Geometric Design Manual

Geometric Design Manual - 2014 Table of Contents
ROADS DEVELOMENT AGENCY
GEOMETRIC DESIGN MANUAL
2014
Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 1

1 P REFACE
This Geometric Design Manual - 2014 is one of the series of “Road Design Manuals”
prepared under a credit financing of the International Labour Organization (ILO). The
consulting services were provided by the NETCO Co.
This manual has been developed from current international practice appropriately
modified to take account of local experience and conditions. It is written for the
practicing engineer.
RDA formed a Project Working Group charged with evaluating and commenting upon
the draft Manuals and guiding the Consultant on the preparation of the final Manuals.
Members of the Working Group and the NETCO Co. for this Manual include the
following:
1.Eng.Abdikarim Omar Hussein

Director, Planning & Design RDA.
2. Mr.Yassen Ali Adan
Director, Projects & External relations RDA.
3. Eng.Osman Ahmed Farah-Netco Co.
4. Eng.Mohamed Naleye – Independent Consultant
Companion Documents and Manuals Prepared under the same service are the following:
1. Geometric Design Manual - 2014
2. Pavement Design Manual Volume I, II and III – 2014 (Flexible, Rigid Pavements
& Overlay/Rehabilitation)
3. Road Furniture Design Manual-2014
4. Drainage Design Manual Volume I and II - 2014
5. Bridge Design Manual - 2014
Appropriate reviews and comments were also provided by agencies and individuals
through RDA's Project Working Group. The Working Group wishes to acknowledge the
contributions made from all other specialists within and outside of RDA in the
preparation of these Manuals and Documents.
2 FOREWORD

This is the first comprehensive Geometric Design Manual prepared for the use and
technical guidance of design personnel of the Roads Development Authority and
consultants doing Bridget Design work for the Authority. However, it may also be used
as a guide by other agencies undertaking relevant work in the road sector.
The Roads Development Authority has prepared this Manual under a credit from the
International Labour Organization (ILO) for design of roads in order to standardize
design practices in all RDA design works.
The road network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate
standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of
service. As the length of the engineered road network is increasing, appropriate choice of
methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important.
This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Somaliland and
reflects RDA’s experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last
14 years.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed
by the concerned bodies with in RDA. However, I will like to emphasize that careful
consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the Manual,
and under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgment in applied
engineering. For simplification in reference this Manual may be cited as “RDA
Geometric Design Manual–2014.”
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all users with both a standard
reference and a ready source of good practice for the Bridge design, and will assist in a
cost effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road
network.
I look forward to the practices contained in this Manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of
our country.
As this Manual due to technological development and change, requires periodic updating,
comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual
as feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated.
Prof. Hassan Ali Osman

General Manager
Roads Development Authority
3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Geometric Design Manual-2014 is based on a review of the design standards of

several countries, among which are AASHTO, ITE, FHA and TRB (USA), TRRL (UK),

EBCS (Ethiopia), Swedish standards, Australian Standards and EUROCODE 1,2,3
(Europe).
In the selection of the appropriate bridge standards for Somaliland, material from these
and other sources have been gleaned and evaluated to determine the set of standards most
appropriate for Somaliland and Somaliland conditions.
TABLE OF C ONTENTS
Preface.............................................................................................................................. i
Foreword ........................................................................................................................ iv
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................... v
List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................ xi

1 Introduction
1.1 General .............................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Purpose.............................................................................................................1-1
1.3 Scope ................................................................................................................1-1
1.4 Organization of the Manual..............................................................................1-1
2 Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Design Standards..............................................................................................2-1
2.3 Departures from Standards...............................................................................2-1
3. Route Corridor Selection

3.1 Project Cycle .................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Desk Study ....................................................................................................... 3-2
3.3 Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors............................................. 3-4
3.4 Site Visit and Survey........................................................................................ 3-9
3.5 Topographical and Geomorphologic Characteristics ..................................... 3-10
3.6 Recommendations .......................................................................................... 3-11
3.7 Report Outline................................................................................................ 3-11
4. Survey Requirements
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Method of Data Collection- Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey....................... 4-1
4.3 Survey Data Products ....................................................................................... 4-2
4.4 Survey Data by Project Type............................................................................ 4-3
4.5 Field Surveys.................................................................................................... 4-3
4.6 Topography ...................................................................................................... 4-5
4.7 Bench Marks .................................................................................................... 4-6
4.8 Profile and Cross Sections ............................................................................... 4-7
4.9 Photogrammetry............................................................................................... 4-7
4.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design........................................................... 4-8
5. Design Controls and Criteria

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Road Functional Classification and Numbering .............................................. 5-1
5.3 Terrain .............................................................................................................. 5-4
5.4 Design Vehicle ................................................................................................. 5-9
5.5 Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use .............................................. 5-13
5.6 Design Traffic Volume................................................................................... 5-13
5.7 Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads ................................... 5-14
5.8 Design Speed.................................................................................................. 5-15

Table of Contents
6. Cross Section Elements

6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Lane Widths ..................................................................................................... 6-1
6.3 Shoulders ......................................................................................................... 6-2
6.4 Normal Crossfall.............................................................................................. 6-2
6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes ........................................................................... 6-3
6.6 Roadside Ditches ............................................................................................. 6-4
6.7 Clear Zone........................................................................................................ 6-5
6.8 Right-of-Way ................................................................................................... 6-5
6.9 Four-Lane and Divided Roads ......................................................................... 6-6
6.10 Single Land Roads ........................................................................................... 6-7
6.11 Typical Cross Sections..................................................................................... 6-7
7. Sight Distances
7.1 General Considerations.................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 Stopping Sight Distance................................................................................... 7-1
7.3 Control of Sight Distance ................................................................................ 7-2
7.4 Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads .................................................. 7-3
7.5 Passing Sight Distance..................................................................................... 7-4
7.6 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance. .............................................. 7-5
8. Horizontal Alignment
8.1 General............................................................................................................. 8-1
8.2 Tangent Sections.............................................................................................. 8-1
8.3 The Circular Curve .......................................................................................... 8-1
8.4 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves...................... 8-6
8.5 Isolated Curves................................................................................................. 8-7
8.6 Minimum Length of Curves............................................................................. 8-7
8.7 Widening on Curves and Embankments.......................................................... 8-7
8.8 Switchback Curves .......................................................................................... 8-8
8.9 Transition Curves........................................................................................... 8-10
8.10 Superelevation ............................................................................................... 8-11
8.11 Superelevation Run-Off ................................................................................. 8-11
8.12 Shoulder Superelevation ................................................................................ 8-13
9. Vertical Alignment
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 Vertical Curve Formula ................................................................................... 9-1
9.3 Crest and Sag Curves ....................................................................................... 9-3
9.4 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves ............................................................. 9-3
9.5 Maximum Gradients ........................................................................................ 9-8
9.6 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks ............................................................... 9-9
9.7 Minimum Gradients......................................................................................... 9-9
9.8 Gradients through Villages .............................................................................. 9-9
9.9 Critical Length of Gradient .............................................................................. 9-9
9.10 Climbing Lanes.............................................................................................. 9-10
9.11 Vertical Clearances ........................................................................................ 9-13
Table of Contents

10. Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
10.1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-Phasing......................................................... 10-1
10.2 Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action ....................... 10-1
10.3 Vertical Curve Overlaps one End of the Horizontal Curve ........................... 10-1
10.4 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing .......................................................... 10-3
11. Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram

11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 11-1
11.2 End Area Calculations.................................................................................... 11-1
11.3 Calculating Earthwork.................................................................................... 11-2
11.4 Mass Haul Diagram........................................................................................ 11-3
11.5 Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram .................................... 11-4
11.6 Methods of Balancing Earthwork .................................................................. 11-8

Table of Contents
Appendices
A Classification and Description of Roads................................................... A1-A10

B. Coefficient of Friction....................................................................................... B1
C. Measuring and Recording Sight Distance on Plans ................................... C1-C2
D. Utilities....................................................................................................... D1-D2
E. Typical Cross Sections.............................................................................. E1-E15
F. Procedure for Design .................................................................................. F1-F7
G. Plans and Drafting...................................................................................... G1-G3
H. Terms & Definitions ................................................................................ H1-H13
I. Abbreviations................................................................................................ I1-I3
Bibliography................................................................................................... Bib1-Bib3

List of Illustrations
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION
I. FIGURES
CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

Figure 4-1 Standard Bench Mark ............................................................................... 4-6
CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

Figure 5-1 The Design Process ................................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-2 Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment .................................................... 5-5
Figure 5-3 Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment................................................ 5-5
Figure 5-4 Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment .............................. 5-6
Figure 5-5 Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment.......................................... 5-6
Figure 5-6 Mountain Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment ............................................ 5-7
Figure 5-7 Mountain Terrain; Mountain Roadway Alignment................................... 5-7
Figure 5-8 Escarpment Terrain; Mountain Roadway Alignment ............................... 5-8
Figure 5-9 Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment ............................ 5-8
Figure 5-10 Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2) ........... 5-10
Figure 5-11 Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Bus (DV3)............... 5-11
Figure 5-12 Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m
Overall) also Applicable for Truck (Tandem) Plus Trailer (DV4) ......... 5-12
CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Figure 6-1 Designation of Roadside Regions ............................................................. 6-3
Figure 6-2 Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils.......................................... 6-5
CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

Figure 7-1 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag ................................................................. 7-2
Figure 7-2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest............................................................... 7-2
Figure 7-3 Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves ....................................................... 7-3
Figure 7-4 Passing Sight Distance ............................................................................. 7-5
CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Figure 8-1 Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways................................................. 8-2
Figure 8-2 Curve Elements ......................................................................................... 8-3
Figure 8-3 Isolated Curves.......................................................................................... 8-5
Figure 8-4 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves ............... 8-6
Figure 8-5 Switchback Curve ..................................................................................... 8-9
Figure 8-6 Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle .......................... 8-10
Figure 8-7 Spiral Curve Transition........................................................................... 8-12
Figure 8-8 Circular Curve Transition ....................................................................... 8-12
Figure 8-9 Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads)....................................... 8-13

List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Figure 9-1 Crest Curve ............................................................................................... 9-2
Figure 9-2 Sag Curve.................................................................................................. 9-2
Figure 9-3 Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles ................................................... 9-5
Figure 9-4 Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves ............................................. 9-6
Figure 9-5 Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves ............................................... 9-7
Figure 9-6 Layout for Climbing Lane....................................................................... 9-12
CHAPTER 10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Figure 10-1 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves ............................................ 10-4
CHAPTER 11 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES & MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

Figure 11-1 Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram ............ 11-4
Figure 11-2 Location of Balance Line of Mass Haul Diagram .................................. 11-6
Figure 11-3 Overhaul in the Mass Haul Diagram ...................................................... 11-8
Figure 11-4 Balancing Earthwork Using Borrow and Waste Determined from the
Mass Haul Diagram ................................................................................ 11-9
Figure 11-5 Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using Unit Mass Data
(Excess Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations) ...................................... 11-10
Figure 11-6 Computations of V.P.I. Elevation Changes Using R.D.S. Mass Data
(Excess Embankment and Excavation- Raise V.P.I. Elevations) ......... 11-12
Figure E-T1 Typical Fill and Cut Sections ................................................................... E-2

Figure E-T2 Escarpment Section.................................................................................. E-3
Figure E-T3 Two Lane Town Section .......................................................................... E-4
Figure E-T4 Four Lane Town Section .......................................................................... E-5
Figure E-1 Design Standard 1 Normal &Town Section (DS1).................................. E-6
Figure E-5 Design Standard 5 Normal &Town Section (DS5)................................ E-10
Figure E-9 Design Standard 9 Normal &Town Section (DS9& DS10)................... E-14
Figure E-10 Design Standard 10 Normal Section (DS10) ......................................... E-15
Figure F-1 Checklist for Final Road Link Design ..................................................... F-6
Figure H-1 Cross section Elements ........................................................................... H-1

List of Illustrations Geometric Design Manual - 2002
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
II. TABLES
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS

Table 2-1 Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT................................ 2-3
Table 2-2 Shoulder Widths.......................................................................................... 2-4
Table 2-3 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS1 (Paved Dual
Carriageway) .............................................................................................. 2-5
Table 2-4 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS2 (Paved) .............. 2-5
Table 2-5 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS3 (Paved) ............. 2-6
Table 2-6 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved) .............. 2-6
Table 2-7 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS5
(Paved or Unpaved)..................................................................................... 2-7
Table 2-8 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS6 (Unpaved).......... 2-7
Table 2-12 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS10 (Unpaved)........ 2-9
CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

Table 4-1 Survey Data Requirements.......................................................................... 4-2
Table 4-2 Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys .................................................... 4-6
Table 4-3 Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks................................................ 4-8
CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

Table 5-1 Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics ........................................ 5-9
Table 5-2 Design Standard vs. Road Classification and AADT ............................... 5-14
CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Table 6-1 Slope Ratio Table- Vertical to Horizontal .................................................. 6-4
CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

Table 7-1 Sight Distance ............................................................................................. 7-1
Table 7-2 Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speed............................................... 7-4
Table 7-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance ........ 7-5
CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Table 8-1 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation....................... 8-1
Table 8-2 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation
(Urban Streets)............................................................................................. 8-2
Table 8-3 Widening on Curves and High Fills ............................................................ 8-8
Table 8-4 Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%.................................... 8-14
Table 8-5 Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4%.................................... 8-15
CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Table 9-1 Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves ................................................ 9-4
Table 9-2 Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves .................................................. 9-4

Table 9-3 Maximum Gradients .................................................................................... 9-8
Table 9-4 Climbing Lanes.......................................................................................... 9-11
Table 9-5 Vertical Clearance for Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)........ 9-13
CHAPTER 12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

Table 12-1 Access Control........................................................................................... 12-4
Table 12-2 Visibility Splay for “Yield” Conditions..................................................... 12-5
Table 12-3 Visibility Splay for “Stop” Conditions ...................................................... 12-5
Table 12-4 Length of Right-Turn Lane ........................................................................ 12-6
Table 12-5 Length of Left-Turn Lane .......................................................................... 12-8
Table 12-6 Length of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lanes ....................................... 12-8
CHAPTER 13 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

Table 13-1 Widths for Loops ....................................................................................... 13-3
CHAPTER 14 SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS

Table 14-1 Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials .............................. 14-13
CHAPTER 15 ROAD FURNITURE & MARKINGS

Table 15-1 Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves.............................................................. 15-2
CHAPTER 16 APPENDICES
Table A-1 Numbering of Trunk Roads ........................................................................ A-1
Table A-2 Numbering of Roads................................................................................... A-2
Table D-1 Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface ..................... D-1
Table D-2 Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts....................... D-2

Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Geometric Design is an essential component in the design development of a highway. This

Geometric Design Manual is prepared under the direction of the Somaliland Road
Development Agency to establish basic design techniques for economical design of
highway geometric including typical sections, horizontal and vertical alignment, and design
of junctions. It is intended for use in the design of all roads in Somaliland.
1.2 Purpose
Recently, RDA has initiated a comprehensive program to rehabilitate, upgrade and expand
the highway network in Somaliland. To plan and implement the program in a coherent way,
using modern standards and technology, RDA decided to establish a uniform framework.
Developing a Geometric Design Manual was part of this framework.
The purpose of this design manual is to give guidance and recommendations to the
engineers responsible for the geometric design of roads in Somaliland.
1.3 Scope
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable to
trunk roads, link roads, main access roads, collector roads, feeder roads and unclassified
roads as defined by RDA in this Geometric Design Manual.
The use of the procedures described in this manual should help in achieving reasonable
uniformity in geometric design for a given set of conditions.
1.4 Organization of the Manual
The overall organization of this manual and of the design process are as follows.
After this introduction, a summary of the standards developed within the manual together
with departures from standards and the method of dealing with departures from standards,
are given in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 deals with preliminary design considerations. Specifically, it lists procedures for
identification of potential alignments in the route corridor selection process and Chapter 4
discusses survey requirements.
Chapter 5 discusses those external controls and criteria affecting the selection of the
geometric design values. These include a discussion of the road hierarchy and functional
classification; terrain considerations; the design vehicle; density and character of adjoining
land use; design traffic volume; and design speed.
Cross sectional elements of the road include lane widths, shoulders, cross fall, side slopes
and back slopes, roadside ditches, clear zones, and right-of-way. These issues are developed

in Chapter 6.
A significant element in the geometric design of roads is sight distance. Chapter 7 develops
the formulae and application of both stopping and passing sight distances.
Horizontal alignment elements include tangent sections, curves, and superelevation. Chapter
8 provides information on tangent sections, and proceed to a discussion of curve elements,
including circular curves, reverse, broken-back, compound curves, and isolated curves. Lane
widening requirements for curves are explained, and the special considerations in
switchback, or hairpin, curves are listed. Transition curve requirements are discussed.
Superelevation standards are then developed, including rates, run-off and shoulder
superelevation.
Chapter 9 is devoted to the issue of vertical alignment. Subchapters deal with the topics of
crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum gradients, climbing lanes, and vertical
clearances.
Chapter 10 relates to the need for phasing between horizontal and vertical design, problems
associated with mis-phasing and possible corrective actions.
The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter dealing with
earthwork quantities and the mass haul diagram. This topic is developed in Chapter 11.
Attention to these elements during the design process will usually result in an optimized
alignment with minimized costs.
Chapter 12 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of junction

type, t-junctions, cross junctions and roundabouts; sight distances; and junction elements
including turning lanes and traffic islands.
Grade-separated junctions are discussed in a similar manner in Chapter 13. Included topics
are the choice of scheme, geometric standards, design principles and types of junctions.
Safety and miscellaneous items are listed in Chapter 14. Items appearing in this chapter
include the design of safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-byes and parking bays,
parking lanes, public utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers and emergency escape
ramps.
Items defined as roadway furniture are discussed in Chapter 15. This includes traffic signs,
road markings, marker posts, traffic signals and lighting.
Finally, the appendix provides information on Classification of Roads the current extent of
RDA’s road network, providing those figures and tables deemed best placed here rather than
in the body of the text, in providing further explanation of the method of determining sight
distances, in listing utility location requirements, in providing typical cross sections and
Supplementary information on procedure for Design and on preparations of Plans and
Drafting, and Terms & Definitions and Abbreviations are presented.

Geometric design the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed
to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-
section and horizontal and vertical alignment. Appropriate standards and combinations of
geometric design elements should fulfill the following objectives:
Topography, land use and physical

features. Environmental
considerations.
Road safety considerations.
Road function and control of
access. Traffic volume and
capacity.
Design speed and other speed controls.
Design vehicle and vehicle
characteristics. Economic and
Financial considerations. Alternative
construction technologies.
The design standards to be used for roads of various traffic volumes (AADT) are
summarized in the several following tables. Of these, Table 2-1 presents an overview of
design standards relating to road functional classification and traffic volumes, and illustrates
the split between paved and unpaved standards.
Tables 2-2 to 2-11 give several the parameters of the Somaliland Roads Development
Agency’s ten design standards, Which reflecting the government policy of design flexibility
and emphasis on labor-based techniques. These standards apply to divided highways, trunk
and link roads, main access and collector roads, and feeder roads.
Finally, Table 2-12 shows the variability of the shoulder widths for the different design
standards, including parameters associated with terrain and urban sections.
The determination of each particular standard item is discussed further in this manual.
It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate
from these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of a
switchback or the use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer
departs from a standard, he must obtain written approval from RDA. The Designer shall
submit the following information to RDA
Summary of Standards
The number, name, and description of the road . The facet of design for which a Departure
from Standards is desired; A description of the standard, including normal value, and the
value of the Departure from Standards
The reason for the Departure from Standards, and Any mitigation to be applied in the
interests of safety.
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the Design and
Research Division Manager for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are
acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the General Manager for
final approval.

Road Design Design Speed (km/hr)
Functional Traffic Flow Surface Width (m) Flat Rolling Mountainous
Classification Design Standard (AADT)* Type Carriageway Shoulder Escrapment
10000 - **Dual 2 X See Table
DS1 **15000 Paved 7.3 2-2 120 85 70 50
See Table
DS2 5000 -10000 Paved 7.3 2-2 120 85 70 50
See Table
DS3 1000 -5000 Paved 7 2-2 10 70 60 50
See Table
DS4 200 -1000 Paved 6.7 2-2 85 60 50 50
Unpave See Table
DS5 100 -200 d 7 2-2 70 50 40 50
Unpave See Table
DS6 50 -100 d 6 2-2 60 40 30 50
Unpave See Table
DS7 30 -75 d 4 2-2 60 40 30 50
Unpave See Table
DS8 25 -50 d 4 2-2 60 40 30 50
Unpave See Table
DS9 0 -25 d 4 2-2 60 30 20 40
DS1 Unpave See Table
0 0 -15 d 3.3 2-2 60 30 20 40
* The design two-way traffic flow is recommended to be not more than one Design Standard step in excess of the first year AADT (excluding DS7). ** For traffic volume m
approach should be followed.
*** The width of each lane is 3.65m

Chapter 2
Summary of
Standards
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* shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-1 ** Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-1
*** To be provided where urbanization requires this facility
+ Where these classes of roads pass through urban areas, the road shall be designed to Standard DS6
++ The actual shoulder width provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of non-motorized traffic for each road section
+++ Depending on the development of the town & Includes a should
! Median with trees (DS1) is allowed for cross section shown in the table i.e. 2lane +parking lane + Footway if otherwise the median should be a covered and an open one
without trees or a lower width of a median barrier shall be designed . Similarly for DS2 Roads in the town section i.e. one lane + parking lane +footway should have a
covered median with no trees or other wise a lower width of a median barrier should be designe

C
Summery Standards
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Urban
Design Speed km/h 120 100 85 70 50
Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 285 205 155 110 55
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 425 375 340 275 175
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius m 630 395 270 175 85
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 4 6 6 6
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 6 8 8 8
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Superelevation % 8 8 8 8 4
Crest Vertical Curve k 210 105 60 31 10
Sag Vertical Curve k 74 51 36 25 12
Normal Crossfall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Crossfall % 4 4 4 4 4
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50

Urban
% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25 0 20
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No yes
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50


Urban
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50

Urban
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50


Urban
Transition Curves Required No No No No No
Normal Crossfall (Paved) % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Crossfall (Paved) % 4 4 4 4 4
Normal and Shoulder % 4 4 4 4 4
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50

Urban
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way m 30 30 30 30 40

7DEOH *HRPHWULF 'HVLJQ 3DUDPHWHUV IRU 'HVLJQ 6WDQGDUG '6 8QSDYHG

Urban
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way m 30 30 30 30 30

Urban
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way m 20 20 20 20 20
Max. Spacing of Passing m 500 500 500 500 500
Bays
Design Vehicle DV 2/3


Urban
Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way m 20 20 20 20 20
Bays
Design Vehicle DV 2/3
7DEOH *HRPHWULF 'HVLJQ 3DUDPHWHUV IRU 'HVLJQ 6WDQGDUG '6 8QSDYHG
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban

Crossfall (Unpaved)
Right of Way m 20 20 20 20 20
Bays
Design Vehicle DV 1

Chapter 3
3 ROUTE CORRIDOR SELECTION
3.1 Project Cycle
Projects are planned and carried out using a sequence of activities known as the “project
cycle.” The cycle is composed of the following steps: identification, feasibility, design
commitment and negotiation, operation, and evaluation. Route corridor selection comprises
of portion of the first three of these activities.
3.1.1 IDENTIFICATION
The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. This is sometimes known is the “pre-
feasibility” stage. There are many sources from which suggestions may come, including
well-informed technical specialists, local leaders, proposals to extend existing programs or
projects, and from operating agencies responsible for project implementation.
The decision to proceed to the feasibility stage arouses expectations for the project. Dubious
projects shall therefore be rejected at the identification stage. It becomes increasingly
difficult to stop a project at the later stages of the cycle.
3.1.2 FEASIBILITY
The feasibility study will provide sufficient information to decide whether to proceed to a
more advanced stage of planning. The level of detail of this study will depend on the
complexity of the project and how much is already known about the proposal. The feasibility
study shall define the objectives of the project. It shall consider alternative ways of achieving
these and eliminating poor alternatives. The study provides the opportunity to mould the
project to fit its physical and social environment to maximize the return on the investment.
Once the feasibility study has indicated which project is likely to be the most worthwhile,
detailed planning and analysis can begin. Less promising projects will have been eliminated
by this time, and the selected project may be redefined and modified as more detailed
information becomes available. At this stage, studies of traffic, geotechnics and design will
be carried out to refine the prediction of costs and benefits and to enable an economic
analysis to be carried out.
3.1.3 DESIGN
Preliminary design and feasibility are often simultaneous, but detailed design, which can be
very costly (up to 15 percent of project costs), usually follows a provisional commitment to
the project. Numerous decisions, which will affect economic performance, are taken
throughout design; and economic appraisal often results in redesign.

3.1.4 COMMITMENT AND NEGOTIATION
Commitment of funds often takes place is a series of stages. This is followed by invitation to
tender and negotiations with contractors, potential financiers and suppliers. At this stage,
there are still considerable uncertainties.
3.1.5 IMPLEMENTATION
Detailed recommendations on project implementation are beyond the scope of this chapter.
However, several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of
the implementation.
The better and more realistic plan, the more likely it is that the plan can actually be carried
out and the full benefits realized. A flexible implementation plan shall be sought. It is almost
inevitable that some circumstances will change during the implementation. Technical
changes may be required as more detailed soils information becomes available or as the
relative prices of construction materials change. Project managers may need to change and
re-plan parts of the project to take account of such variations. The more innovative and
novel the project is, the greater is the likelihood that changes will have to be made during
implementation.
3.1.6 OPERATION
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are
realized and maintenance is undertaken.
3.1.7 EVALUATION
The final phase of the project cycle is evaluation. This consists of looking back
systematically at the successful and unsuccessful elements of the project experience to learn
how planning can be improved in the future.
For evaluation to be successful, it is important that data about the project is collected and
recorded in a systematic way throughout all stages of the project cycle. Without this, it is
usually impossible to determine details of events and information that were available during
periods leading up to the taking of important decisions.
Many different people may carry out evaluation. For each stage of the project, data shall be
collected for identifying problems that need to be brought to the attention of the project’s
management.
The evaluation shall result in specific recommendations about improving aspects of the
project design, which can be used to improve ongoing and future planning.
3.2 Desk Study

Road Design, Construction and Maintenance require an approach depending on the terrain.
The shortest road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most economical
option for construction and maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood

hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant controls in the choice of the
most suitable alignment and design of cross-section.
Variations in geology and slope greatly influence road design and hence the cost of
construction, and these variations can occur over very short lengths of alignment. Geology,
geomorphology and hydrology, therefore, are key factors in the design, construction and
maintenance of roads in Somaliland. An appreciation of these factors alone is not enough to
construct roads in an environmentally sound way. Road geometry, earth works, retaining
structures and drainage measures must be designed in such a manner as to cause the least
impact on the stability of the surrounding slopes and natural drainage systems.
Excessive blasting, cutting, side tipping of spoil and concentrated or uncontrolled surface
water runoff can lead to instability and erosion. Although many of these effects are often
unavoidable, the design and the construction method adopted should aim to minimize them.
This chapter describes the methodology for analyzing possible corridors and selecting the
optimum route from technical, economic, social and environmental considerations.
Before commencing with selection of the route corridors, the controlling requirements of the
route need to be defined. These may include the following:
What are the constraints in regard to the beginning and ending points of the road?
Must these be at existing junctions in villages or towns? Are such junctions
inadequate from a standpoint of skew or right-of-way? Do economic considerations
such as amount of earthworks limit the alternatives?
Through which villages must the route pass? Must the route pass directly through
these villages, or can linking roads connect the villages? If so, what are the
implications to the villages in terms of lost trade?
If major rivers are to be crossed, what are the possible crossing locations, given
constraints of topography and geology? What are the economics of the alternative
bridge sights with the corresponding road geometries?
What is the desired design speed and design standard? How does this standard fit
the terrain in terms of geometric parameters such as gradients, and horizontal and
vertical curves?
The desk study comprises a review of published and unpublished information concerning the
physical, economic and environmental characteristics of a study area. Some of the data that
may be required for the desk studies are the following sources:
Published literature covering a range of topics including road construction and maintenance
case histories and geological, economic and environmental reviews.
Topographical maps Geological maps, agricultural soil maps and other natural resource
maps; and Aerial photography
For studying and selecting suitable alignment corridors, a detailed analysis based on the
following references, maps, and aerial photography may be required:

REFERENCE:
Maps of topography, geology and soils can be combined to form Land System Maps. Areas
of the world mapped at a land system level include the whole of Somaliland. These are
produced at a scale of 1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000, and are available through:
Land Resources Department, Natural Resources Institute

Chatham Maritime
Central Avenue
Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB United Kingdom
3.3 Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors
Using the 1:50,000 scale maps and with knowledge of the constraints as listed in Section
3.2, it is possible to trace out some possible alternative alignments. This is readily
accomplished by referring especially to the vertical geometric design criteria for maximum
grade and plotting possibilities through correlation with the contour lines shown on the map.
For instance, assume that the road classification and terrain are such that a 10% maximum
grade is permissible. Assume also that the contour interval on the 1:50,000 map is 20 meters.
A preliminary alignment needs to be selected such that a distance of no less than 200 meters
is used to achieve the 20-meter interval, giving a 10% grade.
The steps in the survey process are summarized in the following sections.

3.3.1 PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
The purpose of this reconnaissance stage of the survey process is to identify possible
alternative routes in terms of the “corridors” within which they lie.
Possible routes shall be examined on maps, satellite images and air photos, where available,
and a broad terrain classification shall be made for collation of the regional information,
possibly on a data storage system. Visits shall be made to site to check interpretations, and
findings shall be summarized to assist in planning and next stage.
Aerial photos at a scale of approximately 1:100 000 and Landsat images at 1:500 000 or
1:250 000 shall be used to interpret boundaries between terrain types, where changes in
topography, geology, drainage pattern or vegetation (land use) occur. A change in any of
these will give rise to different engineering conditions, which could affect the design of the
road. Such items as the following shall be considered:
Changing course of major rivers

Drainage areas of major river systems
Extent of flooding of low-lying areas
Possible sources of water for construction
Possible sources of construction
materials Pattern of regional instability
Extent of erosion
Spread of deforestation
Assessment of land acquisition/site clearance problems
Location of all possible bridge sites
3.3.2 FEASIBILITY
At this stage, the corridors are appraised to select the best route. This shall be carried out
mainly using aerial photos for all detailed interpretations, ideally at a scale of 1:20 000 –
1:60 000, as available. These can be supplemented by color information from Land sat
images (see previous text for suppliers).
Detailed interpretations shall be made of conditions on all routes and, if necessary, a more
detailed terrain classification of the area shall be made. The following items shall be
investigated:
Foundation conditions
Drainage area and the location of culverts
Locations of spoil and borrow areas
Possible sources of construction materials
Identification of most favorable bridge sites
Possible major hazard areas such as poorly drained soils, springs, unstable areas,
and erosion in river courses

Site investigations shall be carried out for alternative routes, guided by the terrain
evaluation. These shall note key physical and geotechnical features. Selected laboratory and
field-testing shall also be carried out, again guided by the terrain evaluation.
Finally, cost comparisons shall be made of alternative alignments to assist in the

recommendation of the best route.
3.3.3 DESIGN FOR PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
The final stage of the geotechnical survey process is to make detailed field studies of the
selected route to enable a design to be carried out to engineering standards.
A further land classification shall be carried out at a more detailed level on the selected route
corridor. Detailed air photo interpretation shall be continued in support of all field activities
to help plan a comprehensive site investigation of the selected route, which shall be carried
out with a full sampling and testing program.
This shall examine:
Construction materials
Subgrade conditions
Cuts and embankments
Areas of instability
Erosion and soft ground
Requirements for frequency and size of culverts
Bridge sites
The geotechnical survey phase of the appraisal process concludes by preparing detailed
designs and cost estimates.
3.3.4 ROUTE CORRIDOR ASSESSMENT
Route corridor options can be divided into the following categories:
Ridge top alignment

Compound alignments
Valley floor alignments
Ridge top alignments are often the most stable and least costly. They are also favored on
socio-economic and environmental grounds, as they usually follow established lines of
communication and habitation. However, steep slopes and changes in ridge-top elevation
dictate that alignments are frequently required to traverse a side slope beneath ridge tops.
Climbing sections of mountain roads can be designed as gradual traverses of side slopes at a
limiting gradient, as switchbacks, or as a combination of the two.

In choosing between these possibilities, it should be noted that the switchback has the
following advantages:
A greater flexibility in route corridor location can normally be achieved.

The crossing of steep and unstable lower valley side slopes can be minimized or
avoided; and
The use of switchbacks to connect lengths of relatively easy ground, such as valley
floors and ridge tops, can in some cases lead to a more direct alignment with a
saving in overall route length.
The disadvantages associated with the switchback approach are:
On side slopes steeper than 30 o, limited space to construct cut and fill slopes
necessitates either a relaxation in geometric standards or more expensive retaining
structures;
Lack of spoil sites and access difficulties create problems during construction.
Instability and erosion can easily extend from one loop of the road to another, both
up slope and down slope.
Storm runoff tends to become concentrated requiring large-capacity drainage
structures and erosion protection works, and the cost associated with failure of any
part of the drainage system is usually high; and
Switchbacks result in a Departure from Design Standards.
If the topography allows, creating offset switchbacks, in which the hairpins are not
immediately above one another but are staggered across the slope, can reduce the problems
associated with switchbacks. This will minimize drainage problems and limit the danger of
instability to fewer hairpin loops.
The advantages of a valley floor alignment are:
Relatively little climbing and descent are involved, thus making route alignment
easier and shorter, with correspondingly lower vehicle operating costs and higher
speeds.
A ready supply of construction materials is normally available.
Control of spoil disposal and construction of pilot tracks can be less demanding.
However, despite the attractiveness of a more direct route and low gradients, the
construction costs of a valley floor alignment may be significantly higher than a ridge top
alternative, because of the high costs of bridging and cross-drainage. On socio-economic
grounds, valley routes may be less favored if the majority of villages are located on ridge
tops.
For each of the possible alternative alignment corridors, the existing maps should be studied
and aerial photographs examined with a stereoscope. From this study it will be possible to
assess the positive or negative influence of the following local factors:

Topographic, geologic, and physical
characteristics. Number, type and characteristics of
water courses Potential risk of slides, slope
instability or floods Human settlements affected by
the road; and
Environmental impact of the selected route.
On the basis of the study of the existing maps and aerial photography and of the criteria
mentioned in Section 3.1, aerial photography can be accomplished for the possible
alternative alignments. From this aerial photography, maps at a scale of 1:10,000 can be
produced for use in carrying out a more detailed desk study of the corridor and a
preliminary road alignment.
3.3.5 IDENTIFY CORRIDORS AND PROPOSE ALIGNMENT ALTERNATIVES

Dividing the future project road into distinct workable sections containing possible
alternative alignments can conclude the desk study of existing documentation and the site
visit and survey.
The proposed corridors along the above mentioned alternative alignments are next studied
and compared in the Preliminary Design. This should be accomplished at 1:50,000 scale
using the topographic maps.
The terrain level and its variation along the proposed alignment corridors are shown in the
longitudinal profile at scale 1:50,000/1:5,000 horizontal/vertical.
The possible alternatives are next evaluated by the following criteria:
• What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally the shortest
distance is preferable.
• What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the
least severe grade alternative is preferred. However, the relation of minimum
grade may be the inverse to the shortest length route.
• Which alternative more closely follows an existing road or track? This makes
survey and construction easier and may indicate the route of least earthworks.
• Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through,
for instance, rolling terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower
vehicle operating costs and maintenance costs, and less severe horizontal
curves than a route through mountainous terrain.
• Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an
alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures.
• Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition? Which alignment
minimizes the need to demolish buildings and houses?
• What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the
total aggregate length of these bridges?
• Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding
area?
• Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and
construction

3.4 Site Visit and Survey
After the preliminary office work, a site visit must be made to the road. Where terrain
constraints made such a visit problematic, a flight can be made over the terrain and all
potential routes can be directly examined from the air.
When potential route corridors have been identified from the desk study analysis, then a
reconnaissance survey is usually employed to verify interpretations, to help determine the
preferred corridor, and to identify factors that will influence the feasibility design concept
and cost comparisons.
A team consisting of the following personnel should make a site inspection visit:
Highway Engineer
Soils & Materials Engineer
Hydrologist
Chief Surveyor
Bridge/Structures Engineer
Environmentalist/Sociologist, and
Local Administrative Personnel.
In most cases, the reconnaissance survey will significantly modify the desk study
interpretations. Reconnaissance survey data can either be recorded onto topographical maps
or aerial photographs.
During the reconnaissance survey, the following information should be determined:
• Terrain classification;
• The location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock
out crops, and any other features not identified by the desk study;
• Slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial
slopes (cutting for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region);
• Slope stability and the location of pre-existing land slides;
• Rock types, geological structures, dip orientations, rock strength and rip ability;
• Percentage of rock in excavations;
• Materials sources, presence and distribution;
• Water sources;
• Soil types and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and
colluvium is useful at this stage);
• Soil erosion and soil erodibility;
• Slope drainage and groundwater conditions;
• Drainage stability and the location of shifting channels and bank erosion;
• Land use and its likely effect on drainage, especially through irrigation;
• Likely foundation conditions for major structures;
• Approximate bridge spans and the sizing and frequency of culverts;

• Flood levels and river training/protection requirements;
• Environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts and
socio-economic considerations;
• Verify the accuracy of the information collected during the desk study;
• The possibility of using any existing road alignments including local re-
alignment
• Improvements; and
• Information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed
corridors, including the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics,
slopes, vegetation, erosion and scouring.
During the site inspection the team should examine all alternatives. This information can be
combined with the results of the desk study to determine the most appropriate alignment
alternative.
3.5 Topographic and Geomorphologic Characteristics
This section of the report concerns the main geomorphologic, geological and geotechnical
features of the corridor where the different route alternatives are located.
The general study of the corridor should be conducted using the 1:50,000 scale aerial photos,
while the local conditions of rocks and soils characteristics should come from the field
survey.
The aerial photo study should be supported by the "Geological Map of Somaliland," the
Hydrogeological Map of Somaliland," the "Atlas of Somaliland," and the topographical
maps at scale 1:250,000 and 1:50,000.
3.5.1 TOPOGRAPHY AND HYDROLOGY
The report on the corridor selection should provide details relating to the general topography
of the region. Major features include the Western and South Eastern Highlands; Lowlands;
and Coastal Areas. Details are provided of relief, and general stream directions and drainage
patterns are given.
3.5.2 GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS
Details of geology are obtained to gain an appreciation of the nature and possible sources of
construction materials; to determine the need for rock earthworks; and to anticipate
pavement structure requirements. The general geology through which the route passes
should be described. Similarly a tectonic investigation can reveal both material sources and
areas that should be designed taking into account possible seismic activity. The tectonic
investigation is only necessary in proven earthquake areas as determined by the Atlas of
Somaliland, for example.

3.5.3 ROCK OUTCROPS AND SOILS
Rock outcrops should also be mapped, identified by type, and evaluated as possible material
sources. Similarly sedimentary rocks in riverbeds can be evaluated as material sources and
for foundation strength at possible river crossings. Types of soils encountered can be
identified and mapped not only to estimate pavement structure requirements but to identify
possible borrow material sources.
3.5.4 STABILITY AGAINST S LIDING AND EROSION
In stable areas where there are possible occurrences of landslides, slips, earth flows, and rock
falls should be identified. These areas are to be avoided if possible in identifying alignment
alternatives. Similarly cuts on steep slopes in volcanic rock should be avoided as this may
result in collapse of the hillside. Areas of unstable soil and marked erosion should also be
avoided.
3.5.5 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

The survey along the route corridor should indicate adequate availability of construction
materials, as follows:
Embankment: Materials for construction of embankment can be obtained from highly

weathered and decomposed basalt or other formations like trachytes and conglomerates.
Such sources need to be identified along the route.
Gravel Aggregate: Natural gravel aggregate is available in some riverbeds and banks.
Formations such as regoliths can supply natural aggregate, but the fine content and the
grading curve must be carefully ascertained. Crushed Aggregate, essential for concrete
works and for pavement surface layers requires fresh and hard rock such as basalt.
3.6 Recommendations
The route corridor selection process concludes with detail as to why a certain alignment
alternative was selected and why others were considered, but rejected.
All the selected alignment options, however, need to be considered in the Preliminary
Engineering Design, and cost estimates prepared for comparison.
It will then be possible to select for the most viable route to be selected, taking due account
of construction costs, benefits to the local population, and length of travel, for each
alternative.
3.7 Report Outline

The route corridor selection report should be presented in the following report format
outline:

Chapter 3
Route Corridor Selection
1. Introduction
1.1 General
1.2 Requirements of the TOR
2. Study of Maps, Aerial Photography and Literature
3. Proposed Corridors
3.1 Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors
3.2 Proposed Alignment Alternatives: A, B, and C
3.3 Estimation of Bridge Requirements: A, B, and C
3.4 Estimated Road Link Lengths: A, B, and C
4. Site Visit and Survey
4.1 General: Condition of Existing Road, if Any
4.2 First Section
4.3 Second Section
4.4 Third Section
5. Towns Passed Through by Project Road
6. Orographic and Morphological Characteristics
6.1 General
6.2 Morphology and Hydrology of the Area
6.3 Geology (Tectonics if required)
6.4 Field Survey
6.4.1. Introduction
6.4.2. Rock Outcrops and Soils
6.4.3. Slope Stability and Erosion
6.4.4. Construction Materials
7. Socio-Environmental Impact of the Project on the Area
7.1 General
7.2 Alternative Alignments
7.3 Impact of Construction
8. Recommendations
8.1 Alternative A
8.2 Alternative B
8.3 Alternative C
8.4 Summary

Chapter 4
4 SURVEY R EQUIREMENTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the survey requirements associated with the geometric design process.
Survey data for design purposes consists of mapping of sufficient detail for the level of
design being undertaken. In some instance a digital terrain model (DTM) for use with
computer design software may be required.
The survey data product is dependent on project type and can be collected by aerial
photography, field topographical survey, or a combination of the two.
The following factors should be considered when determining the survey data required:
1. Size and scope of the project

2. Time requirements to move from data collection to the start of design
3. Estimated data collection costs
4. Level of accuracy and detail needed
The project designer is responsible for identifying the appropriate survey data requirements
(type of data, accuracy, area of coverage). The project designer is also responsible for
obtaining the survey data and for selecting the method of data collection.
4.2 Method of Data Collection: Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey
Topographical ground survey has the capability of achieving greater accuracy than
photogrammetry. The effectiveness of aerial photography depends on location (urban or
rural), ground cover, etc.
Photogrammetry is sufficiently accurate for most applications and can be more cost effective
for all but small projects. For mapping and DTMs, photogrammetry is usually the preferred
choice. However, if a project is short, has dense foliage, or requires only mapping of limited
features, a field survey is the logical choice. Some fieldwork will be required for most
projects to compile property lines, right-of-way (ROW) information, utility, and culvert,
tree, building, bridge and sign data unavailable through aerial photography.
Elevations of photogrammetric DTM points on hard surfaces are accurate to within ±60
millimeters. If more precise vertical accuracy is required for areas of a project, the data must
be obtained through a field survey. If precise vertical accuracy is required, such as for
highway pavement elevations, or if obstructed views occur, photogrammetric data can be
supplemented with survey elevations. It is recommended that survey data be collected before
the photogrammetric data to help assure the accuracy of the DTM. Table 4-1 provides
guidelines for when photogrammetry, survey, or a combination of both should be used. It
must be noted that this table is a guideline only, and that appropriate methods also depend on
factors such as project location (rural or urban), and length.

4.3 Survey Data Products
While survey data requests will typically originate from the unit responsible for the design,
they should also serve the requirements of Construction. The project designer has the
responsibility to ensure that survey data obtained by Design meets Construction needs,
eliminating the need for additional pre-construction ground data.
Mapping used for design development and right-of-way is generally provided at 1:2000
scale. In addition, 1:500 scale mapping can be provided for highly complex projects or
bridge sites.
If vertical data is required, it is provided as DTMs that have replaced contours and cross
sections. DTMs allow more flexibility for the designer and potential follow-up use in
construction. Using the DTM approach, earthwork quantities for payment purposes can be
calculated based on the final design centerline. With DTM data, cross sections for stakeout
purposes can be generated at any desired interval and with any desired station numbering.
DTMs should be requested if the project will be designed using CADD design software, if
cross sections along multiple alignments are required, or if Construction needs require
centerline cross section data.
Photogrammetric mapping products consist of 2D graphic files and 3D DTM surfaces (i.e.
*.ttn or *. dtm files) for use in the CADD system.
Field survey data must be obtained using total stations or GPS, the output from which should
be compatible with the CADD system to be used.
Table 4-1: Survey Data Requirements
Appropriate Collection Typical

Project Type
Terrain Data Method Bandwidth
1 2 2
New Construction and Mapping & DTM Photogrammetry 100 m - 150 m
Reconstruction
1 2 2
Resurfacing & Rehabilitation Mapping & DTM Photogrammetry 25 m - 120 m
1 2
Resurfacing & Rehabilitation Mapping & DTM Survey 25 m - 120 m
3
Over 0.5 km long No Mapping N/A N/A
1
Under 0.5 km long Mapping & DTM
Resurfacing (may be required) Survey 25 m - 100 m
1 2 2
Intersection Reconstruction Mapping &DTM Photogrammetry 100m - 150 m
New Bridge & Bridge
4 1 2
Replacement Mapping & DTM Survey 100 m - 150 m
3
Over 6 ha No Mapping NA 100 m – 150 m
Under 6 ha
1. Mapping scales will be 1:2000
2. If accuracy greater than 60 mm is required, the DTM needs to be supplemented with surveyed elevations
3. Instead of new mapping, consider the use of record plans and photo enlargements supplemented by field survey checks.
4. For bridges, mapping scales must be enlarged. The bandwidth should be a distance up/downstream consistent with the RDA Bridge
Design Manual-2014.

4.4 Survey Data by Project Type
Table 4-1 shows the amount and type of survey data that is generally required and the
method of data collection for each project type. Some projects may require a combination of
products. The table shows typical bandwidths by project type. These should be kept as
narrow as possible but should be usable for ROW mapping. The bandwidth can vary within a
project and the DTM band can be smaller than the mapping band.
Bridge rehabilitation projects will generally not require any terrain data unless necessary for
major rehabilitation. When terrain data is necessary, use the same terrain guidelines used for
new bridges and bridge replacement projects.
Resurfacing and rehabilitation projects usually do not require project wide mapping.
However, limited data may be required such as pavement elevations where superelevation
adjustments are anticipated. Other projects may require very limited data such as pavement
and shoulder edges. If only limited data is needed then a field survey is preferred.
4.5 Field Surveys
Detailed ground surveys along the length of the proposed project roads should use the most
up-to-date surveying equipment such as total stations or GPS to examine the road alignment
and cross sections and any bridge sites and culvert sites that are considered necessary to
complete the detailed design and the estimation of quantities.
Since projects are to be carried out utilizing CADD, it is essential to organize the
topographic surveys as the first step of a coherent data collection - design chain. Therefore
the whole topographic survey should be made using total stations which will directly record
the alignment, profile, and cross section data on diskette files which will be retrieved by the
CADD system during the design stage. A control traverse should be established using GPS
or coordinated and tied into the national grid system. These points shall be referenced in the
field in permanent concrete posts and shall be shown on the plan and profile drawings.
The existing road centerline should be identified and staked every 20 meters. The
coordinates will be recorded automatically using Total Station theodolites.
The start and end of horizontal curves, and roadway cross sections will also be taken.
The following methodology will be used to establish the original setting out data for the
reestablishment of the centerline:
• The control traverse will be established, monumented, and the coordinates in X, Y,
Z accurately measured and tied in to the National Grid System. Concrete beacons
will be established at intervals of 150 - 300 meters. These beacons will be located as
close as possible to the limit of the road reserve and where one beacon is visible
from the other along the road.
• Using the established polygon network of beacons, each of the centerline points will
be coordinated.

• Using the method of least squares, the best-fit horizontal alignment through the
coordinated points will be established.
Cross sections will be leveled for each centerline point to a minimum of 25 meters distance
from the centerline. Road edges, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings and
embankments will be taken. Topographic survey information will be collected for an
adequate distance on each side of the centerline and cross sections at appropriate intervals,
depending on the type of terrain.
Each cross section will comprise such numbers of points as to enable it to properly define the
existing road and such other spots as are required to define the ground shape for an adequate
distance beyond the existing construction width. The data will be used to generate a Digital
Terrain Model (DTM) for the whole road. All pertinent features including buildings, drainage
structures details, built up areas, etc. will be recorded for inclusion on the design drawings.
New alignments will be recommended where inadequate horizontal sight distances and sharp
curves exist and wherever the existing route is not to the standards. Therefore, the vertical
and horizontal alignments shall be given due attention with respect to sight distance,
maximum grade, maximum length of grade criteria, and safety. In introducing new
alignments, major bridges and drainage structures as control points or as node points are to be
retained on the new centerline wherever they are in good condition. Should there be a need
for realignment of the existing road, topographic surveys along the chosen realignment will
be established. The centerline of the road will be defined every 20 meters interval.
Topographical cross-sections, extending at least 25 meters either side of the centerline, will
be taken at each of the centerline reference points.
Recommended bridge and major culvert sites will be surveyed and mapped at a scale of
1:500 with contours at 0.5 meters intervals or greater in the more severe sections. Each of the
site surveys will be tied to the elevation of the primary traverse.
Topographic data will be processed by the project computer system as work progress.
Detailed site investigation and surveys shall be carried out for areas susceptible to flooding or
landslide and at all recommended new or replacement drainage structure locations including
a sufficient length upstream and downstream to the structure. All topographical surveys
under taken shall be acceptable to international standards for such works.
Each survey crew will be equipped with an electronic total station, a three-prism line road,
and an electronic field book. The total station will have unlimited on-board data storage by
utilizing integrated circuit data storage cards. Each card, containing at least 32 KB of
memory, should be capable of storing 500 points. The use of an electronic field book will
allow the Total Station operator to code in descriptions and other important information for
each data point.

Survey teams can carry out the topographic field work requirements as follows:
• One team for the location of the control points, whether GPS or National Grid;
• One team to survey the center line and the longitudinal profile,
• One team to survey the cross sections, and
• One team for the land acquisition survey
The output from the Total Station and data collection is a computer file which contains
horizontal coordinate points, vertical elevations, and a description of all points needed to
develop a full topographic map of the area. The computer file must be capable of being
downloaded directly into a computerized design and drafting program. These programs
should then be able to generate, if so desired, a three-dimensional digital terrain model. The
plot can be checked and verified by the surveyors shortly after the fieldwork. The step-by-
step procedure to be used for data collection is as follows:
Base map information may be obtained from the Somaliland Road

Development Agency. The road is divided into survey subsections at a distance
of 2 km. A coordinate
system will be established for the roadway sections.
A Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey Control System will be used to
locate precisely the topographic control points required for the project. A series
of receiver stations will be used to generate these points with a high degree of
accuracy by measuring signals generated from a group of three or four
geosynchronous satellites. The establishment of the zero-zero coordinate point
will be determined after a review of the existing coordinate information.
A bench circuit will be run using accepted level procedures and degrees of
accuracy. Each benchmark will be monumented and assigned coordinate points.
Once horizontal and vertical controls are established, the survey crews will then
cross-section the roadway alignment. The width of each cross-section will be
dependent on the terrain of the roadway and the different natural and man-made
features. The minimum distance from centerline for cross-sectioning will be 25
meters. The number of points will depend on the topography, road lane
characteristics, project road features within the right-of-way, and as required for
the purpose of design and computations of quantities for earthwork and profile
course. Areas where existing roads cross the alignment and areas affected by
cross drainage will require additional topographic survey. Such supplementary
topographic survey will be carried out concurrently during the progress of
survey along the alignment.
4.6 Topography
All points of detail are to be located by a right-angle offset wherever possible, with chainage
and offset being recorded. Only when this method is not possible are other techniques such
as bearing and distance, to be used. Structures (buildings, bridges, culverts, etc.) are to be
checked by detailed face measurements. All physical features adjacent to the line whether
natural or artificial are to be recorded within a range of 25 meter either side of the centerline
in open country and in small villages (market centers) and towns.

4.7 Bench Marks
Standard benchmark leveling procedure is to be followed with the following limitations

observed:
• A benchmark is to be established every 300 - 500 meters along the line close to the
right of way, and at all major structures (bridges and box culverts) Bench marks
must be inter-visible (see Figure 4-1 Standard Bench Mark).
• Every benchmark is to be checked leveled by a forward run and a subsequent
backward run forming a closed "loop."
• The following standard of accuracy is to be maintained:
C K
Where C = maximum permissible error of closure in centimeters,
K = distance between bench marks in kilometers
This gives Table 4-2 for comparison of accuracy
Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys
K 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0

(km)
C 0.7 1.0 1.4 2.2 3.2
(cm)
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark

4.8 Profile and Cross Sections
Profile and cross-section leveling can be run simultaneously. All profiling is to be done by
direct leveling to two decimal places of a meter, and wherever practicable the cross section
levels are to be obtained in the same manner. Where impracticable direct leveling may be
replaced or extended by the use of either a hand level or Rhodes arc for cross-section work.
Where it is not possible to close a day's work on a permanent benchmark as in the case of
failing light, a sudden storm, etc. A Temporary Benchmark (TBM) shall be established from
which the work may be resumed.
Cross-sections shall be taken to a minimum distance of 25 meters each side of the centerline.
Profile leveling will be run between each pair of consecutive benchmarks, previously
established, and the leveler must close on each successive benchmark as a turning point. For
each succeeding length of profile any error from the preceding length shall be discarded, the
elevation of the intervening benchmark, previously established, being accepted and used for
the succeeding length of profile.
The disclosure on each previously established benchmark shall not exceed 1.5 centimeters.
Check that closure on each successive benchmark is within the prescribed tolerance. Where
the difference is outside this limit the run must be repeated.
4.9 Photogrammetry
The processes of detailed survey, alignment design and setting out are time consuming,
especially if changes to the alignment are made later owing to unforeseen ground conditions
or changing design criteria. The use of photogrammetry can speed up these procedures and
provide the flexibility to allow additional off-site engineering works such as access to
borrow pits, spoil disposal sites and slope drainage works, to be designed at a later date.
As an example, photogrammetry from aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale can yield

uncontrolled contour mapping at a maximum scale of 1:5,000, with contours at 5-meter
intervals. It is advisable to correct the contour model by establishing two ground control
points in each stereo pair, by tying points on the photographs either to the national or local
grid, or by GPS. The main problems associated with the use of photogrammetry relate to the
lack of ground definition in areas of shade, cloud or dense forest cover.
It may be worthwhile taking photography with an 80 percent photograph overlap in order to

be able to select an appropriate air base for the amount of exaggeration required. For
interpretation in areas of high relief the viewer would use every photograph in the run (80
percent overlap, giving a short air base and minimum relief exaggeration). For areas of low
relief the viewer could select every other photograph, to double relief exaggeration. In
extreme circumstances of very flat ground the viewer could select every third or even every
fourth photograph, doubling the relief exaggeration each time.
The scale of photography is an important factor to consider in the reliability and ground
resolution of the interpretation. Table 4-3 indicates the optimum scales of photography
required to perform various desk study and design tasks.

4.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design
With the route corridor confirmed, the alignment engineer, with a survey team, will flag the
approximate centerline. An approximate alignment should first be drawn onto
photogrammetrically plotted contour maps and enlarged prints of aerial photographs in the
office prior to embarking on detailed fieldwork.
Table 4-3: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks
Task Activity Optimum Air

Photo Scale
Feasibility Study:
Route corridor identification 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Terrain classification 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Drainage/Drainage Area mapping 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Landslide hazard mapping 1: 10,000 - 1: 20,000
Contour Mapping for preliminary estimation of quantities 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Preliminary Design:
Detailed interpretation of chosen corridor(s) for
geotechnical purposes 1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
Ground (contour) model for preliminary alignment design
and quantities 1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
Detailed Design
Ground (contour) model for detailed alignment design and
quantities 1: 5,000 - 1: 10,000
If slope stability is critical to the alignment, then geotechnical-mapping surveys should

be undertaken at scales of between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000. It will be easier for personnel
to locate themselves with the required accuracy if an approximate centerline has been
set out, but the engineer should be prepared to modify the location of the centerline in
the light of the geotechnical survey. In very difficult ground, these surveys should
ideally be carried out prior to the centerline flagging exercise using aerial photograph
enlargements or compass traverse as a means of location positioning.
With the alignment confirmed, detailed design of all subsequent works can proceed.
Design of the detailed vertical and horizontal alignments will require topographical
mapping at a scale of 1:1,000 with contour intervals at a maximum of 2 meters, using
ground survey, photogrammetry or a combination of the two. Ground survey may be
preferable at this stage due to the greater survey accuracy required. The use of
photogrammetry will require the establishment of a base line traverse and the
commissioning of air photography at a scale of between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. Plan
and profile drawings, and schedules of earthwork and retaining wall designs and
quantities can then be produced for contract documentation.

Chapter 5
5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

5.1 Introduction
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors: the
functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle; the traffic
volumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and character of the adjoining
land use; and economic and environmental considerations.
As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design does not have to be
constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrary, changes in the design are usually
required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the above factors,
whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
The design process is illustrated in Figure 5-1. The following text describes some of the
factors affecting design controls and criteria.
5.2 Road Functional Classification and Numbering
The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional

classes. The following are the functional classes with their description.
I. Trunk Roads (Class I)
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are

linked with Somaliland Major Cities by trunk roads (see Table A-1). They are numbered
with an "A" prefix: an example is the Hargeysa-Berbera Road (A3).. Trunk roads have a
present AADT ≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT (see Table 2-
1).
II. Link Roads (Class II)
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers,
must be linked between each other by link roads (see Table A-2). A typical link road has
over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
They are numbered with a "B" prefix.
III. Main Access Roads (Class III)
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads
(see Table A-3). First year AADTs are between 30-1,000. They are numbered with a "C"
prefix.

Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to
higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400.
They are numbered with a "D" prefix (see Table A-4).
V. Feeder Roads (Class V)
Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder
road. First year AADTs are between 0-100. They are numbered with an "E" prefix and are
presented in Appendix A.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of
intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.
The classification and description of all existing trunk, link and main access roads within the
country, including road name, distance, type of road and road numbering, are given in
Appendix A.

5.3 Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the
road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road,
having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
up to 5 percent).
ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions
in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).
ESCARPMENT: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain
types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback roadway
sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are considerable, with
transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent).
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher
standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either
flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust
their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with
transverse terrain.
It is often the case in Somaliland that the roadway can be designed to a higher speed than is
indicated by the transverse terrain type. For instance, an alignment could be chosen through
rolling terrain that gives essentially a flat highway configuration. Similarly, a narrow plateau
should be chosen for an alignment in otherwise mountainous terrain. The discrepancy arises
from an ability to choose a roadway longitudinal slope significantly superior to the
transverse slope. Under such circumstances, the Engineer should use his judgment in
assigning a higher design speed to the roadway segment.
Photographic representations of various terrain configurations are shown in Figures 5-2

through 5-9. Alignments that are superior to transverse terrain are those shown in Figures 5-
3, 5-6, and 5-8.

Figure 5-2 Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-3: Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment

Figure 5-4: Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-5: Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment

Figure 5-6: Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-7: Mountainous Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment

Chapter 5
Design Controls & Criteria Geometric Design Manual-2002
Figure 5-8: Escarpment Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment
Figure 5-9: Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment

5.4 Design Vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in
geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and
width. The road elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width,
horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
The present vehicle fleet in Somaliland includes a high number of four-wheel drive utility
vehicles and overloaded trucks. Until more detailed information becomes available regarding
the makeup of the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 5-1
should be used in the control of geometric design:
Table 5-1: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics
Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase (m) Min.

Vehicle (m) Design
Designation Height Width Length Front Rear Turning
Radius
(m)
4x4 Utility Vehicle DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.2 13.7
Combination
The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown in Figures 5-10 through 5-12, respectively.

Figure 5-10: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2)

Figure 5-11: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)

Chapter 5
Design Controls & Criteria Geometric Design Manual-2002
Figure 5-12: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m
overall) also Applicable for Truck (Tandem) Plus Trailer DV4
Roads conforming to Design Standards DS1 trough DS5 should be designed to

accommodate the most restrictive of the above design vehicle. Standards DS6 and DS7, two
lane roads should accommodate all but the semi-trailer combination DV4. Standards DS8
and DS9, for single lane roads should be designed similarly to DS6 and DS7; and Standard
DS10 roads need only accommodate the requirements for utility vehicle and passenger cars -
DV1.

5.5 Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use
For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors.
In such areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by
the presence of other vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right-
of-way constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations. However, of note is
the fact that the present speed limit through villages is 30 km/h. It is possible that this limit
will be increased in the future. A design speed through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h
shall be used, although such segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits
should not necessarily be used as design parameters.
5.6 Design Traffic Volume
A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the
design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based
in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly
affects features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or
section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average
daily traffic (AADT).
Using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design class, or
standard, is selected from Table 2-1, with reference to the design parameters associated with
that class as given in Tables 2-2 through 2-12.
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from feeder to main
collector to link the trunk roads. However the actual flows will vary from region to region
and it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to
over-design for the traffic levels actually encountered.
Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as was shown in Table 2-
1. The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day
(excluding motorcycles), and covers the design conditions for all single and dual
carriageway roads.
Although the levels of flow at which design standards change are based on the best current
evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries should be treated as approximate in the light
of uncertainties inherent in traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design
Traffic Flow shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than
the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For example, a road with a first
year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day rising to 1,100 vehicles per day in the last year of
it’s design life, should be constructed to Design Class DS4 rather than Design Class DS3
(see Table 2.1)
The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 200 - 1000 vehicles per day (DS4)
Design to the higher Design Class DS3 would result in an over-design of the road during
almost the whole of the life of the road and may provide a solution that was less than
economic.

It may be desirable, especially for primary roads, to develop geometric standards that are
consistent despite variations in traffic volumes. Conversely, a policy dependent on AADT
would result in a more economical allocation or resources. This dichotomy requires a special
attention of the engineer in choosing the geometric design parameters. Table 5-2 repeats the
overlaps that may exist between road functional classifications and AADTs.
Table 5-2: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT
Road Functional Design Standard No. Design Traffic Flow

Classification (AADT)
DS1 10,000 – 15,000
DS2 5,000 – 10,000

T
R
U DS3 1,000 – 5,000
L N
M I K
A N DS4 200 – 1,000
I K
N
C DS5 100 – 200
O A
L C
L C DS6 50 – 100
E E
C S DS7 30 – 75
F T S
E O
E R DS8 25 – 50
D
E
R DS9 0 – 25
DS10 0 – 15
5.7 Geometric Design Standards for Low Volume Roads
The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance than whether a road
exists and whether it is passable at all times.
Page 5-14 Ethiopian Roads Authority

In such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt inexpensive standards that enable the further
development of a system of such feeder roads at minimal cost. This policy encourages
overall national economic development.
5.8 Design Speed
The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to
the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with
a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained
to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the
geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed. The
design speeds given in Table 2-1 have been determined in accordance with the following
guidelines:
(i) Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.
(ii) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.
(iii) Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions.
Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of
operation.
(iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher
design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked
road in similar topography.
(v) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be effected
abruptly, but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed gradually. The
change in design speed should not be greater than one design speed step, and the section
with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to be clearly recognizable by
drivers (not, for example, just one single curve).
(vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.- from mountainous to flat
terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided
with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this is not possible,
i.e.- a Departure from Standards,
special attention shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble strips to
alert the driver to the changing conditions.
It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed
should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced
way, avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a
particular location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum
requirements.

Chapter 6
6 C ROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

6.1 Introduction
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage
features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are defined in the Definition portion of the
manual text; major elements are repeated here for clarity:
Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing
areas
Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes
For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. It may
also provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include
medians. Typical Cross Sections are illustrated in Appendix E of this manual. Bus lay-byes,
parking lanes, passing lanes, and viewing areas are presented in Chapter 14.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of
the terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular route because these controlling
factors vary. The basic requirements are, however, that changes in cross-section standards
shall be uniform within each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross-
section shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or isolated
changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity and
complicate construction operations.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in cross-section

standards, for example when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is not
economically feasible to replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs and
road markings is required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However, all
such narrow structures must be widened or replaced however when the width across the
structure is less than the adjacent carriageway width.
6.2 Lane Widths
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the
carriageway. Lane widths of 3.65m are used for Design Classes DS1 and DS2. The extra
cost of 3.65 m above that for 3.0 m is offset to some extent by a reduction in cost of shoulder
maintenance and a reduction in surface maintenance due to lessened wheel concentrations at
the pavement edges. The wider 3.65m lane also provides desired clearances between large
commercial vehicles on two-way rural highways.
Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for carriageway widths are
shown in Table 2-1 for all Road Design Standards.

Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added lanes
are discussed in the Chapters 12 and 13.
6.3 Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic,
animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support
of the pavement courses. Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural
environment are presented in Table 2-2. They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads
where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads
depending on the terrain and design classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for
a parking lane in urban/peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist. For unpaved
carriageways, the shoulders are included in the carriageway width given in Table 2-2.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a single bituminous
surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and
maintenance problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved
space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for
vehicles experiencing emergency repairs. It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian
traffic observed in the villages, traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement
weather, use the roadway. All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of
roadway safety.
The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban areas where a
provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization determines whether a
parking lane is required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.
For Design Standard DS3 roads, the engineer often needs to be observant and use his
discretion in defining the width of the shoulder. On market days, the urban center can cause
a high volume of pedestrian traffic commencing a significant distance outside of the center,
indicating a need to consider the higher limit over this distance. The actual shoulder width
provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of non-
motorized traffic for each road section.
In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the
shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork – e.g. at
escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced through the Departure from Standard
process presented in Chapter 2.
6.4 Normal Crossfall
Normal crossfall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface
drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to
shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum
acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from
the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material
starts to become a problem.

The normal crossfall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads.
Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the
roadway. The precise choice of normal crossfall on unpaved roads will vary with
construction type and material rather than any geometric design requirement. In most
circumstances, crossfalls of 4 percent should be used, although the value will change
throughout the maintenance cycle. The recommended applications of normal crossfall are
given in Tables 2-3 to 2-12. For shoulder crossfall in superelevated conditions, refer to
Section 8.8.
6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the
slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of the
slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope, forming a ditch).
Figure 6-1 illustrates these three regions.
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the hazard
potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
(1) HINGE POINT
CARRIAGEWAY
(2) SIDESLOPE
(5) BACKSLOPE
(4) DITCH BOTTOM
SHOULDER
(3) TOE OF SLOPE
Figure 6-1: Designation of Roadside Regions

Source: AASHTO
Refer to Table 6-1 for details of side slopes and back slopes.
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as recoverable, non-
recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter.
Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them
enough to return to the roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should
not extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.

A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most
motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles on
such slopes typically can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and
1:4 generally fall into this category.
Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of these slopes, the clear
zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear runout area at the base is desirable.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3
generally fall into this category.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations, height of
cut or fill, and economic considerations. Further, the guideline in this chapter may be most
applicable to new construction or major reconstruction. On maintenance and rehabilitation
projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the roadway itself. It may not be cost-effective
or practical because of environmental impacts or limited right-of-way to bring these projects
into full compliance with the side slope recommendations provided in this guide.
Table 6-1 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according to the
height of fill and cut, and the material.
Table 6-1: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal
Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description

Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4
*Move ditch away from fill as shown in Figure 6-2
However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns applicable
standards in rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost. Note also that certain soils that
may be present at subgrade may be unstable at 1:2 side slopes, and for these soils a higher
standard will need to be applied. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified
slope stability problems should be addressed as a final design issue.
6.6 Roadside Ditches
For detailed design of roadside ditches, refer to RDA Drainage Design Manual -2014.
However, a summary of minimum ditch dimensions is given as follows. Minimum depth of
ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a
“v-ditch” configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be no less
than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table 6-1.

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils.
Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of
the embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in
Figure 6-2. The ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.
Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils
6.7 Clear Zone
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an
encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat,
traversable, stable slopes will minimize overturning accidents, which are usually severe.
Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas are options in the
development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard cannot be
eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason, consideration should be
given to delineating the feature so it is readily visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery area that is
as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width should be a minimum
of 15 meters each side from the edge of the roadway for the higher road standards.
For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced as practical. It should extend beyond
the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and the
edge of the carriageway should normally be not less than 1.5 meters. At existing pipe
culverts, box culverts and bridges, the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if
this clearance is not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert
installations, and extensions to same, must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the
edge of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the
edge of the carriageway.
6.8 Right-of-Way
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width and to
enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way
depends on the cross section elements of the highway, topography and other physical

controls together with economic considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire
sufficient right-of-way to accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate
border areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both rural
and developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.
Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the right
of the carriageway. It should always be determined and shown on the final design plans of
road projects.
Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are given in Tables 2-3
through 2-12. In mountainous or escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth that
the right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side to the other top of cut.
Additional areas required for outlets etc., should be provided in a manner that will not
endanger the future integrity of the drainage facility and will provide adjoining land owners
restricted use of this land after completion of the road.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for economic,
financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing
development or when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that the right-of-way
should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from the edges of the road works.
However, where this occurs, it is advisable to restrict building activity along the road to
prevent overcrowding, to preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight
distances at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building line to building line
should be a minimum of 15m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve width above the
given values.
6.9 Four-Lane and Divided Roads
Mention was made in Chapter 5 regarding traffic volumes and the need to increase the
roadway to a four-lane facility when a certain volume is reached.
It is also the case that some cities and villages have included a four-lane roadway as a
feature in their master plans.
Four lane and divided roads are required when the design traffic volume is sufficient to
justify their use. They are also frequently used in urban/peri-urban areas.
A minimum median width of 5.0 meters is required to allow the provision of left-turning
lanes outside of the adjacent carriageway, and to avoid having a turning passenger vehicle
from the minor road protrude into the through lanes. Geometric Standards for four lane
roads are given in Tables 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3.

6.10 Single Lane Roads
For low traffic volume roads (<100ADT), single lane operation is adequate as there will be
only a small probability of vehicles meeting, and the few passing maneuvers can be
undertaken at very reduced speeds using either the shoulder (DS6 and DS7) or passing bays
(DS8 to DS10). Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, these maneuvers can
be performed without hazard, and the overall loss in efficiency brought about by the reduced
speeds will be small, as only a few such maneuvers will be involved.
The lowest design standards (DS8, DS9 and DS10) will not allow passing and overtaking to
occur on the carriageway and passing bays must be provided. The increased width at passing
bays should be such as to allow two design vehicles to pass, i.e. a minimum of 5.0 meters
width, and vehicles would be expected to stop or slow to a very slow speed.
Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 meters depending on the terrain
and geometric conditions. However, adjacent passing bays must be intervisible. Account
should be taken of sight distances, the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing bays
and the potential difficulty of reversing. In general, passing bays should be constructed as the
most economic locations as determined by terrain and ground conditions, such as transitions
from cuttings to embankment, rather than at precise intervals.
The length of individual passing bays will vary with local conditions and the type of design
vehicle but, generally, a length of 20 meters including tapers will cater for most commercial
vehicles.
Significant cost savings may be realized in mountainous and escarpment terrain by

incorporating short lengths of DS8 standard within a DS6 road. This Departure from
Standard may be economically justified, especially in escarpment terrain, for design traffic
flows of less than 100 vehicles per day. However, appropriately placed, intervisible passing
bays are essential to ensure the free flow of traffic.
6.11 Typical Cross Sections & standard cross sections
Typical cross sections are illustrated in RDA Standard Detail Drawings-2014 and Standard
cross sections for the 10 standard classes of roads are illustrated in Appendix E of this
manual.

Chapter 7
7 SIGHT DISTANCES
7.1 General Considerations
Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For
highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can
control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected
object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to
enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without risk of
accident.
Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight distance at frequent
intervals and for substantial portions of their length (see Table 7-2). The length and interval
of passing sight distance should be compatible with the criteria established in the chapter 3
for the specific highway design classifications.
7.2 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The
minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into
account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The
formula is:
d (0.278)(t)(V) 2
V
254f
where
d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V= initial speed (km/h)
F= coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)
Table 7-1: Sight Distances
Passing Sight Reduced Passing

Design Speed Coefficient Stopping Sight
Distance (m) Sight Distance for
(km/h) of Friction (f) Distance (m)
from formulae design (m)
20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425

The coefficient of friction values shown in Table 7-1 have been determined from test results
such as those shown in Figure B-1 of Appendix B, using the lowest results of the friction
tests. The values shown in the fourth column of Table 7-1 for minimum stopping sight
distance are rounded from the above formula.
If terrain or right-of-way problems result in an inability to meet these criteria, right-of-way

must be obtained and/or geometrics improved to meet this important safety element.
Alternatively in rare cases it may be necessary to seek a Departure from Standard, and here a
reduction would require lowering the design speed in the section and provision of proper
signage.
7.3 Control of Sight Distance
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight
lines (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2):
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag
Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight
distance (see Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves
Relevant formulae are as follows:

o
Sight Line (S) = 2R sin ∆ where ∆ = Deflection angle ( )
2
Middle ordinate (M) = R(1-cos ∆ )
2
o
Example: Radius = 1000 meters, ∆ = 20 ;
S = 2R sin ∆ M = R (1 – cos ∆)
2 2
0 o
= 2(1000)(sin 10 ) = 1000(1- cos 10 )
= 347 meters = 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel.
7.4 Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to
stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-
meter safety distance. The resultant distance is that shown in Table 7-1, doubled, plus 10
meters.
Example:
Design speed = 50 km/hr. From Table 7-1
SSD = (55 x 2) + 30 = 140 meters
7.5 Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.

Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised
in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in
the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction d2
= distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver d4
= distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d 1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d 2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d 3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent
on ambient speeds as per Table 7-2:
Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds
Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

d3 (m) 30 55 80 100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less

the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d 4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Resulting passing sight distances are as indicated in Table 7-1.

The usual values resulting from application of the formulae are reduced in this manual, as it
is deemed appropriate to address the distances covered by twice the d 4 distance and the
clearance distance d 3. A driver finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the
passing maneuver can choose to abort the maneuver (see Figure 7-4). Values for Minimum
Passing Sight Distance at various design speeds are given in the fifth column of Table 7-1.
Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance

A method of measuring and recording sight distances on plans is given in Appendix C.
7.6 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage
of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the minimum needed
for passing. This is important in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distance, as in the
lower part of Figure C-1 of Appendix C, it is a simple process to determine the percentage of
length of highway with a given sight distance or greater.
Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way single roadway roads.
Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be
provided for as much of the road length as possible within financial limitations.
Table 7-3 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be
provided, labeled percent passing opportunity.
Table 7-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN
DESIGN
Urban/Peri-
STANDARD Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Urban
DS2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%
DS3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%
DS4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS5 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS6 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%
DS7 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
8.1 General
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the
circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the superelevation section. These elements
are presented in detail in the following text.
8.2 Tangent Sections
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but
are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better
visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the
danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas,
such as on the Awash- Djibouti Road, long tangents have been shown to increase driver
fatigue and hence cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course of the
horizontal design. The maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0
kilometers.
8.3 The Circular Curve
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by superelevation of the roadway and/or the side
friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum
horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used:
2
R min V D
127(e f)
Where
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e= Maximum superelevation (%/100)
f= Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, and Figure 8-1)
Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation
Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Radius R (m)
Side Friction 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)

Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation (Urban Streets)
Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 35 60 100 150 215 320 490 810
Radius R .(m)
Side Friction 0.40 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)
Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction coefficients
are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface, weather
conditions, and type and condition of tires. Tables 8-1 and 8-2 were developed based on the
results of several studies. Figure 6-1 illustrates the graphical results of those studies for rural
highways. As the driver in an urban environment tolerates a higher degree of discomfort, the
values of side friction in Table 8-2 differ from those in Table 8-1, particularly at lower speeds.
Figure 8-1: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways
Example: V = 100 km/hr, emax = 8% f = 0.12 (from Table 8-1):

R 100
2
127(0.08
393.7 meters, round to 395 meters
0.12)
Other equations used in the calculation of horizontal curve elements are given below and
illustrated in Figure 8-2.

Elements of a Circular Curve
1) ∆ : Deflection Angle by Arc Definition (in

degrees)
2) R : Radius of Curve by Arc Definition

∆
3) T (Tangent Distance) T R tan
2
ª ∆ º
4) E (External Distance) E R « Sec − 1»
¬ 2 ¼
L (Curve Length) L ∆ 2Π
5) R
360
M ∆
6) M (Middle Ordinate) R 1 − cos
2
∆
7) C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.) C 2R sin
2 Figure 8-2: Curve Elements
8) Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station P.C.= P.I. – T
9) Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station P.T. = P.C.+ L
Example:
o
A curve has a deflection angle of ∆ = 23 18’ 02”, and a Radius of 1432.6m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate tangent distance (T), external distance (E), curve
length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).
∆ 23 18'02'
T R tan (1432.6) tan 1432.4(.2026)
295.35meters 2 2
ª º
E ∆ « 1 » 1432.4(.02103)
R sec − 1 1432.6 « » − 1 30.12meters
2 « ∆»
« cos
¬
»
2 ¼
L ∆ R 1432.6 2
2Π 23.3 3.14 582.51meters
360 360

P.C.= P.I. – T = 5+053.87 – 295.35 = 4 + 758.52
P.T. = P.C. + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.51 = 5+341.00
The desirable standards shown in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 are based on these formulae.
Minimum radius is also dependent on maximum superelevation as given in section 8.8.
Tables 8-1 and 8-2 list the minimum radii for horizontal curves for maximum super-
elevation rates of 8 percent and 4 percent, respectively.
Note that 4 x 4 utility vehicles, buses and trucks, and trucks with trailers (DV1, DV2/3,
and DV4) require minimum design turning radii of 7.3, 12.8, and 13.7m, respectively.
As it is not practically possible to exclude any of these categories from the lower
standard roads, and as a certain amount of tolerance is required for safe operations, the
minimum horizontal curve radius of 15m is specified in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 for all
design standards. The result is that a curve with an absolute minimum radius of 15m
shall be constructed (except at switchback curves- see following text).
The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as

possible. Isolated sharp curves on an otherwise straight alignment are dangerous (see
Figure 8-3). Increasing severity of horizontal curvature should be affected gradually.
Particular care should be taken to avoid sharp curves at the ends of long straight
sections.

Figure 8-3: Isolated Curves

8.4 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage may
be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three cases of
successive curves are (see Figure 8-4):
• Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction

• Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction
• Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening
tangent section
Figure 8-4: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short tangent between two curves in
opposite directions) should be avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to
remain within his lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves adequately, and this
may result in erratic operation.
The "broken-back" arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in the
same direction) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of way
conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves in the
same direction. This also creates problems with superelevation and drainage.

The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the
driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve.
Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.
Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are
found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve. Where the use of compound
curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; i.e. R1 should not exceed 1.5 R2. A
compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or a
tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred (see Section 8.8).
8.5 Isolated Curves
Long tangent roadway segments, joined by an isolated curve designed at or near the
minimum radius, result in unsafe operations, as a driver will anticipate derivable speeds in
excess of the design speed. Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards
in such conditions. For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radius as shown in
Tables 2-2 through 2-11 shall be increased by 50 percent. This will result, generally, in the
ability to negotiate the curve at a speed approximately 10 km/h higher than the design
speed.
8.6 Minimum Length of Curve

For small changes of direction it is desirable to use large radius curves. This improves the
appearance of the road by removing rapid changes in edge profile. It also reduces the
tendency for drivers to cut the corners of small radius curves. Providing the curve radii are
sufficiently large, it may be possible to maintain a passing zone through a curve. The
o
minimum length of curve for a deflection angle of 5 or less is 300 meters.
8.7 Widening on Curves and Embankments
The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following
the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces
such problems.
Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on

tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is
required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle.
Table 8-3 below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening shall
generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the
transition curve and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve.
Widening is also required for Design Standards DS1 through DS5 at high fills for the
psychological comfort of the driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment shall be
added where both cases apply. The height of hill is measured from the edge of the shoulder
to the toe of the slope
Table 8-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills
Radius of Curve Curve Fill Widening

Curve (m) Widening: Widening: Two Height of fill (m) Amount (m)
Single Lane (m) Lanes (m)
>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0
120- 250 0.0 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 See section 8.8: Switchbacks
8.8 Switchback Curves
Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and
escarpment terrain. Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they
are generally outside of the standards for all road design standards DS1-DS10, and are
specified using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards section
(subchapter 2.2).
Switchback curves require a careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can
travel through the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the
design vehicles, as indicated in Figures 5-9 through 5-11. These figures show that the
minimum outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are 12.5m, 14.1m, and
12.5m, respectively. Minimum inner radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.
Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:

Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design
Standards DS1- DS3
Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for Design
Standards DS4- DS5
Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended to Design Standards
DS6- DS9
Figure 8-5 illustrates a switchback curve. For a design example, select Design
Standard DS6, which allows for only the passage of a single DV4 vehicle. By
superimposing Figure 3-11 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure 8-5 at the same scale,
it can be shown that the requirements are (see Figure 8-6):
R = 10m Ri = 6m Rs 14m

Thus, although the normal carriageway width for DS6 is 6.0m, at the switchback curve a
width of 8m is required.
Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve

Figure 8-6: Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle
Requirements vary depending on passage requirements, radius, deflection angle, and design
standard, and a template shall be used based on the design vehicle turning radii to ensure that
the vehicles can negotiate each switchback.
It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback. Gradient
parameters associated with a switchback curve are indicated in subchapter 9.5.
8.9 Transition Curves
The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition
curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt
introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular curves.

Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition curves
contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For large radius
curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not
normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for
certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient
justification for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant
would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curves has a
superelevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum superelevation. For major roads,
transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments having a design speed of
equal to or greater than 80 km/hr.
If the choice is made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as
the clothoid, shall be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to
the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of
the spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral.
In the case of a combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii, there
is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.
8.10 Superelevation
Factors limiting selection of higher values are as follows. Low friction values may prevail
with thin layers of mud on the pavement surface, with oil spots, and with high speeds and
sufficient depth of water on pavement surface to permit hydroplaning. Account has to be
taken of the situation where truck and heavily and/or badly loaded vehicles move slowly due
to poor mechanical condition.
In urban areas where traffic congestion or extensive marginal development acts to curb top
speeds, it is common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of superelevation, usually 4
percent. Similarly, either a low maximum rate of superelevation or no superelevation is
employed within important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly
because of turning and crossing movements, warning devices, and signals. Superelevation is
a requirement for all standards of roads.
8.11 Superelevation Runoff
In alignment design with spirals the superelevation runoff is effected over the whole of the
transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by
removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a
length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent runout). Between the TS and SC (the
superelevation runoff) the traveled way is rotated to reach the full superelevation at the SC.
This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular
curve has full superelevation, as shown in Figure 8-7.

Figure 8-7: Spiral Curve Transition
In design of curves without spirals the superelevation runoff is considered to be that length
beyond the tangent runout. Empirical methods are employed to locate the superelevation
runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC).
Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent
approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure 8-8.
Figure 8-8 Circular Curve Transition
Tables 8-4 and 8-5 give both superelevation rates and length of runoff for horizontal curves
at different speeds for 8 percent and 4 percent maximum superelevation, respectively.

8.12 Shoulder Superelevation
Figure 8-9 depicts shoulder superelevation rates corresponding to carriageway

superelevation rates. The figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of superelevated
curves, the shoulder superelevation matches the roadway superelevation. On the high side
(outer shoulder), the superelevation is set such that the grade break between the roadway and
the shoulder is 8 percent. An exception to this occurs at a maximum superelevation of 8
percent, where the resultant shoulder superelevation would be an undesirable flat
configuration. Here the superelevation is set at -1% to drain the shoulder.
Note: For the Design classes DS4 to DS10 the shoulder may be sloped with the carriageway, but the shoulder
should then be surfaced on the outside of the curve.
Figure 8-9: Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads)

Vd =30km/h Vd=40 km/h Vd=50 km/h Vd =60 km/h Vd=70 km/h Vd=85 km/h Vd=100 km/h Vd= 120 km/h
R e e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)
7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56 2.4 101
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.1 56 2.9 101
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.2 47 2.6 56 3.5 101
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.5 47 3.4 56 4.6 101
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.1 39 2.6 47 3.6 56 4.9 101
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.8 47 3.8 56 5.2 101
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.4 39 3.0 47 4.1 56 5.6 101
1000 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.2 33 2.8 39 3.5 47 4.8 56 6.5 101
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.4 33 3.1 39 4.2 47 5.2 56 7.1 101
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.7 33 3.4 39 4.6 47 5.7 56 7.6 103
700 NC 0 RC 22 2.2 28 3.0 33 3.8 39 5.1 47 6.3 56 8.0 108
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.6 28 3.4 33 4.3 39 6.5 47 6.9 56 Rmin = 665
500 NC 0 2.2 22 3.0 28 3.9 33 4.9 39 7.2 47 7.8 56
400 RC 17 2.7 22 3.6 28 4.7 33 5.7 39 7.8 51 8.0 64
300 2.1 17 3.4 22 4.5 28 5.6 34 6.7 44 8.0 55 Rmin = 395
250 2.5 17 4.0 22 5.1 28 6.2 37 7.3 48 Rmin = 270
200 3.0 17 4.6 24 5.8 31 7.0 42 7.9 52
175 3.4 17 5.0 26 6.2 33 7.4 44 8.0 52
150 3.8 18 5.4 28 6.7 36 7.8 47 Rmin = 175
140 4.0 19 5.6 29 6.9 37 7.9 47
130 4.2 20 5.8 30 7.1 38 8.0 48
120 4.4 21 6.0 31 7.3 39 Rmin = 125 e
110 4.7 23 6.3 32 7.6 41 max = 8.0%
100 4.9 23 6.5 33 7.8 42 R = radius of curve
90 5.2 25 6.9 36 7.9 43
80 5.5 26 7.2 37 8.0 43
V = assumed design speed
70 5.9 28 7.5 39 Rmin = 80 e = rate of superelevation
60 6.4 31 7.8 40 L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
50 6.9 33 8.0 41
40 7.5 36 Rmin = 50 NC = normal crown section
30 8.0 38 RC = remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope
Rmin=30
Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10m to permit simpler

calculations
Table 8-4: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%

Vd=30km/h Vd=40 km/h Vd=50 km/h Vd =60 km/h Vd=70 km/h Vd=85 km/h Vd=100 km/h
R e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)
7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.2 56
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.1 47 2.6 56
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.2 47 2.7 56
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.3 47 2.8 56
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.5 47 2.9 56
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.7 47 3.2 56
1000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.9 47 3.4 56
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.1 33 2.4 39 3.2 47 3.5 56
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.3 33 2.5 39 3.4 47 3.7 56
700 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.5 33 2.7 39 3.5 47 3.9 56
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.1 28 2.7 33 2.9 39 3.7 47 4.0 56
500 NC 0 RC 22 2.3 28 2.9 33 3.1 39 3.9 47 Rmin = 490
400 NC 0 2.1 22 2.5 28 3.3 33 3.4 39 4.0 47
300 RC 17 2.3 22 2.8 28 3.6 33 3.8 39 Rmin = 285
250 RC 17 2.6 22 3.0 28 3.8 33 3.9 39
200 2.3 17 2.8 22 3.3 28 3.9 33 Rmin = 215
175 2.4 17 2.9 22 3.5 28 4.0 33
150 2.5 17 3.1 22 3.7 28 Rmin = 150
140 2.6 17 3.2 22 3.8 28
130 2.6 17 3.3 22 3.8 28
120 2.7 17 3.4 22 3.9 28 e
110 2.8 17 3.5 22 4.0 28 max = 4.0%
100 2.9 17 3.6 22 4.0 28 R = radius of curve
90 3.0 17 3.7 22 Rmin = 100 V = assumed design speed
80 3.2 17 3.8 22
70 3.3 17 3.9 22 e = rate of superelevation
60 3.5 17 4.0 22 L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
50 3.7 18 Rmin = 60
40 3.9 19 NC = normal crown section
Rmin=35 RC = remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope
Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of

10meters to permit simpler calculations
Use of emax = 4.0% should be limited to urban conditions
Source:
AASHTO
Table 8-5: Superelevation Rates and Length of

Chapter 9
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
9.1 Introduction
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by
sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives values
for maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages;
develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane; and provides vertical clearance
standards.
9.2 Vertical Curve Formula
Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients.
The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of change
of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the form:
r 2 g1x elevation of
g2 − g1 rx
y BVC
L 2
Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = end of the vertical curve
y
G*Lªxº2
A related formula is: « »
200 ¬ L ¼
Where
y =vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x =horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G =algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L =length of vertical curve (meters).
Examples of crest and sag vertical curves are shown in Figures 9-1 and 9-2, respectively.

Figure 9-1: Crest Curve
Figure 9-2: Sag Curve
Example: two grade lines intersect at Station 2+200 where the point of vertical intersection
(PVI) elevation is 239.5 m. The starting grade is –6 percent and the ending grade is +2
percent. The length of curve is 400 m. Compute the elevation at station 2+200.
g2 − g1 2 − (−6)
r 2.00%
L 400
400
BVC 2 200 − 2 000
2
x 2 200 − 2 000 200
Elev (B.V.C.) = 239.5 + 0.06(200) = 251.5
y
(−6)(2) 251.5
0.02(2)2 243.5
2

9.3 Crest and Sag Curves
The formulae for design of crest and sag vertical curves can be rather complex to apply, and
thus the design is best accomplished through the application of a computer program, or by
use of design charts. Figures 9-4 and 9-5 show the minimum length requirements for crest
and sag curves, respectively, for differing design speeds and algebraic differences in grade.
Example: Starting grade = -6%, ending grade = +2%, design speed = 100 km/hr.
Algebraic difference in grade = 8%, sag curve.
From Figure 9-2: 400-meter length
The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient
stopping sight distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined
by the formula:
K = L/A
Where
K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade
L = length of vertical curve (m)
A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on design
speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance,
and most importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables9-1 and 9-2, respectively, in terms
of “K” values.
Example: Design Speed = 100 km/h, Sag Curve from Table 9-2 K=
51 Algebraic difference in grades 2-(-6) = 8%
Minimum length L = AK = 8(51) = 408 meters
9.4 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves
Especially for trunk and link roads, where the algebraic difference between successive
grades is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, applying in the above
formulae, becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the grade line. For
this reason, where the algebraic differences in grade is less than 0.5 percent, a minimum
curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic reasons. A minimum length of 200 meters
is recommended, except in mountainous or escarpment terrain.
However, for lower standard roads (DS6-DS10), no minimum length should be specified. In
these cases, the curve lengths should be kept to a minimum to enhance drainage capabilities,
and the curve lengths should match as a minimum the K values
given in Tables 2-7 through 2-11 for stopping sight distance. Where the difference in grade
is less than 0.5 percent, the vertical curve is often omitte

For higher volume roads, a minimum length should be considered between vertical curves. If
the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short length, the result can be a
“hidden dip” profile, and/or a “roller coaster” type profile, as indicated in Figure 9-3.
Table 9-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves
Design Speed Rate of Vertical Curvature, K K, For Passing

(Km/h) for Stopping Sight Distance Sight Distance
20 2 10
30 3 50
40 5 90
50 10 130
60 18 180
70 31 250
85 60 350
100 105 480
120 210 680
Table 9-2: Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves
Design Speed Rate of Vertical Curvature, K K, For Passing

(km/h) for Stopping Sight Distance Sight Distance
20 2 10
30 4 50
40 8 90
50 12 130
60 18 180
70 25 250
85 36 350
100 51 480
120 74 680

Figure 9-3: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles

Figure 9-4: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves

9.5 Maximum Gradients
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity
and length of gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking
opportunities on the gradient and in its vicinity.
For very low levels of traffic flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other
references advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial
vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient, whilst two-wheel drive trucks can
successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden.
However, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are
underpowered and poorly maintained. Certain existing roads in fact are avoided and
underutilized by traffic due to an inability to ascend the existing grades. The RDA finds it is
in a position where it has no choice but to limit gradients based on the design vehicle of
existing fleet; although this translates into an added cost to develop the road infrastructure.
Maximum vertical gradient is therefore and extremely important criterion that greatly effects
both the serviceability and cost of the road. The design standards given in Tables 2-2
through 2-11 therefore include both desirable and absolute maximum values. These
performance considerations have formed the basic limiting criteria for gradients as shown in
Table 9-3.
Table 9-3: Maximum Gradients
Topography Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard

DS1 to DS3 DS4 & DS5 DS6 to DS8 DS9 DS10
D A D A D A D A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 6 5 7 7 9 7 9 7 9
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Escarpment 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
Note: First value shown is desirable value (D), second is absolute value (A).
When gradients of 10 percent or greater are reached, consideration should be given to the
possibility of paving these steep sections to enable sufficient traction to be achieved, as well
as for pavement maintenance reasons. However, this is clearly not practical for all classes of
roads, particularly at lower traffic volumes. There may be cases where paving greater than
10 percent will be economical. This depends on the standard and the service of the road to be
provided.
As traffic flows increase, the economic dis-benefits of more severe gradients, measured as
increased vehicle operating and travel time costs, are more likely to result
in economic justification for reducing the severity and/or length of a gradient. On the higher
design classes or road, the lower maximum recommended gradients reflect these economics

However, a separate economic assessment of alternatives to long or severe gradients should
be undertaken where possible or necessary.
Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid
severe reductions in the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that
requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an
absolute maximum gradient can be used. Employment of a gradient in excess of the
desirable maximum can only be authorized through the employment of a Departure from
Standard (see Section 2.2).
9.6 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks
Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain, there is a

need to reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The
maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for road standards
DS1-DS5, and 6 percent for DS6-DS10. Minimum allowable gradient is 0.5%.
Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the switchback curve must meet the
requirements of subsections 9.2 and 9.3, and the transitions must be completed outside of the
switchback curve. The sag curve above the switchback shall be made as long as possible to
allow ascending vehicles to accelerate at the flatter grade when leaving the switchback..
9.7 Minimum Gradients
The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients on
uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation
above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed
highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
9.8 Gradients Through Villages
In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent roadside
ditches in such circumstances can readily become clogged and ineffective. It is also the case
that they are deliberately blocked to provide access to adjacent property or to channel flow
for agricultural use. These practices lead to saturation of the sub-grade and hence pavement
failure, and should be avoided.
9.9 critical length of gradient
Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the
point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed.
Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade

upon which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a
downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length.
general, the critical length of gradient decreases, as gradient increases. This is shown in

Table 9-4 below. Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily
trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe passing distances on the rise, or a
climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
9.10 Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A climbing
lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing
congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic
stream. It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane.
The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed and traffic
volume.
Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to
overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating
costs, and increased safety. Benefits will increase with increases in gradient, length of
gradient, traffic flow, the proportion of trucks, and reductions in overtaking opportunities.
The effect of a climbing lane in breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving
truck will continue for some distance along the road.
Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are greater than
400 ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link
roads. Table 9-4 is prepared according to the criteria that a 20 km/h speed reduction is
expected for a truck. It is used in the design to indicate locations where climbing lanes are
recommended.
A climbing lane layout is shown in Figure 9-6. Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and,
where possible, should end on level or downhill sections where speed differences between
different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers. The
introduction and termination of a climbing lane shall be effected by tapers of lengths of 100
meters. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing lanes.
The starting point of the grade can be approximated as a point halfway between the
preceding vertical point of intersection and the end of the vertical curve.

Table 9-4: Climbing Lanes
Design Class Gradient Critical Length of Gradient Maximum

(%) above which a Climbing Desirable Length
Lane is required (m) of Gradient (m)
DS2 &3 4 300 900
DS2, 3 & 4 5 240 800
DS2, 3 & 4 6 200 700
DS2, 3 & 4 7 170 600
DS2, 3 & 4 8 150 500
DS2, 3 & 4 9 130 400
DS2, 3 & 4 10 Required 400
DS4 11 Required 400
DS4 12 Required 400
There is a problem in the application of a climbing lane in escarpment terrain. Here the
carriageway and shoulder widths may have been reduced, and thus a climbing lane will
increase the roadway width. Consideration must be given to a balance between the benefits
to traffic and the initial construction cost. In sections requiring heavy side cut, the provision
of climbing lanes may be unreasonably high in relation to the benefits. Reduced level of
service over such sections is an alternative.
The climbing lane is sometimes not effectively utilized, especially when traffic flows are
heavy, because the drivers of slower vehicles fear that they will not be allowed to merge
with the faster vehicles where the climbing lane ends. The preferred layout forces faster
vehicles to merge with the slower, thus allaying this fear to some extent. This layout is
preferred based purely on that fact that a vehicle can merge more readily with a slower-than
with a faster-moving stream of traffic (see Figure9-6).
The performance characteristics of a heavy vehicle are such that, for a particular gradient,
the vehicle speed will reduce to final ambient speed that can be maintained by that vehicle
on that grade. This limits, in most references, any discussion on the maximum length
allowable at a given grade even considering the employment of a climbing lane. However,
in the interests of factors such as vehicle operating costs and travel time losses, the absolute
recommended maximum lengths at any given grade are also indicated in the last column of
Table 9-4. When these distances are reached, it is necessary to design a relief gradient of
less than 6 percent between steep sections. The relief gradient shall extend a minimum of
100 meters.
These values have also taken into consideration the safety factors associated with the
increase in speed resulting in the descent of steep grades. Although they may mitigate the
safety hazard, they do not eliminate it. For example, a non-braking "typical" heavy truck
will accelerate from 0 km/hr to 90 km/hr over a distance of 500 meters at a descending
grade of 5 percent. This emphasizes the need to provide warning signs for such vehicles at
all long continuous grades.

Figure 9-6: Layout for Climbing Lane
Bridges over water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 7-5.
Unless a refined hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom or
clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.1m for all classes of roads. This clearance
should be maintained over the roadway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the
roadway is likely to lead to a raising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to
0.1m may be provided. Light superstructures (i.e.- timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc)
over roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3m. See RDA's Bridge Design
Manual-2014 for further reference.
Table 9-5: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)
3
Design Flow at Bridge (m /s) Vertical Clearance (m)
5 to 30 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
>300 1.2
Source: RDA Bridge Design Manual-2014
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles shall not be less then 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife,
underpasses shall be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m,
and for horse-riding the clear height shall be not less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways
shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m- if not otherwise stated- to facilitate possible
future electrification.
Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less than as
indicated in the RDA Drainage Design Manual- 2014.

Chapter 10
P HASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
10.1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the line
of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual
defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver must be
able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe stopping
distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves than with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no
more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such
defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a
psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases,
the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A
sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.
10.2 Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects
occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths
such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common
station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of
the curves is at a common station.
Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the
necessary corrective action for each type.
10.3 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed
because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The
position of the crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down
gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected
change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal
curve, an apparent kink may be produced, as indicated in Figures 10-1b and c.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the
horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only one end, if the
horizontal curve is of longer radius.

10.3.1 INSUFFICIENT S EPARATION BETWEEN THE CURVES
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a
false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal
curve. This is a visual defect, illustrated in Figure 10-1d.
Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the
curves concurrent, as in Figure 10-1a.
10.3.2 BOTH ENDS OF THE VERTICAL CURVE LIE ON THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal
curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the
vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An
example of such a visual defect is shown in Figure10-1e. The corrective action is to make
both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure 10-1a, or to separate them.
10.3.3 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS BOTH ENDS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be
created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of
the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is
less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is
because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a
downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on
to the horizontal curve.
No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a gentle
horizontal curve.
If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the “hand” of the
horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.
10.3.4 OTHER MIS-PHASING
Other types of mis-phasing are also indicated in Figure 10-1:
A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure 10-1g.
This illustrates the need to avoid broken back curves in design (see Chapter 8: Horizontal
Alignment)
A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve in Figure 10-1h. This illustrates the
effect in this case of a broken back vertical alignment on design (see Chapter 9: Vertical
Alignment).

Figure 10-1i shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical curves. In this case, the
vertical alignment has been allowed to be more curvilinear than the horizontal alignment.
10.4 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing
The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to the ground so that the
designer is prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design. Therefore, phasing is usually
bought at the cost of extra earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it
becomes uneconomic. He will normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of
safety. In cases when the advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the designer will have to
balance the costs of trail alignments against their elegance

Figure 10-1: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Chapter 10
11 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES AND MASS HAUL D IAGRAM
11.1 Introduction

The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter devoted to the issue
of earthwork quantities and a mass haul diagram. The careful attentions to limiting
earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul diagram are essential elements
in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-sectional design. This is
especially true when the design includes consideration of the least cost in relation to
earthworks.
Key terms associated with this process, as listed in Definitions, include:

Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening
cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the
right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans
Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankment
Free Haul- the maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without the added cost above the unit bid price
Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance
Economic Limit of Haul- distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are:
End area calculations

Earthwork
calculations
Preparation of mass haul diagram
Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
These steps are presented in the following text. Of note is the fact that most current
highway design computer programs, including MX (MOSS), will produce the mass haul
diagram as part of the output when typical sections and horizontal and vertical alignments
are inputs. A final stage of geometric design is then usually to make adjustments to the
alignments in the interests of balancing or minimizing the earthwork quantities.
11.2 End Area Calculations
End area calculations are usually made by one of the following methods:
1. Planimeter Method - The original ground line and template section (cross section)
must be plotted on grid paper. Centerline profile grade must first be calculated for
each cross section station to determine the centerline reference of each template
plot. Areas of cut and fill quantities are calculated using a planimeter, converted to
square meters, and tabulated for each section.

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Geometric Design Manual - 2014 Table of Contents

ROADS DEVELOMENT AGENCY

GEOMETRIC DESIGN MANUAL

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 1

1.Eng.Abdikarim Omar Hussein

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 2

Prof. Hassan Ali Osman

This Geometric Design Manual-2014 is based on a review of the design standards of

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 3

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 4

2 Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards

3. Route Corridor Selection

5. Design Controls and Criteria

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 5

6. Cross Section Elements

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 6

11. Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 7

A Classification and Description of Roads................................................... A1-A10

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 8

CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 9

CHAPTER 9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CHAPTER 10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CHAPTER 11 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES & MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

Figure E-T1 Typical Fill and Cut Sections ................................................................... E-2

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 10

CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS

CHAPTER 4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

CHAPTER 6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 7 SIGHT DISTANCES

CHAPTER 8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 11

CHAPTER 12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 13 GRADE - SEPARATED JUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 14 SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS

CHAPTER 15 ROAD FURNITURE & MARKINGS

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 12

Geometric Design is an essential component in the design development of a highway. This

1.4 Organization of the Manual

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 13

Chapter 12 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of junction

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 14

Topography, land use and physical

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 15

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 16

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Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 17

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Somaliland Roads Development Agency Page 18

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-