LEARNING UNIT 1A

INTRODUCTION TO WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT

1.1. Introduction
Water is a common substance that life cannot exist without. Water is a major component
of living things. Humans are about two-thirds water, and most other animals contain
equal or even greater proportions. Woody plants are at least 50 % water, and the water
content of herbaceous plants usually is 80–90 %. Bacteria and other microorganisms
normally contain 90–95 % water. Water is important physiologically. It plays an
essential role in temperature control of organisms. It is a solvent, and the following
dissolves in water:
• gases,
• minerals,
• organic nutrients, and
• metabolic
Substances move among cells and within the bodies of organisms via fluids comprised
mostly of water. Water is a reactant in biochemical reactions, the turgidity of cells
depends upon water, and water is essential in excretory functions.

Water is important ecologically for it is the medium in which many organisms live. The
distribution of vegetation over the earth’s surface is controlled more by the availability
of water than by any other factor. Well-watered areas have abundant vegetation, while
vegetation is scarce in arid regions. Water plays a major role in shaping the earth’s
surface through the processes of:
• dissolution,
• erosion, and
• deposition.

Large water bodies exert considerable control over air temperature of surrounding land
masses. This is especially true for coastal areas that may have cooler climates than

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expected because of cold ocean current offshore or vice versa. Thus, ecosystems have a
great dependence upon water.

In addition to requiring water to maintain bodily functions, humans use water for
domestic purposes such as:
• food preparation,
• washing clothes, and
• sanitation.

Many aquatic animals and some aquatic plants have long been an essential part of
mankind’s food supply. Early human settlements developed in areas with dependable
supplies of water from lakes or streams. Gradually, humans learned to withdraw
underground water, store water, convey water, and irrigate crops. This permitted humans
to spread into previously dry and uninhabitable areas. Even today, population growth in
a region depends upon water availability.

Water is a key ingredient in industries for power generation through direct use of energy
from flowing water. In this case water is used for the following purposes:
• turn water wheels or turbines,
• steam generation,
• cooling, and
• processing.

In processing, water may be used as an ingredient, solvent, or reagent. It also may be

used for washing or conveying substances, and wastes from processing often are
disposed of in water bodies. Untreated wastewater may contain different pollutants: (i)
pathogenic microorganisms - that dwell in the human intestinal track, (ii) nutrients -that
can stimulate an exaggerated growth of aquatic plants (eutrophication), and (iii) toxic
compounds or compounds - that potentially may be mutagenic or carcinogenic.
Therefore, the removal of wastewater at its sources, followed by treatment, reuse, or
dispersal into the environment is necessary to protect public health and the environment.

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1.2. Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the concepts of water quality and its importance.

• Discuss the processes of water quality control systems, including performance
assessment.
• Explain the relationship between health and water quality as well as types of
water born disease.
• Discuss the selection of best water quality system and cost effectiveness thereof
• Explain the factors controlling water quality.

1.3. Water and Health

There are various water-related diseases and they may be grouped as follows:
A. Waterborne diseases
Waterborne diseases are those, which are mainly spread through contaminated drinking
water. The main infecting organisms are bacterial (Vibrio cholera, Salmonella typhi,
Shigella), viruses (hepatitis A, orgiviruses, rotaviruses and enteroviruses) and protozoa
(Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium). Contamination of the water occurs through faecal
matter entering the water-that is, through poor hygiene and sanitation. Several diseases
can be transmitted directly by water, 36 are listed in Table 1.2 below. The list includes
the type of causative agent for each.

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 Causative agent Disease

Clonorchiasis Hydatidosis
Fascioliasis Fasciolopsiasis
Flatworm Heterophyidiasis Echinostomiasis
Paragonimiasis Schistosomiasis
Diphlyllobothriasis

Angiostrongyliasis Anisakiasis
Nematodes Dracontiasis Gnathostomiasis
Hepatic capillariasis Intestinal capillariasis
Virus Viral gastroenteritis Hepatitis A
Pharyngoconjunctival fever Poliomyelitis
Amebiasis Balantidiasis
Protozoan Giardiasis
Primary amebic meningoencephalitis
Cholera Yersiniosis
Leptospirosis Melioidosis
Paratyphoid fever Salmonellosis
Shigellosis Traveler’s diarrhea
Tularemia Typhoid fever
Bacterium Enteropathogenic diarrhea Inclusion conjunctivitis
Vibrio parahaemolyticus food poisoning

Table 0.1. Waterborne Infectious Diseases

B. Water-washed diseases
These diseases are mainly infections that can be significantly reduced by an
improvement in domestic and personal hygiene. They depend on the quantity of water
that is available, rather than on the quality. All diseases with faecal-oral transmission
fall into this category, such as typhoid and cholera. Others are skin and eye diseases,
such as skin sepsis and trachoma, and infections carried by parasites on the skin surface,
such as lice. Most of the intestinal worms also belong in this group, including:
• roundworm,
• threadworm,
• whipworm and

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 • pinworm.

C. Water-based diseases
In the case of water-based diseases, the pathogen has to spend part of its life cycle in the
water. The best known of these is Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia). It is a water contact
disease that has infected many millions of people in the tropics. It is spread through
schistosome eggs in human excreta, which hatch on reaching water. The resultant larvae
invade suitable snail hosts and multiply.

D. Water-related insect vectors

Water provides the environment necessary for the development of many insects that
transmit diseases. Malaria is a water-habitat vector-borne disease, certain mosquitoes
being the host. Other such diseases are filariasis and elephantiasis (also transmitted by
mosquito), and onchocerciasis (transmitted by the black fly). The transmission of
disease is a complex process and hence no direct relationship between water supply and
sanitation improvement and the occurrence of disease can be found. However, the
following steps in combination with education may cause a marked reduction in the
occurrence of water-based diseases:
➢ Disinfection of domestic water supplies
➢ Provision of well-designed and constructed latrines
➢ Increased quantity of water for domestic use
➢ Provision of laundry facilities, thus reducing contact with open water bodies
➢ Provision of adequate drainage and disposal of waste water
➢ Management of open water surfaces, e.g. level variation, or spraying.

Water quality refers to substances or living organisms dissolved or suspended in water.

Water used for domestic purposes need not be completely pure but could have limited
dissolved salts for taste and to minimize the corrosive potential of the water.
Furthermore, it has been estimated that only one out of every 20,000 strains of bacteria
is pathogenic, and the mere presence of bacteria in drinking water is not necessarily
cause for concern.

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The approach to water quality control in water supply projects should therefore include
the following steps:
• Protection of all components (including the source, storage units and pipelines)
against possible contamination by pathogenic organisms
• Removal of basic pollutants, e.g. suspended solids
• Improvements of the existing water quality to ensure aesthetic acceptability
(turbidity, odour and taste)
• Neutralise possible irritants, e.g. pH, temperature, hardness
• Educate consumers as to basic precautions for the collection, storage and use of
water.

Apart from diseases, many other factors in water can render it unsafe. High dissolved
salts can lead to high blood pressure. Alkaline water can affect the arteries and cause
skin disorders. Heavy metals and some organic pollutants concentrate in the life chain
and can reach lethal proportions. Then there are physically dangerous factors such as:
• flooding,
• drowning,
• landslides due to groundwater pressures,
• pipe bursts,
• dam break,
• waves action,
• temperature and
• drought.

1.4. Water Quality

1.4.1. Definition
At the same time that humans were learning to exert some control over the quantity of
water available to them, they found different waters varied in qualities such as:
• temperature,
• colour,
• taste, and
• odour.

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They noted that these qualities influenced the suitability of water for certain purposes.
Salty water was not suitable for human and livestock consumption or irrigation. Clear
water was superior over turbid water for domestic use. Some waters could cause illness
or even death when consumed by humans. The concepts of water quantity and water
quality were probably developed simultaneously, but throughout most of human history,
there were few ways for evaluating water quality beyond sensory perception and
observations of the effects that certain waters had on living things or other water uses.
Any physical, chemical, or biological property that influences the suitability of water
for natural ecological systems or the use by humans is a water quality variable. The term
water quality refers to the suitability of water for a particular purpose. There are literally
hundreds of water quality variables, but for a particular purpose, only a few variables
usually are of interest. Water quality standards have been developed to serve as
guidelines for selecting water supplies for various activities or for protecting water
bodies from pollution. We will discuss these standards later in this unit, but we will
make a few introductory comments here.

The quality of drinking water is a health consideration. Drinking water must not have
excessive concentrations of minerals, must be free of toxins, and must not contain
disease organisms. People prefer their drinking water to be clear and without bad odour
or taste.
Water quality standards also are established for bathing and recreational waters and for
waters from which shellfish are cultured or captured. Diseases can be spread through
contact with contaminated water. Oysters and some other shellfish can accumulate
pathogens or toxic compounds from water, making them dangerous for human
consumption.
Water for livestock does not have to be as high in quality as water for human
consumption, but it must not cause sickness or death in animals. Excessive
concentrations of minerals in irrigation water have adverse osmotic effects on plants,
and irrigation water also must be free of phytotoxic substances.
Water for industry also must be of adequate quality. Extremely high quality water may
be needed for some processes, and even boiler feed water must not contain excessive

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suspended solids or a high concentration of carbonate hardness. Solids can settle in
plumbing systems and calcium carbonate can precipitate to form scale. Acidic waters
can cause severe corrosion of metal objects with which it comes in contact.

Water quality effects the survival and growth of plants and animals in aquatic
ecosystems. Water often deteriorates in quality as a result of its use by humans.
Much of the water used for domestic, industrial, or agricultural purpose is discharged
into natural bodies of water.

In most countries, attempts are made to maintain the quality of natural waters within
limits suitable for fish and other aquatic life. Water quality standards may be
recommended for natural bodies of water, and effluents have to meet certain
requirements to prevent pollution and adverse effects on the flora and fauna.
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic plants and animals, now supplies about half of the
world’s fisheries production for human consumption, because the capture fisheries have
been exploited to their sustainable limit. Water quality is a critical issue in cultivation
of aquatic organisms.

1.4.2. Factors Controlling Water Quality

Pure water that contains only hydrogen and oxygen is rarely found in nature. Rainwater
contains dissolved gases and traces of mineral and organic substances originating from
gases, dust, and other substances in the atmosphere. When raindrops fall on the land,
their impact dislodges soil particles and flowing water erodes and suspends soil
particles. Water also dissolves mineral and organic matter from the soil and underlying
formations. There is a continuous exchange of gases between water and air, and when
water stands in contact with sediment in the bottoms of water bodies, there is an
exchange of substances until equilibrium is reached.

Biological activity has a tremendous effect upon pH and concentrations of dissolved

gases, nutrients, and organic matter. In general, natural bodies of water approach an
equilibrium state with regard to water quality that depends upon the following factors:

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 • climatic,
• hydrologic,
• geologic, and
• biologic.

Human activities also strongly influence water quality, and they can upset the natural
status quo. The most common human influence for many years was the introduction of
disease organisms via disposal of human wastes into water supplies. Until the past
century, waterborne diseases were a leading cause of sickness and death throughout the
world. We have greatly reduced the problems of waterborne diseases in most countries,
but because of the growing population and increasing agricultural and industrial effort
necessary to support mankind, surface waters and groundwater’s are becoming
increasingly contaminated.

Contaminants include suspended soil particles from erosion that can cause turbidity and
sedimentation in water bodies; inputs of nutrients that promote eutrophication and
depletion of dissolved oxygen; toxic substances such as:
• heavy metals,
• pesticides,
• industrial chemicals; and
• heated water from cooling of industrial processes.

1.4.3. Microbiological Aspects of Water Quality

In nature, massive transformations of organic and inorganic matter are carried out.
Microorganisms are main actors in these transformations, which are essential for
maintaining the integrity of the biosphere on which all higher forms of life depend.
Examples are found in the microbial transformations in the biogeochemical cycles of C,
O, N, S and P. A special case is, for instance, the response of natural water bodies to
inputs of wastes. If the inputs are too large, the natural microbial self-purification
capacity of the receiving water may become overtaxed. Lakes may suffer from

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eutrophication caused by massive growth of algae as a result of excessive inputs of
mineral nutrients.

Finally, a small number of micro-organisms, less than 0.1%, called pathogens, causes
infectious diseases in man, animals and plants. In order to prevent epidemics, defensive
measures have to be designed and implemented by sanitary and environmental
engineers. In most of the human infectious diseases, the causative pathogenic microbes
occur in large numbers in the excreta of patients/carriers.
Hence in water supply and in wastewater transport and disposal special measures are
required to prevent contamination with human waste material. Examples of water-borne
diseases are:
• cholera,
• dysentery,
• typhoid and paratyphoid fever,
• poliomyelitis,
• infective hepatitis.

Sanitary and environmental engineers need to have a proper understanding of the

microbe’s role in nature, the capability to exploit microbes technologically and to
safeguard man from waste-borne diseases. For these reasons, it is essential to study some
of the most important fundamental aspects of microbiology.

Microbes, plants and animals

Microbes can be defined as small living organisms with dimensions in the range of 0.2
to 100 µm. Because most microbes cannot be seen with the naked eye, the general public
is much less well acquainted with these than with plants and animals. Microbes were
discovered relatively late in 1676 by Van Leeuwenhoek in Delft (Porter, 1976) and a
full understanding of their role in nature only started to develop some hundred years ago
(Pasteur, Paris). In addition, the domestication of microbes, that is their conscious

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technological exploitation for the benefit of man, started relatively recently and is still
in a stage of development (biotechnology).

Microbes are the oldest forms of life on earth, and from them plants and animals have
evolved. There exist various different scientific classifications of the living world.
Note that in this unit, we are using the most recent classification, which divides the
living world in 5 kingdoms as shown in Table 1.2 below.

Superkingdom Eukarya
Kingdom 1 Animalia (animals)
Kingdom 2 Plantae (plants)
Kingdom 3 Fungi (molds, yeasts, mushrooms)
Kingdom 4 Protoctista (algae, protozoa)
Superkingdom Prokarya
Kingdom 5 Bacteria (archaea, eubacteria)
Kingdoms 3, 4 and 5 comprise the microbes or micro-organisms.

Table 1.2. The five kingdoms of the living world.

All living organisms can be distinguished according to their structure, such as

eukaryotic or prokaryotic
• Prokaryotes, are characterized by lack of a true nucleus (no membrane around
the DNA) and a low level of differentiation and organisation within the cell
• Eukaryotes, which have a true nucleus, are surrounded by a nuclear membrane
and have more highly differentiated cells, including several organelles, like
mitochondria.

Animals and plants, but also fungi, algae and protozoa (kingdoms 1-4) are eukaryotic;
the bacteria (kingdom 5) are prokaryotic.

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Besides the groups mentioned in Table 1.2, also the viruses in Table 1.3 belongs to the
subject area of microbiology because of their small size.

➢ Virus particles consist of protein and nucleic acid only

➢ Enzymes present are insufficient for reproduction
➢ Reproduction within living cells of host only
➢ Highly host-specific
➢ Almost always pathogenic

Plants or animals as host: Viruses

Bacteria as hosts: Bacteriophages
Table 1.3. Viruses, including bacteriophages

Viruses are particles consisting of nuclear material and some enzymes. They do not
possess, like ordinary cells, the synthetic machinery to duplicate themselves and their
multiplication can only take place inside a host cell, which can be an animal, plant or
microbial cell.

Once a virus particle has penetrated into a host cell the enzymatic machinery of that host
cell is forced to synthesise new virus particles instead of new host cell material; the piece
of genetic material of the virus has superseded the host cell genetic material and has
taken control. The host cell perishes during the process. Viruses are highly specific.
Many diseases are caused by viruses. Viruses attacking bacteria are called
bacteriophages.

The particles of some viruses can form crystal-like conglomerates. Since, moreover,
virus particles by themselves do not possess metabolic activity there has been a great
deal of discussion on the question of whether or not viruses are living organisms.
Nowadays the question is left unanswered; viruses are simply viruses.

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Bacteria

Morphology and internal structure

The dimensions of most bacteria are within the range of 0.2 - 8µm. There is little
diversity of form: most cells are spherical (coccus) or rod-shaped, some are curved rods.

Most bacteria multiply by binary fission (splitting into 2 equal parts), in which the
following stages can be recognised: cellular elongation, cellular division (cross wall
formation), and cellular separation as shown in Figure 1.4 below.

Cellular elongation

Cellular division (cross wall formation)

Cellular separation

Figure 1.4. Bacterial multiplication

While most vegetative cells are killed by heating at 80ºC for 10 minutes (pasteurisation),
some spores survive boiling at 100ºC. Hence, sterilisation i.e. killing all forms of life
requires heating at 120ºC for at least 10 minutes, which has to be done at 1 atm. Over-
pressure in an autoclave or pressure cooker. This holds for aqueous media. Sterilisation
of dry materials requires even higher temperatures.

The existence of spores forces the canning industry to use high temperatures in preparing
durable preserved food. Since high temperatures also affect taste and vitamin content,
the canning industry has to use heat treatments that are just enough for adequate
sterilisation and do as little damage as possible to the product.

(Fungi, including yeasts, may also form resting stages, often also called ‘spores’. These
fungal spores, through more resistant than the fungal vegetative cell, are much less heat
resistant than the bacterial spores, which are the most resistant resting stage of all. )
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The process of the growth curve
In order to clarify some of the fundamentals of growth, the growth process called the
batch culture is described here, which is distinct from a continuous. The batch culture
occurs in a closed sterile vessel with sterile medium, inoculated with a pure culture of
bacteria and incubated at a temperature suitable for its growth. In a continuous culture,
the inputs and outputs occur continuously.

This growth curve is characterised by various successive phases:

➢ The lag phase in which no or little growth takes place
➢ The phase of exponential growth (log phase), represented by a straight line
➢ The stationary phase
➢ The phase of logarithmic death, which is again a straight line.

In the lag phase the cells have to adapt their enzymatic equipment to the new medium
they are confronted with.

In the phase of exponential growth (log phase) the cells divide by binary fission at a
constant rate, that is with constant doubling time td which for bacteria ranges from 15
minutes to several hours. During this phase, the growth process can be rather easily
described mathematically by means of a formula that has a very wide-ranging
application in biology, chemical kinetics and engineering. It is based upon the fact that
the increase (decrease) of a substance per unit of volume per unit of time in many
processes is proportional to the amount of that substance already present (still left). In
bacterial growth we have such a process because the number of new cells formed in one
generation, time is equal to the number of cells that are present before division starts.
Starting with one cell we have successively 2º, 21, 22, 23, 24……2n cells, n standing for
the number of divisions.

The relationship between the number of living cells per ml, Cx, and time t can be
expressed at any time by:
𝑑𝐶𝑥
= µ𝐶𝑥 (1.1)
𝑑𝑡

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 1 𝑑𝐶𝑥
In which µ = is a constant, called specific growth rate (expressed in h-1) and Cx
𝐶𝑥 𝑑𝑡

is the amount of biomass (expressed in mg.L-1).

Integration after rearrangement gives:

𝑑𝐶𝑥
= µ𝑑𝑡 (1.2)
𝐶𝑥

𝑑𝐶𝑥
∫ = ∫ µ𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑥

𝐶𝑥𝑡 = 𝐶𝑥𝑜 . 𝑒 µ𝑡 (1.3)

𝑙𝑛 𝐶𝑥𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛𝐶𝑥𝑜 + µ𝑡 (1.4)

In which 𝐶𝑥𝑜 represents the biomass at t = 0, 𝐶𝑥𝑡 the biomass at t =t and t is the time
between 𝐶𝑥𝑜 and 𝐶𝑥𝑡 .
Since td is the time required for the cell number to rise from 𝐶𝑥 at time t1 to 2𝐶𝑥 at
time t2, the relationship between µ and td is

At time t2: ln 2𝐶𝑥 = µ𝑡2 + 𝐶 (1.5a)

At time t1: 𝑙𝑛𝐶𝑥 = µ𝑡1 + 𝐶 (1.5b)
___________________________________
ln 2𝐶𝑥 − ln 𝐶𝑥 = µ ( 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = µ𝑡𝑑
0.69 0.69
Hence µ= 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑑 = (1.6)
𝑡𝑑 µ

So µ is high when the division time is small. The slope of the straight part of the
growth curve (log phase) represents µ.

In batch cultures logarithmic growth comes to an end through exhaustion of nutrients

and/or formation of toxic products that both lead to a decrease of µ.
During the stationary phase growth and death may occur simultaneously, the latter
finally gaining on the former.

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Finally, the phase of logarithmic death is reached. The formula used for describing
logarithmic growth can be used for describing logarithmic death, if one realizes that the
agent responsible for killing the cells must hit a vital target somewhere in the cell. This
can be easily visualized for molecules of a disinfectant and also for radiation. In these
cases, the number of effective hits per unit of time per ml becomes proportional to the
number of targets per ml that is the number of living cells that remain.
𝑑𝐶𝑥
− = 𝑘𝐶𝑥 Or (1.7)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶𝑥
= −𝑘𝑑𝑡 Or ln 𝐶𝑥𝑡 = ln 𝐶𝑥𝑜 − 𝑘𝑡 (1.8)
𝐶𝑥

K representing a constant. This relationship is called Chick’s law. It is used for

calculating the exposure time required for disinfection of drinking water by e.g. Cl2, and
for comparing the effectiveness of different disinfectants.

At high disinfectant concentrations or in drastic sterilization procedures the time to kill

all cells will be very short; hence, the log death phase line is almost vertical and no value
for k can be determined. At lower disinfectant concentrations and milder treatment, it
has been found that Chick’s law holds in practice.

1.5. Factors affecting growth of micro-organisms

Composition of medium: nutrient concentration
When in a batch culture growth comes to an end as a result of exhaustion of nutrients,
and not as a result of formation of toxic products, we must realise that for growth to stop
lack of one single essential nutrient is sufficient. Even though all other required nutrients
may still be present in abundance, growth can only resume if a quantity of the nutrient
that was first used up is again added. The nutrient that is first exhausted that determines
and limits the extent to which growth in the batch culture can take place.
In order to find out which one is the limiting substrate in a medium of known
composition for a given organism calculations have to be made or an experiment carried
out. This is because different nutrients are used up in different proportions to fulfil the

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cell’s requirements and hence we cannot say that the nutrient present in lowest
concentration is automatically the limiting nutrient.

Through experiments, supported by theoretical considerations based upon enzyme

kinetics, the following relationship between specific growth rate µ and concentration of
limiting substrate s has been established:
𝐶𝑠
µ = µ𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1.9)
𝐾𝑠 +𝐶𝑠

µ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (1.10)

𝐾𝑠 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 µ = 1/2µ𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1.11)

Effect of temperature
Each organism, depending on its natural habitat, has an optimum temperature, at which
its growth rate is highest. The temperature below which no growth occurs is called
minimum temperature that above which no growth takes place is called maximum
temperature. According to their optimum temperatures, microbes can be divided into
three groups:
• Psychrophiles : optimum temperature below 20 ºC
• Mesophiles: optimum temperature between 20ºC and 45ºC
• Thermophiles: optimum temperature above 45ºC

For most organisms, the growth rate rises slowly when the temperature is raised upwards
from the minimum temperature until the narrow plateau of the optimum temperature is
reached beyond which the growth rate drops steeply to zero. The entire range in which
microbial life is possible ranges from -5º C (salt water) to about 100ºC (found in certain
hot springs and in layers of decaying vegetable matter “”self-heating”). Pathogens and
intestinal bacteria have naturally their optimum at 37ºC.

Effect of pH
Also for the pH we can assign to each microbe a maximum, optimum and minimum
value. Since undissociated acids (or bases) rather than free H+ (or OH-) ions exert a toxic
effect, these values depend, like in the case of temperature, on the nature of the medium,

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especially on the nature of weak acids and bases present. Thus for many microbes the
minimum pH is higher in the presence of weak acids like acetic, propionic or benzoic
acid than in that of H2SO4. The explanation is that undissociated acid present is higher
with weak acids than with strong ones. The pH range within which microbes can live in
nature extends from 0 to 11.Most micro-organisms can live in arrange of 6-8. Fungi and
yeasts generally prefer a pH around 5.

1.6. Water Quality Standards

Water quality alone is not the only determinant in the good health of a community.
Evidence is that the availability of water, sanitation and hygiene are also significant
factors. In some African countries, chlorination is only used in water supply systems.
South Africa is also facing challenges in purifying the (waste) water for different uses.
The water resources of SA are susceptible to different pollution sources, especially
related to acid mine drainage.

Wastewater discharge to the receiving water without treatment will affect the water
ecosystem and human health. In most African countries, wastewater are discharged to
the receiving water without treatment. Wastewater, in particular, will be contaminated
with pathogenic microorganisms; in proportion to the health of the local community.
Practice differs in industrialised countries with regard to disinfecting treated effluents.
In most of Europe, wastewater is not routinely disinfected unless discharged to a
recognised bathing water. Conventional treatment removes only 80 – 90% of bacterial
pathogens. In the USA, chlorination is widely practised prior to discharge to the
receiving water.

The risk to public health depends on the degree of potential human exposure, and this
will be greatest if the receiving water is used for contact recreational purposes.
Swimmers are therefore at greatest risk. All pathogens are able to survive for at least
short periods in natural waters. Cooler temperatures and the presence of organic matter
generally extend this period. The relationship between water quality and health occupies
a niche of special importance in the public’s perception.

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There is a strong and widespread belief that water pollution problems must be closely
related to human health effects. Sometimes they are, but no nearly as often as imagined.
There are sound historical reasons for that public feeling because only a relatively few
years ago water was a principal vehicle for transmitting some of the most dreaded
diseases of humanity, especially cholera and typhoid fever. Also, the public intuition is
reinforced by recognition today of a relationship between drinking water and a variety
of intestinal diseases encountered by travellers in many other countries.

Learning Activity 1.1

1. Discuss various water pollution sources and how they influence water quality,
especially in surface waters.

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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1.7. Classification of Water Quality Models
Water quality models can be classified according to the three general criteria:
• Representation of mathematical model,
• Representation of time,
• Representation of biological, chemical and physical processes.

Representation of Mathematical Model

With regard to the mathematical approach, water quality models can be divided into
three:
• Empirical or black-box models,
• Deterministic models and
• Stochastic models.

Empirical (black box) models are based on experiences. Interrelations between various
parameters are deduced statistically from observed data. A theoretical description of
interrelations based on physical, biological or chemical processes is not made. Rather
coefficients of various regression equations or neutral networks are determined, and then
these equations or networks are used to predict events within the range of events
observed. How good model is for such predictions can be estimated using any of various
measures involving differences between observed and calculated values.
In contrast to empirical models, deterministic physically-based models are mathematical
descriptions of natural processes. Input data are fixed quantities without statistical
variation being explicitly described. The result of deterministic calculations are fixed
values without accompanying information on their probability distributions.

Stochastic mathematical water quality models are also based on the description of
natural processes. However, variation of input and output data is taken into account by
statistical analysis and syntheses of time series. In contrast to deterministic model, the
result of stochastic models provide information on the probabilities of various
predictions. The random variation of output data of stochastic models is due to the
variation of many of the input variables. Both occur simultaneously, and hence are hard

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to determine individually. Stochastic models usually require considerably more sample
data to calibrate and verify than do deterministic models. It is for this reason, usually,
that they are rarely used.

Representation of Time
With regard to the representation of time, it is necessary to consider the model
components hydraulics and quality separately (Figure 1.3). Hydraulic models can be
divided into stationary and non-stationary models, whereas quality models are divided
into static and dynamic models. Stationary models assume the flow is constant during
the simulation time period. In a non-stationary model the discharge and thus the flow
varies over time, but is typically assumed constant in each time step. In a static quality
model both input and biological, chemical and physical processes are regarded as
constant, whereas in a dynamic model they vary with time.

Hydraulic models Quality models

Stationary Non-stationary Static dynamic

Figure 1.3. Classification of hydraulic and quality models

For effective water quality management the ability to simulate critical situations that
may occur in a water body can be of special interest. Such critical situations could be
caused by relatively long hot dry periods in the summer, or by relatively short time
heavy rainfall events which result in high non-profit loadings. For relatively long-term
dry periods a quasi-dynamic simulation may be sufficient, since the hydraulic
characteristics needed for the simulation of the water quality are usually relatively
constant. Short-term impulse loadings from intensive rainfall-runoff events, however,
can best be represented using a fully dynamic model.

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Many analytical models are static with respect to their inputs and processes. Many
simulation models over multiple discrete time periods are quasi-dynamic. A few models
have been developed that are fully dynamic. Clearly, their data requirements for model
calibration and verification exceed those of the other model types. The more realistic
(and hence complex) the model, the greater will be its data needs and hence costs of
application.

Representation of Biological, Chemical and Physical Processes

Water quality models can be grouped according to their representation of biological,
chemical and physical processes:
• Kinetic models,
• Biocenotic models and
• Ecological models.

Constituent concentration transformation processes in kinetic models are represented by

reaction rate constants. These processes consist of constituent transformation (from one
type of constituent to another), production (growth) and decay processes. Boundary
conditions influencing these processes and interactions between pollutants should be
taken into account.

Nutrient cycle (or portions of them) are simulated in kinetic models using a combination
of reaction rates (T-1) and transformation coefficients (M/M). For example, the oxidation
of ammonium to nitrate and then nitrate involves the metabolic processes of bacteria
and is often simulated using reaction rate constants whose values may depend on several
other conditions, such as water temperature, pH (hydrogen ion concentration) and
dissolved oxygen.

The reaction rate constants for the conversion of ammonium to nitrate, and the
transformation rate for the uptake of oxygen in the process, represent biological
activities of the bacteria. Kinetic models are the most commonly used of all water quality
models, we will describe this model in more detail later in this study unit.

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Biocoenotic models focus on the organisms that consume or produce the various
constituents rather than on the concentrations of constituents themselves. The organisms
that make up the aquatic food chain can be subdivided into production (primary
production), consumption (secondary production) and destruction (decomposition)
organisms. The populations of these various organisms and their metabolic processes
are modelled, and they in turn determine the concentrations of various constituents,
which are of interest to water quality managers.

This biocoenotic approach is typically carried out for only selected groups of organisms,
i.e., for only a portion of the biocoenosis. Not only are such models computationally
intensive, rarely are there adequate field data required for model calibration. The
modelling of short-term impulse loadings, such as from storm events, is also especially
difficult using this modelling approach. For an example of a biocoenotic approach to
water quality prediction in the Rhine River, refer to Rinaldi et al. (1979).

Ecological models are typically extensions of the kinetic models. In addition to reaction
rates and transformation coefficients for simulating various constituent concentrations,
including nutrients, portions of the aquatic food chain such as phytoplankton and
zooplankton that consume these nutrients are also included. Thus, ecological models are
particularly applicable for the simulation of eutrophication processes that can occur in
nutrient rich water bodies. Attempts have been made to extend these ecological models
up the food chain to include fish, but with only limited success.

Hydraulic Considerations for Water Quality Modelling

Water quality is largely determined by the flows and volumes characterizing natural
water bodies. These flows and volumes need to be modelled because it is within those
flows and volumes that all water quality processes take place. Hydraulic characteristics
of water bodies can considerably influence water quality, but rarely vice versa. The
hydraulic features that influence water quality include:
• Flow or discharge,
• Flow velocity,

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 • Depth of flow, and
• Water surface area.

Knowledge of the flow in a water body is necessary for computing mass balances and
for determining the degree of mixing.

Knowledge of the flow velocity permits the calculation of the adventive part of pollutant
transport processes and determines the period of time a constituent particle is in the
water and thus, the period of time in which biological, chemical and physical processes
can act on that particle. Moreover, flow velocity influences the degree of sedimentation
and erosion. A high flow velocity, for instance, can exceed the critical bottom shear
stress and result in a resuspension of sediment and a remobilisation of fluid particles
bound in the sediment.

1.8. Water Quality Management

It is necessary to establish the current quality of surface and ground water resources
before measures can be taken to control water pollution. Briefly, the process involves
establishing water quality monitoring stations along the waterway to collect samples for
the analysis of the characteristic of water followed by rigorous interpretation of the
collected data since the colossal amount of data without proper interpretation can, in no
way, lend any effective aid to water quality management. Many methods have been
developed to interpret the data. Deterministic and statistical methods are examples.
However, among all the methods available today, water quality indices are perhaps
among the simplest and yet extremely useful methods. The results of interpretations
derived from this method are understandable for both water quality managers and the
general public.

Water quality is a term applied to indicate the suitability of water for various uses. Each
type of water uses needs certain physical, chemical and biological characteristic while
various uses have some common characteristic. The composition of surface and ground
water depends on the characteristic of the catchment area such as geological,
topographical, meteorological and biological of the area. Water quality in various
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areas is hardly ever constant, and the variations are caused by changes in concentration
of any inputs to water body. Such variations may be natural or manmade and either
cyclic or random. Random variation of water owing to unpredictable events. As an
example, storm can increase flow and increasing pollution due to the wash of its
catchment area. Therefore, the nature of water quality is stochastic and deterministic.
Consequently, for proper interpretation of the data understating both of the characteristic
is vital.

Water quality monitoring is the effort to find quantitative information on the physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of water using statistical sample. Monitoring
means watching the ongoing flow of water to make sure no law and regulation are
broken. However, the word has a different meaning when utilized to refer to water
quality measurements; the term network taken on a meaning beyond the strict definition
of the word when referring to water quality monitoring. Network design means to
determine the location of sampling stations. The location of sampling stations and type
of water quality parameters depends on the objective of water usage. The water quality
situation is a function of complex natural and man-made causes and of the resulting
integration in both space and time. Therefore, abstracting the core of the water quality
conditions at a reasonable cost is very difficult. For water pollution control, it is
necessary to figure out surface and ground water quality and the for these process, these
stages are followed
1. First stage
The water quality monitoring stations are established in order to collect samples to
analyse the characteristic of water.
This stage in water quality management is establishing enough and suitable selected
monitoring stations considering the objective of water uses.
2. Second stage
The type of sample collection is determined, a process that is is very important because
collected samples should be representative of the water body.
This stage ensures the availability of enough data with proper precision regarding the
aim of water use.

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3. Third stage
It involves interpreting the collected data since huge amounts of data without proper
interpretation cannot help water quality management effectively (Asadollahfardi, 2000).
This stage involves an interpretation of collected data of which the outcome thereof can
help water quality management to plan for water quality and to control water quality as
well.

The Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) presents a descriptive example of

the intricacy of the global water quality assessment task and its relation to management
(WHO 1987). The principal aim of the global freshwater quality monitoring project is
to offer water quality assessments to governments, the scientific society and the public.
It also addresses the quality of the world’s fresh water in relation to human and aquatic
ecosystem health, and global environmental concerns.

Water Quality Indices (WQI) Methods

Water Quality Index (WQI) determines the quality rating of each of the water quality
parameters against the established standards. Generally, WQI indicates the suitability of
water for different purposes. WQI can generally be divided into five groups, which are
as follows:
1. General WQI methods:
These can be applied to determine the overall water quality. They do not however, take
into account the water usage.
2. Specific WQI techniques:
These are employed to define water quality for specific usage such as drinking,
irrigation, industrial and protection of the aquatic life.
3. Design Index:
They enjoy immense use in decision-making processes in management. In such cases,
water quality classification is not taken into account. These methods are merely tools to
help assess the impact of decisions and plan future measure for water management.
4. Statistical Index:

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Statistical indices are perhaps the most objective methods in service for water quality
classification. Since they use statistical models, little individual judgment is present.
5. Biological Index:
These classifications define water quality according to the effects of water on the aquatic
life.

In each of the above mentioned general categories, researchers have developed many
methods to assess water quality that employ diverse water quality parameters and
mathematical equations.

1.9. Water Quality Control and Purification

Quantitative analysis aims at establishing, as exactly as possible, the amount and/or the
concentration (e.g. in mg/L) of a certain substance, determinant, or water quality
parameter. A large number of techniques are available, but we will encounter a few in
the brief laboratory analysis:
• The use of specific electrodes for pH, and fluoride (F-),
• The colorimetric analysis, based upon a concentration dependent light absorption
of water sample,
• The use photometers for measuring the turbidity of water samples
(nephelometry).

Mostly, tests will be performed in the laboratory with sometimes expensive and
sophisticated instruments. Portable meters and test kits are relatively cheap, sufficient
accurate for their application and easy to be used in the field by non-chemists.

Under this session, some of the most important experiments required to be conducted
during labouratory activities are described. Table 1.4 summarizes the analysis method,
instruments used and parameters measured. Detail procedures for the selected four
experiments are presented. Students are expected to conduct the four experiments in a

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group (4 - 5 students per group). First, the lab technician/assistance will demonstrate the
experiments to the students.

Method Instrument Parameter measured

Nephelometry Photometer (turbidity meter) Turbidity
Perspex tube
Secchi disc Optical density (OD)
Colorimetry Photometer + vials NH4+ , NO3- , PO43-, SO42- (nutrients)
Comparator (Hellige) Chlorine (Cl2)
Nessler Color ( or Fe2+)
Spectrophotometer PO43-
Universal Indicator paper pH
Specific electrodes Potable m V meter Electrical conductivity (EC) pH
Water temperature (T)
Oxygen (O2)

Laboratory m V meter pH
(pH meter)

Table 1.4: Experiments (and demonstrations) during the laboratory sessions

Experiment 1
Turbidity measurements (Nephelometry)
During this experiment, three possibilities of measuring the turbidity in water will be
shown.
Suspended particles, which make the water turbid and increase the optical density,
which can be measured in several ways:
➢ With the naked eye and the use of a submersed white disc on a calibrated rope
(Secchi disc, named after an Italian scientist).
➢ With a calibrated Perspex tube with a mark on the bottom.
➢ With an electronic eye (special photometer) to compare the sample with various
standard suspensions.
NB: Each method has it specific use and accuracy.

Demonstration Secchi disc

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The Secchi disc is mainly used the get an idea about the optical density (OD) or turbidity
of surface waters, for instance of lakes and rivers.
Green algea are growing under the exposure to UV-light in the top layers of open water
bodies. The more UV light the more, mostly undesired growth. As the transmission of
UV-light depends on the clearness of the water, it is important to measure the optical
density of the top layer.
The measured OD is expresses in meters depth.
The lab assistant will demonstrate the usage of the Secchi disc.

Measurements with the lab Turbidity meter

Principle
The principle of the turbidity measurement is based on the Tynadall effect:
The turbidity measurement is based on measuring the intensity of scattered light under
an angle of e.g. 90o. The intensity of the leaving light depends on the number of
dispersed particles in the cell (concentration). To quantify the results of the turbidity
measurements standards with known particle concentration (turbidity) are used. Each
standards has its own turbidity range, e.g. 0 – 1 FTU, 0-10 FTU, etc.

After calibration of the meter with the appropriate standard suspension, the sample is
placed in the meter and the turbidity can be read directly from the meter. (So a
calibration curve as in case of colorimetry is not needed here).
Note that a new artificial magnitude was created to quantify turbidity: named
“turbidity”. Turbidity can be expressed in several units, as:
• FTU,
• FNU,
• NTU and
• JTU.
There are relationships available to switch from one unit to another.

Water samples
Procedure:

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The procedure to measure NTU is as follows:
1. Guess the turbidity (in FTU) of the water samples first and use the first column
of the table below. Motivate your choice in the last column.
2. Calibrate the turbidity meter with the given standards.
3. Measure the turbidity of the water types mentioned in the table below.
Note: Gas (air) bubbles in the sample will disturb the turbidity measurements.

Results:
Sample Expected Measured Explanation why
Turbidity turbidity [FTU] the sample shows
(low, moderate, Meter this turbidity
high, or in FTU) [FTU]
5 Canal water
7 Drinking water (tap)
8 Sewage (diluted)

Table 1.5: Sample Table for NTU

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Learning Activity 1.2
2. What is the relation between turbidity and suspended solids (SS)? How could you
find such a relationship? What was interesting to you in this relationship?
3. How are air bubbles in the water sample disturbing the results?
4. What do you expect of the turbidity values of groundwater and seawater?

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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Demonstration of the calibrated tube
In addition to e.g. a Hach turbidity meter, turbidity can be measured by means of an at
the outside calibrated transparent Perspex tube. Inside the tube is at the bottom an etched
black circle present. Looking to this circle from above while pouring turbid water in the
tube, a moment comes when the circle is no longer visible. The filling of the tube should
be stopped. Then the turbidity [NTU] is read from the calibration rings, or calculated
after measuring the distance (x in cm) between the water level and the bottom, while
using the next relationship:

Turbidity = antilog (3.47 – 1.54 log x) (1.12)

Some practical remarks:
➢ Hold the tube precisely vertical position,
➢ Do not strain to see the circle or peer closely into the tube,
➢ Realise the minimum turbidity is 5 TU, which is the limit for the human eye,
➢ The turbidity meter can easily be self-made.

Procedure:
1. If time permits, calibrate the tube by comparing the results from measurements
of diluted samples with the laboratory turbidity meter.
2. Measure/ calculate the turbidity of the given water types.

Results:
Sample Measured turbidity
Perspex
Column
1 Canal water
2 Drinking water (tap)
3 Sewage (diluted)
Table 1.6

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Learning Activity 1.3:
1. What is the difference in measuring principle between the Secchi disc and the
tube?

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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Experiment 2
Determination of the pH of various solutions
The pH (= -10log [H+]) is one of the most important parameters, as it determines the rate
and effectiveness of a wide variety of (bio) chemical and physical processes.
Theoretically the pH of a solution can be calculated. As this calculation is very complex
and laborious for solutions with more constituents, the measurement of pH is preferable,
which can be simply be performed.

Several ways to measure pH are:

➢ Use of dye solutions (also indicators in acid-base titrations)
Adding some droplets of the dye solution to the sample. Each dye shows its
specific colour in a specific pH interval.
Examples:
Phenolphtalein for pH = 8 – 10 red
Methyl orange pH = 3 – 4.5 orange
➢ pH paper, to be dipped into the sample.
(paper soaked in organic dyes that have different colours at different pH)
Examples:
Lithmus paper (acidic solution – red, basic solution – blue)
Universal indicator, as stick or tape
➢ pH meter (= glass electrode + m V meter).
The pH meter may be accurate laboratory instrument or a potable meter.
Depending on e.g. the required accuracy one of the above methods will be chosen in
practice.
Experimental part
The pH of a series of water types, will be measured with both universal indicator tape
and the laboratory pH meter.

Measuring the pH with universal indicator

See sample table 1.5.
Procedure:

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 1. Guess the pH of the sample and note it down in the sample table.
2. Tear off a piece of about 3 cm from the tape and hold it in the water sample to be
measured.
3. Compare the colour of the wet portion with the colours on the box. Read the pH.

Measuring the pH with the combined glass electrode

Principally, the pH-meter has to work with two electrodes:
• the glass electrode and
• the calomel electrode as reference.
Mostly both electrodes are combined to one single electrode, the “combined glass
electrode”. The electrode is place in the sample and causes a m V-signal, which can be
measured with a m V-meter (pH meter). The actual pH can directly read from the meter.
Sometimes a recorder can be attached and the m V signal can be the input in pH control
systems. The glass electrode has at the tip a bulb. The wall of this glass bulb acts as a
membrane through which only H+ -ions diffuse, causing the required electrode potential.
NB: Handle the glass electrode with great care! The glass bulb is very vulnerable. The
electrode should not touch the walls of the sample vessel and should fall on the bottom
of the vessels. Avoid measurement of samples with pH >10, since this pH may attack
the glass electrode. Modern electrodes are better protected against damage.
Before starting the measurements, calibration of the pH meter is always necessary. The
pH meter must be switched on at least 20 min before use in order to reach its operational
temperature.

Experiments
See sample Table 1.7.
Procedure:
1. Guess the pH of all water samples and fill sample table shown below with your
estimated values.
2. Check the calibration of the pH meter by measuring the standard (buffer)
solutions of e.g. pH = 4.0, 7.0 and 10.0.

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 If necessary the meter has to be re-calibrated, the calibration procedure will be
demonstrated.
3. Rinse the electrode thoroughly by spouting demineralised water from the plastc
wash bottle and place the electrode in the sample solution. In some cases the
sample is mixed with a magnetic stirrer.
4. Wait until the reading shown has become stable before the final reading. This
may take a few minutes.
5. Remote the electrode and rinse with demineralised water. When not in use, the
electrode should be kept immersed in demi-water.

Results:
Note down the results in the sample table (Table 1.7).
Give an explanation why the sample measures shows this pH.
Sample Expected Measured pH Brief explanation
pH Paper Meter why the sample
shows this pH
“Pure” water:
1 Demineralised water (+ few
drops KCL)
Practice water:
3 Rainwater
4 Groundwater
5 Canal water
6 Seawater
7 Drinking water (from tap)
8 Domestic wastewater
Beverages:
9 Saturated solution of CO2 in
water(mineral water, Spa)
Chemical solutions:
11 Solution of 0.1 M Na Cl in
water
12 Solution of strong acid in
water (0.1 M HCl)
13 Solution of weak acid in
water (0.1 M H Ac)
Table 1.7: Sample Table for measuring pH

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Calibration of the pH meter
Principle and procedure:
1. Rinse the electrode.
Dip the electrode in buffer pH = 7.
Adjust knob X for finding the correct position of the line, after pHmeter = pHbuffer
2. Rinse the electrode.
Dip the electrode in buffer pH = 4.
Adjust knob Y for finding the correct slope of the line, after pHmeter = pHbuffer

Experiment 3
Usage of potable meters
Measuring quality parameters with a specific electrode (or probe), generating a m V
signal, is a very attractive analytical method. Dipping the electrode in your water sample
and read the meter, that’s all. Preparing a calibration curve is mostly not needed.
Moreover, potable meters with rechargeable batteries are on the market too, offering the
opportunity to measure in the field. In addition to pH, many parameters as F-, O2 (and
% saturation), Cl2, electrical conductivity (EC), water temperature, etc. can be measured
with specific electrodes today.

The portable instruments are relatively cheap and easy to handle. The accuracy might
be somewhat less, but in many applications this is not a problem. For furnishing a (plant)
laboratory with a restricted budget, these potable meters are an option.
Since the probe is often fragile, careful handling and the use of a protection cap is a
must. Fixing the probe with a clamp is a better option than keeping the probe floating in
the sample. Fortunately the latest electrodes are better protected against damage. Before
use calibration is always necessary and the probe should be rinsed. Swirl beaker or probe
before reading.

Experiments
Samples:
The table below (Table 1.8) shows the origin of the water samples.

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Procedure:
1. Check if the meter has been calibrated.
The assistant will demonstrate the calibration procedure.
Push only the buttons you needs for measuring in order not to loose the
calibration settings. Never just push any button.
For working with the fluoride meter the available calibration curve is needed.
2. Dip, after rinsing, the electrode in the sample and swirl carefully. After getting a
stable result, read the meter.
Note: read the temperature from the EC meter.

Results:
Fill the results up in Table 1.8 below.
EC pH T O2 Oxygen
Sample [mS/m] [-] [0C] [mg/l] saturation[%]
3 Rain water
4 Groundwater
5 Canal water
6 Seawater
7 Drinking water (from tap)
8 Wastewater
Table 1.6: Results

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Learning Activity 1.4
1. Compare EC-values of the practice water with each other. What is your
conclusion?
2. Why is the EC of seawater that high?
3. Why is the EC of wastewater higher than the one of drinking water?
4. Did you expect the low oxygen concentration in wastewater?

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Experiment 4
Colorimetric determinations
Basic conception
Dissolved species possesses the ability of absorbing light of a particular wavelength
(thus) giving the solution colour.
The absorption is not 100%. The remaining colour depends on the concentration of the
molecules.
Colour intensity= f (concentration)
This relationship is mostly linear and can mathematically be described with
Lamber/Beer’s Law:
A = - log (I/Io) = ɛ. c. l (1.13)
Where:
A= absorbance (extinction, optical density),
I = intensity entering light,
Io = intensity leaving light,
ɛ = extinction coefficient [L/mol.cm],
c = concentration [mol/L],
l = width of the cell [cm]

Measuring the intensity of the leaving light can be performed by the:

a) Human eye
Mostly performed by comparison with coloured standards. In case the solution
has no colour a proper reagent is added to get a coloured solution.
b) Electronic eye for objective registration (Spectrophotometer, colorimeter
/photometer)

Methods
➢ Colour comparison tubes (eye) (“Nessler Tubes”)
Note: method is not very accurate.
➢ Comparator (eye)
Reagent to be dosed is in the form of a tablet.

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 Obtained colour is compared with coloured glasses, representing a particular
concentration of the component to be measured.
Trademarks are: Lovibond and Hellige.
➢ Photometer (Colorimeter)
The light source is an ordinary light bulb and monochromatic light is obtained by
using a filter (e.g. coloured glass).
The leaving light is measured by a meter consisting of a photoelectric cell +
galvanometer.

The set up colorimetric analysis is as follows:

Light Mono- Test Photometer

source chromator source or eye

The procedure is as follows:

Standards are made from solutions with known concentrations.
The standards (e.g. 5 standards) are measured in a photometer at appropriate
wavelength (e.g. λ = 525 nm).
A plot (= calibration curve) is made of the readings (absorbance’s) and the known
concentrations. The extinctive coefficient ɛ can easily be calculated from the plot
and Lambert-Beer formula.
After this the sample is placed in the photometer and the absorbance is measured.
From the calibration curve the matching concentration can be read:
➢ Spectrophotometer
Same concept as the colorimeter, except the manner hoe the monochromatic light is
obtained.
The output of a spectrophotometer is a spectrum:
Such a spectrum can be used to:
1. Identification by observing the shape and positions of the peaks (“finger
prints”) (Qualitative analysis)
2. Concentration measurements after finding suitable peak (= wave length).
(Quantitative analysis)

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 In this case the spectrophotometer is used as an ordinary photometer.

Experimental part
Summary of the experiments:
A. Determination of Cl2 with the Hellige (or Lovibond) comparator.
B. Determination of colour with Nessler tubes.
C. Determination of several ions with the chemical test kit.
D. Determination of PO43- with spectrophotometer.

Determination of Cl2 with the Hellige (or Lovibond) comparator

Sample:
Chlorinated drinking water - see sample table (Table 1.9).
Procedure:
Free available chlorine (Cl2) reacts with DPD (N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylene-diamine)
reagent to produce a red colour.
1. Fill the cuvet with the water sample.
2. Crush and completely dissolve the DPD- tablet in the sample.
3. Place the sample cuvet in the comparator.
In case of Hellige neocomparator, together with an untreated water sample for
blank compensation.
4. Immediately read the Cl2 concentration (in mg/L) by rotating the disc with the
standard colours until colour equality is established.

Results: Fill the results in Table 1.9

Cl2 Cl2
Samples Lovibond Hellige
[mg/L] [mg/L]
Practice water
15 Chlorinated drinking water

Table 1.9: Results

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Determination of colour with Nessler tubes
Sample:
Canal Water –see sample table (Table 1.10).
Procedure:
1. Place the tubes on the daylight screen, with the standards in increasing order.
Keep enough space between the standard tubes for placement of the sample.
2. Fill the tube with the sample and place the sample in the array of tubes.
3. Look from above through the tubes; compare the colour of the sample with the
standards and read the concentration of the nearest standard.

Results: Fill the results in Table 1.10.

Colour
Samples Nessler
[mg/L]
Practice water
5 Canal water
Table 1.10: Results

Determination of several ions with the chemical test kit

Sample: See sample Table 1.11
Procedure:
The required chemical to obtain colour is present in the cap and will dissolve in the
sample after bringing the sample into contract with inside of the cap.
1. Pipet the sample in the required vial.
2. Gently swirl the vial during the required reaction time.
3. Place the vial in the photometer and read the result.
4. Repeat above for each water quality parameter to be determined.

Results: Fill the results in Table 1.11.

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 Sample NH4+ NO3- NO43- SO42-
[mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [%]
Practice water
4 Groundwater
5 Canal water
6 Seawater
7 Drinking water (from tap)
8 Wastewater
Table 1.7: Results

Activity 1.5:
1. Assume your sample shallow groundwater contains much phosphate. What might
be the cause?

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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Determination of PO43- with spectrophotometer
Samples: see sample Table 1.12
Procedure:
Assistant will show how to operate the spectrophotometer. Plotting the spectrum may
take some time.
Results: Fill the results in Table 1.12
Sample PO43-
Practice water
5 Canal water X
7 Drinking water (from tap) spiked with PO43- X

Table 1.12: Sample table for measuring PO43_

Activity 1.6:
1. What is the use of a spectrum in general?
2. At what wavelength would you like to measure the absorbance in case of
photometric determination of the phosphate concentration?

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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