External Anatomy of the Frog Thigh – essential for jumping and leaping, which are primary modes of

locomotion for frogs.

The frog (Rana vittigera) is used as sample because:
Shank – used for jumping and locomotion.
• The parts are very similar to those of man.
• They are small, therefore easily handled especially by beginners. Tarsus or Ankle – provides flexibility to the hindlimb and aids in jumping and
• They are readily available and cheaper. swimming.
• Frogs have a well-documented life cycle.
Prehallux – helps with grasping objects and climbing in some frog species.
Brow spot – serve a sensory or protective role.
Digits of Toes – aid in swimming, climbing, and grasping prey.
External Naris –
Web - allows the frogs feet to have greater
Upper Eyelid – helps protect the frog's eyes from debris and moisture.
surface area and swim faster
Lower Eyelid – protects the frog's eyes from potential harm and keeps them
moist.

Nictitating Membrane – helps cleanse the frog’s eye when travelling under Respiratory System of the Frog
the water Organism is able to obtain oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide (if not
Tympanic Membrane – acts as an eardrum – the frog senses released, it may cause to poisoning). Oxygen is used to release energy
from food during which process carbon dioxide is formed.
vibrations in this structure to hear sounds
Inspiration is the inhalation or taking in of oxygen, while expiration is
Digits of Fingers – provides better grasping power. the exhalation or giving off of carbon dioxide.

Carpus or Wrist – connects the hand to the forearm.

Forearm – providing body support during sitting or walking, and/or the 2 Phases involved in exchange of gases between organisms and its
absorption of impact forces during landing. environment:

Upper arm – contribute to the frog's jumping ability and help it catch prey. It 1. External respiration – between the atmosphere and the blood.
This involves the lungs.
also aids in locomotion and balance.
2. Internal respiration – between the blood and the body tissues. It
Median Dorsal Line – provides structural support, protects the spinal cord, occurs in every living cells.
facilitates muscle attachment, and has other functions described in a Main organs (terrestrial vertebrates)
previous response.
- Lungs (pulmonary)
Hump – serve as a secondary sexual characteristic to attract females. - Gills (aquatic forms)
- Skin (cutaneous respiration)
Anus – serves as the exit point for waste materials, allowing the frog to
eliminate indigestible or unnecessary substances. Main features of the R.S. of the Frog :
External nares – the entrance to the nasal cavities.
Internal nares – paired openings inside the mouth lateral to vomerine • The mesentery is called mesovarium.
teeth.
Oviducts – the passageway of ova.
Olfactory canal – narrow way between the external and internal nares.
Ostium – entrance of the ova.
Mouth or buccal cavity – where gaseous exchange takes place through
the lining of the mucous glands. Ovisac or uterus – temporary storage of the egg cells.

Glottis – a slit in the laryngeal prominence on the floor of the pharynx. Corpora adiposa – contain food reserved for breeding season.

Larynx – enables to make sounds. Male

Testes – paired yellowish, elongated structures ventrally attached to the
kidneys with the mesorchium as mesentery.
Excretory System of the Frog
Vasa efferentia (vas efferens) – tubules lying on the mesorchium
Concerned with the removal of the nitrogenous wastes of metabolism. connecting to the testes to the kidneys.
The main excretory organs of vertebrates are the kidney with their
Vasa deferentia (vas deferens) – the ureters or mesonephric ducts for
ducts.
the passage of the sperm from the kidney to the cloaca, then the anus.
Kidneys – pair of flattened, elongated, dark-red bodies lying in the
subvertebral lymph sinus behind the parietal peritoneum.
Nervous System of the Frog
Adrenal glands – yellowish endocrine glands on the ventral surface of
the kidney. Concerned with the reception stimuli, conduction of impulses, and the
Ureters or mesonephric duct – pair of white, slender tubes on the coordination and integration of functions in the body.
postero-lateral of each kidney with a blood vessel, the renal portal vein.
Urinary bladder – the temporary storage of urine. It is composed of the following divisions:
Cloaca – receiving the urinary and genital ducts on the ventral surface. a. Central nervous system – includes the brain and the spinal cord.
Parts
Brain
Reproductive System of the Frog Meninges – the linings in the brain and the spinal cord
composed of the following:
The perpetuation of species. • Dura mater – outer membrane with two walls
2 types of reproduction: • Pia mater – inner membrane combined inseparably with
the substance of the brain and spinal cord.
1. Asexual reproduction – fission, budding, and fragmentation
where gamete is not involved. Subdural space – space between the pia and dura mater.
2. Sexual reproduction – male and female gametes are involved.
Lobes of the brain
Ovaries – two hollow lobes with thin walls. They are the female gonads
which produce the egg cells or ova.
 • Telencephalon (cerebral hemishperes) – they are the • Infundibulum – it appears as a bilobed postero-ventral
seat of consciousness, memory, intelligence, and vision. extension from the thalamencephalon.
• Diencephalon (thalamencephalon or twixt brain) – a • Hypophysis or pituitary body – the master gland of the
depression posterior to telencephalon. body lying in a depression on the floor of the skull, the
➢ Pineal body or epiphysis – a small gland which sella tursica.
occupies the median dorsal surface of the • Ventral fissure – the median ventral groove extending
diencephalon. It regulates water balance, body the entire length of the spinal cord.
temperature, sugar and fat metabolism, and it
relays center for sensory impulses. Cavities of the brain and spinal cord
• Mesencephalon or optic lobes (midbrain) – pair of • Lateral ventricles (right and left) – found on each lobe of
rounded lobes posterior to diencephalon. They serve as the telencephalon.
the main visual and auditory reflex center. ➢ Rhinocoels – the extensions of the lateral
• Metencephalon or cerebellum – a dorsal transverse fold ventricles into the olfactory lobes.
posterior to the mesencephalon. It regulates equilibrium • Third ventricle – a cavitiy of the diencephalon which
and coordinates movement. extends with the cavity of the infundibulum through its
• Myelencephalon or medulla oblongata – the most postero-ventral extension.
posterior lobe of the brain. It controls heart rate, ➢ Foramen of monro – the narrow passage linking
swallowing, respiration, and circulation. the lateral ventricles with the third ventricle.
Spinal cord • Optic ventricles (optocoels) – enlarged cavities of the
mesencephalon.
• Filum terminale – the pointed tapering end of the spinal • Fourth ventricle – triangular cavity of the medulla
cord oblongata.
• Median dorsal sulcus – the median groove extending the • Central canal – posterior extension of the fourth
entire length of the spinal cord. ventricle into the spinal cord.
• Brachial enlargement – the anterior enlargement where • Aqueduct of sylvius or iter – a median canal linking the
nerves innervating the forelimbs arise. third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.
• Lumbar enlargement – composed of the posterior b. Peripheral nervous system – consists of 10 pairs of cranial
enlargement where nerves innervating the hindlimbs nerves from the brain and ten pairs of the spinal nerves from the
arise. It is where the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord. These nerves link the brain and the spinal cord to
spinal nerves arise. the various receptors and effectors of the body.
• Cauda equina – the filum terminale combined with the
roots of the posterior spinal nerves. Parts
• Dorsal root or sensory
Ventral view of the brain and the spinal cord
• Ventral or motor root
• Optic nerves – two crossed white nerves projecting from • Dorsal ramus
the ventro-lateral sides of the diencephalon. • Ventral ramus
➢ Chiasma – the area where the two optic nerves • Brachial plexus
cross. ➢ First – sixth spinal nerve
• Lumbosacral or sciatic plexus
 ➢ Illiohypogastric nerve - Cnidocytes (contain cnidae or nematocysts) serve for defense,
➢ Cruralis feeding, and attachment
➢ Sciatic nerve - has nerve net that is made up of nerve cells
▪ Medial tibial nerve - life cycle includes planula larvae
▪ Lateral peroneal nerve
• Tenth spinal nerve Examples: Hydra sp. Obelia sp. Jellyfish. Sea Anemone. Stony Canal.
c. Autonomic nervous system – composed of sympathetic and
Phylum Nematoda / Aschelminthes – unsegmented pseudocoelomate
parasympathetic nerves.
worms of bilateral symmetry (vermiform). Their bodies are covered with
• Cranial nerves
➢ Sensory or afferent nerve fibers collagenous cuticle.
➢ Motor or efferent - Tissue level of organization – triploblastic
➢ Mixed nerves - Only longitudinal muscles comprise the body wall
- Digestive tract is complete
Survey of the Animal Kingdom - Excretory system includes one or two renette cells or a set of
collecting tubules.
Taxonomy – a scientific discipline focused on three primary aspects:
- On is head is a paired lateral sensory organs (amphids)
identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms.
- Usual part of growth in juveniles is molting

Examples: Chaetonotus sp. Freshwater Zooplankton. Kinorhynch.

Phylum Protozoa – single-celled animals that can exist individually or in Ascaris Lumbricoides. Gordius sp.
colonies.
Phylum Platyhelminthes – belong acoelomates, which have bilaterally
Examples: Euglena sp. Amoeba sp. Plasmodium sp. Paramecium sp. symmetrical and unsegmented bodies, and are flattened dorsoventrally.

Phylum Porifera – sponges are without tissues or organs but are - Bilateral Symmetry (acoelomate)
multicellular (pinacocytes, mesenchyme cells, and choanocytes) Cells are - Typically flattened dorsoventrally; includes unsegmented worms;
independent. class cestoidea is strobilated
- Tissue level of organization – triploblastic
- flagella is surrounded by microvillar collars
- Presence of incomplete gut but for class cestoidean, gut is absent.
- with a central cavity or a series of branching chambers
- Mainly monoecious; reproductive system is complex.
Examples: Scypha sp. The Venus’ Flower Basket. Spongia sp. - Cephalized to some extent; pair of anterior ganglia is connected to
longitudinal nerve cords through transverse nerves makes up the
Phylum Coelenterata – are radially symmetrical or Biradial symmetry. nervous system.
- Tissue level of organization – Diploblastic Examples: Dugesia Tigrina. Blood Fluke. Liver Fluke. Lung Fluke.
- Between its epidermal and gastrodermal layers is a gelatinous Taenia Solium. Taenia Saginata.
mesoglea
- With a gastrovascular cavity
Phylum Annelida – the body is divided into similar segments called somites - Water vascular system (fluid-filled canals) aids in locomotion,
or metameres, visible externally in grooves or internally since the coelom is attachment and or feeding
divided into transverse septa. - Possess a hemal system
- Nerve net, nerve ring and radial nerves are parts of its nervous
- Bilateral Symmetry (vermiform); (metameric)
systems; Nervous system controls the stiffness and fluidity of
- With one or more pairs of epidermal setae (chaetae)
connective tissue
- Possess a closed circulatory system
- Either with metanephridia or protonephridia Examples: Linckia sp. Acanthaster sp. Brittle star. Sea urchin. Sea
- Dorsal suprapharyngeal ganglia and ventral nerve cord/s with cucumber. Sea lily.
ganglia
Phylum Arthopoda – animals with bilateral symmetry (metametric),
- Trochophore larvae, spiral cleavage, and schizocoelous coelom
segmented body, with chitinous or calcareous exoskeleton, body with a
formation
head, thorax, and abdomen, jointed appendages and advanced ganglionic
Examples: Clamworm. Earthworm. Leech.
nervous system, compound eyes, complete digestive tract, reduced coelom,
Phylum Mollusca – characterized by a body that is bilaterally symmetrical, excretory organs like malpighian tubules or green gland, varied respiratory
absence of segmentation, presence of a head, ventral foot, visceral hump, organs such as trachea, booklungs and gills, and separate sexes. These
one pair of gills or ctenidia, a mantle, which secretes the shell which may be animals may be found in any habitat.
external, internal, reduced, or absent.
Examples: Crab. Shrimp. Scorpion. House spider. Fruitfly. Mosquito.
- Bilateral Symmetry Centipede. Millipedes. Horseshoe Crab.
- Head-foot and visceral mass are the two parts of the body
Phylum Chordata - characterized by bilateral symmetry (Deuterostomate)
- Mantle secretes calcareous spicules or one or more shells and
and true body cavity, such body regions as head, trunk, and tail with
envelop the visceral mass; Mantle cavity has a variety of functions:
notochord dorsal to digestive tube and ventral to the nerve cord, presence
excretion, gas exchange, elimination of digestive wastes, and release
of pharyngeal slits, and found in any habitat.
of reproductive products
- Usually with radula for scraping food, this is not present or loss in - Five characteristics are found at some stage in development:
bivalves notochord, pharyngeal slits or pouches, dorsal tubular nerve cord,
- All possess open circulatory system except class cephalopoda postanal tail, and an endostyle or thyroid gland
- Coelom surrounds the heart, nephiridia, and gonads - Possess a ventral, contractile blood vessel (heart)
- Trochophore larvae, spiral cleavage, and schizocoelous coelom
fomration Examples: Sea Squirt. Lancelet. Lamprey. Shark. Milkfish or bangus.
Frog. Turtle. Chicken. Rat.
Examples: Chiton (oschnochiton sp). Snail. Mussel. elephant’s tusk
shell. Squid. Octopus.

Phylum Echinodermata – radially / pentaradially symmetrical adult but

bilaterally symmetrical larva.

- Calcareous endoskeleton in the form of ossicles