SBT 417: ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY

LECTURE 7
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
INDICATOR MICROORGANISMS CONT’
OTHER POTENTIAL INDICATOR ORGANISMS
A number of other organisms have also been considered to have
potential as alternative indicator organisms or for use in
certain applications (e.g., recreational waters).
These include Pseudomonas spp., yeasts, acid-fast
Mycobacteria (Mycobacterium fortuitum and M. phlei),
Aeromonas and Staphylococcus.
Within the genus Pseudomonas, the species of significant public
health concern is P. aeruginosa, a Gram-negative,
nonsporulating, rod-shaped bacterium.
The most common diseases associated with this organism are
eye, ear, nose and throat infections. It is also the most common
opportunistic pathogen causing life-threatening infections in burn
patients and immunocompromised individuals.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
INDICATOR MICROORGANISMS CONT’
OTHER POTENTIAL INDICATOR ORGANISMS CONT’
A characteristic of the Pseudomonad is that it can produce the blue-green
pigment pyocyanin, or the fluorescent pigment- fluorescein, or both.
Numerous cases of folliculitis, dermatitis, ear (swimmer’s ear) and urinary tract
infections are due to P. aeruginosa associated with swimming in contaminated
water, or poorly maintained swimming pools and hot tubs.
Because of this association and its consistent presence in high numbers in
sewage, P. aeruginosa has been suggested as a potential indicator for water
in swimming pools, hot tubs and other recreational waters (Cabelli, 1978).
However, as this organism is known to be ubiquitous (abundant) in nature and
can multiply under natural conditions (it can even grow in distilled water), it is
believed to be of little value for faecal contamination studies.
 Distilled water-is a type of purified water that has had both contaminants and
minerals removed. It is produced by boiling water and then cooling the steam
back to liquid form. Distilled water is considered to be very pure and free of
impurities.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
INDICATOR MICROORGANISMS CONT’
OTHER POTENTIAL INDICATOR ORGANISMS CONT’
Coliforms have been used for many years to assess the safety of
swimming pool water, yet contamination is often not of faecal origin
with infections associated primarily with the respiratory tract, skin
and eyes.
For this reason, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans, a
Gram-positive bacterium and a yeast, respectively, have been
proposed as better indicators of this type of infection associated with
swimming.
Recreational waters may serve as a vehicle for skin infections
caused by S. aureus, and some observers have recommended that
this organism be used as an additional indicator of the sanitary quality
of recreational waters, because its presence is associated with
human activity in recreational waters (Charoenca and Fujioka, 1993).
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
INDICATOR MICROORGANISMS CONT’
OTHER POTENTIAL INDICATOR ORGANISMS CONT’
The genus Aeromonas includes straight facultatively anaerobic gram-
negative rods that are included in the family Vibrionaceae. Only
Aeromonas hydrophila has received attention as an organism of
potential sanitary significance.
Aeromonas occurs in uncontaminated waters as well as in sewage and
sewage-contaminated waters. The organism can be pathogenic for
humans, other warm-blooded animals and cold-blooded animals
including fish.
Foodborne outbreaks associated with A. hydrophila have been
documented, and it is considered an opportunistic pathogen in humans.
Because of its association with nutrient-rich conditions, it has been
suggested as an indicator of the nutrient status of natural waters.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens
i. Salmonella
Salmonella is a very large group of rod-shaped, Gram-negative,
bacteria comprising more than 2000 known serotypes that are
members of the family Enterobacteriaceae.
All these serotypes are pathogenic to humans, and can cause a
range of symptoms from mild gastroenteritis to severe illness or
death.
Salmonella are capable of infecting a large variety of both cold-
and warm-blooded animals.
Typhoid fever, caused by Salmonella typhi, and paratyphoid
fever, caused by S. paratyphi, are normally found only in
humans, although S. paratyphi is found in domestic animals on
rare occasions.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens
i. Salmonella Cont’
Since the route of transmission is faecal-oral, any water or food
contaminated with faeces may transmit the organism to a new host.
An estimated 94 million cases of gastroenteritis caused by
Salmonella species occur globally each year; and of these, nearly
80 million cases are foodborne.
All age groups are susceptible, but symptoms are most severe in
the elderly, infants and the infirm(sickly).
The onset time is 12 and 36 hours after ingestion of contaminated
water or food.
Intestinal disease occurs with the penetration of Salmonella
organisms from the gut lumen into the lining of the intestines, where
inflammation occurs and an enterotoxin is produced.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens
i. Salmonella Cont’
The immediate symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramps, diarrhea, fever and headache.
Acute symptoms may last for 1 to 2 days or may be prolonged,
depending on host factors and individual strain characteristics.
 S. typhi and S. paratyphi A, B and C produce typhoid and
typhoid-like (paratyphoid) fever in humans. Any of the internal
organs may be infected.
The fatality rate of untreated cases of typhoid fever is 10%,
compared to less than 1% for most forms of salmonellosis.
Salmonella septicemia (bacteria multiplying in the blood) has
been associated with the subsequent (successive) infection of
virtually (almost) every organ system.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens
i. Salmonella Cont’
Typhoid fever presents a very different clinical picture than
salmonellosis (food poisoning by Salmonella enterica). The onset
of typhoid fever (1 to 3 weeks) is usually insidious, with fever,
headache, anorexia (lack or loss of appetite for food), enlarged
spleen, and coughing, and with constipation being more common
than diarrhea in adults.
Paratyphoid presents a similar clinical picture but tends to be milder
(minor). A carrier state may follow infection (<1.0 to 3.9%) of the
population.
A carrier is a person who is permanently infected and may transmit
the organism, but does not demonstrate any signs or symptoms of
typhoid disease.
The organism is usually carried in the gallbladder and secreted/or
released in the bile.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens
ii. Vibrio
The Gram-negative genus Vibrio contains more than one member that is
pathogenic to humans. The most famous member of the genus is still
Vibrio cholerae.
Cholera is transmitted through the ingestion of faecally contaminated
water and food. Cholera remains prevalent in many parts of Central
America, South America, Asia and Africa.
V. cholerae serogroup Ol includes two biovars, cholera (classical) and El
Tor, each of which includes organisms of the Inaba and Ogawa serotypes,
which are differentiated based on their biochemical properties; namely
their expression of type-specific antigens.
A similar enterotoxin is elaborated by each of these organisms, so the
clinical pictures are similar.
Asymptomatic infection is much more common than disease, but mild
cases of diarrhea are also common.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
ii. Vibrio Cont’
 In severe untreated cases, death may occur within a few hours
and the fatality rate without treatment may exceed 50%.
This is due to a profuse (plentiful) watery diarrhea referred to
as rice-water stools.
The rice-water appearance is due to the shedding of intestinal
mucosa and epithelial cells. With proper treatment, the fatality
rate is below 1%.
Humans are the only known natural host. Thus, the reservoir for
V. cholerae is human, although environmental reservoirs may
exist, apparently in association with copepods (small
crustaceans) or other phytoplankton.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
iii. Giardia lamblia
Worldwide Giardia lamblia is estimated that 13% of adults and up to 50% of children
are infected with Giardia (Schaefer, 2006). It is one of the most frequent identified
causes of waterborne disease (Craun et al., 2010).
Humans become infected with G. lamblia by ingesting the environmentally resistant
stage, the cyst. Once ingested, it passes through the stomach and into the upper
intestine.
The increase in acidity via passage through the stomach stimulates the cyst to excyst
(uncover), which releases two trophozoites into the upper intestine.
The trophozoites attach to the epithelial cells of the small intestine. The trophozoites
use their sucking disks to adhere to epithelial cells. The adherence to the cells flattens
the villi, causing malabsorption and diarrhea by not allowing adsorption of water and
nutrients across the intestine.
This can cause both acute and chronic diarrhea within 14 weeks of ingestion of cysts
resulting in foul-smelling, loose and greasy stools.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
iii. Giardia lamblia Cont’
Once the trophozoites detach from the epithelial cells and travel down the
intestine, cholesterol starvation is believed to stimulate the trophozoites to
encyst and pass back into the environment as a cyst.
Giardiasis can be treated with metronidazole (Flagyl) or nitazoxanide.
Although in some cases the symptoms will spontaneously disappear
without treatment, in most cases without treatment the symptoms will wax
(gradual increase or growth of symptoms) and wane (gradual
decrease or improvement of symptoms) for many months .
In symptomatic patients, more trophozoites than cysts are excreted into
the faeces and cannot withstand the harshness outside the human body.
In asymptomatic humans, mostly cysts are passed in stools; therefore
Giardia carriers can serve as a source of cysts in the environment. When
Giardia cysts enter the environment they can survive for prolonged
periods.
G. lamblia cysts have been documented to survive for up to 77 days at 8℃
and 4 days at 37℃ in distilled water (Bingham et al., 1979).
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
iv. Cryptosporidium
It is recognized that there are several species of Cryptosporidium capable
of infecting humans. The most common species infecting humans is C.
hominis, which infects only humans, and C. parvum, which primarily
infects cattle, but also humans.
Cryptosporidium hominis has a complex life cycle involving both sexual
and asexual stages.
The host ingests sporulated oocysts (ranging from 3 to 6 μm in diameter)
from contaminated water, food or direct contact.
In the small intestine, the oocyst excysts, releasing four sporozoites,
which attach to the epithelial cells of the mucosa.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
iv. Cryptosporidium Cont’
The sporozoite becomes enveloped by the microvilli, which fuse and
elongate to cover the sporozoite.
The sporozoite then matures into a trophozoite and into a
schizont.
The schizont, an asexual reproductive form in which multiple
mitosis occurs followed by cytokinesis, results in eight first-
generation merozoites.
The cell ruptures, releasing the merozoites, which then infect
neighboring epithelial cells, and schizogony occurs again, but
forming only four second-generation merozoites.
 Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
iv. Cryptosporidium Cont’
When the cell ruptures, the merozoites attach to uninfected
epithelial cells and form either macrogametocytes or
microgametocytes.
The macrogametocytes and microgametocytes further divide,
and form macrogametes and microgametes, respectively.
They join, forming a zygote, which differentiates to form the
unsporulated oocyst, which is then expelled from the cell
surface, sporulates, and is shed in the host’s faeces.
Within 3-10 days after ingestion of oocysts, non bloody,
voluminous, watery diarrhea begins and lasts for 10-14 days in
most immunocompetent hosts.
In normal healthy individuals the disease is usually self-limiting.
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
iv. Cryptosporidium Cont’
Nitazoxanide has been approved for treatment of diarrhea
caused by Cryptosporidium in people with healthy immune
systems.
In the immunocompromised host (e.g., AIDS patients), the
disease can be life threatening.
Cryptosporidium forms an extremely hardy oocyst that
survives chlorine disinfection as commonly practiced at
conventional water treatment plants.
It is now the most commonly identified cause of recreational
outbreaks and largely associated with chlorinated swimming
pools (Hlavsa et al., 2011).
It has also been found to survive for weeks in surface waters
(Johnson et al., 1997).
Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
v. Enteric Viruses
Viruses are a leading cause of gastroenteritis, in particular, in
infants and young children, in which they are a major cause of
mortality worldwide.
Four major groups of human gastroenteritis viruses have been
identified: rotavirus; enteric adenovirus; caliciviruses (norovirus
and sapporovirus); and astrovirus.
Of these, norovirus is of note because it has become the enteric
virus most commonly associated with water- and foodborne illness
worldwide.
Although endemic viral gastroenteritis can be transmitted person
to person by the oral-faecal route, outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis
may be triggered by contamination of a common water or food
source.
 Water- and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
v. Enteric Viruses Cont’
Many human viruses can infect the gastrointestinal tract and be
excreted in the faeces into the environment. It has been
estimated that an individual with an enteric viral infection may
excrete 1011 viral particles per gram of faeces.
Once in the environment, viruses can reach water supplies,
recreational waters, crops and shellfish, through contact with
sewage, land runoff, solid waste landfills and septic tanks.
Diseases caused by enteric viruses range from trivial to severe
or even fatal. Waterborne outbreaks caused by enteric viruses
are difficult to document because many infections by these
agents are subclinical; i.e., the virus may replicate in an
individual, resulting in virus shedding but without signs of overt
disease.
 Water-and Foodborne Pathogens Cont’
v. Enteric Viruses Cont’
Therefore, an individual with waterborne infection but without
overt disease may infect others, who in turn may become ill,
spreading the infection throughout the community.
In addition, epidemiological techniques lack the sensitivity to
detect low-level transmission of viruses through water.
Recreational activities in swimming pools have sometimes
resulted in waterborne outbreaks caused by norovirus,
hepatitis A virus, coxsackievirus, echovirus and
adenoviruses.
Enteric viruses from infected individuals may contaminate
recreational waters by direct contact or by faecal release.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
NUISANCE MICROORGANISMS
Nuisance microorganisms are those that are non
pathogenic, but cause other types of problems related to
aesthetics (color, taste, odour) and corrosion or plugging
of pumps, wells and distribution systems.
Most common nuisance microorganisms in water are
iron and sulfur bacteria, and Actinomycetes.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 IRON BACTERIA
Iron-related or iron-precipitating bacteria (Crenothrix ) are a
diverse group of microorganisms widely distributed in nature.
They include the genera Crenothrix, Gallionella, Leptothrix,
Siderocapsa, and Sphaerotilus.
They are found in fresh and salt waters, in soils, and on desert
rock surfaces.
Iron bacteria do not normally cause diseases to humans or
animals, but rather, they are nuisance microorganisms.
While most bacteria get their energy from decomposing organic
matter, iron bacteria derive their energy from oxidizing ferrous
iron (Fe2+).
 MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 IRON BACTERIA CONT’
Iron has two forms in the environment. Ferrous iron (Fe2+), which
is in a reduced state, and is mobile in anaerobic, or oxygen-free,
environments.
Ferric iron (Fe3+), which is the oxidized form, is insoluble in
aerobic, or oxygen-rich, environments, forming solid, rust-colored
particles.
Iron bacteria residue occurs where an area of water becomes
exposed to oxygen. The iron bacteria use the oxygen in this zone
to convert ferrous iron (Fe2+) into ferric iron (Fe3+).
As a result, the iron changes into a rusty, red precipitate. This
material can also appear as a fluffy or filamentous organic
material as a result of the bacteria growing.
 MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 IRON BACTERIA CONT’
The process is continuous with a large accumulation of rust
coloured or black deposits developing over time.
An oily red or/ brown sheen may also appear in streams and
pond banks.
These deposits tend to accumulate in storage tanks and on the
walls of pipes in low water flow areas of the distribution system.
The red, slimy sludge that the bacteria produce especially in
plumbing and wells, can clog or block water pipes and pumps or
the water flow seriously become impaired. Any disturbance of the
deposits results in badly discoloured water.
Another indicator of the presence of iron bacteria is a foul,
swampy odour, similar to the smell of rotten vegetables, which
can cause bad smell/stink of drinking water.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
IRON BACTERIA CONT’
The growth of iron bacteria also results in an increase in the
organic content of the water that could in turn encourage the
growth of other nuisance micro-organisms.
In combination with sulphur bacteria, they also contribute to the
corrosion of iron and steel pipelines.
The development of iron bacteria can only occur where there is
sufficient iron or manganese present in water at the ideal oxidation-
reduction potential.
Thus, iron bacteria are widely found in the bottom sediments of raw
water reservoirs where the depletion of oxygen provides adequate
ferrous ions (Fe2+).
They can also be associated with ferruginous groundwaters
containing high levels of free carbon dioxide and low levels of oxygen.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 IRON BACTERIA CONT’
Although iron bacteria can exist in groundwater, they typically exist
on top of the ground.
If these bacteria are present in a well, it is most likely the result of an
introduction from surface water or soil during well drilling, pump
installation or any other maintenance or pump work.
The bacteria can be introduced by pipes or pumps that were on the
bare ground during construction, where iron bacteria live in the soil.
Well drillers can also introduce these bacteria by using chlorine-free
drilling water, which may contain iron bacteria.
After construction, iron bacteria can enter a poorly constructed or
maintained well through flooding surface water, septic systems or
other sources.
 MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 IRON BACTERIA CONT’
No tests are typically conducted to determine if iron bacteria are
present in groundwater as visual inspection is usually sufficient for
identification.
No drinking water standards exist (as with total coliform or Esherichia
coli) since there are no human health concerns.
Positive test results for total coliform bacteria would indicate that
surface water has entered a well and could also indicate the likelihood
that the water contains iron bacteria.
If iron bacteria are found in a well, control can be extremely difficult,
so prevention is key. Control is much easier early on, before the
problem becomes severe.
In the early stages of bacterial infestation, half-yearly applications of
shock chlorination can be effective.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 IRON BACTERIA CONT’
If heavily infested, control measures will be expensive and only
partially successful. In severe cases, the pumping equipment must be
removed and disinfected, the well casing must be scrubbed and shock
chlorination needs to be applied to the well.
Higher chlorine concentration is recommended for shock treatment than
for treatment of other bacterial contaminations (500 ppm as compared
to 200 ppm).
Given the difficulty of disinfecting the well, pumping equipment and well
casing, working with a qualified well professional is recommended.
Again, seeing iron bacteria in creeks and wetlands can be alarming, but
the resulting residue is a natural occurrence. And, it isn’t the result of
pollution and causes no risk to human health.
However, when these bacteria are introduced into groundwater and
wells, water quality and plumbing problems can quickly arise. For
assistance with potential water contamination by iron bacteria, contact
your local well professional.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 SULFUR BACTERIA
There are two separate groups of sulfur bacteria with
implications for the water industry/ or which may exist in water
supply systems: sulfur oxidizers and sulfate reducers, with
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) being more common.
SRB include Desulphovibrio desulphuricans that exist in
anaerobic conditions and are widespread in sewers and
wastewater treatment plants.
In sewer systems, SRB are normally present in slime layers, and
sediments.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria convert sulfate to sulfide and produce
hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) in the process.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 SULFUR BACTERIA CONT’
The unmistakable “rotten egg” odour of hydrogen sulfide gas is
the most obvious sign of a sulfur bacteria problem.
In addition to its offensive (unpleasant) smell, hydrogen sulfide
is also highly corrosive and it reacts with iron and steel to
form ferrous sulphide and can cause taste and odour problems to
water.
Thus, steel becomes pitted (formation of small holes) and cast
iron becomes ‘graphitized (formation of graphite or free carbon
on iron); in which state it becomes soft.
As with odors caused by iron bacteria, the rotten-egg smell may
only be apparent (obvious) when the water hasn’t been used for
several hours.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
 SULFUR BACTERIA CONT’
If the odour is present only when hot water is run, sulfate-reducing
bacteria could be building up in the water heater.
Sulphate-reducing bacteria may also be most numerous in
waterlogged clay soils in which oxygen is absent and where sulphur
in the form of calcium sulphate is likely to occur.
In such clays, sulphate-reducing bacteria can produce one of the
most virulent forms of attack on iron and steel.
Backfilling pipe trenches with chalk, gravel or sand to prevent
anaerobic conditions arising, in addition to cathodic protection and
sleeving, are used to prevent this form of corrosion by hydrogen
sulfide that may be produced.
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion
of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
 MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
Sulfur-oxidizing (SO) bacteria convert sulfide into sulfate,
producing a dark slime that can clog plumbing.
SO bacteria grow in aerobic conditions and produce sulphuric
acid from any sulphides present, for example in sewers.
Sulphuric acid is an inorganic acid that has a strong degrading
action through the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur,
and thiosulfates.
It is very reactive and dissolves most metals.
It is a concentrated acid that oxidizes, dehydrates, or sulfonates
most organic compounds, often causes charring
(scorching/burning).
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
Identifying whether water issues are due to sulfur or iron bacteria
is often difficult because the symptoms/signs are so similar.
Moreover, iron and sulfur bacteria often coexist in household
water system. Fortunately, they can be controlled by the same
set of treatment methods.
Control of these bacteria is much easier early on, before the
problem becomes severe.
In the early stages of the infestation, shock chlorination every
six months can be effective to keep this problem under control.
It is not only difficult to treat heavily infected wells, but it is also
expensive and only partially successful.
 MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
Shock chlorination (disinfection) is the one-time introduction of a
strong chlorine solution into the entire water distribution system (well,
pump, distribution pipeline, etc.).
Chlorine is a common disinfectant used in water systems and is
highly toxic to coliform and similar types of bacteria.
Iron and sulfur bacteria are more resistant to the killing action of
chlorine because these bacteria occur in thick layers and are
protected by the slime they secrete.
In the case of iron bacteria, iron dissolved in the water may also
absorb/consume some chlorine before it reaches the bacteria.
For these reasons, a higher chlorine concentration of 500 ppm (as
compared to 200 ppm used in standard shock chlorination) is
recommended for shock chlorination to address iron and sulfur
bacteria problems.
MICROBIAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION AND ITS HEALTH HAZARDS CONT’
ACTINOMYCETES
Actinomycetes are a diverse group of bacteria which, together
with some genera of micro-fungi, can give rise to earthy or musty
tastes and odours, particularly in water derived from nutrient rich
lowland sources.
Actinomycetes occur particularly at the margins of surface
water bodies wherever decomposing organic material is present.
Two compounds commonly formed as metabolites by
Actinomycetes are geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), both
of which have very low threshold taste/odour values.
Both compounds can give rise to major consumer acceptability
issues when present in drinking water.
SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances, often
chemicals or microorganisms, contaminate a stream, river, lake,
ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality
and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment.
Sewage (domestic/municipal wastewater) is the term used for
wastewater that often contains faeces, urine and laundry waste.
The term sewage is nowadays regarded as an older term and is
being more and more replaced by wastewater.
It consists mostly of greywater (from sinks, bathtubs, showers,
dishwashers, and clothes washers), blackwater (the water used
to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes
away); soaps and detergents.
 SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
Sewage disposal is a major problem in developing countries as many
people in these areas don’t have access to sanitary conditions and clean
water.
Sewage often carries harmful bacteria and viruses into the environment
causing health problems.
Untreated sewage water in such areas can contaminate the water or
environment and cause diseases.
Sewage in developed countries is carried away from the home
hygienically through sewage pipes.
Sewage usually travels from a building's plumbing either into a sewer,
which will carry it elsewhere, or into an onsite sewage facility (of which
there are many kinds).
The reality is that most wastewater produced globally remains untreated,
causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries.
SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
The global estimate by United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) and UN-Habitat is that 90% of all wastewater generated is
released into the environment untreated.
In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial
wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary
treatment only.
Raw sewage is disposed of to rivers, streams, and the sea in many
parts of the world.
Doing so can lead to serious pollution of the receiving water.
This is common in developing countries and may still occur in some
developed countries, for various reasons usually related to costs.
Ships at sea are forbidden from discharging their sewage overboard
unless three miles or more from shore.
SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
Sewage Pollutants
• Organic pollutants and nutrients
Sewage is a complex mixture of chemicals, with many distinctive
chemical characteristics.
These include high concentrations of ammonium, nitrate, nitrogen,
phosphorus, high conductivity (due to high dissolved solids), high
alkalinity, with pH typically ranging between 7 and 8.
The organic matter of sewage is measured by determining its biological
oxygen demand (BOD) or the chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Biochemical or Biological oxygen demand (BOD) represents the
amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and other
microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic
(oxygen is present) conditions at a specified temperature.
SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
Sewage Pollutants CONT’
• Pathogens
Sewage contains human faeces, and therefore often contains
pathogens of one of the four types:
i. Bacteria (for example Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter,
Vibrio cholerae),
ii. Viruses (for example Hepatitis A, Rotavirus, Coronavirus,
Enteroviruses),
iii.Protozoa (for example Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia,
Cryptosporidium parvum, C. hominis)
iv.Parasites such as helminths and their eggs (e.g. Ascaris
(roundworms), Ancylostoma (hookworm), trichuris (whipworm)).
 SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
Sewage Pollutants CONT’
• Pathogens Cont’
Sewage can be monitored for both disease-causing and benign
(non-threatening) organisms with a variety of techniques.
Traditional techniques involve filtering, staining, and examining
samples under a microscope.
Much more sensitive and specific testing can be accomplished
with DNA sequencing, such as when looking for rare organisms,
attempting eradication, testing specifically for drug-resistant
strains, or discovering new species.
Sequencing DNA from an environmental sample is known as
metagenomics.
SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
Sewage Pollutants Cont’
• Micro-pollutants
Sewage also contains environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants.
Trihalomethanes can be present as a result of past disinfection.
Sewage has also been analyzed to determine relative rates of use of
prescription and illegal drugs among municipal populations.
Health and environmental aspects
All categories of sewage are likely to carry pathogenic organisms that can
transmit disease to humans and animals.
Sewage also contains organic matter that can cause odour and attract flies.
Sewage contains nutrients that may cause eutrophication of receiving
water bodies; and can lead to ecotoxicity.
 SEWAGE POLLUTION OF NATURAL WATERS CONT’
Sewage Collection
Today, the goal is that sewers route their contents to a wastewater treatment
plant rather than directly to a body of water.
Proper collection and safe disposal of the liquid wastes of a community are
legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized and industrialized society.
A system of sewer pipes (sewers) collects sewage and takes it for treatment
or disposal. The system of sewers is called sewerage or sewerage system (in
British English) and sewage system (in American English).
Where a main sewerage system has not been provided, sewage may be
collected from homes by pipes into septic tanks or cesspits, where it may be
treated or collected in vehicles and taken for treatment or disposal.
Properly functioning septic tanks require emptying every 2–5 years
depending on the load of the system.