gap of some 1300 years where little progress in understanding

MINERALOGY occurred.
• Mineralogy is the study of minerals. In the mid 1500’s the German physician Agricola wrote several
• Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the treatises that focused on minerals and mining lore. His account
scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and summarized a great deal of previous observations that formed
physical (including optical) properties of minerals. the foundation for the emergence of mineralogy as a science.
• Specific studies within mineralogy include the
processes of mineral origin and formation, Mineral
classification of minerals, their geographical
distribution, as well as their utilization. • is a naturally occurring substance
• is a homogeneous solid
Mineralogy is divided into 3 parts: • is a chemical element or compound whose
composition can be representable by a chemical
1) Crystallography – the study of internal and external geometry formula e.g., SiO2
of crystals. • is inorganic
• has an ordered atomic structure
2) Chemical Mineralogy – the study of chemical structure and
properties of mineral. There are over 4,900 known mineral species; over 4,660 of these
3) Physical Mineralogy – the study of physical properties of have been approved by the International Mineralogical
mineral. Association (IMA).
The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.

Knowledge of mineralogy is necessary for a civil engineer Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical
because physical properties of rocks are dependent upon the properties.
properties and composition of their constituent minerals. Minerals are broadly grouped into
1.) The rock forming minerals and
Brief History of Mineralogy 2.) Ore-forming minerals
The Greeks produced the first written works on minerals as early
as 300BC. However, like so many other intellectual disciplines • In civil engineering practice, it is important to have
the downfall of both the Greek and Roman empires resulted in a knowledge of the important rock- forming types.
 • The ore-forming minerals are to be understood in Axis of Symmetry
detail by the mining, Metallurgical and Mineral
Engineering professionals. • It is defined as an imaginary line in a crystal passing
through its center in such a way that when a crystal
is given a complete rotation along this line, a certain
crystal face comes to occupy the same position at
Individual Crystal Systems and the Axial System least twice.
The seven unique crystal systems, listed in order of decreasing • There are four types of axis of symmetry which
symmetry, are: are: two-fold, three-fold, four-fold, and six-
1. Cubic System, fold symmetries.
2. Hexagonal System,
3. Tetragonal System, Axis of Symmetry
4. Rhombohedral System, Two-Fold (Dyad) Symmetry
5. Orthorhombic System,
6. Monoclinic System, This requires that a crystal must be rotated by an angle of 180°
7. Triclinic System to bring the reference face occupy the same position.
Three-Fold (Triad) Symmetry
Symmetry Elements of Crystal Systems Objects that repeat themselves upon rotation of 1200 are said to
have a 3-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/120 =3), and they
• Symmetry is understood as a sort of regularity in the will repeat 3 times in a 3600 rotation.
arrangement of faces on the body of a crystal.
• It can be studied with reference to three different Four-Fold (Tetrad) Symmetry
characters, commonly called elements of symmetry. If an object repeats itself after 90o of rotation, it will repeat 4
These are: plane of symmetry, axis of symmetry, times in a 360o rotation.
and center of symmetry.
Six-Fold (Hexad) Symmetry
Plane of Symmetry
If rotation of 60o about an axis causes the object to repeat itself,
Any imaginary plane passing through the center of a crystal in then it has 6-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/60=6).
such a way that it divides the crystal in two exactly similar halves
is called plane of symmetry.
Center of Symmetry Hardness
A crystal is said to possess a center of symmetry if on passing • It is traditionally defined as the level of difficulty
an imaginary line from some definite face, edge or corner on one with which a smooth surface of a mineral specimen
side of the crystal through its center another exactly similar face may be scratched.
or edge or corner is found on the other side at an equal distance • Determined based on Mohs Hardness Scale.
from the center.
--------- Cleavage

The physical characteristics of minerals include traits which are • A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness
used to identify and describe mineral species. along which a mineral is likely to split smoothly.
• Cleavage thus refers to the splitting of a crystal
These traits include color, streak, luster, density, hardness, between two parallel atomic planes
cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and crystal habits or forms.
Tenacity Fracture

The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along
under deformation. random directions called fracture. Several different kinds of
fracture patterns are observed.
Minerals can be:
• Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved
• Brittle - Breaks or powders easily. surfaces.
• Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets. • Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood
• Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife. breaks.
• Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges.
• Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its • Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces
original shape.
• Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its
original shape.
• Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape. Streak
It is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when
scratched on a streak plate. Often it is different than the color of
the mineral in non-powdered form.
Luster example, quartz can be clear, white, black, pink,
blue, or purple.
Refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected
light. Two general types of luster are designated as follows:

• Metallic. Specific Gravity

• Non-metallic
Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the
Metallic - looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives weight of the mineral to the weight of an equal amount of water.
black or dark colored streak.
Non-metallic – Non-metallic lusters are referred to as Crystal Form
▪vitreous - looks glassy - examples: clear quartz, tourmaline. The internal atomic arrangement of a mineral is manifested
▪resinous - looks resinous - examples: sphalerite, sulfur. outwardly by development of geometric shapes or crystal
characters.
▪pearly - iridescent pearl-like - example: apophyllite.
▪greasy - appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil -
example: nepheline. Importance of Knowledge of Minerals’ Properties to Civil
Engineering
▪silky - looks fibrous. - examples - some gypsum, serpentine,
malachite. It is important for civil engineers to know the properties of
minerals especially those that form rocks, to enable them to
▪adamantine - brilliant luster like diamond. consider different rocks for any required purpose (e.g., as a
foundation rock, as a road metal, as concrete aggregate, as
building stones, as floorings, or roofing minerals as decorative
Color material).
Rock-forming mineral, any mineral that forms igneous,
• Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks and that typically, or solely,
of a mineral, for example olivine and epidote are forms as an intimate part of rock-making processes.
almost always green in color.
• But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic Rocks is assemblies of minerals.
because minerals can take on a variety of colors.
These minerals are said to be allochromatic. For
All the minerals constituting the rocks can be classified into two Biotite
main types:
• Biotite is a name used for a large group of black mica
1.Essential Minerals: These are the minerals which form more minerals that are commonly found in igneous and
than 50% of the rocks. metamorphic rocks.
2. Accessory Minerals: These minerals occur in limited • Black mica with perfect cleavage and a vitreous
quantities as small crystals. luster on the cleavage faces.
• Biotite has a small number of commercial uses.
Quartz
Calcite
• It is found in Magmatic, metamorphic and
sedimentary masses. • Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical
• Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one formula of CaCO3.
part silicon and two parts oxygen (SiO2). • The construction industry is the primary consumer of
• It has a hardness of seven on the Mohs Scale calcite in the form of limestone and marble.
• Modern construction uses calcite in the form of
• Quartz which is pure and clean is used in optical and limestone and marble to produce cement and
chemical industry and ceramic industry. concrete.
• Quartz sand is used in the production of glass.
Feldspar Family
Augite
• Feldspar is the name given to a group of minerals
• Augite is a rock-forming mineral that commonly distinguished by the presence of alumina and silica
occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks. (SiO2) in their chemistry. This group includes
• Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color with aluminum silicates of soda, potassium, or lime.
a translucent to opaque diaphaneity. • Feldspar is used to make dinnerware and bathroom
• Augite does not have any physical, optical, or and building tiles. In ceramics and glass production,
chemical properties that make it especially useful. feldspar is used as a flux.

Hornblende Mineral Group

• Hornblende is a group name used to describe Ferro-

hornblende and Magnesia-hornblende, but the term
 is generally more inclusive for all calcium aluminum Minerals are crystalline solid substances, meaning the atoms
amphiboles. making up a mineral are arranged in an ordered, three-
• It is composed of Complex basic silicate of sodium, dimensional, structure.
calcium, magnesium, and aluminum. Some members
have potassium, titanium, and fluoride. The distances and angles between an individual atom and the
• Hornblende is usually an uninteresting gangue neighbors are bonded to are constant.
material, especially when it is confused with ore
minerals due to its shiny luster. Minerals form under an enormous range of geologic
conditions. There are probably more ways to form minerals than
Muscovite there are types of minerals themselves. Minerals can form from
volcanic gases, sediment formation, oxidation, crystallization
• Muscovite mica is a natural resource excavated from from magma, or deposition from a saline fluid, to list a few.
a mica mine. Large slabs of muscovite mica are Formation from Hot Material
found in pegmatite. It can be easily cleaved into thin
flat pieces by a sharp needle or knife. • A rock is a collection of minerals. Imagine a rock that
• Muscovite is usually colorless but may be light gray, becomes so hot it melts. Many minerals start out in
brown, pale green, or rose-red in color. liquids that are hot enough to melt rocks. Magma is
• It is a good electrical and thermal insulator. melted rock inside Earth, a molten mixture of
substances that can be hotter than 1,000oC. Magma
Garnet cools slowly inside Earth, which gives mineral
crystals time to grow large enough to be seen clearly.
• Garnet is not a single mineral, but describes a group • Granite is rock that forms from slowly cooled
of several closely related minerals. magma, containing the minerals quartz (clear),
• When the term "Garnet" is used, it is usually plagioclase feldspar (shiny white), potassium
connotative of the dark red form. feldspar (pink), and biotite (black).
• Red Garnet gemstones (Almandine and Pyrope) are
very affordable and faceted into all types of jewelry, Formation from Solutions
including necklaces, rings, bracelets, and earrings.
• Water on Earth, such as the water in the oceans,
contains chemical elements mixed into a solution.
Various processes can cause these elements to
combine to form solid mineral deposits.
Minerals from Salt Water lake or inland sea, or in some cases, directly from
seawater)
• When water evaporates, it leaves behind a solid • Precipitation from gaseous emanations (e.g., in
precipitate of minerals. volcanic regions)
• Water can only hold a certain amount of dissolved • Metamorphism — formation of new minerals
minerals and salts. When the amount is too great to directly from the elements within existing minerals
stay dissolved in the water, the particles come under conditions of elevated temperature and
together to form mineral solids, which sink. Halite pressure.
easily precipitates out of water, as does calcite.
• Some lakes, such as Mono Lake in California or The • Weathering — during which minerals unstable at
Great Salt Lake in Utah, contain many mineral Earth’s surface may be altered to other minerals.
precipitates. • Organic formation — formation of minerals within
shells (primarily calcite) and teeth and bones
Minerals from Hot Underground Water (primarily apatite) by organisms (these organically
formed minerals are still called minerals because
• Magma heats nearby underground water, which they can also form inorganically).
reacts with the rocks around it to pick up dissolved
particles. As the water flows through open spaces in Environments
the rock and cools, it deposits solid minerals. The
mineral deposits that form when a mineral fills • The environments of mineral formation geologically
cracks in rocks are called veins. are highly varied; within the earth’s crust, different
• Quartz veins formed in this rock. temperatures and depths result in varied minerals and
• When minerals are deposited in open spaces, large on earth’s surface, low temperature led to
crystals form precipitation from saline brine (slightly salty water).
• Amethyst formed when large crystals grew in open • Endogenetic (hypogene) – Deep seated processes in
spaces inside the rock. These special rocks are called the interior of the earth.
geodes. • Exogenetic (hypergene) – Surface processes (at or
near the earth’s surface as well as in the atmosphere
Minerals can also form in several other ways: and hydrosphere)

• Precipitation from aqueous solution (i.e., from hot • In geologic environments where mineral formation
water flowing underground, from evaporation of a is taking place, the kinds of minerals that for, depend
on various factors such as:
o Temperature Coke
o Pressure • It is a tough, porous and black substance. It is an
o the chemical activity of water present almost pure form of carbon. Coke is used in the
manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many
o the mobility and relative abundance of chemical element. metals.

• The mineral formed is defined by two fundamental Coal Tar

properties.
• Crystal Structure – The geometric arrangement of • It is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell. It
the ions (atoms) composing the minerals. is a mixture of about 200 substances. Products
• Chemical Composition – The proportions of obtained from coal tar are used as starting materials
different chemical elements contained. for manufacturing various substances used in
everyday life and in industry, like synthetic dyes,
Coal drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints,
photographic materials, roofing materials, etc.
• Coal is one of the fuels used to cook food. Earlier, it
was used in railway engines to produce steam to run Petroleum
the engine. It is also used in thermal power plants to
produce electricity. Coal is also used as a fuel in • Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource
various industries. called petroleum. The word petroleum is derived
• As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of from petra (rock) and oleum (oil) as it is mined from
conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called between the rocks under Earth.
carbonization. Since it was formed from the remains • Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the
of vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel. sea. As these organisms died, their bodies settled at
• When heated in air, coal burns and produces mainly the bottom of the sea and got covered with layers of
carbon dioxide gas. Coal is processed in industry to sand and clay. Over millions of years, absence of air,
get some useful products such as coke, coal tar and high temperature and high pressure transformed the
coal gas. dead organisms into petroleum and natural gas.

Origin and Occurrence of Petroleum in India

 • Petroleum has an organic origin and is found in • A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring solid,
sedimentary basins, shallow depressions and in the inorganic, homogeneous substance having definite
seas (past and present). Most of the oil reserves in chemical composition and regular internal atomic
India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in structure.
the sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times,
about 3 million years ago. Some recent sediment, The symmetry elements of crystallographic systems are plane
less than one million years also show evidence of of symmetry, axis of symmetry and center of symmetry.
incipient oil.
• As already mentioned, oil as well as natural gas in The main physical properties of minerals are tenacity,
India occur in sedimentary rocks. About 14.1 lakh sq hardness, cleavage, fracture, streak, luster, color, specific gravity
km or about 42 per cent of the total area of the or density and crystal form.
country is covered with sedimentary rocks out of The rock forming minerals are quartz, augite, biotite, calcite,
which about 10 lakh sq km form marine basins of feldspar family, hornblende mineral group, muscovite and
Mesozoic and Tertiary times. garnet.
• India was a very insignificant producer of petroleum
at the time of Independence and remained so till
Mumbai High started production on a large scale. In
fact, off-shore production did not start till the mid-
1970s and the entire production was received from
on-shore oil fields.

SUMMARY-2
MINERALOGY

• It deals with the study of minerals.

• Minerals are the basic unit from which different
rocks and ores of earth are formed.
• Details of mode of occurrence, formation,
composition, types, association, properties, uses etc.
of mineral are included in mineralogy

Mineral