devices Expansion slots

Three Functions of Primary Storage

1. Store all or part of the program being executed 2. Store the OS that manages the operation of the computer 3. Hold the data that the program is using

ROM Chip and BIOS

ROM stands for Read Only Memory ROM is a non-volatile memory on a chip The ROM chip contains Basic input/output system BIOS The BIOS has the instructions necessary to start up your computer

RAM

RAM stands for Random Access Memory RAM is a volatile memory on a chip RAM chips store information in addresses that can be accessed directly and quickly

168 pin DIMM chip

72 pin SIMM chip

TYPES OF MEMORY
RAM : Random Access Memory
Dynamic: Changes thru processing Static: Remains constant (power on)

ROM : Read Only Memory (preprogrammed)

PROM: Program can be changed once EPROM: Erasable thru ultraviolet light EEPROM: Electrically erasable

ADDRESSES IN MEMORY
Each location has an address (label) Each location can hold data (content)
101 201 301 102 202 302 103 203 303

Whats in Computer Memory

Computer memory is based on the electrical representation of data Each memory position is represented by a bit which can be either 'on' or 'off'. This makes it easier to represent computer memory using a base 2 number system rather than the base 10 decimal system. Binary system represents numbers by a series of 1's and 0's which correspond to 'on' and 'off' values 1 represents an 'on' position, a 0, an 'off' position A byte is represented by 8 bits numbered 0 to 7 from left to right Leftmost bit is called the high-order bit, the right most bit, the low-order bit

Representing Information
Problems
Bits represent too little too many are needed Decimal numbers dont translate well into bits

Solutions
Group into blocks of 4 and 8 bits
8 bits = 256 characters, holds ASCII 8 bits make 1 byte things are organized into bytes 4 bits make 1 nibble

How much information?

How much information can we store in a bit?
2 states

A byte?
8 bits = 28 = 256 states

N bits = 2n states

Bits and Bytes

Byte - Eight bits Kilobyte - ~1 thousand bytes = 1024 bytes Megabyte - ~1 million bytes = K2 Gigabyte - ~1 billion bytes = K3 Terabyte - ~1 trillion bytes K4

Decimal System
the decimal number system we use every day is built on base ten 10 it is based on 10 positions numbered 0 thru 9 each position corresponds to a power of 10 1024 = 1 x 103 -> 1 x 1000 = 1000 0 x 102 -> 0 x 100 = 000 2 x 101 -> 2 x 10 = 20 4 x 100 -> 4 x 1 = 4 ---1024

Binary numbers
Bit # 7 6 5 4 3 Value: 128 64 32 16 8 2 4 1 2 0 1

Example: 01000101 = 69

Representing information
How do we represent characters?
How many characters might we want to represent? What characters might we want to represent?

Representing information
How do we represent characters?
How many characters might we want to represent? What characters might we want to represent?
A-Z A-Z and a-z All the keys on my keyboard Maybe a power of 2? Maybe an even power of 2? Maybe an even bigger power of 2? 26 52 104 128 256 65536

HOW CHARACTERS ARE STORED IN COMPUTER MEMORY

BYTE: Group of bits for one character
EBCDIC- Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (8 bits per byte) ASCII- American Standard Code for Information Exchange (7 or 8 bits per byte)

PARITY BIT: extra bit added to each byte to help detect errors *

Representing characters
ASCII is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a 7-bit code. Many 8-bit codes contain ASCII as their lower half The ASCII standard was published by the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) in 1968.

EXAMPLES OF BYTES
EBCDIC ASCII (assume even-parity system)

C: 1100 0011 0 100 0011 1 A: 1100 0001 1 100 0001 0 T: 1110 0011 1 101 0100 1 Note how sum for each byte is an EVEN number *

Unicode
Universal Character Set (UCS) contains all characters of all other character set standards. It also guarantees round-trip compatibility, i.e., conversion tables can be built such that no information is lost when a string is converted from any other encoding to UCS and back. UCS contains the characters required to represent almost all known languages. This includes apart from the many languages which use extensions of the Latin script also the following scripts and languages: Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, Gregorian,
Japanese, Chinese, Hiragana, Katakana, Korean, Hangul, Devangari, Bengali, Gurmukhi, Gujarati, Oriya, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayam, Thai, Lao, Bopomofo, and a number of others. Work is going on to include further scripts like Tibetian, Khmer, Runic, Ethiopian, Hieroglyphics, various Indo-European languages, and many others.

Its intended to use 31 bits (32768 possible characters)

Shorthand: Hexadecimal
0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 8 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

9
A B

1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

4
5 6

C
D E F

0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Hex and Memory

Memory is represented in Hex in blocks of 4 bytes: FFFF = 1111 1111 1111 1111

Sidebar what are hexadecimal numbers

Base 16 rather than base 10 Decimal numbers
We write (1234)10 to represent a decimal number that has 4 units, 3 tens, 2 hundreds and 1 thousand. (1234)10 = 1 x103 + 2 x102 + 3 x101 + 4 x100

Hexadecimal numbers
We write (2AC4)16 to represent a decimal number that has 1 units, 12 16s, 10 256s and 2 65,536s (2AC4)16 = 1 x163 + 0 x162 + 0 x161 + 1 x160

ALU & CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC- LOGIC UNIT: CPU component performs logic and arithmetic operations CONTROL UNIT: CPU component controls, coordinates other parts of computer system *

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC/LOGIC UNIT

ROM

CLOCK

RAM
PRIMARY (MAIN) MEMORY

MACHINE CYCLE
STEPS NEEDED FOR SINGLE INSTRUCTION

Machine Cycle
Instruction Cycle

Fetch

Decode

Store

Execute

Execution Cycle

Fetch/Execute Cycle
1 2

Fetch
Memory Registers
4

Decode

Control Unit

Store

Execute
ALU

MACHINE CYCLE
Measuring Machine Cycle Speeds:
PCs & OLDER MACHINES: Microseconds (millionth second) POWERFUL MACHINES: Nanoseconds (billionth second)

COMPUTER TIME
# PER NAME LENGTH SECOND COMPARED TO 1 SECOND

Millisecond Microsecond Nanosecond Picosecond

.001 second .001 millisecond .001microsecond .001 nanosecond *

thousand million billion trillion

15min 40 sec 11.6 days 31.7 years 31,700 years

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
1. VACUUM TUBES: 1946-1959

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
1. VACUUM TUBES: 1946-1959 2. TRANSISTORS: 1957-1963

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
1. VACUUM TUBES: 1946-1959 2. TRANSISTORS: 1957-1963 3. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: 1964-1979

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
1. VACUUM TUBES: 1946-1959 2. TRANSISTORS: 1957-1963 3. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: 1964-1979 4. VERY LARGE-SCALE INTEGRATED (VLSI) CIRCUITS: 1980- PRESENT

Intel CPU Evolution

CPU 8086, 8088 80286 80386 80486 Pentium Pentium MMX Pentium Pro Pentium II Pentium III Pentium IV Year 1978-81 1984 1987-88 1990-92 1993-97 1997-98 1995-98 1999 2000 Transistors 29,000 134,000 275,000 1,200,000 3,100,000 4,500,000 5,500,000 7,500,000 9,300,000 34 million

MICROPROCESSOR
Processing Power
WORD LENGTH: Bits processed at one time CYCLE SPEED MEASURED IN MEGAHERTZ: One million cycles per second DATA BUS WIDTH: Bits moved between CPU & other devices

MICROPROCESSOR
Processing Power
REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTING (RISC): Embeds most used instructions on chip to enhance speed MultiMedia eXtension (MMX): Enhanced Intel chip improves multimedia applications Multiprocessors and coprocessors:

SECONDARY MEMORY /FILES

RECORD: Data about a transaction arranged in a set of FIELDS, each holding a datum FILE: A group of similar records, such as accounts receivable or payroll DATABASE: The files of an organization, an electronic library *

SECONDARY MEMORY
SEQUENTIAL ACCESS: A sequence of files arranged in order, say alphabetically. Usually stored on magnetic tape or cartridge DIRECT ACCESS: Records stored on a DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE DEVICE (DASD). Can move directly to any record *

Storage Modes
Random Access
Faster (nanoseconds) Usually more expensive
The dog barked. T H E D O G . .

Sequential
Slower (milliseconds) Less expensive

Th bar

d
k e

og ed

DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE DEVICE

HARD DISK: Steel platter array for large computer systems RAID: Redundant array of Inexpensive Disks FLOPPY DISK: Removable disk for PC *

DISK PACK STORAGE

LARGE SYSTEMS RELIABLE STORAGE LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA QUICK ACCESS & RETRIEVABLE TYPICAL: 11 2-SIDED DISKS CYLINDER: SAME TRACK ALL SURFACES
READ/WRITE HEADS DISK 1 DISK 2 DISK 3 DISK 4 DISK 5

CYLINDER 10: TRACK 10 (TOP AND BOTTOM OF EACH DISK)

Disks
Read/Write Head

Sector

Cluster

Storage Technologies
Magnetic
Read/write head uses electrical impulses to create or interpret patterns of magnetic impulses
Floppy disks Hard disks Tape

Optical
Laser beam creates or reads non-reflective pits and reflective land areas
CDs DVDs

Ancient DecTape systems

THE STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT

COMPUTER IS A BINARY SYSTEM PROGRAM: A set of instructions telling the computer what to do INSTRUCTION: Individual step or operation in a program MACHINE LANGUAGE: Translated instruction understood by particular model of computer *

Starting Up
2. OS kernel, or supervisor program becomes memory resident. 1. BIOS read from ROM

3. CPU reads and executes instructions

CONTROLLER
LINK FOR INPUT/OUTPUT OR FILE DEVICES HIGHLY SPECIALIZED PROCESSOR: Manages the operation of attached devices to free the CPU from these tasks *

DATA CHANNEL
SPECIALIZED INPUT/OUTPUT PROCESSOR (A COMPUTER): Takes over function of device communication from the CPU CORRECTS FOR SPEED MISMATCH BETWEEN SLOW PERIPHERAL DEVICES AND VERY FAST CPU *

Managing Memory
Remember the Machine Cycle? Page is swapped in Decoding and Execution

Page is swapped out

Multi
Multitasking
More than one program apparently executes at a time Computer switches between foreground and background applications

Multithreading
Different parts of programs run at the same time Computer switches between foreground and background threads

Multiprocessing
More than one CPU is present Tasks are divided among CPUs in true parallel processing

SYMMETRIC MULTIPROCESSOR
PROCESSORS (CPUs) ARE IDENTICAL, WITH EACH PROCESSOR OPERATING INDEPENDENTLY OF THE OTHERS USED IN MOST MAINFRAMES AND SOME MIDRANGE MACHINES *

SYMMETRIC MULTIPROCESSOR
Control CPU

Combined Results

PARALLEL PROCESSOR (PP)

MULTIPLE CPUs INSTALLED AS PART OF A SINGLE COMPUTER SYSTEM: Gives separate piece of program to each of the processors so that work on the program can proceed in parallel on the separate pieces *

MASSIVELY PARALLEL PROCESSOR (MPP)

PARALLEL PROCESSING COMPUTER WITH MANY PARALLEL PROCESSORS: 32 OR MORE: Different CPUs capable of performing different instructions at the same time 1000 OR MORE: CPUs must all carry out the same instruction at the same time

Computer Hardware