LECTURE NOTES

ON
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
(ECE & EEE)
Subject Code UR20BS202

Regulation UR - 20

Class I B.Tech II SEM (ECE & EEE)

Name of the Student: ……………………………………………………………………

Roll No: ………………………………………………………………………………………..

Branch: ………………………………………………………………………………………..

Prepared By

Prof. B. N. SRINIVAS Dr. KISHORE PALLE Dr. K. SUBBA RAO

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 1 URCET

 Department of Chemistry (Science & Humanities)
USHA RAMA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
Telaprolu – 521 109, Vijayawada.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 2 URCET

 APPLIED CHEMISTRY (UR20BS202)
(ECE & EEE)

UNIT I: HIGH POLYMERS AND PLASTICS

Polymerisation : Introduction- Mechanism of polymerization - Stereo regular
polymers – methods of polymerization (emulsion and suspension) -Physical and
mechanical properties – Plastics as engineering materials : advantages and
limitations – Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics – Compounding and
fabrication (4 techniques)- Preparation, properties and applications of Polyethene,
PVC, Bakelite and Teflon Elastomers – Natural rubber- compounding and
vulcanization – Synthetic rubbers : Buna S, Buna N, Thiokol and polyurethanes –
Applications of elastomers. Composite materials & Fiber reinforced plastics –
Biodegradable polymers – Conducting polymers.
UNIT II: FUEL TECHNOLOGY
Fuels:- Introduction – Classification – Calorific value - HCV and LCV – Dulong’s
formula – Bomb calorimeter – Numerical problems – Coal –– Proximate and
ultimate analysis – Significance of the analyses – Liquid fuels – Petroleum-
Refining – Cracking – Synthetic petrol –Petrol knocking – Diesel knocking -
Octane and Cetane ratings – Anti-knocking agents – Power alcohol – Gaseous
fuels – Natural gas. LPG and CNG – Combustion – Calculation of air for the
combustion of a fuel – Flue gas analysis – Orsat apparatus – Numerical problems
on combustion.
UNIT III: ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS AND CORROSION
Part-A:
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Introduction- Galvanic cells - Reversible and irreversible cells – Single electrode
potential – Electro chemical series and uses of this series- Standard electrodes
(Hydrogen and Calomel electrodes) - Concentration Cells – Batteries: Dry Cell –
Lead-Acid storage cells-Li cells. Fuel cells: - Hydrogen Oxygen fuel cells –
Methanol Oxygen fuel cells.
Part-B
CORROSION
Corrosion:- Definition – Theories of Corrosion (electrochemical and chemical)-
Galvanic corrosion,Differential aeration corrosion –Factors which influence the
rate of corrosion - Protection from corrosion– Cathodic protection - Protective
coatings: – Surface preparation – Metallic (cathodic and anodic) coatings -
Methods of application on metals (Galvanizing, Tinning, Electroplating,
Electroless plating).

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 3 URCET

UNIT IV: CHEMISTRY OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Nano materials:- Introduction–Sol-gel method & chemical reduction method of
preparation - Carbon nanotubes-Preparation and Applications; Solar Energy:-
Introduction, application of solar energy, photovoltaic cell: design, working and
its importance Liquid Crystals :- Types and applications Non-Elemental
Semiconducting Materials:-Stoichiometric, Controlled valency & Chalcogen
photo/semiconductors, Preparation of Semiconductors (Distillation, Zone refining,
ion implantation) Superconductors :- Type-I & Type-2, properties & applications.

UNIT-V: COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY AND SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES

COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY: Introduction,Ab Initio studies.

SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES: Electromagnetic spectrum-UV(laws of absorption,

instrumentation, theory of electronic spectroscopy, Frank-condon principle,
chromophores and auxochromes, intensity shifts, applications), X-Ray diffraction
method , FT-IR (Instrumentation and IR of some organic compounds( Benzene,
Propane and Ethyl alcohol), Applications of FT-IR-MRI and CT scan(Procedure &
Applications).

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 4 URCET

 UNIT-1
HIGH POLYMERS

Introduction:-
Polymer:-
In Greek poly=many, mers=units or parts
Small molecules combine with each other to form big molecules. The big
molecules are called polymers. Polymers are macro molecules or giant molecules
of high molecular masses.
Ex: - Poly Ethylene

Monomer:-
Reactant molecules in the formation of polymers are called monomers.
Ex:-Ethylene is the monomer in the formation of poly ethylene.

Repeating unit:-
The unit which is repeated in the polymer is known as repeating unit.
Ex:- Ethylene

Polymerization:-
The phenomenon of the formation of the polymers is known as
polymerization.
Ex: - Poly Ethylene

Degree of polymerization:-
The number of repeating units in the formation of polymers is known as
Degree of polymerization. It is denoted by Dp.
𝑜𝑎 𝑜𝑒𝑢𝑎 𝑒𝑔ℎ 𝑜 ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑦𝑒
Dp = 𝑜𝑒𝑢𝑎 𝑒𝑔ℎ 𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑒 𝑢
Ex: - If 100 molecules of ethylene on polymerization give polymeric chain, the
degree of polymerization of the polymer is 100.

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Functionality:-
In polymerization, the monomers are linked to each other through
covalent bonds. So the monomer should have at least two reactive sites (or)
bonding sites.
The number of active bonding sites of a monomer is known as
Functionality.
1. Bi functional monomers:-Bifunctional monomers contain two reactive sites.

2. Tri functional monomers:-Tri functional monomers contain three reactive sites.

3. Poly functional monomers:-

A poly functional monomer contains more than three reactive sites. If the
numbers of reactive sites are more than 3 in a monomer molecule, the three
dimensional network polymer is produced.
Opening of one double bond gives 2 reactive sites; opening of another
double bond gives 2 more reactive sites.

Types of Polymerization:-
The polymerization is of four types
1. Addition polymerization
2. Condensation polymerization
3. Co-polymerization
4. Co-ordination polymerization(or) Ziegler-Natta polymerization
1. Addition (or) Chain polymerization:-
In the polymerization, the polymers are formed without the loss of any
material, and the product is an exact multiple of the original monomeric molecule
such type of polymerization is known as Addition polymerization. The addition

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polymerization reaction must be instigated by the application of heat, light,
pressure (or) a catalyst for breaking down the double bonds of monomers.
Ex:-

Mechanism of Addition (or) Chain polymerization:-

Addition polymerization reactions proceed by a chain reaction mechanism
consisting of three important steps,
(i) Initiation (or) the formation of an active centre,
(ii) Propagation (or) the formation of a polymer having the active centre,
and
(iii) Termination (or) removal of the active centre.
The three different active centers have been found to be formed during the
addition polymerization. They are Free radical, Carbonium ion, and Carbanion.
So the mechanisms involving these reactive species in polymerization constitute
the mechanism of addition polymerization. Let us take one by one.
Free radical addition polymerization:-
It involves three steps, these steps will form only linear molecules.

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(i) Initiation:-
A reagent that is either itself a free radical, such as oxygen molecule, or that
easily decomposes to form free radicals, such as organic peroxides, is used to
initiate the reaction.

The radical now adds to the monomer to form a new free radical, e.g., it
adds on vinyl chloride in the following way.

(ii) Propagation:-
The new free radical now adds to another molecule of monomer to form
another new free radical like this addition of monomers to the free radical leads
to the formation of large free radical.

(iii) Termination:-
Termination takes place by the addition of growing free radical polymer
with other growing free radical polymer (or)The growing free radical chain reacts
with the monomer molecule which involves the transference of a proton either
from the monomer molecule to the free radical or vice versa.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 8 URCET

2. Condensation (or) Step polymerization:-
The polymerization reaction, in which the polymers are formed by step by
step with the elimination of small molecules like HCl,H 2O,NH3,etc.,is known as
condensation polymerization.
Condensation polymerization is an intermolecular combination, and it
takes place through the different functional groups (in the monomers) having
affinity for each other. When monomers contain three functional groups, it may
give rise to a cross-linked structure polymer.

3. Co-polymerization:-
Polymers are formed by the combination of different types of monomers
are called Co-polymers.The phenomenon is known as Co-polymerization.

Types of Copolymers:-
a) Random copolymers:-These are formed by random arrangement of monomeric
units in the chain.

b) Alternate copolymers:-These are formed by alternative arrangement of

monomeric units in the chain.

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c) Block copolymer:-It consists of blocks of repeating units of one type alternating
with blocks of another type.

d) Graft copolymer:-It consists of a linear polymer chain of one type to which the
side chain of a different type has been grafted.

4.Ziegler- Natta catalysis (or) Co-ordination Polymerization:-

Ziegler (1953 ) and Natta (1955 ) discovered that in the presence of a
combination of a transition metal halide ( like TiCl 4 (or) TiCl3,ZnBr3,TiCl2,halides
of V,Zr,Cr,Mo and W ) with an organometallic compounds (like
triethylaluminium,trimethyl aluminum), Stereo specific polymerization is carried
out. In this polymerization Ziegler-Natta catalyst is used so, this is also known as
Ziegler-Natta catalysis. And also called as co-ordination polymerization.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 10 URCET

Mechanism :-

Ziegler-Natta catalysis or polymerization is used for the preparation of

polypropylene, polyethylene, polydiene etc.
Stereo specific polymers:-
Those polymers whose molecular chains are stereo specifically arranged (A
specific or definite order of arrangement of molecule in space is stereo specific),
namely ,cis, trans, isotactic, syndiotactic and atactic polymers are known as stereo
specific polymers.Tacticity is the example for stereo specific polymers.
Tacticity :-The orientation of monomeric units in a polymer molecule can takes
place in an orderly or disorderly fashion with respect to the main chain. The
difference in configuration (tacticity) do affect their physical properties. Depend
on the tacticity, there are three different types of polymers.
1).Isotactic polymers:-
The polymers in which the functional groups are all on the same side
of the chain are known as Isotactic polymers.
Ex:-Polypropylene

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 11 URCET

2).Syndiotactic polymers :- The polymers in which the functional groups are
arranged alternatively are known as syndiotactic polymers.
Ex:- Poly propylene

3).Atactic polymers :-The polymers in which the arrangements of functional

groups are at random around the main chain are known as atactic polymers.
Ex:- Poly propylene

Physical and Mechanical properties of polymers:-

Physical properties:-
The physical properties of a polymer, such as its strength and
flexibility depend on:
 Chain length - In general, longer the chains stronger the polymer;
 Side groups - polar side groups give stronger attraction between polymer
chains, making the polymer stronger;
 Branching - straight, unbranched chains can pack together more closely than
highly branched chains, giving polymers that are more crystalline and
therefore stronger;
 Cross-linking - if polymer chains are linked together extensively by covalent
bonds, the polymer is harder and more difficult to melt.
Eg;- Poly styrene ,Polyvinyl acetate and polymethyl methacrylate are typically
amorphous.
Mechanical properties:-
The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest.
These are the properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a
macroscopic scale.
Tensile strength:-
The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the material
will endure before suffering permanent deformation. This is very important in
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 12 URCET
applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For
example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight
before snapping. In general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain length
and crosslinking of polymer chains.
Young's modulus of elasticity:-
Young's Modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for
small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength,
this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of
polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on
temperature.Visco-elasticity describes a complex time-dependent elastic response,
which will exhibit hysteresis in the stress-strain curve when the load is removed.
Dynamic mechanical analysis or DMA measures this complex modulus by
oscillating the load and measuring the resulting strain as a function of time.
METHODS OF POLYMERIZATION
The conversion of a monomer into a polymer is an exothermic
process and if heat is not dissipated or properly controlled, explosions may result.
Due to the difference in the mechanisms methods of polymerization is of two
types.
i).Emulsion polymerization:-
In this method, the monomers are dispersed as fine droplets (about
10-5to 10-6 mm) in a large amount of solvent (water) and then emulsified (or
stabilized) by the addition of a soap or detergent (gum, gelatin etc) .Then initiator
is added .Initiators are usually redox type, which may be either water soluble or
monomer soluble (persulphate).Finally the emulsion is used as such if used as
adhesive, surface coating. Alternatively, polymer emulsion may be broken by
adding an electrolyte followed by washing, drying etc of the coagulated polymer.

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Ex:- PVC ,PVA etc are prepared by this technique.
Advantages:-
1. High molecular weight polymers can be made at fast polymerization rates.
2. The continuous water phase is an excellent conductor of heat and allows the
heat to be removed from the system, allowing many reaction methods to
increase their rate.
3. The final product can be used as is and does not generally need to be altered or
processed.
Disadvantages:-
1. Surfactants are difficult to remove
2. For dry (isolated) polymers, water removal is an energy-intensive process
3. Emulsion polymerizations are usually designed to operate at high conversion
of monomer to polymer. This can result in significant transfer to polymer.
4. Cannot be used for condensation, ionic or Ziegler-Natta polymerization,
although some exceptions are known.
ii). Suspension (or) pearls polymerization:-
Suspension polymerization was developed with a view to improve
and simplify the emulsion polymerization method. The monomer is dispersed as
relatively large droplet (0.1to 1mm particle size) in water. It is kept in
suspension by mechanical agitation. The catalyst is then added and initiation
takes place. As the polymerization proceeds, the viscosity of dispersed drops
increases and they become sticky. At this stage suspension is stabilized by
addition of a small amount of suspension stabilizer (e.g. Magnesium silicate,
Al(OH)3 etc); otherwise the droplets collected as mass and drip away, thus
breaking the suspension. When the reaction is complete, the reaction product is
present in the form of pearls is washed to remove stabilizer from the surface of
the polymer dried and used.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 14 URCET

Ex:- PVC & PS is prepared by this technique.
Advantages:-
1. The process is more economical since water is used in place of costly
solvents.
2. Isolated products need no further purification.

Disadvantages:-
1. The method is applicable only for polymerization of water insoluble
monomers.
2. It is difficult to control particle size.

Plastics:-
The Word Plastics is derived from Greek Word ‘Plastikos’ meaning capable
of being moulded [or] shaped.
‘’Organic materials of high molecular weight, which can be moulded into
any desired form, when subjected to heat and pressure in the presence of catalyst
are known as plastics.’’
Plastics can be moulded [or] pressed [or] casted [or] extruded into various
shapes like plates, tubes, bottle, boxes, fibers etc.
Plastic materials have
 Sufficient rigidity
 Mechanical strength
 Insulation property
 Low density
 Low cost
 Light weight
 Resistance to chemicals, corrosion, insect abrasion etc to shape them
into desired article.
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 15 URCET
Types of plastics:-
On the basis of their physical characteristics, plastics are usually divided
into three types.
1. Thermo Plastics
2. Thermosets
3. Elastomers
1. Thermo plastics:-
Thermoplastics have a linear or branched molecular structure which
determines their strength and thermal behavior; they are flexible at ordinary
temperature. At approx 120-180 ℃, thermo plastics become a pasty/liquid mass.
The service temperature range for thermoplastics is considerable lower than that
for thermo sets.
 These are prepared in single step process.
 These plastic are generally amorphous (or) crystalline.
 These are linear (or) branched polymers with weak intermolecular
attractive forces.
 These plastics become soft on heating and stiffen on cooling at any time.
 They may be remoulded, reshaped and reused.
 They can be recycled.

Ex: - PE, PS, PVC, Nylons, Teflon etc.

2. Thermo sets: -
Thermo sets are hard and have a very tight meshed, branched molecular
structure. Curing proceeds during shaping, after which it is no longer possible to
shape the material by heating. Further shaping may then only be performed by
machining.
 These are normally produced.
 These are cross linked, three dimensional structures.
 Once a product is prepared by heating and moulding, it can’t be changed
by further heating.
 On excess heating materials undergoes destruction but not become soft.

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 Ex:- Bakelite
3. Elastomers: -
Elastomers also have a cross-linked structure; they have a looser mesh
than thermo sets, giving rise to a degree of elasticity. Once shaped, elastomers also
cannot be reshaped by heating. Elastomers are used, for example,
Ex:- to produce automobile tires.
Differences between Thermo Settings and Thermo Plastics
Thermo Plastics Thermo Settings
1. Formed by either addition (or) Formed by condensation
condensation polymerisation. polymerisation.
2. They are linear (or) branched They are cross linked (or) three
linked structures. dimensional structures.
3. Polymers chains are held together Polymers chains are held together by
by weak attractive forces. covalent cross links.
4. They soften on heating and stiffen They don’t soften on heating.
on cooling.
5. They are soluble. They are not soluble.
6. They can be remoulded, reshaped They cannot be remoulded.
and reused.
7. They can be recycled. They cannot be recycled.
8. They are tough. They are brittle.
9. They have low melting points. They have high melting points.
10. These have usually linear These have three dimensional cross
structures. linked structures.
Ex. Polyethylene, PVC, teflon. Ex. Bakelite, urea-formaldehyde, resin

Compounding of plastics (or) Moulding constituents of a plastic:-

Usually the high polymer is mixed with 4 to 10 ingredients, each of
which either discharges a useful property to the finished artifact. This is called
Mix. The main types of compounding ingredients and their functions are
described below.

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1. Resins: -
Resin is the binder, which holds the different constituents together.
Thermosetting resins are, usually, supplied as linear polymers of comparatively
low molecular weight, because at this stage they are fusible and hence mouldable.
The conversion of this fusible form into cross –linked infusible form takes place,
during moulding itself, in presence of catalyst etc.
2. Plasticizers: -
Plasticizers are materials that are added to resins to increase their
plasticity and flexibility. Their action is considered to be the result of the
neutralization of part of the inter molecular forces of attraction between
macromolecules of resins. Thus they impact greater freedom of movement
between the polymeric macromolecules of resin, thereby increasing the flexibility
and plasticity of the compound material, but at the same time reducing its
strength and also decreasing its chemical resistance.
Ex:- Vegetable Oils, camphor, esters (of steric or oleic acids) and some phosphates
(tricresyl phosphates,tributyl phosphates) etc
3. Fillers: -
These are added to give to the final plastic better hardness, tensile
strength, opacity, finish and workability characters to the products.
Forexample:-
i) Carborundum,quartz and mica are added to provide extra hardness;
ii) Barium salts as are added to make the plastic impervious to X-rays;
iii) Addition of asbestos provides heat and corrosion-resistances.
The percentage of filler varies and can be up to 50%of the total moulding
mixture.
4. Lubricants:-
Lubricants like Waxes, oils, stearates, oleates and soaps are employed
to make the moulding of plastic easier and to impart a flawless, glossy finish to
the products. Lubricants prevent the plastic material from sticking to the
fabricating equipment.
5. Catalysts or accelerators:-
Catalysts or accelerators are added only in the case of thermosetting
plastics with the object of accelerating the polymerization of fusible resin, during
moulding operation, into cross linked infusible form.
Ex:- Catalysts used are hydrogen peroxide,benzoyl peroxide, acetyl sulphuric acid,
metals like Ag,Cu and Pb ,Metallic oxides such as ZnO,ammonia and its salts.

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6. Stabilizers: -
The purpose of adding stabilizers is to improve the thermal stability
during processing. For example vinyl chloride and vinylidine chloride polymers
show a tendency to undergo decomposition and discoloration at Moulding
temperatures. So during their Moulding heat stabilizers are used.
Ex: - a) Opaque moulding compounds like salts of lead, e.g, white lead, lead
chromate, litharge, red lead, lead silicate and lead naphthenate.
b). Transparent moulding compounds like stearates of lead, cadmium
and Barium.
7. Colouring Materials (Antioxidants):-
Colour appeal is often of prime importance in high polymer artifacts.
The main colouring Materials are
Ex:-Organic dyestuffs and opaque inorganic pigments.
Moulding of plastics into articles (or) Fabrication of Plastics:-
Many methods of fabricating plastics into desired shaped articles are
employed. The Methods, usually, depend upon the type of resins used, i.e,
whether thermosetting or thermoplastic. Commonly used plastic fabrication
methods are described below,
1. Compression Moulding:-
Compression moulding is a method applied to both thermoplastic
and thermosetting resins. The predetermined quantity of plastic in gradients in
proper proportions get filled between the two half pieces of mould. Which are
capable of being moved relative to each other? Heat and pressure are then applied
according to specifications. The cavities get filled with fluidized plastic. Two
halves are closed very slowly .Finally ,curing is done either by heating (in case of
thermosetting) or cooling (in case of thermo plastics).After curing the moulded
article is taken out by opening the mould parts.

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2. Injection Moulding:-
Injection Moulding is applicable mainly to thermoplastic resins .In
this, the moulding plastic powder is fed into a heated cylinder, from Where it is
injected at a controlled rate into the tightly locked mould by means of a screw
arrangement or by a piston pluxger.The mould is kept cold to allow the hot
plastic to cure and become rigid. When the materials have been cured sufficiently,
half of the mould is opened to allow the injection of the finished article without
any deformation, etc. Heating is done by oil or electricity.

Advantages:-
This method is the most widely used for moulding of thermoplastics
because of high speed production, low mould cost, very low loss of material and
low finishing cost. Because a large number of cavities cannot be filled
simultaneously, so there is limitation of design of articles to be moulded.
3. Transfer moulding:-
Transfer moulding is a method, which uses the principle of
injection moulding for thermo setting materials. In this, the moulding powder is
placed in a heated chamber, maintained at the minimum temperature at which
the moulding powder just begins to become plastic. This plastic material is then
injected through an orifice into the mould by a plunger, working at a high
pressure. Due to the very great friction developed at the orifice, the temperature
of the material, at the time of ejection from the orifice, rises to such an extent that
the moulding powder becomes almost liquid, and consequently, it flows quickly
into the mould, which is being heated up to the curing temperature required for
setting .The moulded article is then ejected mechanically.

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Advantages:-
1. In tricate shapes, not attainable by compression moulding can readily by
produces.
2. Article produced is free from marks.
3. Finishing cost of fabricated article is almost entirely eliminated.
4. Mould cost is less since it involves very low abrasive action.
4. Extrusion Moulding:-
Extrusion moulding is used mainly for continuous moulding of
thermoplastic materials into articles of uniform cross section like tubes, rods,
strips, insulated electric cables. The thermoplastic ingredients are heated to
plastic condition and then pushed by means of a screw conveyor into a die,
having the required outer shape. Of the article to the manufactured .Here the
plastic mass gets cooled, due to the atmospheric exposure (or artificially by air
jets).A long conveyor carries away continuously the cooled product.

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Preparation, properties and applications
1. Polyethylene:-
It is obtained by the polymerization of ethylene

Polyethylene is produced by the high pressure process has a branched

structure and, therefore, is flexible and tough. On the other hand low pressure
process result in a completely linear polyethylene, having their density and better
chemical resistance.
The commercial polyethylene can be subdivided into three types
1. Low density polyethylene(LDPE)
2. Medium density polyethylene(MDPE)
3. High density polyethylene (HDPE)
The high-density polyethylene, which is completely linear, has better
chemical resistance, particularly to organic solvent, a higher softening point and
greater rigidity than the medium or low density polyethylene, but it has low
impact strength and is relatively brittle.
Properties:-
1. Polyethylene is a rigid, waxy.
2. It is translucent, non-polar material white.
3. It exhibiting chemical resistance to strong acids , alkalis and salt solutions at
room temperature.
4. It is good insulator of electricity.
5. It is swollen and permeable to most oils and organic solvents, particularly
kerosene.
Uses:-
1. Poly ethylene used for making insulating parts.
2. It is used for making bottle caps, packing materials, tubes, coated wires.
3. It is used in chemical plants for tank linings, kitchen and domestic
appliances.
2. Poly vinyl chloride (PVC):-
Preparation:-PVC is prepared by polymerization of vinyl chloride.

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Properties:
1. PVC is a colourless, non-inflammable and chemically inert powder.
2. It has specific gravity 1.33 and melting point 148℃.
3. Resistant to atmospheric condition
4. PVC is strong and brittle.
5. It is resistant to atmospheric conditions like O2, CO2 and moisture.
6. PVC is not stable to heat and UV radiations. It undergoes degradation.
Application:-
1. PVC treated with plasticizers is called plasticized
2. PVC used for electrical insulations, injection moulding articles like tool
handles.
3. It is used radio, telephone components, chemical containers, and foams
used in buildings.
4. Unplasticized PVC is rigid, highly resistant to chemicals and brittle.
5. PVC is used for making safety helmets, refrigerator components, tyres,
cycle and motor cycle mudguards.
3. Bakelite(Phenol- formaldehyde Resin):-
Preparation:-
Bakelite is prepared by condensing phenol with formaldehyde in
presence of acidic/alkaline catalyst.
Step-I:-
Phenol reacts with formaldehyde produce O-Hydroxy methyl Phenol &
P-Hydroxy methyl Phenol.

Step-II:-
O-Hydroxy methyl Phenol & Phenol, which reacts to form linear polymer
Novalac resin.

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Step-III:-
During moulding, catalyst Hexa methylene tetra amine [(CH2)6N4] is
added. Addition of this catalyst provides excess of formaldehyde, which converts
the soluble and fusible Novalac resin into hard, infusible &insoluble solid of cross-
linked polymer Bakelite.

Properties:-
1. It is hard, rigid &strong.
2. It is a scratch resistant and water resistant polymer.
3. Bakelite has got good chemical resistance, resistant to acids, salts and many
organic solvents, but it is attacked by alkalis due to the presence of –OH
groups.
4. It is a good anion exchanging resin, exchanges –OH group with any other
anion.
5. It is an excellent electrical insulator.
6. It is a very good adhesive.
7. It has very good corrosion resistance, resistant to atmospheric conditions
like O2, CO2, moisture, light, UV radiation etc.
Engineering applications:-
1. For making Switches, switch boards, heater handles etc.
2. For making moulded articles like Telephone parts, cabinets for radio and
television.
3. As an adhesive (binder) for grinding wheels etc.
4. It is used in paints and varnishes.
5. For making bearings used in propeller shafts, paper industry and rolling
mills.
3. Teflon (Polytetrafluoro ethylene) or Fluon:-
Preparation:-Teflon is obtained by the chain polymerization of tetraflouro
ethylene in presence of benzoyl peroxide as an initiator.

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Properties:-
1. Due to the presence of highly electronegative atom .Teflon has got high
melting point
2. Exceptionally high chemical resistance , high density 2.1-2.3 gm/cc
3. It is very strong hard polymer that can be machined to drilling, punching
etc.
4. Teflon is a very good insulator.
5. It possess very good abrasion resistance.

Application:-
1. Teflon is a very good insulating material for motors, transformers, cables,
wires, fitting etc.
2. It is used for making gasket pump parts, tank linings, tubing etc.
3. Due to its extreme chemical resistance, it is used for making chemical carry
pipes.
4. Non- lubricating bearings and non-stick stop cock for burettes are made
from TEFLON.
5. It is also used for coating as impregnating glass fiber, asbestos fibers.
6.Poly carbonates:-
Poly carbonates like Lexan, Merlon are prepared by interaction of
phosgene with bisphenol-A [2, 2-bis (4-hydroxy phenyl) propane].

Properties:-
Poly carbonates are characterized by
1. High impact and tensile strength over a wide range of temperature.
2. They are soluble in organic solvents and alkalis.
3. Poly carbonates are good electrical insulators and have heat and flame
resistant properties.
4. Poly carbonates undergo large plastic deformation without cracking or
breaking.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 25 URCET

Uses:- For preparing
1. Moulded domestic ware
2. Housing for apparatus
3. Electrical insulator in electronics and electrical industries.
4. Used in production of CD,DVD's and blueray discs.
5. Poly carbonates can be used to manufacture of lenses like sunglasses/eye
glass.

Elastomers
Rubbers & Elastomers:-
Rubbers (also known as Elastomers) are high polymers, which have
elastic properties in excess of 300 percent. Thus a rubber-band can be stretched to
4 to 10 times its original length and as soon as the stretching force is released, it
returns to its original length. The elastic deformation in an elastomer arises from
the fact that in the unstressed condition, an elastomer molecule is not straight
chained, but in the form of a coil and consequently, it can be stretched like a
spring. The unstretched rubber is amorphous. As stretching is done, the macro
molecules get partially aligned with respect to another, thereby causing
crystallization and consequent, stiffening of material. On releasing the deforming
stress, the chains get reverted back to their original coiled state and the material
again becomes amorphous.

Characteristics of Elastomers:-
1. Elastomers regain original shape after removing stress.
2. Elastomers are sticky at higher temperatures.
3. Elastomers exist at above glass transition (Tg) temperature.
4. Elastomers absorb moisture.
5. Elastomers have less chemical resistance.
6. Elastomers have weak intermolecular attractions.
7. Elastomers have coiled structures.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 26 URCET

Preparation Natural Rubber:-
Natural rubber consists of basic material latex, which is a dispersion of
isoprene. During the treatment, these isoprene molecules polymerize to form,
long coiled chains of Cis-poly isoprene.

The molecular weight of raw rubber is about 100,000-150,000.Natural

rubber is made from the saps of plants like Havea brasiliensis and guayule, found
in tropical and semi-tropical countries. The rubber latex (or milky-liquid rubber)
is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the rubber trees and allowing the
saps to flow out into small vessels. Tapping is usually, done at intervals of about
six months. The latex is emptied into buckets and transferred to a factory for
treatment.
Processing of Latex:
Latex is diluted to contain between 15 to 20% of rubber and filtered
to eliminate any dirt present in it .Acetic acid or formic acid is then added, when
rubber is coagulated to soft white mass. The coagulated mass is washed .The
coagulum is treated as follows.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 27 URCET

(a) Crepe rubber:-
The coagulum is allowed to drain for about 2 hours. Then,
passed through a creping machine which consists essentially of two rollers
with longitudinal grooves, upon which water is sprayed. The spongy
coagulated in to a sheet, which possesses an uneven rough surface
resembling crepe paper.

(b) Smoked rubber:-

Coagulation is carried out in long tanks having sides with
vertical grooves, fitted with metal plates. Diluted latex is poured into the
tanks, with plates removed. Then, dilute acetic or formic acid is added and
the mixture is stirred thoroughly. The partition plates are then inserted into
the grooves. The tanks are kept undisturbed for about 16 hours. The tough
slabs of coagulum so formed between the partition plates are removed. The
slabs are then passed through a series of smooth rollers., with decreasing
clearance in between them and water is sprayed simultaneously at the
center of the rollers .The final rollers has a clearness of such a design so as
to give ribbed pattern to the final rubber sheet . Ribbed – pattern on the
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 28 URCET
 surface of rubber sheet exposes greater surface, and this facilitates
consequent drying and also prevents the sheets from adhering together on
stacking. The sheets are then hung for about 4 days in a smoke house, in
which temperature between 40 to 50 ℃ is maintained. The crude rubber
thus – obtained is amber in colour and translucent.
Gutta percha:-
Gutta percha is obtained from the mature leaves of dichopsis gutta
and palagum gutta trees (belonging to sapetaceae family), grown mostly in Broneo,
Malaya, Sumatra.Gutta percha may be recovered by solvent extraction, when
insoluble resins and gums are separated. Alternatively, the mature leaves are
ground carefully, treated with water at about 70 ℃ for half an hour and then
poured into cold water, when gutta percha floats on water surface and is
removed.

Properties:-

1. At room temperature, gutta percha is horny and tough, but it softens and
becomes tacky at about 100℃.
2. It is soluble in aliphatic hydrocarbons, but insoluble in aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Structurally; it is trans-poly isoprene, whereas
havea rubber is cis-isomer.
Uses:-
In the manufacture of golf ball covers, submarine cables, adhesives and
tissues for surgical purposes.
Draw backs of raw rubber:-
Raw rubber has the following draw backs,
1. It is plastic in nature: It becomes soft at high temperature and is too brittle
at low temperature. So it can be used in the temperature range of 10-60℃
only.
2. It is weak: Its tensile strength is only 200 kg/cm2.
3. It has large water absorption capacity.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 29 URCET

 4. It is non-resistant to non-polar solvents like vegetable and mineral oils,
gasoline, benzene and CCl4.
5. It is attacked by oxidizing agents like HNO3,Con.H2SO4,NaOCl,ClO2 and
Cr2O3 etc.
6. It perishes, due to oxidation in air.
7. It swells considerably in organic solvents and gradually disintegrates.
8. It posses marked thickness, i.e, when two fresh raw rubber surfaces are
pressed together; they coalesce to form a single piece.
9. It has little durability.
10. When stretched to a great extent, it suffers permanent deformation,
because of the sliding or slippage of some molecular chains over each other.

Vulcanization (discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839):-

To improve the properties of rubber, it is compounded with some

chemicals like sulphur, hydrogen sulphide, benzoyl chloride; etc. Most important
is addition of sulphur.The process consists in heating the raw rubber with sulphur
to 100-140 ℃ .The added sulphur combines chemically at the double bonds of
different rubber springs. Vulcanization thus serves to stiffen the material by a sort
of anchoring and consequently, preventing intermolecular movement of rubber
springs. The extent of stiffness of vulcanized rubber depends on the amount of
sulphur added. For example, a tyre rubber may contain 3-5 % of sulphur, but a
battery case rubber may contain as much as 30% sulphur.

Vulcanite or Ebonite or Hard rubber:-

Vulcanite or Ebonite or Hard rubber contains about 32% sulphur.The
cross linking of the isoprene spirals is attained to such an extent that vulcanite has
practically no elasticity.Thus,vulcanite is tough, high abrasion-resistant, can be
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 30 URCET
moulded,sawn,drilled and polished. It has extremely good electrical insulation
properties.

Advantages of vulcanization (properties):-

1. Vulcanized rubber has good tensile strength and local bearing capacity.
2. Vulcanized rubber has good elasticity depending on the extent of
vulcanization.
3. It posses low water absorption tendency.
4. Vulcanized rubber has higher resistance to oxidation and atmospheric gases
like O2, CO2, moisture, light and U.V radiation.
5. Vulcanized rubber is a good electrical insulator and ebonite is a best
electrical insulator.
6. The abrasion resistance of natural rubber increases tremendously.
7. The resistance towards organic solvents and chemicals increase.
8. Vulcanized rubber posses good impact resistance.
9. Vulcanized rubber posses very good resilience i.e. the article made from it
returns to original shape, when the deforming load is removed.
Methods for improving quality of rubber:-
1.Mastication:-
1. Making rubber into small pieces by mechanical stirring is known as
mastication.
2. Rubber is converted into soft and semi solid mass.
3. CH2-CH2 links in the rubber are weak and they undergo cleavage on
mechanical stirring.
4. After mastication various chemicals are added to improve the qualities.
2.Compounding of rubber:-
To improve the qualities from rubber, it is mixed with various
chemicals like plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, vulcanizing agents etc is called
compounding of rubber.
1) Vulcanization of rubber:-
 To improve the undesirable properties of rubber, it is heated in the
presence of sulphur.
 Heating of rubber in presence of sulpur is called vulcanization.
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 31 URCET
  On heating three dimensional cross linkings of the chains through
sulphur atoms formed.
 Rubber becomes stiff.
 This process converts rubber into insoluble, infusible thermosetting
polymer.
2) Accelerators:-
 Vulcanization process is catalyzed by adding accelerators.
 They reduce the time required for vulcanization.
 Accelerators may be inorganic or organic.
 Inorganic: Lime, Magnesia, ZnO
 Organic: Aldehydes, Amines, thio carbonates
 0.5 to 1% of the accelerator is used.

3) Antioxidants:-
 Antioxidants protect the rubber from oxidation by O2 , ozone and light.
o Example: Phenylnaphthylamine, Phenolic substances, Phosphate.
4) Reinforcing agents: -
 They provide strength, rigidity and toughness to the rubber.
o Example: Carbon black, ZnO, MgCO3, CaCO3 and clays.

5) Fillers:-
 The main function of the fillers is to change the physical properties and
to reduce the cost.
6) Plasticizers: -
 These are added to impart greater tenacity and adhesion to the rubber.
oExample: Vegetable oils, Waxes, Stearic acid, Rosin etc.
7) Coloring agents:-
 These are added to impart the desired colour to rubber.
 TiO2, ZnS, BaSO4 - White
 PbCrO4 - Yellow
 Ferric Oxide - Red
 Sb2S3 - Crimson red
 Ultramarine - Blue
8) Miscellaneous agents:
 Baking soda is added to prepare sponge rubber.
 Silica and pumice are added to cause abrasiveness.
 Processed rubber is converted into various articles by calendaring (or)
injection moulding (or) compressed moulding.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 32 URCET

Preparation, properties and applications
1. SBR (Buna-S or Styrene-Butadiene Rubber):-
Buna-S is also called as Styrene rubber or GR-S(Government
Rubber styrene) or Ameripol.Buna-S stands for the composition of the monomers
and catalyst.
Bu stands for Butadiene-Monomer
Na stands for Sodium-Catalyst
S stands for Styrene-Monomer
Buna-S is produced by the copolymerization of butadiene with
styrene using sodium as catalyst.

Properties:-
1. Styrene rubber is a strong and tough polymer.
2. It is vulcanized by sulphur mono chloride (S2Cl2) or Sulphur.
3. It resembles natural rubber in processing characteristics and quality of
finished products.
4. Buna-S possesses excellent abrasion resistance.
5. It is a good electrical insulator.
6. It is resistant to chemicals but swells in oils and attacked by even traces of
ozone present in the atmosphere.
Engineering applications (Uses):-
1. Major application of styrene rubber is in the manufacture of tyres.
2. It is used in the footwear industry for making shoe soles and footwear
components.
3. It is also used for making wires and cable insulations.
4. The other applications of styrene rubber are for the production of floor files,
tank linings in chemical industries and as adhesives.
2. Buna-N or Nitrile Rubber (NBR):-
Buna-N is also called as Nitrile rubber or GR-A.Nitrile rubber is a
copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile where the composition of the
monomers and catalyst are in its name.
Bu stands for butadiene -Monomer
Na stands for sodium –Catalyst
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 33 URCET
 N stands for acrylonitrile -Monomer
Buna-N is produced by the copolymerization of butadiene with
acrylonitrile using sodium as catalyst.

Properties:-
1. Because of the presence of -CN group in the structure Buna-N possess
excellent resistance to heat,sunlight,oils,acids and salts and less resistant to
alkalis than natural rubber. It is a strong and tough polymer with light
weight.
2. Buna-N is also vulcanized with sulphur.
3. It is highly resistant to atmospheric O2, CO2, moisture, U.V light and light.
4. Buna-N is an excellent electrical insulator.
5. Vulcanized Buna-N is resistant to ageing and high temperatures.
Engineering applications (Uses):-
1. Buna-N is used for making conveyors belts, high altitude aircraft
components and automobile parts because of its strength and light weight.
2. It is used for making tank linings and pipes for chemical industries.
3. It is also used for making gaskets, oil resistant foams, adhesives and printing
rollers.
3. Poly sulphide Rubber (Thiokol Rubber):- Poly sulphide rubber is made by the
reaction between sodium poly sulphide and ethylene dichloride.

Properties:-
1. It is resistant to swelling.
2. It is resistant to oils.
3. It cannot be vulcanized and hence does not form a hard rubber.
4. It has poor heat resistance, poor abrasion resistance and low tensile
strength.
5. It tends to lose its shape under continuous pressure.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 34 URCET

Engineering applications (Uses):-
1. Used to make sealants, gaskets, balloons, fabric coating.
2. Due to low permeability, it is used to make gasoline hoses.
3. The liquid polymers, when combined with oxidizers burn with great
intensity and generate large volume of gas. Thus; it can be used in solid-fuel
rocket propellants.
4. Poly Urethane Rubber or Isocyanate rubber (PU):-
Ethylene glycol and ethylene di isocyanate on copolymerization
produces polyurethane rubber by poly addition mechanism.

Properties:-
1. Polyurethanes are highly resistant to oxidation because of their saturation
character.
2. Polyurethanes have excellent abrasion resistance and hardness combined
with elasticity.
3. They show good resistance to many organic solvents and oils but attacked
by acids.
4. Polyurethanes can be foamed to light weight, thermally resistant,
chemically resistant and environmentally resistant foams.
5. It is a good electrical and thermal insulator.
Engineering applications (Uses):-
1. Its major utility is as a thermal insulator for refrigerators etc.
2. It is used for surface coatings.
Fiber reinforced plastics (FRP):-
Fiber reinforced plastics are produced by reinforcing a plastic matrix
with a high strength fiber materials such as glass, graphite, alumina, carbon,
boron, beryllium, and aromatic polyamide. Natural fibers such as sisal, asbestos
are also used for reinforcement. Depending the desired properties of the final
reinforced composite, the nature of the fiber use is decided. FRP of this fiber
withstands from 400oC to 1096oC.
Fiber reinforced plastics are characterized by
i) High specific strength (i.e, tensile strength/ specific gravity)
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 35 URCET
 ii) High specific modulus(i.e, modulus of elasticity/specific gravity)
The properties of fiber reinforced composites depend on
i) Nature and properties of fiber and matrix materials.
ii) Their relative volume fractions.
iii) Orientation and distribution of fibers in matrix phase.
iv) Strength of the interfacial bond between the fiber and the matrix phase.
v) Length of the fibers or more appropriately aspect ratio of fibers.
Components of composite (FRP):
 Fibre:
 Fibers are used to strengthen thermoplastic compounds.
 The properties of FRP are mainly influenced by the choice of fibers.
 There are three main types of fibers carbon, glass & Aramid fibers.
 They have different properties.
 All fibers have generally high stress capacity than the ordinary
steel.
 Matrix:
 The plastic material used in FRP is called matrix.
 Matrix is a tough and relatively weak plastic that is reinforced by
stronger fibers.
 It transfers the forces b/w the fibers & protects the fiber from the
environment.
 Generally thermosetting plastics are used as matrix.
 Vinyl esters and epoxy resins are most commonly used matrixes.
Applications of FRP:-
i) Fiber reinforced plastics find extensive use in spacecrafts, aeroplanes ,
boat nulls, acid storage tanks.
ii) Motor cars and building materials.
iii) Melamine FRP is used for insulating and making baskets.
Advantages of FRP:-
The fiber reinforced plastics have the following advantages:
i) Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
ii) High dimensional stability.
iii) Low cost of production.
iv) Good tensile strength.
v) Low dielectric constant.
vi) Non inflammability and corrosion and chemical resistance.
Types of Fiber Reinforced Plastics:-
Fiber Reinforced Plastics are the following 3 types

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 36 URCET

1. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRP):-
Carbon fibers can be combined usefully with a wide variety of plastic
resins and polymers to yield composite materials of exceptionally high specific
stiffness and strength. The most efficient reinforcing effect is obtained from
continuous fibers carefully aligned in a highly oriented configuration with the
proportion of fibers in any direction.
Matrix materials:-
Many thermosetting resins and thermo plastics are suitable for
combination with carbon fibers. The thermosetting resins are epoxies or modified
epoxies, polyesters, phenolics and vinyl esters are used. Thermoplastic resins are
polyamides, polycarbonates, polysulphones, etc.
Properties:-
1. High specific stiffness and strength.
2. High specific modulus
3. Good mechanical strength.
4. Carbon fibers are electrically conductive along the filament axis.
5. Low thermal expansion.
6. Good chemical resistance.
Applications:-
1. In structural components requiring high specific stiffness and strength.
2. Used in air frame structures, space vehicles and satellites.
3. Used in sports equipment and high speed reciprocating parts for industrial
machinery.
4. Used for very high temperature machinery.
2.Glass fiber reinforces plastics:-
 Glass fiber is made up of sand, limestone, folic acid and other minor
ingredients.
 The mixture is heated till it melts at about 1260oC.
 The molten glass is then allowed to flow through fine holes in a platinum
plate.
 The glass strands are cooled, gathered & wound.
 The fibers are woven into various forms for use in composites.
 Another glass fiber prepared from aluminium + lime + borosilicate has high
insulating properties, low susceptibility to moisture and high mechanical
strength.
Properties:
 They have high surface area to weight. Increased surface area is susceptible
to chemical attack.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 37 URCET

  Glass fiber has good thermal insulation due to the presence of air gaps.
 Glass fiber absorbs moisture which lesser tenacity.
 Glass fiber undergoes more elongation before it breaks.
 Glass fiber is drawn at moderately low viscosity. If it is too high, fiber will
break during drawing. If it is too low, the glass will from droplets.
3. Bullet proof plastics (Aramide Fiber Reinforced polymer):-
Aromatic poly amides are known as Aramides.The modulli of the
fibers are 70-200 Gpa with ultimate elongation of 1.5-5% depending on the
quality.Aramides are a family of nylons,including Kevlar and Nomex.Kevlar is the
best bullet proof plastic.
Examples:-
1.Kevlar
It is prepared by poly condensation between aromatic acid di chloride and
aromatic diamines.

Properties of Bullet proof plastics:-

1. Kevlar is exceptionally strong (5 times stronger than steel and 10 times
stronger than Al.
2. It has high heat stability and flexibility.
3. The unique properties of kevlar are due to the delocalized bonding which
causes the benzene rings to be flexible.
4. Kevlar is more rigid than Nylons.
Applications (Uses):-
1. Kevlar is used extensively in the aerospace and aircraft industries.
2. It is used to make car parts (such as tyres,brakes,clutch linings etc.)
3. It is used to make ropes,cables,protective clothing,bullet proof vests,motor
cycle helmets and other high performance materials.
2. Nomex:
 This is produced by condensation reaction from the monomers
m-phenylene diamine & isophthaloyl chloride.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 38 URCET

Properties:  Some fibers degrade on exposure
FRP is five times as strong as steel. to UV
Uses:-
 Usually yellow in appearance These are used in the manufacture of
 Low density  Bullet proof vests.
 High strength  Boat hulls.
 Thermal resistance  Aircraft body parts.
 Good impact resistance  Clutch plates.
 Good abrasion resistance.  Brake pads.
 Good chemical resistance.  Gaskets.
 Compressive strength  Adhesive and sealants.
Biodegradable Polymers:-
Polymers are not attacked by environmental conditions including biological
attack. Polymers are degraded by oxidation, u.v. radiation etc. but not by bacteria.
Biodegradable polymers are defined as a degradable polymer in which
degradation results from the action of naturally occurring micro-organisms such
as bacteria, fungi and algae.
A plastic that undergoes degradation by biological processes during
compositing to yield CO2, water, inorganic compounds and biomass at a rate
consistent with other compostable materials and leaves no visible, distinguishable
or toxic residue are called compostable plastics. The biodegradable polymers may
be naturally occurring or they may be synthesized by chemical means.
1) Naturally occurring biodegradable polymers:-
The natural biodegradable polymers are classified into four groups as given
below.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 39 URCET

2. Synthesized biodegradable polymers:-
There are many polymers produced from derived from petrochemical or
biological sources that are biodegradable. Many of these polymers are considered
as special materials for example dissolving suture material used in medical field,
and biopolyesters. Because of their high prices these polymers could not gain
popularity, Later a sustainable interest was created in the development of
chemicals derived from farming of particular crops, which laid foundation to the
synthesis of these new biodegradable polymers.
There are a number of biodegradable synthetic resins produced as list
below.
a. Polyalkylene esters
b. Polylactic acid and its copolymers
c. Polyvinyl esters
d. Polyvinyl alcohol
The above biodegradable polymers possess particular properties and
potential applications.
For example polyvinyl alcohol is widely used because of its solubility in water.
Polylactic acid is produced easily with wide applications.
All of the above synthetic biodegradable polymers exhibit degradation
promoted by microorganisms often coupled with chemical or mechanical
degradation. These polymers also contain plasticizers, antioxidants, pigments and
stabilizers to facilitate their processing and enhance physical characteristics of the
products.
Applications of biodegradable polymers:-
1. These biodegradable polymers are synthesized from the material derived
from the processing of crops or form petrochemical feed stock with normal
/ conventional processing methods.
2. The ‘compostable bags’ help in the disposal of the vegetable mater being
converted to CO2 and CH4.
3. The problem of landfills by solid waste can be reduced.
4. Several test methods are developed to determine the compostability of
environmentally degradable plastics.
Drawbacks of biodegradable polymers is that the biodegradable products at
present are expensive than the products manufactured from commodity resins.
Conducting polymers:-
Most polymeric materials are poor conductors of electricity,
because of the non- availability of large number of free electrons in the
conduction process.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 40 URCET

 ″Polymeric materials have been synthesized which possess
electrical conductivities on par with metallic conductors. Such polymers are
known as Conducting polymers″.
Conducting polymers are divided into 4 types
1. Intrinsically Conducting polymer (ICP) or Conjugated -electrons conducting
polymer:-
″ A polymer whose backbones or associate groups consists of
delocalized electron pair or residual charge is known as ICP″.
This type of polymers essentially contain conjugated -electrons
backbone, which is responsible for electrical charge. In an electric field,
conjugated -electrons of polymer get excited; thereby can be transported through
the solid polymeric material. Overlapping of orbital’s (of conjugated
-electrons) over the entire backbone results in the formation of valence bands as
well as conduction bands, which extends over the entire polymer molecule.
Presence of conjugated -electron in a polymer increases its conductivity to a large
extent.
Important commercially produced conducting polymers:-
a) Poly acetylene polymers e.g, poly-p-phenylene, poly quinoline, poly
phenylene-co-vinylene, poly-m-phenylenesulphide etc.
b) With condensed aromatic rings e.g, poly aniline, poly anthrylene, poly
phenanthrylene, etc.
c) With aromatic hetero atomic and conjugated aliphatic units, e.g, poly
pyrrole, poly thiophene, poly butadienylene, etc.
2. Doped conducting polymers:-
It is obtained by exposing a polymer to a charge transfer agent in
either gas phase or in solution.ICPs possess low conductivity (≈ 10 -10 ohm-1 cm-1),
but these possess low ionization potential and high electron affinities, so these can
be easily oxidized or reduced. Consequently, the conductivity of ICP can be
increased by creating either positive or negative charges on the polymer
backbone by oxidation or reduction. This technique is called Doping (an analog
with semiconductor). Doping is of two types,
i) P-doping:-
P-doping involves treating an ICP with Lewis acid, thereby
oxidation process takes place and positive charges on the polymer backbone are
created. Some of the p-dopant used are I2,Br2,AsF5,PF6, etc.

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 41 URCET

ii) N-doping:-
N-doping involves treating an ICP with Lewis base thereby reduction
process takes place and negative charges on the polymer backbone are created.
Some of the common N-dopant used are Li, Na, Ca, Tetrabutyl ammonium,FeCl 3,
etc.

3. Extrinsically conducting polymers (ECP):-

Those polymers whose conductivity is due to the presence of
“externally” added ingredient in them are known as ECPs.These are of the
following two types,
i) Conductive element –filled polymer:-
This is a resin or polymer filled with conducting elements such as
carbon black, metallic fibres, metal oxides, etc.In this, the polymer act as the
binder to hold the conducting elements together in the solid entity. These
polymers possess reasonably good bulk conductivity, and are generally, low in
cost, light in weight, mechanically durable and strong, and easily processable in
different forms, shapes and sizes.
Generally, special grade conducting carbon black is used as a filler, due to its
a) Very high surface area(1000 m/g)
b) High porosity, and
c) Filamentous properties
Minimum concentration of conductive filler in the polymer to start the
conduction process is known as percolation threshold.
ii) Blended conducting polymer:-
This product is obtained by blending a conventional polymer with a
conducting polymer either by physical or chemical change. Such polymers can be
easily processed and possess better physical, chemical and mechanical properties.
4. Coordination conducting polymer (inorganic polymer):-
It is a charge transfer complex containing polymer obtained by
combining a metal atom with a polydentate ligand.Although the degree of

DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 42 URCET

polymerization in such polymers is small(≤18),yet they exhibit corrosion
characteristics, and are usually in doubtable in solvents.
Engineering applications:-
i. In rechargeable light weight batteries based on percolate doped
polyacetylene-lithium system. These are about 10 times lighter than
conventional lead storage batteries. Such batteries are sufficiently flexible
to fit a variety of designed configuration.
ii. In optically display devices (LEDs) based on polythiophene.When the
structure is electrically biased (1 to 3V), the optical density of the film
changes, i.e., its colour changes. Such electrocromic systems produce
coloured displays with faster switching time and better viewing than
conventional LCDs.
iii. In wiring in aircrafts and aerospace components.
iv. In telecommunication systems.
v. In anti static coatings for clothing.
vi. In electromagnetic screening materials.
vii. In electronic devices such as transistors and diodes.
viii. In solar cells, drug delivery system for human body, etc.

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DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

USHA RAMA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY 43 URCET