Algebra Cheat Sheet

Basic Properties and Facts

Arithmetic Operations Properties of Inequalities
 
b ab If a < b then a + c < b + c and a − c < b − c
ab + ac = a (b + c) a =
c c
a a b
If a < b and c > 0 then ac < bc and <
b a a ac c c
=  =
c bc b b a b
c If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc and >
c c
a c ad + bc a c ad − bc
+ = − = Properties
b d bd b d bd ( of Absolute Value
a if a ≥ 0
a−b b−a a+b a b |a| =
= = + −a if a < 0
c−d d−c c c c
a |a| ≥ 0 |−a| = |a|
ab + ac ad
= b + c, a 6= 0  cb  = a |a|
a bc |ab| = |a| |b| =
d b |b|

|a + b| 6 |a| + |b| Triangle Inequality

Exponent Properties
an am = an+m (ab)n = an bn
Distance Formula
(an )m = anm a0 = 1 , a 6= 0 If P1 = (x1 , y1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 ) are two
an 1  a n an points the distance between them is
m
= an−m = m−n =
bn
q
a a b
d (P1 , P2 ) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
n
 1
 n 1 1
am = am = (an ) m = an
a−n
Complex Numbers
 n √ √ √
 a −n b bn 1 i = −1 i2 = −1 −a = i a , a ≥ 0
= = n a−n = n
b a a a
(a + bi) + (c + di) = a + c + (b + d) i

Properties of Radicals (a + bi) − (c + di) = a − c + (b − d) i

√ 1 √n √ √
n
a = an ab = n a n b (a + bi) (c + di) = ac − bd + (ad + bc) i
√
(a + bi) (a − bi) = a2 + b2
r
p√
m n
√ a n
a
a= nm
a n
= √
b n
b √
√ |a + bi| = a2 + b2 Complex Modulus
n n
a = a if n is odd
(a + bi) = a − bi Complex Conjugate
√
n n
a = |a| if n is even
(a + bi) (a + bi) = |a + bi|2

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 Algebra Cheat Sheet

Logarithms and Log Properties

Definition Logarithm Properties
y = logb (x) is equivalent to x = by logb (b) = 1 logb (1) = 0

Example logb (bx ) = x blogb (x) = x

log5 (125) = 3 because 53 = 125
logb (xr ) = r logb (x)
Special Logarithms logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y)
ln(x) = loge (x) natural log  
x
log(x) = log10 (x) common log logb = logb (x) − logb (y)
y
where e = 2.718281828 . . .
The domain of logb (x) is x > 0
Factoring and Solving
Factoring Formulas Quadratic Formula
x2 − a2 = (x + a) (x − a) Solve ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0
√
x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
x2 − 2ax + a2 = (x − a)2 2
If b − 4ac > 0 – Two real unequal solns.
x2 + (a + b) x + ab = (x + a) (x + b)
If b2 − 4ac = 0 – Repeated real solution.
3
x3 + 3ax2 + 3a2 x + a3 = (x + a)
If b2 − 4ac < 0 – Two complex solutions.
3
x3 − 3ax2 + 3a2 x −
= (x − a) a3
Square Root Property
x3 + a3 = (x + a) x2 − ax + a2


√
If x2 = p then x = ± p
x3 − a3 = (x − a) x2 + ax + a2


Absolute Value Equations/Inequalities
x2n − a2n = (xn − an ) (xn + an )
If b is a positive number
If n is odd then, |p| = b ⇒ p = −b or p=b
xn an xn−1 axn−2 an−1


− = (x − a) + + ··· + |p| < b ⇒ −b < p < b
xn+ =an

|p| > b ⇒ p < −b or p>b
(x + a) xn−1 − axn−2 + a2 xn−3 − · · · + an−1
Completing the Square
Solve 2x2 − 6x − 10 = 0 (4) Factor the left side
(1) Divide by the coefficient of the x2 
3 2 29

x2 − 3x − 5 = 0 x− =
2 4
(2) Move the constant to the other side. (5) Use Square Root Property
x2 − 3x = 5 r √
3 29 29
x− =± =±
(3) Take half the coefficient of x, square it and 2 4 2
add it to both sides (6) Solve for x √
 2  2 3 29
2 3 3 9 29 x= ±
x − 3x + − =5+ − =5+ = 2 2
2 2 4 4

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 Algebra Cheat Sheet

Functions and Graphs

Constant Function Parabola/Quadratic Function
y=a or f (x) = a x = ay 2 + by + c g (y) = ay 2 + by + c
Graph is a horizontal line passing through the The graph is a parabola that opens right if
point (0, a). a > 0 or left if a < 0 and has a vertex at
   
b b
Line/Linear Function g − ,− .
2a 2a
y = mx + b or f (x) = mx + b
Graph is a line with point (0, b) and slope m. Circle
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
Slope
Graph is a circle with radius r and center (h, k).
Slope of the line containing the two points
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is
Ellipse
y2 − y1 rise
m= = (x − h)2 (y − k)2
x2 − x1 run + =1
a2 b2
Slope – intercept form
Graph is an ellipse with center (h, k) with
The equation of the line with slope m and
vertices a units right/left from the center and
y-intercept (0, b) is
vertices b units up/down from the center.
y = mx + b
Point – Slope form Hyperbola
The equation of the line with slope m and (x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
passing through the point (x1 , y1 ) is a2 b2
y = y1 + m (x − x1 ) Graph is a hyperbola that opens left and right,
has a center at (h, k), vertices a units left/right
Parabola/Quadratic Function of center and asymptotes that pass through
y = a (x − h)2 + k f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k b
center with slope ± .
a
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0
or down if a < 0 and has a vertex at (h, k). Hyperbola
(y − k)2 (x − h)2
Parabola/Quadratic Function − =1
b2 a2
y = ax2 + bx + c f (x) = ax2 + bx + c Graph is a hyperbola that opens up and down,
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 has a center at (h, k), vertices b units up/down
or down if a < 0 and has a vertex at from the center and asymptotes that pass
b
through center with slope ± .
  
b b
− ,f − . a
2a 2a

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Algebra Cheat Sheet

Common Algebraic Errors

Error Reason/Correct/Justification/Example
2 2
6= 0 and 6= 2 Division by zero is undefined!
0 0

−32 6= 9 −32 = −9, (−3)2 = 9 Watch parenthesis!

3
3
x2 6= x5 x2 = x2 x2 x2 = x6
a a a 1 1 1 1
6= + = 6= + = 2
b+c b c 2 1+1 1 1
1 A more complex version of the
6= x−2 + x−3
x + x3
2 previous error.
a + bx a bx bx
a
+ bx = + =1+
6= 1 + bx a a a a
a
Beware of incorrect canceling!
−a (x − 1) = −ax + a
−a (x − 1) 6= −ax − a
Make sure you distribute the “-”!

(x + a)2 6= x2 + a2 (x + a)2 = (x + a) (x + a) = x2 + 2ax + a2

√ √ √ √ √
x2 + a2 6= x + a 5 = 25 = 32 + 42 6= 32 + 42 = 3 + 4 = 7
√ √ √
x + a 6= x+ a See previous error.
√ √ √ More general versions of previous
(x + a)n 6= xn + an and n
x + a 6= n
x+ n
a
three errors.
2
2 (x + 1) = 2 x2 + 2x + 1 = 2x2 + 4x + 2

2 (x + 1)2 6= (2x + 2)2 (2x + 2)2 = 4x2 + 8x + 4

Square first then distribute!
See the previous example. You can not
(2x + 2)2 6= 2 (x + 1)2 factor out a constant if there is a power
on the parenthesis!
√
1
√ √ −x2 + a2 = −x2 + a2 2
−x2 + a2 6= − x2 + a2
Now see the previous error.
a
a ab a  a   c  ac
  6=   = 1 = =
b c b b 1 b b
c c c
a a a
ac   1
b 6= b = b = a =
a
c b c c b c bc
1

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Trig Cheat Sheet

Definition of the Trig Functions

Right triangle definition Unit Circle Definition
For this definition we assume that For this definition θ is any angle.
π
0 < θ < or 0◦ < θ < 90◦ .
2

opposite hypotenuse
sin(θ) = csc(θ) = y 1
hypotenuse opposite sin(θ) = =y csc(θ) =
adjacent hypotenuse 1 y
cos(θ) = sec(θ) = x 1
hypotenuse adjacent cos(θ) = = x sec(θ) =
opposite adjacent 1 x
tan(θ) = cot(θ) = y x
adjacent opposite tan(θ) = cot(θ) =
x y
Facts and Properties
Domain Period
The domain is all the values of θ that can be The period of a function is the number, T , such
plugged into the function. that f (θ + T ) = f (θ). So, if ω is a fixed number
sin(θ), θ can be any angle and θ is any angle we have the following
periods.
cos(θ), θ can be any angle 2π
  sin (ω θ) → T =
1 ω
tan(θ), θ 6= n + π, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2 2π
cos (ω θ) → T =
ω
csc(θ), θ 6= nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . π
  tan (ω θ) → T =
1 ω
sec(θ), θ 6= n + π, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2 2π
csc (ω θ) → T =
ω
cot(θ), θ 6= nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2π
sec (ω θ) → T =
ω
π
cot (ω θ) → T =
ω
Range
The range is all possible values to get out of the function.
−1 ≤ sin(θ) ≤ 1 −1 ≤ cos(θ) ≤ 1
−∞ < tan(θ) < ∞ −∞ < cot(θ) < ∞
sec(θ) ≥ 1 and sec(θ) ≤ −1 csc(θ) ≥ 1 and csc(θ) ≤ −1

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 Trig Cheat Sheet

Formulas and Identities

Tangent and Cotangent Identities Half Angle Formulas
sin(θ) cos(θ)  
θ
r
1 − cos(θ)
tan(θ) = cot(θ) = sin =±
cos(θ) sin(θ) 2 2
Reciprocal Identities   r
θ 1 + cos(θ)
1 1 cos =±
csc(θ) = sin(θ) = 2 2
sin(θ) csc(θ) s
 
1 1 θ 1 − cos(θ)
sec(θ) = cos(θ) = tan =±
cos(θ) sec(θ) 2 1 + cos(θ)
1 1
cot(θ) = tan(θ) = Half Angle Formulas (alternate form)
tan(θ) cot(θ)
Pythagorean Identities sin2 (θ) = 1
2 (1 − cos(2θ)) 1 − cos(2θ)
tan2 (θ) =
cos2 (θ) = 12 (1 + cos(2θ)) 1 + cos(2θ)
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1
tan2 (θ) + 1 = sec2 (θ) Sum and Difference Formulas
2
1 + cot (θ) = csc2 (θ) sin(α ± β) = sin(α) cos(β) ± cos(α) sin(β)

Even/Odd Formulas cos(α ± β) = cos(α) cos(β) ∓ sin(α) sin(β)

sin(−θ) = − sin(θ) csc(−θ) = − csc(θ) tan(α) ± tan(β)
tan(α ± β) =
cos(−θ) = cos(θ) sec(−θ) = sec(θ) 1 ∓ tan(α) tan(β)

tan(−θ) = − tan(θ) cot(−θ) = − cot(θ) Product to Sum Formulas

1
Periodic Formulas sin(α) sin(β) = 2 [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)]
1
If n is an integer then, cos(α) cos(β) = 2 [cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)]
1
sin(θ + 2πn) = sin(θ) csc(θ + 2πn) = csc(θ) sin(α) cos(β) = 2 [sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)]
1
cos(θ + 2πn) = cos(θ) sec(θ + 2πn) = sec(θ) cos(α) sin(β) = 2 [sin(α + β) − sin(α − β)]

tan(θ + πn) = tan(θ) cot(θ + πn) = cot(θ) Sum to Product Formulas

   
α+β α−β
Degrees to Radians Formulas sin(α) + sin(β) = 2 sin cos
2 2
If x is an angle in degrees and t is an angle in 
α+β
 
α−β

radians then sin(α) − sin(β) = 2 cos sin
2 2
π t πx 180t
= ⇒ t= and x=
   
180 x 180 π α+β α−β
cos(α) + cos(β) = 2 cos cos
2 2
Double Angle Formulas 
α+β
 
α−β

cos(α)−cos(β) = −2 sin sin
sin(2θ) = 2 sin(θ) cos(θ) 2 2
cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ) Cofunction Formulas
π  π 
2
= 2 cos (θ) − 1 sin − θ = cos(θ) cos − θ = sin(θ)
2π  π 2 
= 1 − 2 sin2 (θ) csc − θ = sec(θ) sec − θ = csc(θ)
2 tan(θ)  π2   π2 
tan(2θ) = tan − θ = cot(θ) cot − θ = tan(θ)
1 − tan2 (θ) 2 2

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Trig Cheat Sheet

For any ordered pair on the unit circle (x, y) : cos(θ) = x and sin(θ) = y

Example

    √
5π 1 5π 3
cos = sin =−
3 2 3 2

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Trig Cheat Sheet

Inverse Trig Functions

Definition Inverse Properties
−1 cos cos−1 (x) = x cos−1 (cos(θ)) = θ


y = sin (x) is equivalent to x = sin(y)
sin sin−1 (x) = x sin−1 (sin(θ)) = θ


y = cos−1 (x) is equivalent to x = cos(y)
tan tan−1 (x) = x tan−1 (tan(θ)) = θ


y = tan−1 (x) is equivalent to x = tan(y)

Domain and Range Alternate Notation

Function Domain Range sin−1 (x) = arcsin(x)
π π
y = sin−1 (x) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − ≤y≤ cos−1 (x) = arccos(x)
2 2
y = cos−1 (x) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤y≤π tan−1 (x) = arctan(x)
π π
y = tan−1 (x) −∞ < x < ∞ − <y<
2 2

Law of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

Law of Sines Law of Tangents

sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ) tan 1
− β)


= = a−b 2 (α
a b c = 1


a+b tan 2 (α + β)
Law of Cosines 1


b−c tan 2 (β − γ)
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(α) = 1


b+c tan 2 (β + γ)
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(β) 1


a−c tan 2 (α − γ)

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(γ) = 1
a+c tan 2 (α + γ)

Mollweide’s Formula
cos 12 (α − β)


a+b
=
sin 12 γ


c

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Limits
Definitions
Precise Definition : We say lim f (x) = L if for Limit at Infinity : We say lim f (x) = L if we can
x→a x→∞
every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that whenever make f (x) as close to L as we want by taking x
0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < ε. large enough and positive.

“Working” Definition : We say lim f (x) = L if There is a similar definition for lim f (x) = L
x→a x→− ∞
we can make f (x) as close to L as we want by except we require x large and negative.
taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side of a)
without letting x = a. Infinite Limit : We say lim f (x) = ∞ if we can
x→a
make f (x) arbitrarily large (and positive) by taking x
Right hand limit : lim f (x) = L. This has the sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) without
x→a+
same definition as the limit except it requires x > a. letting x = a.

Left hand limit : lim f (x) = L. This has the same There is a similar definition for lim f (x) = −∞
−
x→a x→a
definition as the limit except it requires x < a. except we make f (x) arbitrarily large and negative.

Relationship between the limit and one-sided limits

lim f (x) = L ⇒ lim f (x) = lim− f (x) = L lim f (x) = lim− f (x) = L ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a+ x→a x→a+ x→a x→a

lim f (x) 6= lim− f (x) ⇒ lim f (x)Does Not Exist

x→a+ x→a x→a

Properties
Assume lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist and c is any number then,
x→a x→a

f (x)
 lim f (x)
1. lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x) 4. lim = x→a provided lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a x→a x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
h in
n
2. lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) 5. lim [f (x)] = lim f (x)
x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a
hp i q
3. lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) 6. lim n f (x) = n lim f (x)
x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a

Basic Limit Evaluations at ±∞

1. lim ex = ∞ & lim ex = 0 5. n even : lim xn = ∞
x→∞ x→− ∞ x→± ∞

2. lim ln(x) = ∞ & lim ln(x) = −∞ 6. n odd : lim xn = ∞ & lim xn = −∞

x→∞ x→ ∞ x→− ∞
x→0+

b 7. n even : lim a xn + · · · + b x + c = sgn(a)∞

x→± ∞
3. If r > 0 then lim =0
x→∞ xr
8. n odd : lim a xn + · · · + b x + c = sgn(a)∞
r x→∞
4. If r > 0 and x is real for negative x
b 9. n odd : lim a xn + · · · + c x + d = − sgn(a)∞
then lim =0 x→−∞
x→− ∞ xr
Note : sgn(a) = 1 if a > 0 and sgn(a) = −1 if a < 0.

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Evaluation Techniques
Continuous Functions L’Hospital’s/L’Hôpital’s Rule
If f (x)is continuous at a then lim f (x) = f (a) f (x) 0 f (x) ±∞
x→a If lim = or lim = then,
x→a g(x) 0 x→a g(x) ±∞
Continuous Functions and Composition f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 , a is a number, ∞ or −∞
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
f (x) is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then
 x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) = f (b) Polynomials at Infinity
x→a x→a

p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. To compute

Factor and Cancel p(x)
x2 + 4x − 12 (x − 2)(x + 6) lim factor largest power of x in q(x) out of
x→± ∞ q(x)
lim = lim
x→2 x2 − 2x x→2 x(x − 2) both p(x) and q(x) then compute limit.
x+6 8 3x2 − 4 x2 3 − x42


= lim = =4 lim = lim
x→2 x 2 x→− ∞ 5x − 2x2 x→− ∞ x2 5 − 2


x

Rationalize Numerator/Denominator 3 − x42 3

√ √ √ = lim =−
3− x 3− x 3+ x x→− ∞ 5 − 2 2
lim 2 = lim 2 √ x
x→9 x − 81 x→9 x − 81 3 + x
Piecewise Function
9−x −1
= lim √ = lim √ x2 + 5

x→9 (x2 − 81)(3 + x) x→9 (x + 9)(3 + x) if x < −2
lim g(x) where g(x) =
x→−2 1 − 3x if x ≥ −2
−1 1
= =−
(18)(6) 108 Compute two one sided limits,
lim g(x) = lim x2 + 5 = 9
Combine Rational Expressions x→−2− x→−2−
    lim g(x) = lim 1 − 3x = 7
1 1 1 1 x − (x + h) x→−2+ x→−2+
lim − = lim
h→0 h x+h x h→0 h x(x + h)
One sided limits are different so lim g(x) doesn’t
  x→−2
1 −h −1 1 exist. If the two one sided limits had been equal
= lim = lim =− 2
h→0 h x(x + h) h→0 x(x + h) x then lim g(x) would have existed and had the
x→−2
same value.

Some Continuous Functions

Partial list of continuous functions and the values of x for which they are continuous.
1. Polynomials for all x. 6. ln(x) for x > 0.
2. Rational function, except for x’s that give 7. cos(x) and sin(x) for all x.
division by zero.
√ 8. tan(x) and sec(x) provided
3. n x (n odd) for all x. 3π π π 3π
√ x 6= · · · , − , − , , ,···
4. n x (n even) for all x ≥ 0. 2 2 2 2
9. cot(x) and csc(x) provided
5. ex for all x.
x 6= · · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · ·

Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f (a) and f (b). Then there exists
a number c such that a < c < b and f (c) = M .

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Derivatives
Definition and Notation
f (x + h) − f (x)
If y = f (x) then the derivative is defined to be f 0 (x) = lim .
h→0 h
If y = f (x) then all of the following are equivalent If y = f (x) all of the following are equivalent
notations for the derivative. notations for derivative evaluated at x = a.
df dy d df dy
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = (f (x)) = Df (x) f 0 (a) = y 0 |x=a = = = Df (a)
dx dx dx dx x=a dx x=a

Interpretation of the Derivative

If y = f (x) then,
1. m = f 0 (a) is the slope of the tangent line 2. f 0 (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of
to y = f (x) at x = a and the equation of f (x) at x = a.
the tangent line at x = a is given by 3. If f (t) is the position of an object at time t then
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a). f 0 (a) is the velocity of the object at t = a.

Basic Properties and Formulas

If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions (the derivative exists), c and n are any real numbers,
d    0
1. c =0 4. f (x) ± g(x) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
dx
 0  0
2. c f (x) = c f 0 (x) 5. f (x) g(x) = f 0 (x) g(x) + f (x) g 0 (x) – Product Rule
0
d  n f 0 (x) g(x) − f (x) g 0 (x)

3. x = n xn−1 – Power Rule f (x)
6. = – Quotient Rule
dx g(x)
 2
g(x)
  
d  
7. f g(x) = f 0 g(x) g 0 (x) – Chain Rule
dx

Common Derivatives
d   d   d  x
x =1 csc(x) = − csc(x) cot(x) a = ax ln(a)
dx dx dx
d   d   d  x
sin(x) = cos(x) cot(x) = − csc2 (x) e = ex
dx dx dx
d   d  −1  1 d   1
cos(x) = − sin(x) sin (x) = √ ln(x) = , x > 0
dx dx 1 − x2 dx x
d  
d   1 d   1
tan(x) = sec2 (x) cos−1 (x) = − √ ln |x| = , x 6= 0
dx dx 1 − x2 dx x
d  
d  1 d   1
sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x) loga (x) = , x>0

dx tan−1 (x) = dx x ln(a)
dx 1 + x2

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Chain Rule Variants

The chain rule applied to some specific functions.
 in  in−1  i
d h h d h h i
1. f (x) = n f (x) f 0 (x) 5. cos f (x) = −f 0 (x) sin f (x)
dx dx
   i
d d h h i
2. e f (x)
= f 0 (x) ef (x) 6. tan f (x) = f 0 (x) sec2 f (x)
dx dx
d
 h i f 0 (x) d
 h i h i h i
3. ln f (x) = 7. sec f (x) = f 0 (x) sec f (x) tan f (x)
dx f (x) dx
f 0 (x)
   i
d h i h i d −1
h
4. sin f (x) = f 0 (x) cos f (x) 8. tan f (x) = i2
dx dx
h
1 + f (x)

Higher Order Derivatives

The 2nd Derivative is denoted as The nth Derivative is denoted as
d2 f dn f
f 00 (x) = f (2) (x) = and is defined as f (n) (x) = and is defined as
dx2 dxn
 0  0
f 00 (x) = f 0 (x) , i.e. the derivative of the first f (n) (x) = f (n−1) (x) , i.e. the derivative of the
derivative, f 0 (x). (n − 1)st derivative, f (n−1) (x).

Implicit Differentiation
0 2x−9y 3 2
Find y if e + x y = sin(y) + 11x. Remember y = y(x) here, so products/quotients of x and y will use
the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The “trick” is to differentiate as normal
and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y 0 (from the chain rule). Then solve for y 0 .

e2x−9y (2 − 9y 0 ) + 3x2 y 2 + 2x3 y y 0 = cos(y)y 0 + 11

11 − 2e2x−9y − 3x2 y 2
2e2x−9y − 9y 0 e2x−9y + 3x2 y 2 + 2x3 y y 0 = cos(y)y 0 + 11 ⇒ y0 =
2x3 y − 9e2x−9y − cos(y)
2x3 y − 9e2x−9y − cos(y) y 0 = 11 − 2e2x−9y − 3x2 y 2

Increasing/Decreasing – Concave Up/Concave Down

Critical Points Concave Up/Concave Down
x = c is a critical point of f (x) provided either 1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
1. f 0 (c) = 0 or, f (x) is concave up on the interval I.
2. f 0 (c) doesn’t exist. 2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I then

Increasing/Decreasing f (x) is concave down on the interval I.

1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then Inflection Points

f (x) is increasing on the interval I. x = c is a inflection point of f (x) if the
0
2. If f (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I then concavity changes at x = c.
f (x) is decreasing on the interval I.
3. If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then
f (x) is constant on the interval I.

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Extrema
Absolute Extrema Relative (local) Extrema
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f (x) if 1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of f (x)
f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in the domain. if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x near c.
2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f (x) if 2. x = c is a relative (or local) minimum of f (x)
f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in the domain. if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x near c.

Fermat’s Theorem 1st Derivative Test

If f (x) has a relative (or local) extrema at x = c, If x = c is a critical point of f (x) then x = c is
then x = c is a critical point of f (x). 1. a relative maximum of f (x) if f 0 (x) > 0 to the
left of x = c and f 0 (x) < 0 to the right of x = c.
Extreme Value Theorem
If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] then 2. a relative minimum of f (x) if f 0 (x) < 0 to the
there exist numbers c and d so that, left of x = c and f 0 (x) > 0 to the right of x = c.
1. a ≤ c, d ≤ b, 3. not a relative extrema of f (x) if f 0 (x is the
2. f (c) is the absolute maximum in [a, b], same sign on both sides of x = c.
3. f (d) is the absolute minimum in [a, b].
2nd Derivative Test
Finding Absolute Extrema If x = c is a critical point of f (x) such that f 0 (c) = 0
then x = c
To find the absolute extrema of the continuous
function f (x) on the interval [a, b] use the following 1. is a relative maximum of f (x) if f 00 (c) < 0.
process. 2. is a relative minimum of f (x) if f 00 (c) > 0.
1. Find all critical points of f (x) in [a, b].
3. may be a relative maximum, relative
2. Evaluate f (x) at all points found in Step 1. minimum, or neither if f 00 (c) = 0.
3. Evaluate f (a) and f (b).
Finding Relative Extrema and/or
4. Identify the absolute maximum (largest
Classify Critical Points
function value) and the absolute minimum
1. Find all critical points of f (x).
(smallest function value) from the
2. Use the 1st derivative test or the
evaluations in Steps 2 & 3.
2nd derivative test on each critical point.

Mean Value Theorem

If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b) then there is a
f (b) − f (a)
number a < c < b such that f 0 (c) = .
b−a

Newton’s Method
f (xn )
If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f (x) = 0 then (n + 1)st guess is xn+1 = xn − provided
f 0 (xn )
f 0 (xn ) exists.

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Related Rates
Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities and differ-
entiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time you differentiate a
function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
Example A 15 foot ladder is resting against a Example Two people are 50 ft apart when one
wall. The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being starts walking north. The angle θ changes at
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast is the 0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance between
top moving after 12 sec? them changing when θ = 0.5 rad?

We have θ0 = 0.01 rad/min. and want to find x0 . We

x0 is negative because x is decreasing. Using
can use various trig functions but easiest is,
Pythagorean Theorem and differentiating,
x x0
x2 + y 2 = 152 ⇒ 2x x0 + 2y y 0 = 0 sec(θ) = ⇒ sec(θ) tan(θ) θ0 =
50 50
After 12 sec we have x = 10 − 12 14 = 7 and so


We know θ = 0.5 so plug in θ0 and solve.
p √
y = 152 − 72 = 176. Plug in and solve for y 0 . x0
sec(0.5) tan(0.5) (0.01) =

1

√ 7 50
7 − + 176 y 0 = 0 ⇒ y 0 = √ ft/sec x0 = 0.3112 ft/min
4 4 176
Remember to have calculator in radians!

Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for one of
the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of variables and verify
that they are min/max as needed.
Example We’re enclosing a rectangular field with Example Determine point(s) on y = x2 + 1 that are
500 ft of fence material and one side of the field is a closest to (0, 2).
building. Determine dimensions that will maximize
the enclosed area.

Minimize f = d2 = (x − 0)2 + (y − 2)2 and the

constraint is y = x2 + 1. Solve constraint for x2 and
Maximize A = xy subject to constraint x+2y = 500. plug into the function.
Solve constraint for x and plug into area. x2 = y − 1 ⇒ f = x2 + (y − 2)2
A = y(500 − 2y) = y − 1 + (y − 2)2 = y 2 − 3y + 3
x = 500 − 2y ⇒
= 500y − 2y 2 Differentiate and find critical point(s).
Differentiate and find critical point(s). f 0 = 2y − 3 ⇒ y= 3
2
A0 = 500 − 4y ⇒ y = 125 By the 2nd derivative test this is a relative minimum
By 2nd derivative test this is a relative maximum and and so all we need to do is find x value(s).
so is the answer we’re after. Finally, find x. x2 = 3
−1= 1
x = ± √12
⇒
2 2
x = 500 − 2(125) = 250    
The 2 points are then √12 , 32 and − √12 , 32 .
The dimensions are then 250 x 125.

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Integrals
Definitions
Definite Integral : Suppose f (x) is continuous on Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f (x) is a
[a, b]. Divide [a, b] into n subintervals of width ∆ x function, F (x), such that F 0 (x) = f (x).
and choose x∗i from each interval. Then Z
Z b X n Indefinite Integral : f (x) dx = F (x) + c where
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) ∆ x.
a n→∞ F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x).
i=1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Part I : If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] then Variants of Part I :
Z x Z u(x)
d
f (t) dt = u0 (x)f u(x)
 
g(x) = f (t) dt is also continuous on [a, b] and
a dx a
Z x
d Z b
g 0 (x) = f (t) dt = f (x). d
f (t) dt = −v 0 (x)f v(x)
 
dx a dx v(x)
Part II : f (x) is continuous on [a, b], F (x) is an Z u(x)
d
f (t) dt = u0 (x)f u(x) − v 0 (x)f v(x)
Z    
anti-derivative of f (x), i.e. F (x) = f (x) dx, then dx v(x)
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

Properties
Z Z Z Z Z
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx, c is a constant

Z b Z b Z b Z b Z b
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx, c is a constant
a a a a a
Z a Z b
f (x) dx = 0 c dx = c(b − a), c is a constant
a a
Z b Z a Z b Z b
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx f (x) dx ≤ f (x) dx
a b a a

Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx for any value c.
a a c
Z b Z b
If f (x) ≥ g(x) on a ≤ x ≤ b then f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx
a a
Z b
If f (x) ≥ 0 on a ≤ x ≤ b then f (x) dx ≥ 0
a
Z b
If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M on a ≤ x ≤ b then m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a)
a

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Common Integrals
Z Z Z Z
n 1 −1 1
k dx = k x + c x dx = xn+1 + c, n 6= −1 x dx = dx = ln |x| + c
n+1 x
Z Z Z
1 1
eu du = eu + c dx = ln |ax + b| + c ln(u) du = u ln (u) − u + c
ax + b a
Z Z Z
cos(u) du = sin(u) + c sec(u) tan(u) du = sec(u) + c tan(u) du = ln |sec(u)| + c
Z Z Z
sin(u) du = − cos(u) + c csc(u) cot(u)du = − csc(u) + c tan(u) du = − ln |cos(u)| + c
Z R Z
2 sec(u)du = 1 1 −1 u
 
sec (u) du = tan(u) + c du = tan +c
ln sec(u) + tan(u) + c a2 + u2 a a
Z Z
R 1 u
csc2 (u) du = − cot(u) + c csc(u)du = √ du = sin−1 +c
− ln csc(u) + cot(u) + c a2 − u2 a

Standard Integration Techniques

Z b Z b Z g(b)
0 0
u Substitution : f (g(x)) g (x) dx will convert the integral into f (g(x)) g (x) dx = f (u) du using
a a g(a)
the substitution u = g(x) where du = g 0 (x)dx. For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.
Z 2 Z 2 Z 8
5
5x2 cos x3 dx 5x2 cos x3 dx =



Example cos(u) du
1 1 1 3
8
3 21 2 5 5 
u=x ⇒ du = 3x dx ⇒ x dx = du = sin(u) = sin(8) − sin(1)
3 3 1 3
x=1 ⇒ u = 13 = 1 :: x = 2 ⇒ u = 23 = 8

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

For sinn (x) cosm (x) dx we have the following : For tann (x) secm (x) dx we have the following :
R R

1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to 1. n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and
cosines using sin2 (x) = 1 − cos2 (x), then use convert the rest to secants using
the substitution u = cos(x). tan2 (x) = sec2 (x) − 1, then use the
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest to substitution u = sec(x).
sines using cos2 (x) = 1 − sin2 (x), then use 2. m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
the substitution u = sin(x). to tangents using sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x), then
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2. use the substitution u = tan(x).
4. n and m both even. Use double angle 3. n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the 4. n even and m odd. Each integral will be
integral into a form that can be integrated. dealt with differently.
Trig Formulas : sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x), cos2 (x) = 12 (1 + cos(2x)), sin2 (x) = 12 (1 − cos(2x))
Z Z
3 5 sin5 (x)
Example tan (x) sec (x) dx Example cos3 (x) dx
Z Z Z Z Z
sin5 x sin4 x sin x (sin2 x)2 sin x
tan3 x sec5 x dx = tan2 x sec4 x tan x sec x dx cos3 x dx = cos3 x dx = cos3 x dx
Z Z
sec2 (x) − 1 sec4 (x) tan(x) sec(x)dx

h i
= (1−cos2 (x))2 sin(x)
= 3
cos (x) dx u = cos(x)
Z h i Z Z
2

4 2 2
= u − 1 u du u = sec(x) = − (1−u )
du = − 1−2u2 +u4
du
u3 u3

= 1
7 sec7 (x) − 1
5 sec5 (x) + c = 1
sec2 (x) + 2 ln cos(x) − 1
cos2 (x) + c
2 2

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Z Z Z b b Z b
Integration by Parts : u dv = uv − u dv = uv −
v du and v du. Choose u and dv from integral
a Ra a
and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = dv.
Z Z 5
Example xe−x dx Example ln(x) dx
−x 3
Z = x dv = e
u ⇒ Zdu = dx v = −e−x u = ln(x) dv = dx ⇒ du = x1 dx v = x
xe−x dx = −xe−x + e−x dx 5 5
Z 5 Z 5
ln(x) dx = x ln(x) − dx = (x ln(x) − x)
3 3
= −xe−x − e−x + c 3 3
= 5 ln(5) − 3 ln(3) − 2

Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and formula to
convert into an integral involving trig functions.
p p p
a2 − b2 x2 ⇒ x = ab sin(θ) b2 x2 − a2 ⇒ x = ab sec(θ) a2 + b2 x2 ⇒ x = ab tan θ
cos2 (θ) = 1 − sin2 (θ) tan2 (θ) = sec2 (θ) − 1 sec2 (θ) = 1 + tan2 (θ)
Z Z Z
16 16 2

12
Example √ dx 2 3 cos θ dθ = dθ
2
x 4 − 9x 2 4
9 sin (θ)(2 cos θ) sin2 (θ)
x = 23 sin(θ) ⇒ dx = 23 cos(θ) dθ
Z
q = 12 csc2 (θ)dθ = −12 cot(θ) + c
p
4 − 9x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 (θ) = 4 cos2 (θ) = 2 |cos(θ)|
p
√ Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From
Recall x2 = |x|. Because we have an indefinite substitution we have sin(θ) = 3x 2 so,
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d need to
compute θ’s and remove absolute value bars based
on that and,
 √
2
x if x ≥ 0 From this we see that cot(θ) = 4−9x . So,
|x| = 3x
−x if x < 0 √
4 4 − 9x2
Z
16
p √ dx = − +c
In this case we have 4 − 9x2 = 2 cos(θ). x2 4 − 9x2 x
R P (x)
Partial Fractions : If integrating a rational expression involving polynomials, Q(x) dx, where the degree of
P (x) is smaller than the degree of Q(x). Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial
fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For
each factor in the denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
Factor of Q(x) Term in P.F.D Factor is Q(x) Term in P.F.D
A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b (ax + b)k + + ··· +
ax + b ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)k
Ax + B A1 x + B 1 Ak x + Bk
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)k + ··· +
ax2 + bx + c 2
ax + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)k

7x2 + 13x
Z
7x2 +13x A Bx+C A(x2 +4)+(Bx+C) (x−1)
Example dx (x−1) (x2 +4) = x−1 + x2 +4 = (x−1) (x2 +4)
(x − 1) (x2 +Z4)
Z 2
7x + 13x 4 3x + 16 Set numerators equal and collect like terms.
dx = + 2 dx
2
(x − 1) (x + 4) x−1 x +4 7x2 + 13x = (A + B) x2 + (C − B) x + 4A − C
Z
4 3x 16 Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve to
= + + dx
x − 1 x2 + 4 x2 + 4 get constants.
= 4 ln |x − 1| + 32 ln x2 + 4 + 8tan−1 x2



A + B = 7 C − B = 13 4A − C = 0
Here is partial fraction form and recombined. A=4 B=3 C = 16

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Applications of Integrals
Z b
Net Area : f (x) dx represents the net area between f (x) and
a
the x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.

Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
Z b Z d
y = f (x) ⇒ A = [upper function] − [lower function] dx & x = f (y) ⇒ A = [right function] − [left function] dy
a c
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some sketches of
a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.

Z b Z d Z c Z b
A= f (x) − g(x) dx A= f (y) − g(y) dy A= f (x) − g(x) dx + g(x) − f (x) dx
a c a c

R R
Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = A(x) dx and V = A(y) dy. Here is some
general information about each method of computing and some examples.

Rings Cylinders/Shells
 
2
A = π (outer radius) − (inner radius) 2 A = 2π(radius)(width / height)
Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Horz. Axis use f (x), Vert. Axis use f (y), Horz. Axis use f (y), Vert. Axis use f (x),
g(x), A(x) and dx. g(y), A(y) and dy. g(y), A(y) and dy. g(x), A(x) and dx.

Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a ≤ 0 Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a ≤ 0

outer radius : a − f (x) outer radius: |a| + g(x) radius : a − y radius : |a| + y
inner radius : a − g(x) inner radius: |a| + f (x) width : f (y) − g(y) width : f (y) − g(y)

These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If the axis of rotation is the x-axis use the y = a ≤ 0
case with a = 0. For vertical axis of rotation (x = a > 0 and x = a ≤ 0) interchange x and y to get appropri-
ate formulas.

Work : If a force of F (x) moves an object in Average Function Value : The average value of
Z b Z b
1
a ≤ x ≤ b, the work done is W = F (x) dx f (x) on a ≤ x ≤ b is favg = f (x) dx
a b−a a

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Arc Length & Surface Area : The three basic formulas are,
Z b Z b Z b
L= ds SA = 2πy ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = 2πx ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a

where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.
s  2 s 
2  2
dy dx dy
ds = 1 + dx if y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b ds = + dt if x = f (t), y = g(t), a ≤ t ≤ b
dx dt dt
s  2 s  2
dx 2
dr
ds = 1 + dy if x = f (y), a ≤ y ≤ b ds = r + dθ if r = f (θ), a ≤ θ ≤ b
dy dθ
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to match the
differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.
Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands. Integral
is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit doesn’t exist or has
infinite value.
Infinite Limit
Z ∞ Z t Z b Z b
1. f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx 2. f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t→∞ a −∞ t→ −∞ t
Z ∞ Z c Z ∞
3. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx provided both integrals are convergent.
−∞ −∞ c

Discontinuous Integrand
Z b Z b Z b Z t
1. Discontinuity at a : f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx 2. Discontinuity at b : f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t→a+ t a t→b− a
Z b Z c Z b
3. Discontinuity at a < c < b : f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx provided both are convergent.
a a c

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 on [a, ∞) then,

Z ∞ Z ∞
1. If f (x) dx is convergent then g(x) dx is convergent (if larger converges so does the smaller).
Za∞ Z ∞a
2. If g(x) dx is divergent then f (x) dx is divergent (if smaller diverges so does the larger).
a a
Z ∞
1
Useful fact : If a > 0 then p
dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p ≤ 1.
a x

Approximating Definite Integrals

b
b−a
Z
For given integral f (x) dx and n (must be even for Simpson’s Rule) define ∆x = and divide [a, b]
a n
into n subintervals [x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], …, [xn−1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,
Z b h i
Midpoint Rule : f (x) dx ≈ ∆x f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + · · · + f (x∗n ) , x∗i is midpoint [xi−1 , xi ]
a
Z b
∆x h i
Trapezoid Rule : f (x) dx ≈
f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
a 2
Z b
∆x h i
Simpson’s Rule : f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−2 ) + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
a 3

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 1

ALGEBRA GEOMETRY
Arithmetic Operations Geometric Formulas
Cut here and keep for reference

a c ad # bc Formulas for area A, circumference C, and volume V:

a!b # c" ! ab # ac # !
b d bd
Triangle Circle Sector of Circle
a
A ! 12 bh A ! "r 2 A ! 12 r 2%
a#c a c b a d ad
! # ! ! !
b b b c b c bc ! 12 ab sin % C ! 2" r s ! r % !% in radians"
d

a
Exponents and Radicals h r s
m ¨ r
x ¨
x m x n ! x m#n ! x m$ n b
xn r
1
!x " ! x
m n mn
x$ n ! n
x

!xy"n ! x n y n #$ x
y
n
!
xn
yn
Sphere
V ! 43 " r 3
Cylinder
V ! " r 2h
Cone
V ! 13 " r 2h
x 1'n ! s
n
x x m'n ! s
n
x m ! (s
n
x )m A ! 4" r 2 A ! " rsr 2 # h 2

s
n
xy ! s
n
xs
n
y & n x
y
s
n

! n
sy
x r

r h
h
Factoring Special Polynomials
r
x 2 $ y 2 ! !x # y"!x $ y"
x 3 # y 3 ! !x # y"!x 2 $ xy # y 2"
x 3 $ y 3 ! !x $ y"!x 2 # xy # y 2"
Distance and Midpoint Formulas
Binomial Theorem
Distance between P1!x1, y1" and P2!x 2, y2":
!x # y"2 ! x 2 # 2xy # y 2 !x $ y"2 ! x 2 $ 2xy # y 2
!x # y"3 ! x 3 # 3x 2 y # 3xy 2 # y 3 d ! s!x 2 $ x1"2 # ! y2 $ y1"2

!x $ y"3 ! x 3 $ 3x 2 y # 3xy 2 $ y 3

!x # y"n ! x n # nx n$ 1y #
n!n $ 1" n$ 2 2
2
x y
Midpoint of P1 P2 : # x1 # x 2 y1 # y2
2
,
2
$
# ))) # #$ n n$ k k
k
x y # ) ) ) # nxy n$ 1 # y n
Lines
where
n
k
#$
!
n!n $ 1" ) ) ) !n $ k # 1"
1 ! 2 ! 3 ! ))) ! k
Slope of line through P1!x1, y1" and P2!x 2, y2":

y2 $ y1
Quadratic Formula m!
x 2 $ x1
$ b ( sb 2 $ 4ac
If ax 2 # bx # c ! 0, then x ! .
2a Point-slope equation of line through P1!x1, y1" with slope m:

Inequalities and Absolute Value y $ y1 ! m!x $ x1"

If a & b and b & c, then a & c.
Slope-intercept equation of line with slope m and y-intercept b:
If a & b, then a # c & b # c.
If a & b and c ' 0, then ca & cb. y ! mx # b
If a & b and c & 0, then ca ' cb.
If a ' 0, then
Circles
%x% ! a means x ! a or x ! $a
Equation of the circle with center !h, k" and radius r:
%x% & a means $ a & x & a
%x% ' a means x ' a or x & $a !x $ h"2 # ! y $ k"2 ! r 2

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 2

TRIGONOMETRY

Angle Measurement Fundamental Identities

! radians ! 180" 1 1
s csc # ! sec # !
r sin # cos #
! 180"
1" ! rad 1 rad ! ¨
180 ! sin # cos #
r tan # ! cot # !
s ! r# cos # sin #

"# in radians# 1
cot # ! sin 2# $ cos 2# ! 1
tan #
Right Angle Trigonometry 1 $ tan 2# ! sec 2# 1 $ cot 2# ! csc 2#
opp hyp
sin # ! csc # ! sin"% ## ! % sin # cos"% ## ! cos #
hyp opp hyp

$ %
opp
adj hyp ¨ !
cos # ! sec # ! tan"% ## ! % tan # sin % # ! cos #
hyp adj 2
adj

$ % $ %
opp adj
tan # ! cot # ! ! !
adj opp cos % # ! sin # tan % # ! cot #
2 2

Trigonometric Functions
The Law of Sines B
y r y
sin # ! csc # ! sin A sin B sin C
r y ! !
a
(x, y) a b c
x r r
cos # ! sec # ! C
r x c
y x ¨
tan # ! cot # ! The Law of Cosines
x
x y b
a 2 ! b 2 $ c 2 % 2bc cos A

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions b 2 ! a 2 $ c 2 % 2ac cos B

y y y y=tan x c 2 ! a 2 $ b 2 % 2ab cos C A
y=sin x y=cos x
1 1
π 2π 2π Addition and Subtraction Formulas
x π 2π x π x sin"x $ y# ! sin x cos y $ cos x sin y
_1 _1 sin"x % y# ! sin x cos y % cos x sin y
cos"x $ y# ! cos x cos y % sin x sin y
y y=csc x y y=sec x y y=cot x cos"x % y# ! cos x cos y $ sin x sin y
tan x $ tan y
1 1 tan"x $ y# !
1 % tan x tan y
tan x % tan y
π 2π x π 2π x π 2π x tan"x % y# !
1 $ tan x tan y
_1 _1

Double-Angle Formulas
sin 2x ! 2 sin x cos x
Trigonometric Functions of Important Angles cos 2x ! cos 2x % sin 2x ! 2 cos 2x % 1 ! 1 % 2 sin 2x
# radians sin # cos # tan # 2 tan x
tan 2x !
0" 0 0 1 0 1 % tan2x
30" !!6 1!2 s3!2 s3!3
45" !!4 s2!2 s2!2 1 Half-Angle Formulas
60" !!3 s3!2 1!2 s3 1 % cos 2x 1 $ cos 2x
sin 2x ! cos 2x !
90" !!2 1 0 — 2 2

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 3

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Cut here and keep for reference

Power Functions f !x" ! x a

(i) f !x" ! x n , n a positive integer y

y
y=x$
(1, 1)
y=x^ y=x#
y=≈
y=x%
(_1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x

0 x (_1, _1)

n even

n odd

(ii) f !x" ! x 1#n ! s

n
x , n a positive integer y y

(1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x 0 x

x
ƒ=œ„ ƒ=#œx„

1
(iii) f !x" ! x !1 ! y
x
y=∆

0 1 x

Inverse Trigonometric Functions y

π
2
" "
arcsin x ! sin!1x ! y &? sin y ! x and ! $ y$
2 2 "
0 lim tan!1 x ! !
x l !% 2
x
arccos x ! cos!1x ! y &? cos y ! x and 0 $ y $ " "
lim tan!1 x !
xl% 2
" " _ π2
arctan x ! tan!1x ! y &? tan y ! x and ! # y#
2 2
y=tan–!x=arctan x

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 4

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions y

y=´
log a x ! y &? y
a !x
y=x

ln x ! log e x, where ln e ! 1

ln x ! y &? e y ! x 1 y=ln x
0
Cancellation Equations Laws of Logarithms 1 x

loga#a x $ ! x a log a x ! x 1. log a# xy$ ! log a x " log a y

ln# e x $ ! x e ln x ! x 2. loga !" x

y
! loga x ! loga y
lim e x ! 0
x l !$
lim e x ! $
xl$

3. loga# x r $ ! r loga x lim ln x ! !$ lim ln x ! $

x l 0" xl$

y 2®
” 2 ’® ” 4 ’® 10® 4® e® y
1 1
y=log™ x

1.5®
y=ln x
1 y=log∞ x
y=log¡¸ x
1®
0 1 x

0 x

Exponential functions Logarithmic functions

Hyperbolic Functions y
y=cosh x
e x ! e!x 1
sinh x ! csch x !
2 sinh x y=tanh x

e x " e!x 1
cosh x ! sech x ! x
2 cosh x

sinh x cosh x
tanh x ! coth x !
cosh x sinh x y=sinh x

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

y ! sinh!1x &? sinh y ! x sinh!1x ! ln( x " sx 2 " 1 )

y ! cosh!1x &? cosh y ! x and y#0 cosh!1x ! ln( x " sx 2 ! 1 )

y ! tanh!1x &? tanh y ! x tanh!1x ! 12 ln ! " 1"x

1!x

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 5

D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N R U L E S
Cut here and keep for reference

General Formulas
d d
1. !c" ! 0 2. & cf !x"' ! c f #!x"
dx dx
d d
3. & f !x" " t!x"' ! f #!x" " t#!x" 4. & f !x" ! t!x"' ! f #!x" ! t#!x"
dx dx

5.
d
dx
& f !x" t!x"' ! f !x" t#!x" " t!x" f #!x" (Product Rule) 6.
d
dx
$ % f !x"
t!x"
!
t!x" f #!x" ! f !x" t#!x"
& t!x"' 2
(Quotient Rule)

d d
7. f ! t!x"" ! f #! t!x"" t#!x" (Chain Rule) 8. !x n " ! nx n!1 (Power Rule)
dx dx

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

d d
9. !e x " ! e x 10. !a x " ! a x ln a
dx dx
d 1 d 1
11.
dx
ln x !# #
x
12.
dx
!log a x" !
x ln a

Trigonometric Functions
d d d
13. !sin x" ! cos x 14. !cos x" ! !sin x 15. !tan x" ! sec 2x
dx dx dx
d d d
16. !csc x" ! !csc x cot x 17. !sec x" ! sec x tan x 18. !cot x" ! !csc 2x
dx dx dx

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1 d 1 d 1
19. !sin!1x" ! 20. !cos!1x" ! ! 21. !tan!1x" !
dx s1 ! x 2 dx s1 ! x 2 dx 1 " x2
d 1 d 1 d 1
22. !csc!1x" ! ! 23. !sec!1x" ! 24. !cot!1x" ! !
dx x sx 2 ! 1 dx x sx 2 ! 1 dx 1 " x2

Hyperbolic Functions
d d d
25. !sinh x" ! cosh x 26. !cosh x" ! sinh x 27. !tanh x" ! sech 2x
dx dx dx
d d d
28. !csch x" ! !csch x coth x 29. !sech x" ! !sech x tanh x 30. !coth x" ! !csch 2x
dx dx dx

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

d 1 d 1 d 1
31. !sinh!1x" ! 32. !cosh!1x" ! 33. !tanh!1x" !
dx s1 " x 2 dx sx 2 ! 1 dx 1 ! x2
d 1 d 1 d 1
34. !csch!1x" ! ! 35. !sech!1x" ! ! 36. !coth!1x" !
dx x sx 2 " 1 # # dx x s1 ! x 2 dx 1 ! x2

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 6

TA B L E O F I N T E G R A L S

Basic Forms

1. y u dv ! uv " y v du 11. y csc u cot u du ! "csc u ! C

12. y tan u du ! ln % sec u % ! C
yu
u n!1
2. n
du ! ! C, n " "1
n!1
13. y cot u du ! ln % sin u % ! C
y
du
3.
u
! ln u ! C % %
14. y sec u du ! ln % sec u ! tan u % ! C
4. ye u
du ! e u ! C
15. y csc u du ! ln % csc u " cot u % ! C
y
au
5. a u du ! !C
y sa
ln a du u
16. ! sin"1 ! C, a # 0
2 " u2 a
6. y sin u du ! "cos u ! C
ya
du 1 u
17. ! tan"1 ! C
y cos u du ! sin u ! C
2 2
!u a a
7.

y u su
du 1 u
18. ! sec"1 ! C
y sec u du ! tan u ! C
2 " a2 a a
8. 2

9. y csc2u du ! "cot u ! C
19. ya 2
du
" u2
!
1
2a
ln
u!a
u"a $ $ !C

10. y sec u tan u du ! sec u ! C 20. yu 2

du
" a2
!
1
2a
ln
u"a
u!a
$ $ !C

Forms Involving sa 2 ! u 2 , a # 0

y sa
u a2
21. 2 ! u 2 du ! sa 2 ! u 2 ! ln(u ! sa 2 ! u 2 ) ! C
2 2

yu
u 2 a4
22. 2
sa 2 ! u 2 du ! !a ! 2u 2 " sa 2 ! u 2 " ln(u ! sa 2 ! u 2 ) ! C
8 8

23. y
sa 2 ! u 2
u
du ! sa 2 ! u 2 " a ln
a ! sa 2 ! u 2
u
$ $ !C

y
sa 2 ! u 2 sa 2 ! u 2
24. du ! " ! ln(u ! sa 2 ! u 2 ) ! C
u2 u

y sa
du
25. ! ln(u ! sa 2 ! u 2 ) ! C
2 ! u2

y sa
u 2 du u a2
26. ! sa 2 ! u 2 " ln(u ! sa 2 ! u 2 ) ! C
2 !u 2 2 2

27. y u sa
du
2 ! u2
!"
1
a
ln $
sa 2 ! u 2 ! a
u $ !C

y u sa
du sa 2 ! u 2
28. !" !C
2 2 !u 2 a 2u

y !a
du u
29. ! 2 !C
2
! u 2 "3#2 a sa 2 ! u 2

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 7

TA B L E O F I N T E G R A L S
Cut here and keep for reference

Forms Involving sa 2 ! u 2 , a # 0

y sa
u a2 u
30. 2 ! u 2 du ! sa 2 ! u 2 " sin!1 " C
2 2 a

y u sa
u a4 u
31. 2 2 ! u 2 du ! !2u 2 ! a 2 " sa 2 ! u 2 " sin!1 " C
8 8 a

32. y
sa 2 ! u 2
u
du ! sa 2 ! u 2 ! a ln
a " sa 2 ! u 2
u % % "C

y
sa 2 ! u 2 1 u
33. du ! ! sa 2 ! u 2 ! sin!1 " C
u2 u a

y sa
u 2 du u a2 u
34. !! sa 2 ! u 2 " sin!1 " C
2 ! u2 2 2 a

35. y u sa
du
2 ! u2
!!
1
a
ln%a " sa 2 ! u 2
u % "C

y u sa
du 1
36. !! sa 2 ! u 2 " C
2 2 ! u2 a 2u

y !a
u 3a 4 u
37. 2
! u 2 "3#2 du ! ! !2u 2 ! 5a 2 "sa 2 ! u 2 " sin!1 " C
8 8 a

y !a
du u
38. ! 2 "C
2
! u 2 "3#2 a sa 2 ! u 2

Forms Involving su 2 ! a 2 , a # 0

y su
u a2
39. 2 ! a 2 du !
2
su 2 ! a 2 !
2 $
ln u " su 2 ! a 2 " C $
y u su
u a4
40. 2 2 ! a 2 du !
8
!2u 2 ! a 2 " su 2 ! a 2 !
8
ln u " su 2 ! a 2 " C $ $
y
su 2 ! a 2 a
41. du ! su 2 ! a 2 ! a cos!1 "C
u u $ $
y
su ! a su ! a
$ $
2 2 2 2
42. du ! ! " ln u " su 2 ! a 2 " C
u2 u

y su
du
43.
2 ! a2 $
! ln u " su 2 ! a 2 " C $
y su
u 2 du u a2
44.
2 ! a2
!
2
su 2 ! a 2 "
2 $
ln u " su 2 ! a 2 " C $
y u su
du su 2 ! a 2
45. ! "C
2 2 !a 2 a 2u

y !u
du u
46. !! "C
2
! a 2 "3#2 a su 2 ! a 2
2

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 8

TA B L E O F I N T E G R A L S

Forms Involving a ! bu

y a ! bu ! b
u du 1
47. 2
(a ! bu " a ln ) a ! bu )) ! C

y a ! bu ! 2b [!a ! bu"
2
u du 1
48. 3
2
" 4a!a ! bu" ! 2a 2 ln a ! bu ) )] ! C

49. y u!a ! bu" ! a ln

du 1
' u
a ! bu ' !C

50. y u !a ! bu" ! " au ! a

2
du 1 b
2
ln ' a ! bu
u ' !C

y !a ! bu"
u du a 1
51. 2
!
b 2!a ! bu"
! 2 ln a ! bu ! C
b ) )

52. y u!a ! bu"

du
2 !
1
a!a ! bu"
1
" 2 ln
a
a ! bu
u ' ' !C

53. y !a ! bu"
u 2 du
2
!
1
b3
( a ! bu "
a2
a ! bu
" 2a ln a ! bu ) *
) !C

y u sa ! bu du ! 15b
2
54. 2 !3bu " 2a"!a ! bu"3$2 ! C

y sa ! bu ! 3b
u du 2
55. 2
!bu " 2a" sa ! bu ! C

y sa ! bu ! 15b
u 2 du 2
56. 3
!8a 2 ! 3b 2u 2 " 4abu" sa ! bu ! C

57. y u sa ! bu ! sa ln
du 1
' sa ! bu " sa
sa ! bu ! sa
'
! C, if a $ 0

!
s"a
2
tan"1 & a ! bu
"a
! C, if a # 0

y y u sa ! bu
sa ! bu du
58. du ! 2 sa ! bu ! a
u

y y u sa ! bu
sa ! bu sa ! bu b du
59. du ! " !
u2 u 2

60. y u sa ! bu du ! b!2n ! 3"

n 2
# u n!a ! bu"3$2 " na yu n"1
sa ! bu du %
y sa ! bu ! y sa ! bu
u n du 2u nsa ! bu 2na u n"1 du
61. "
b!2n ! 1" b!2n ! 1"

y u sa ! bu ! " a!n " 1"u yu

du sa ! bu b!2n " 3" du
62. "
sa ! bu
n"1
n 2a!n " 1" n"1

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 9

TA B L E O F I N T E G R A L S
Cut here and keep for reference

Trigonometric Forms

y sin u du ! y cot u du ! n ! 1 cot y cot

1 !1
63. 2
2 u ! 14 sin 2u " C 76. n n!1
u! n!2
u du

64. y cos u du !
2 1
2 u " 14 sin 2u " C
77. y sec u du ! n ! 1 tan u sec
n
1 n!2
u"
n!2
n!1 y sec n!2
u du

65. y tan u du ! tan u ! u " C

2

y csc u du ! n ! 1 cot u csc y csc

!1 n!2
78. n n!2
u" n!2
u du
n!1
66. y cot u du ! !cot u ! u " C
2

y sin au sin bu du !
sin!a ! b"u sin!a " b"u
79. ! "C
y sin u du ! ! !2 " sin u" cos u " C
1 2!a ! b" 2!a " b"
67. 3
3
2

y cos au cos bu du !
sin!a ! b"u sin!a " b"u
80.
y cos u du !
" "C
68. 3 1
3 !2 " cos u" sin u " C
2 2!a ! b" 2!a " b"

y sin au cos bu du ! !
cos!a ! b"u cos!a " b"u
69. y tan u du !
3 1
2 #
tan 2u " ln cos u " C # 81.
2!a ! b"
!
2!a " b"
"C

70. y cot u du ! !
3 1
2 #
cot 2u ! ln sin u " C # 82. y u sin u du ! sin u ! u cos u " C
71. y sec u du !
3 1
2 #
sec u tan u " 12 ln sec u " tan u " C # 83. y u cos u du ! cos u " u sin u " C
72. y csc u du ! !
3 1
2 #
csc u cot u " 12 ln csc u ! cot u " C # 84. yu n
sin u du ! !u n cos u " n yu n!1
cos u du

y sin u du ! ! n sin y sin

1 n!1
73.
yu yu
n n!1 n!2
u cos u " u du 85. n
cos u du ! u n sin u ! n n!1
sin u du
n

y cos u du ! n cos y cos y sin u cos u du ! ! y sin

1 n!1 sin n!1u cos m"1u n!1
74. n n!1
u sin u " n!2
u du 86. n m
" n!2
u cosmu du
n n"m n"m

y tan u du ! n ! 1 tan y tan y sin u cos

1 sin n"1u cos m!1u m!1
75. n n!1
u! n!2
u du ! " n m!2
u du
n"m n"m

Inverse Trigonometric Forms

y sin y u tan
u2 " 1 u
87. !1
u du ! u sin!1u " s1 ! u 2 " C 92. !1
u du ! tan!1u ! " C
2 2

y cos
88. u du ! u cos!1u ! s1 ! u 2 " C
$ %
!1

yu y s1 ! u
1 u n"1 du
93. n
sin!1u du ! u n"1 sin!1u ! , n " !1
n"1 2

89. y tan !1
u du ! u tan!1u ! 12 ln!1 " u 2 " " C

90. y !1
u sin u du !
2u 2 ! 1
4
sin!1u "
u s1 ! u 2
4
"C
94. yu n
cos!1u du !
1
n"1
$ u n"1 cos!1u " y s1 ! u
u n"1 du
2
% , n " !1

91. y u cos !1
u du !
2u 2 ! 1
4
cos!1u !
u s1 ! u 2
4
"C 95. yu n
tan!1u du !
1
n"1
$ u n"1 tan!1u ! y
u n"1 du
1 " u2
%
, n " !1

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 R E F E R E N C E PA G E 1 0

TA B L E O F I N T E G R A L S

Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

y ue y ln u du ! u ln u ! u " C
1
96. au
du ! !au ! 1"e au " C 100.
a2

yue yu yu
1 n au n u n"1
97. n au
du ! u e ! n!1 au
e du 101. n
ln u du ! &!n " 1" ln u ! 1' " C
a a !n " 1"2

ye y u ln u du ! ln % ln u % " C
e au 1
98. au
sin bu du ! !a sin bu ! b cos bu" " C 102.
a " b2
2

ye
e au
99. au
cos bu du ! !a cos bu " b sin bu" " C
a " b2
2

Hyperbolic Forms

103. y sinh u du ! cosh u " C 108. y csch u du ! ln % tanh u % " C 1

2

104. y cosh u du ! sinh u " C 109. y sech u du ! tanh u " C

2

105. y tanh u du ! ln cosh u " C 110. y csch u du ! !coth u " C

2

106. y coth u du ! ln % sinh u % " C 111. y sech u tanh u du ! !sech u " C

107. y sech u du ! tan % sinh u % " C !1

112. y csch u coth u du ! !csch u " C

Forms Involving s2au ! u 2 , a # 0

113. y s2au ! u 2 du !
u!a
2
s2au ! u 2 "
a2
2
cos!1
a!u
a
# $ "C

114. y u s2au ! u 2 du !
2u 2 ! au ! 3a 2
6
s2au ! u 2 "
a3
2
cos!1
a!u
a
# $ "C

115. y
s2au ! u 2
u
du ! s2au ! u 2 " a cos!1
a!u
a
# $ "C

116. y
s2au ! u 2
u2
du ! !
2 s2au ! u 2
u
! cos!1
a!u
a
# $ "C

117. y s2au ! u
du
2
! cos!1 # $ a!u
a
"C

118. y s2au ! u
u du
2
! !s2au ! u 2 " a cos!1 # $a!u
a
"C

119. y s2au ! u
u 2 du
2
!!
!u " 3a"
2
s2au ! u 2 "
3a 2
2
cos!1
a!u
a
# $ "C

y u s2au ! u
du s2au ! u 2
120. !! "C
2 au

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 Table of Laplace Transforms

f (t) = L −1 {F (s)} F (s) = L {f (t)} f (t) = L −1 {F (s)} F (s) = L {f (t)}

1 1
1. 1 2. ea t
s s−a
n! Γ (p + 1)
3. tn , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . 4. tp , p > −1
sn+1 sp+1
√ √
√ π n− 12 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) π
5. t 3 6. t , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . 1
2s 2 2n sn+ 2
a s
7. sin(at) 8. cos(at)
s2 + a2 s2 + a2
2as s2 − a2
9. t sin(at) 10. t cos(at)
(s2 + a2 )2 (s2 + a2 )2
2a3 2as2
11. sin(at) − at cos(at) 12. sin(at) + at cos(at)
(s2 + a2 )2 (s2 + a2 )2
s s2 − a2 s s2 + 3a2



13. cos(at) − at sin(at) 14. cos(at) + at sin(at)
(s2 + a2 )2 (s2 + a2 )2
s sin (b) + a cos (b) s cos (b) − a sin (b)
15. sin(at + b) 16. cos(at + b)
s2 + a2 s2 + a2
a s
17. sinh(at) 18. cosh(at)
s2 − a2 s2 − a2
b s−a
19. eat sin(bt) 20. eat cos(bt)
(s − a)2 + b2 (s − a)2 + b2
b s−a
21. eat sinh(bt) 22. eat cosh(bt)
(s − a)2 − b2 (s − a)2 − b2
n! 1 s
23. tn eat , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . 24. f (ct) F
(s − a)n+1 c c
e−cs
25. uc (t) = u(t − c) 26. δ(t − c) e−cs
s

e−cs F (s) e−cs L g(t + c)


27. uc (t)f (t − c) 28. uc (t)g(t)

29. ect f (t) F (s − c) 30. tn f (t), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (−1)n F (n) (s)

Z ∞ Z t
1 F (s)
31. f (t) F (u) du 32. f (v) dv
t s 0 s
Z T
Z t e−st f (t) dt
0
33. f (t − τ )g(τ ) dτ F (s)G(s) 34. f (t + T ) = f (t)
0 1 − e−sT

35. f 0 (t) sF (s) − f (0) 36. f 00 (t) s2 F (s) − sf (0) − f 0 (0)

37. f (n) (t) sn F (s) − sn−1 f (0) − sn−2 f 0 (0) · · · − sf (n−2) (0) − f (n−1) (0)

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

 Table of Laplace Transforms

Table Notes
1. This list is not a complete listing of Laplace transforms and only contains some of the more commonly
used Laplace transforms and formulas.
Recall the definition of hyperbolic functions.

et + e−t et − e−t
cosh (t) = sinh (t) =
2 2

2. Be careful when using “normal” trig function vs. hyperbolic functions. The only difference in the
formulas is the “+a2 ” for the “normal” trig functions becomes a “−a2 ” for the hyperbolic functions!
3. Formula #4 uses the Gamma function which is defined as
Z ∞
Γ (t) = e−x xt−1 dx
0

If n is a positive integer then,

Γ (n + 1) = n!

The Gamma function is an extension of the normal factorial function. Here are a couple of quick
facts for the Gamma function

Γ (p + 1) = pΓ (p)
Γ (p + n)
p (p + 1) (p + 2) · · · (p + n − 1) =
Γ (p)
√
 
1
Γ = π
2

© Paul Dawkins - https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu