Romans

Notes on
Romans
2 0 2 3 E d i t i o n
Dr. Thomas L. Constable
WRITER AND DATE
Throughout the history of the church, from post-apostolic times to the

present, Christians have regarded Romans as having been one of the
Apostle Paul's epistles.1 Not only does the letter claim that he wrote it
(1:1), but it develops many of the same ideas and uses the same
terminology that appear in Paul's earlier writings (e.g., Gal. 2; 1 Cor. 12; 2
Cor. 8—9).
Following his conversion on the Damascus Road (A.D. 34), Paul preached in
Damascus, spent some time in Arabia, and then returned to Damascus.
Next he traveled to Jerusalem where he met briefly with Peter and James.
He then moved on to Tarsus, which was evidently his base of operations
from where he ministered for about six years (A.D. 37-43). In response to
an invitation from Barnabas, he moved to Antioch of Syria where he served
for about five years (A.D. 43-48). He and Barnabas then set out on their
so-called first missionary journey into Asia Minor (A.D. 48-49). Returning
to Antioch, Paul wrote the Epistle to the Galatians to strengthen the
churches that he and Barnabas had just planted in Asia Minor (A.D. 49).
After the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), Paul took Silas and began his second
missionary journey (A.D. 50-52) through Asia Minor, and farther westward
into the Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaia. From Corinth, Paul
wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians (A.D. 51). He then proceeded to Ephesus by
ship, and finished the second journey at Syrian Antioch. From there he set
out on his third missionary journey (A.D. 53-57). Passing through Asia
Minor, he arrived in Ephesus where he labored for three years (A.D. 53-56).
During this time he wrote 1 Corinthians (A.D. 56). Finally, Paul left Ephesus
1See F. Godet, Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, pp. 45-46; C. E. B. Cranfield, A
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 1:1-2.
Copyright Ó 2023 by Thomas L. Constable
2 Dr. Constable's Notes on Romans 2023 Edition
and traveled by land to Macedonia, where he wrote 2 Corinthians (A.D. 56).

He continued south and spent the winter of A.D. 56-57 in Corinth. There
he wrote the Epistle to the Romans, and sent it by Phoebe (16:1-2) to the
Roman church.1
The apostle then proceeded from Corinth, by land, clockwise around the
Aegean Sea back to Troas in Asia, where he boarded a ship and eventually
reached Jerusalem. In Jerusalem, the Jews arrested Paul and imprisoned
him (A.D. 57). Three years later he arrived in Rome as a prisoner, where he
ministered for two years (A.D. 60-62). During this two-year time, Paul
wrote the Prison Epistles (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon).
The Romans freed Paul, and he returned to the Aegean area. There he wrote
1 Timothy and Titus, was arrested again, suffered imprisonment in Rome a
second time, wrote 2 Timothy, and finally died as a martyr under Nero in
A.D. 68.2
1Cf. W. J. Conybeare, in The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, p. 497; James D. G. Dunn, Romans
1—8, pp. xliii-xliv.
2See the appendix "Sequence of Paul's Activities" at the end of these notes for more
details.
2023 Edition Dr. Constable's Notes on Romans 3
RECIPIENTS
We know very little about the founding of the church in Rome.1 According
to Ambrosiaster, a church father who lived in the fourth century, an apostle
did not found it (thus discrediting the Roman Catholic claim that Peter
founded the church). A group of Jewish Christians did.2 It is possible that
these Jews became believers in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (cf.
Acts 2:10), or at some other time quite early in the church's history.3 A
similar theory is that converts of the apostles, both Jews and Gentiles,
founded the church.4 By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome
was famous throughout the Roman Empire for its faith (1:8).
"The greeting in Romans does not imply a strongly knit church

organization, and chapter 16 gives a picture of small groups
of believers rather than of one large group."5
PURPOSES
Paul, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, wrote this epistle for several
reasons.6 First, he wanted to prepare the way for his intended visit to this
church (15:22-24). Second, he evidently hoped that Rome would become
a base of operations and support for his pioneer missionary work in Spain,
as well as the western portions of the empire that he had not yet
evangelized. His full exposition of the gospel in this letter would have
provided a solid foundation for the Roman Christians' participation in this
mission.
As Paul looked forward to returning to Jerusalem between his departure

from Corinth and his arrival in Rome, he was aware of the danger he faced
(15:31). Third, he may have written the exhaustive exposition of the gospel
1See Godet, pp. 36-41; Jack Finegan, Light from the Ancient Past, p. 454.
2William Sanday and Arthur C. Headlam, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the
Epistle to the Romans, p. xxv.
3Conybeare, p. 498.
4J. Vernon McGee, Thru the Bible with J. Vernon McGee, 4:640.
5A. Berkeley Mickelsen, "Romans," in The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, p. 1179.
6See Godet, pp. 47-58; Philip R. Williams, "Paul's Purpose in Writing Romans," Bibliotheca
Sacra 128:509 (January-March 1971):62-67; Walter B. Russell, III, "An Alternative

Suggestion for the Purpose of Romans," Bibliotheca Sacra 145:578 (April-June
1985):174-84; Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, pp. 16-22.
that we have in Romans in order to set forth his teaching—in case he did
not reach Rome. From Rome his doctrine could then go out to the rest of
the empire as others preached it. Paul may have viewed Romans as his
legacy to the church: his last will and testament.
Another reason for writing Romans was undoubtedly Paul's desire to

minister to the spiritual needs of the Christians in Rome, even though they
were in good spiritual condition (15:14-16). The common problems of all
the early churches were dangers to the Roman church as well. These
difficulties included internal conflicts, mainly between Jewish and Gentile
believers, and external threats from false teachers. Paul gave both of these
potential problems attention in this epistle (15:1-8; 16:17-20).
"He felt that the best protection against the infection of false
teaching was the antiseptic of the truth."1
"It is interesting to note that this great document of Christian

doctrine, which was addressed to the church at Rome to keep
it from heresy, did not accomplish its purpose. The Roman
church moved the farthest from the faith which is set forth in
the Epistle to the Romans. It is an illustration of the truth of
this epistle that man does not understand, neither does he
seek after God."2
Paul also wrote Romans because he was at a transition point in his ministry,
as he mentioned at the end of chapter 15. His ministry in the Aegean region
was solid enough that he planned to leave it and move farther west into
new virgin missionary territory. Before he did that, he planned to visit
Jerusalem, where he realized he would be in danger. Probably, therefore,
Paul wrote Romans as he did to leave a full exposition of the gospel in good
hands in case his ministry ended prematurely in Jerusalem.
"The peculiar position of the apostle at the time of writing, as

he reviews the past and anticipates the future, enables us to
understand the absence of controversy in this epistle, the
conciliatory attitude, and the didactic [instructive] and
1William Barclay, The Letter to the Romans, p. xxii.

2McGee, 4:645.
apologetic [defensive] elements which are all found combined

herein."1
James Dunn summarized Paul's purposes for writing Romans as three:

missionary, apologetic, and pastoral.2
GENRE3
Twenty-one of the 27 New Testament books are letters, and they compose
about 35 percent of the New Testament. Paul wrote 13 of these letters,
making him the most prolific New Testament letter-writer. Paul's letters
make up about one-quarter of the New Testament. He wrote more of the
New Testament than anyone except Luke.
"While letters were by no means unknown in the world of the

ancient Near East (see, e.g., 2 Sam. 11:14-15; Ezra 4—5), it
was in the Greco-Roman world that the letter became an
established and popular method of communication."4
Greco-Roman letters typically contained an address and greeting, a body,

and a conclusion. Christian letters usually contained, additionally, a
doxology or benediction after the conclusion.
Adolf Deissmann distinguished between "letters" (unstudied, private

communications) and "epistles" (carefully composed, public pieces of
literature).5 This rigid distinction is no longer popular, since most scholars
view these categories as representing the polar extremes on a continuum.
Both secular and inspired correspondences fall somewhere in between
these extremes. Romans is closer to Deissmann's "epistle" category than
to his "letter" category, though he called it a "letter" and not a "book."6
Letters were not a typical method of religious instruction in Judaism. New

Testament letter-writers evidently adopted this method of instruction for
1W. H. Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, p. 20.

2Dunn, pp. lx-lxiii.
3"Genre" refers to type of literature.
4Donald A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 332.
5Adolf Deissmann, "Prolegomena to the Biblical Letters and Epistles," in Bible Studies, pp.
1-59; idem, Paul, pp. 9-26.

6Ibid., p. 23.
two main reasons: As the church grew fast and spread from Jerusalem to
many distant places, its leaders needed a method that enabled them to
communicate at a distance. Also, letters enabled the apostles to convey a
sense of personal immediacy and establish their personal presence with the
converts.1
CHARACTERISTICS
The great contribution of this letter to the body of New Testament inspired
revelation is its reasoned explanation of how God's righteousness can
become man's possession.
"The Epistle to the Romans is the first great work of Christian

theology."2
"It is the only part of Scripture in which there is found a

detailed and systematic presentation of the main features of
Christian doctrine."3
The Book of Romans is distinctive among Paul's inspired writings in several

respects: It was one of the few letters he wrote to churches with which he
had had no personal dealings. The only other epistle of this kind was
Colossians. It is also a formal treatise within a personal letter.4 Paul
expounded on the gospel in this treatise. He probably did so in this epistle,
rather than in another, because the church in Rome was at the heart of the
Roman Empire. As such, this church was able to exert great influence in the
dissemination of the gospel. For these two reasons Romans is more formal
and less personal than most of Paul's other epistles. In particular, many
students of the book regard 1:18—11:36 as a "treatise" or "literary
digest" or "letter essay" within the larger letter.5
1Carson and Moo, p. 331. See also Gordon Fee, "The Genre of New Testament Literature
and Biblical Hermeneutics," in Interpreting the Word of God, pp. 106-14.
2C. H. Dodd, The Epistle of Paul to the Romans, p. xiii.
3S. Lewis Johnson Jr., Discovering Romans, p. 20.
4For further discussion of the literary genre of Romans, see Robert E. Longacre and Wilber
B. Wallis, "Soteriology and Eschatology in Romans," Journal of the Evangelical Theological

Society 41:3 (September 1998):367-82.
5Dunn, p. lix.
"One feature of the treatise section is the repeated use of

diatribe style (dialogue with an imagined interlocutor
[responder])—particularly 2:1-5, 17-29; 3:27—4:2; 9:19-21;
11:17-24."1
Romans is the longest of Paul's epistles, with 7,114 words in the Greek
text. It may have been placed first in the collection of Paul's epistles in the
New Testament because of its length, which seems probable, or because
of its importance. Paul sent his epistles to churches (Romans through 2
Thessalonians) and to individuals (1 Timothy through Philemon). They do
not appear in our New Testaments in their chronological order, but in their
size order, in each of the two groupings just mentioned.
"Romans at the head of the Pauline corpus and the Pastoral

Epistles at or near the end act as bookends and provide a
missional frame around the epistolary collection."2
Dunn regarded the main themes of Romans as: (1) the righteousness of
God, and (2) the significance of the law.3
"Since the great truth of justification by faith alone is at the

heart of Paul's letter to the Roman church, the epistle may
come as something of a surprise to modern ecclesiastics
[clergymen]. We might have expected the apostle to address
believers at Rome, a city crammed with social problems, with
a social manifesto or, at the least, a recitation of the primary
truths of Christianity in their application to the social problems
of the imperial city. Rome was a city of slaves, but Paul did not
preach against slavery. It was a city of lust and vice, but he did
not aim his mightiest guns at these evils. It was a city of gross
economic injustice, but he did not thrust the sword of the
Spirit into the vitals of that plague. It was a city that had been
erected on and that had fed on and prospered by the violence
and rapacity of war, but the apostle did not expatiate on its
immorality. Apparently, if we are to judge the matter from a
strictly biblical standpoint, Paul did not think that social reform
1Ibid.,
p. lxii.
2Gregory Goswell, "The Bookends of the Pauline Corpus," Journal of the Evangelical
Theological Society 65:1 (March 2022):111.
3Dunn, pp. lxii-lxiii.
in Rome was 'an evangelical imperative.'1 The proclamation of

the gospel of Jesus Christ solved the crucial and urgent need
for the society as a whole and for people in particular. It is still
the imperative of the Christian church, and the Christian church
will advance only to the extent that its gospel advances."2
"Paul quoted more often from the Old Testament in this epistle
than in all the other epistles combined. Romans has 61 direct
quotations and many more indirect allusions to the Old
Testament. Paul draws from at least 14 different books of the
Old Testament. Isaiah and Psalms are the most frequently
quoted …"3
VALUE
The Epistle to the Romans is, by popular consent, the greatest of Paul's
writings. William Tyndale, the great English reformer and translator,
referred to Romans as "the principle and most excellent part of the New
Testament." He went on to say the following in his prologue to Romans,
which he wrote in the 1534 edition of his English New Testament:
"No man verily can read it too oft or study it too well; for the
more it is studied the easier it is, the more it is chewed the
pleasanter it is, and the more groundly [sic] it is searched the
preciouser [sic] things are found in it, so great treasures of
spiritual things lieth hid therein."4
Martin Luther wrote the following commendation of this epistle:
"[Romans] is worthy not only that every Christian should know

it word for word, by heart, but occupy himself with it every
day, as the daily bread of the soul. It can never be read or
1"Cf. Claude Thompson, "Social Reform: An Evangelical Imperative," Christianity Today

(March 26, 1971), 8-12 [588-92]."
2Johnson, p. 25.
3Kenneth G. Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, p. 172. See Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, The Book
of Romans, pp. 309-10, for a list of references, and pp. 9-15 for discussion of the
contribution of Romans to 11 categories of systematic theology.
4Quoted by F. F. Bruce, The Letter of Paul to the Romans, p. 9.
pondered too much, and the more it is dealt with the more
precious it becomes, and the better it tastes."1
OUTLINE
I. Introduction 1:1-17
A. Salutation 1:1-7
1. The writer 1:1

2. The subject of the epistle 1:2-5
3. The original recipients 1:6-7
B. Purpose 1:8-15
C. Theme 1:16-17
II. The need for God's righteousness 1:18—3:20
A. The need of all people 1:18-32
1. The reason for human guilt 1:18

2. The ungodliness of humankind 1:19-27
3. The wickedness of humankind 1:28-32
B. The need of good people 2:1—3:8
1. God's principles of judgment 2:1-16

2. The guilt of the Jews 2:17-29
3. Answers to objections 3:1-8
C. The guilt of all humanity 3:9-20
III. The imputation of God's righteousness 3:21—5:21
A. The description of justification 3:21-26

B. The defense of justification by faith alone 3:27-31
C. The proof of justification by faith from the law ch. 4
1. Abraham's justification by faith 4:1-5

2. David's testimony to justification by faith 4:6-8
1Martin Luther, "Preface to the Epistle to the Romans" (1522), cited by Moo, p. 22.
3. The priority of faith to circumcision 4:9-12

4. The priority of faith to the promise concerning headship
of many nations 4:13-17
5. The exemplary value of Abraham's faith 4:18-22
6. Conclusions from Abraham's example 4:23-25
D. The benefits of justification 5:1-11

E. The restorative effects of justification 5:12-21
IV. The impartation of God's righteousness chs. 6—8
A. The believer's relationship to sin ch. 6
1. Freedom from sin 6:1-14

2. Slavery to righteousness 6:15-23
B. The believer's relationship to the Law ch. 7
1. The Law's authority 7:1-6

2. The Law's activity 7:7-12
3. The Law's inability 7:13-25
C. The believer's relationship to God ch. 8
1. Our deliverance from the flesh by the power of the Spirit

8:1-11
2. Our new relationship to God 8:12-17
3. Our present sufferings and future glory 8:18-25
4. Our place in God's sovereign plan 8:26-30
5. Our eternal security 8:31-39
V. The vindication of God's righteousness chs. 9—11
A. Israel's past election ch. 9
1. God's blessings on Israel 9:1-5

2. God's election of Israel 9:6-13
3. God's freedom to elect 9:14-18
4. God's mercy toward Israel 9:19-29
5. God's mercy toward the Gentiles 9:30-33
B. Israel's present rejection ch. 10

1. The reason God has set Israel aside 10:1-7

2. The remedy for rejection 10:8-15
3. The continuing unbelief of Israel 10:16-21
C. Israel's future salvation ch. 11
1. Israel's rejection not total 11:1-10

2. Israel's rejection not final 11:11-24
3. Israel's restoration assured 11:25-32
4. Praise for God's wise plans 11:33-36
VI. The practice of God's righteousness 12:1—15:13
A. Dedication to God 12:1-2

B. Conduct within the church 12:3-21
1. The diversity of gifts 12:3-8

2. The necessity of love 12:9-21
C. Conduct within the state ch. 13
1. Conduct towards the government 13:1-7

2. Conduct toward unbelievers 13:8-10
3. Conduct in view of our hope 13:11-14
D. Conduct within Christian liberty 14:1—15:13
1. The folly of judging one another 14:1-12

2. The evil of offending one another 14:13-23
3. The importance of pleasing one another 15:1-6
4. The importance of accepting one another 15:7-13
VII. Conclusion 15:14—16:27
A. Paul's ministry 15:14-33
1. Past labors 15:14-21

2. Present program 15:22-29
3. Future plans 15:30-33
B. Personal matters ch. 16
1. A commendation 16:1-2
2. Various greetings to Christians in Rome 16:3-16

3. A warning 16:17-20
4. Greetings from Paul's companions 16:21-24
5. A doxology 16:25-27
MESSAGE
Throughout the history of the church, Christians have recognized this

epistle as the most important book in the New Testament. The reason for
this conviction is that it is an exposition of "the gospel of Jesus Christ."
Martin Luther called Romans "the chief part of the New Testament and the
perfect gospel." Coleridge, the English poet, declared it to be "the most
profound work in existence." And Frederick Godet, the French
commentator, described it as "the cathedral of the Christian faith."1
In order to appreciate the message of this book, it will be helpful first to

consider Paul's presuppositions. He based these, of course, on Old
Testament revelation concerning cosmology and history. "Cosmology" is
the study of the nature and principles of the universe.
By the way, there is now what has been called the "new perspective on
Paul," which some writers on Paul have advocated in recent years. These
scholars believe that "Protestant exegesis for too long allowed a typical
Lutheran emphasis on justification by faith to impose a hermeneutical
[interpretive] grid on the text of Romans."2 They believe that the Judaism
of Paul's day was not a coldly legalistic "system of earning salvation by the
merit of good works, with little or no room for the free forgiveness and
grace of God."3 Rather, "Judaism's whole religious self-understanding was
based on the premise of grace."4
E. P. Sanders used the phrase "covenant nomism," by which he meant that,

when Paul wrote Romans, he had in mind the role of the law in maintaining
the Jews' status as God's chosen people, not as a means of salvation. Some
advocates of this view also believe that Paul's Greco-Roman culture
influenced the apostle more than his Jewish background and the Old
1Godet, p. 1.
2Dunn, p. lxv.
3Ibid.
4Ibid.
Testament. This has led to some reinterpreting of Paul's writings.

Advocates of the "new perspective" include E. P. Sanders, James Dunn, the
writer of the Word Biblical Commentary on Romans, N. T. Wright, who has
written many books on Pauline theology, and others. Dunn clarified his
position further as follows:
"This, then, is the context within which and against which we

must set Paul's treatment of the law in Romans. The Jews,
proselytes, and God-worshiping Gentiles among his readership
could read what Paul says about the law in the light of this
close interconnection in Jewish theology of Israel's election,
covenant, and law. They would, I believe, recognize that what
Paul was concerned about was the fact that covenant promise
and law had become too inextricably identified with ethnic
Israel as such, with the Jewish people marked out in their
national distinctiveness by the practices of circumcision, food
laws, and sabbath in particular ([N. T.] Wright appropriately
coins the phrase 'national righteousness'). They would
recognize that what Paul was endeavoring to do was to free
both promise and law for a wider range of recipients, freed
from the ethnic constraints which he saw to be narrowing the
grace of God and diverting the saving purpose of God out of
its main channel—Christ."1
Some evangelical scholars have accepted "new perspective" theories,

though I have not. The result of the "new perspective" is a departure from
traditionally held interpretations of many Pauline texts. The reading that I
have done on this theory has not convinced me that Paul had a "covenant
nomistic" view of the law.2
Returning to discussion of his presuppositions, Paul assumed the God of

the Old Testament. He assumed God's existence and full deity. He believed
that God is holy and just. He also held that God is the Creator, Sustainer,
and Sovereign Ruler of the universe.
Second, Paul's view of man was that he is subject to God's government of

the universe. Paul believed that people have received a measure of freedom
1Ibid.,
pp. lxxi-lxxi.
2See James E. Allman, "Gaining Perspective on the New Perspective on Paul," Bibliotheca
Sacra 170:677 (January-March 2013):51-68, for an introduction to and evaluation of the
views set forth by Sanders, Wright, and Dunn.
from God, so they can choose to pursue sin. However, if they do, they are
still in the sovereign hand of God. God allows the consequences of their
sins to have their effects on them both now and forever. Mankind is also in
authority over the rest of the material creation (Gen. 1:28). What
humankind has experienced, the material creation also has experienced, and
reflects as a result of human action.
Third, Paul's view of history was that of Old Testament revelation. The
important historical events for Paul were those in his Scriptures: the Hebrew
Bible, which we call the Old Testament.
Adam was the first man. He rebelled against God's authority. The result
was threefold: the practical dethronement of God in the minds of Adam's
descendants, the degradation of humanity, and the defilement of creation.
This is a very different view of history from what evolutionists and
humanists take. Man has lost his scepter, his right to rule, because he
rebelled against God's scepter: His right to rule.
Two other individuals were especially significant in history for Paul, as we

see in Romans: Abraham, and Jesus Christ. God called Abraham to be a
channel of blessing to the world. Christ is the greatest blessing. Through
Him, people and creation can experience restoration to God's original
intention for them.
These are Paul's basic presuppositions on which all of his reasoning in

Romans rests.
Romans may not be the best biblical book to put in the hands of most
unsaved people to lead them to salvation. John is better for that purpose.
However, Romans is the best book to put in the hands of a saved person
to lead him or her to understand and appreciate their salvation. By the way,
"salvation" is an umbrella term: it covers many aspects of deliverance,
including justification, sanctification, glorification, redemption, propitiation,
et al.1 These terms will be clarified in what follows.
We turn now to the major revelations in this book. These are its central
teachings: the emphases that distinguish Romans from other books of the
Bible.
1See Earl D. Radmacher, Salvation.

First, Romans reveals the tragic helplessness of the human race. No other
book of the Bible looks so fearlessly into the abysmal degradation that has
resulted from human sin. If you read only 1:18—3:20, you will become
depressed by its pessimism. But if you keep reading, you will conclude, from
3:21 on, that we have the best, most wonderful news that anyone has ever
heard. This book is all about ruin and redemption. Its first great revelation
is the absolute ruin and helplessness of the human race.
Paul divides the ruined race into two parts:
The first of these parts is the Gentiles who have the light of nature. God
has given everyone, Gentiles and Jews, the opportunity of observing and
concluding two things about Himself: His wisdom and power. The average
person, as well as the scientist, concludes that Someone wise must have
put the natural world together, and He must be very powerful.
Nevertheless, having come to that conclusion, people turn from God to vain
reasoning, vile passions, unrighteous behavior, envy, murder, strife, deceit,
insolence, pride, and perverted conduct. Just listen to today's news and
you will find confirmation of Paul's analysis of the human race.
A former student of mine came to Christ by looking through his microscope.

He was a research scientist, and he concluded that what he was observing
could not have come into existence accidentally. He believed that an
intelligent Creator must have been responsible, and this was the first step
in his journey toward becoming a Christian. His was not the typical
conclusion (cf. Matt. 16:17). Most people reject the evidence of God's
existence that He has built into His creation.
The other part of the ruined race is the Jews, who, in addition to the light
of nature, also had the light of Scripture. Paul observed that, in spite of his
greater revelation and privilege, the Jew behaves the same way as the
Gentile. Yet he is in one sense a worse sinner. Having professed devotion
to God, and having claimed to be a teacher of the Gentiles—because of his
greater light—he disobeys God and causes the Gentiles to blaspheme His
name.
Paul concluded, "There is no righteous person, not even one" (3:10). "All
have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (3:23).1
1Quotations from the English Bible in these notes are from the New American Standard
Bible (NASB), 2020 edition, unless otherwise indicated.
The second major revelation of Romans is the magnificence of the divine

plan of salvation. This plan centers on Jesus Christ, whom Paul introduced
in the very first sentence of his letter (1:3-4). God declared to everyone
that the Jesus of the Gospels is His Son by resurrecting Him from the dead.
Two words describe Christ's relation to the divine plan of salvation:

manifestation (display), and propitiation (satisfaction). To "propitiate"
means to satisfy the demands of God's righteous standards. The
righteousness manifested in Christ is available to people through His
propitiation. God's righteousness is available to everyone, because Jesus
died as the perfect offering for sin, which satisfied the demands of a holy
God completely. The righteousness we see in Jesus, in the Gospel records,
is available to those who believe that His sacrifice satisfied God (3:21, 25).
We can also describe God's relation to the plan of salvation with two words:
holiness and love. The plan of salvation that Romans expounds resulted
from a holy God reaching out to sinful humanity lovingly (3:22, 24). This
plan vindicates the holiness of God as it unveils God's gracious love (chs.
9—11).
Man's relation to the plan of salvation is threefold:
It involves justification: the imputation of God's righteousness to the

believing sinner. To "justify" means to pardon and forgive sinners of their
guilt and to declare them righteous.
"To be justified means to be declared righteous in a judicial

sense. This does not mean that the believer, who has been
justified, is righteous [in his or her character or conduct];
rather, it means that God declares him to be righteous. Thus,
justification has to do with God's declaration concerning the
sinner, not with any change occurring within the sinner.
Justification does not make anyone holy [in his or her
character or conduct]; rather, God declares that the sinner is
no longer guilty before Him. It is a divine act in which God
declares a sinner righteous as a result of the sinner's faith in
Messiah."1
1Fruchtenbaum, p. 43.
Salvation also involves practical sanctification: the impartation (or

communication1) of God's righteousness to the redeemed sinner. Third, it
involves glorification: the perfection of God's righteousness in the
sanctified sinner. In justification, God lifts the sinner into a relationship with
Himself that is more intimate than he would have enjoyed if he had never
sinned (5:12-21). In practical sanctification, God progressively transforms
the sinner into the Savior's image by the power of the indwelling Holy Spirit.
In glorification, God finally restores the sinner to the place that God
intended for him to occupy in creation.
The creation's relation to the plan of salvation is twofold: First, God

restores creation's king, namely, man, to his intended position. Second,
creation realizes all of its intended possibilities that sin has denied it.
Consider next some of the major lessons of this book. What did God want
us to learn from it?
First, Romans calls us to measure ourselves by divine, rather than human,

standards. We sometimes evaluate ourselves, and one another, by using
the criteria that our age uses, or that we ourselves set. However, to know
our true condition, we must use the criteria that God sets. This standard
reveals that we are all guilty before God. This is one of the great lessons
that Romans teaches us.
Second, Romans calls us to live by faith, rather than by sight. God did not
come any closer to humankind in the incarnation of Christ than He ever had
been before. Yet, in the Incarnation, the nearness of God became more
obvious to people. In His resurrection, the Son of God became observable
as the Son of God to human beings. All the glories of salvation come to us
as we believe God. Romans contrasts the folly of trying to obtain salvation
by working for it—with trusting God: simply believing what He has revealed
as true, and relying on it as true.
Third, Romans calls us to dedicate ourselves to God, rather than living self-
centered lives (6:12-13; 12:1). This is the reasonable response to having
received salvation as a gift. We should give ourselves to God. God's grace
puts us in debt to Him. Paul did not say that if we fail to dedicate ourselves
to God, we are therefore unsaved. Rather, he appealed to us as saved
people to do for God what He has done for us, namely, give ourselves to
1J. B. Lightfoot, Notes on the Epistles of St Paul, p. 270.

Him out of love for Him. When we do this, we show that we truly appreciate
what God has done for us.
On the basis of these observations, I would summarize the message of

Romans in the following words: Since God has lovingly provided salvation
for helpless sinners through His Son, we should accept that sacrifice by
faith, and express our gratitude to God by dedicating our lives to Him.
In view of the greatness of the salvation that God has provided, which
Romans reveals, Christians, like Paul, have a duty to communicate this good
news to the world (1:14-17; Matt. 28:19). We do this both by lip and life,
by explanation and by example (8:29). Our living example will reflect death
to self, as well as life to God (6:13).1
1Adapted from G. Campbell Morgan, Living Messages of the Books of the Bible, 2:1:93-
109.
I. INTRODUCTION 1:1-17
This great epistle begins with a broad perspective. It looks at the promise
of a Savior in the Old Testament, reviews Paul's ministry to date, and
surveys the religious history of the Gentile world.
"The main body of Romans is a treatise on Paul's gospel,

bracketed by an epistolary opening (1:1-17) and conclusion
(15:14—16:27). These opening and concluding statements
have many similarities, not the least of which is the emphasis
on the gospel. (Eight of the 11 occurrences in Romans of
euangelion ["gospel"] and euangelizomia ["to evangelize"] are
in these passages.) Paul's special relationship to this gospel, a
relationship that encompasses the Roman Christians, both
opens and closes the strictly 'epistolary' introductory material
in the section (vv. 1-5, 13-15)."1
"Paul's introduction in 1:1-18 mentions every topic he will

discuss in reverse order in the remainder of the letter."2
A. SALUTATION 1:1-7
This salutation, which is the longest salutation in Paul's epistles, identifies

the writer (v. 1), introduces the subject of the letter (vv. 2-5), and greets
the original readers (vv. 6-7). This salutation is one sentence and it
implicitly sets forth the most fundamental facts of Christianity. In
particular, it shows that the main facts of the gospel fulfill Old Testament
predictions.
"The central idea of the passage is that of the whole epistle,

that the Gospel, as preached by Paul to the Gentiles, was not
1Moo, p. 39. See The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament, p. 439, for a chart
comparing Paul's introductions to his epistles.
2John M. Scoggins Jr., "Romans 1:18 as Key to the Structure of the Letter," Bibliotheca
Sacra 175:700 (October-December 2018):411.

inconsistent with, but the fulfilment of, God's promises to

Israel."1
1. The writer 1:1
As in all his epistles, Paul used his Roman rather than his Jewish name, Saul,
perhaps because he was the apostle to the Gentiles. Even though he had
not yet visited Rome, his readers knew Paul's reputation well. He just
needed to give his name to identify himself.
"The order of the titles Jesus Christ and Christ Jesus is always
significant: 'Christ Jesus' describes the One who was with the
Father in eternal glory, and who came to earth, becoming
Incarnate; 'Jesus Christ' describes Him as the One who
humbled Himself, who was despised and rejected, and endured
the cross, but who was afterwards exalted and glorified. 'Christ
Jesus' testifies to His pre-existence; 'Jesus Christ' to His
resurrection and exaltation."2
In his relationship to Christ Jesus, Paul was a "bond-servant" (Greek doulos;

cf. James 1:1; 2 Pet. 1:1; Jude 1). Some translators have rendered this
word "slave," but Paul was a willing servant of Christ (cf. Phil. 2:7). This
term is the equivalent of the Old Testament "servant of the Lord," which
describes Moses, Joshua, Elijah, Nehemiah, and especially David.
"He [Paul] regarded himself as the purchased possession of his

Lord and Master. The two ideas of property and service are
suggested. There was no serfdom or servility, and yet there
was an absolute loyalty in the consciousness of absolute
possession. The bond-servant owned nothing, and was
nothing, apart from his master. His time, his strength,
everything belonged altogether to another. There was nothing
nobler to St. Paul than to be a slave of the Lord Jesus. He
desired to be nothing, to do nothing, to own nothing apart
from Him."3
1James Denney, "St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans," in The Expositor's Greek Testament,
2:585.
2W. E. Vine, The Epistle to the Romans, p. 7.
3Thomas, pp. 38-39.
"The principle here is that when Messiah sets a person free

from the slavery of sin, the believer does not go from that
slavery into the slavery of God. Rather, he moves from the
slavery to sin to freedom. At this point, he has the option of
binding himself to God. He can become a bondslave, meaning
a willing slave of God. This is what Paul will encourage all
believers to do in Romans 12:1-2."1
The title "apostle" gives Paul's gift and office in the church. He was Jesus
Christ's special appointee.
"Paul was a 'called' apostle—called is an adjective—he means

that he is that kind of an apostle."2
"'Called' means designated and set apart by an action of God

to some special sphere and manner of being and of consequent
activity."3
His calling as an apostle gave Paul the right not only to preach the gospel
but to found, to supervise, and even to discipline churches if necessary.
The basis of his authority, the right to his office, was God's calling (cf. vv.
6, 7; Jer. 1:5).4
"The Greek word [aphorismenos, "set apart"] is not only

similar in meaning to, but also has the same consonants as the
Hebrew root p-r-sh, which underlies the word Pharisee. Paul
had been a Pharisee (Phil. iii. 5), supposing himself to be set
apart from other men for the service of God; he now truly was
what he had supposed himself to be—separated, not, however,
by human exclusiveness but by God's grace and election."5
"Paul never thought of himself as a man who had aspired to an

honour; he thought of himself as a man who had been given a
task."6
2McGee, 4:645.
3William R. Newell, Romans Verse by Verse, p. 3. Italics removed.
4See R. D. Culver, "Apostles and the Apostolate in the New Testament," Bibliotheca Sacra
134:534 (April-June 1977):131-43.

5C. K. Barrett, A Commentary of the Epistle to the Romans, p. 17.
6Barclay, p. 2.
The particular extent of his work, the scope of his calling, was quite narrow,
namely, to proclaim the gospel (good news) of God. As a Pharisee Paul had
lived a life set apart to strictly observing the Mosaic Law and Jewish
customs. Now his calling was to proclaim the gospel (Acts 9:15; Gal. 1:12).
"Concentration thus follows consecration and commission."1
2. The subject of the epistle 1:2-5
1:2 Paul next began to exalt the gospel that God had called him to
proclaim. It was a message that God had promised, not just
prophesied, in the Old Testament Scriptures. The words "His"
and "holy" stress the unique origin of the gospel. God had
inspired the Old Testament by speaking through men as He
gave His revelation. Paul did not preach an unanticipated
gospel but one that God had promised through His prophets
(cf. 4:13-25; 9:4; 15:8). This was the reason that Paul
appealed to the Old Testament so fully in this and his other
epistles. Specifically, Paul's gospel was not a human invention
that tried to make the best of Israel's rejection of Jesus Christ.
"Paul frequently appealed to the Old Testament in

support of his teaching, quoting from it ninety-
three times."2
1:3-4 Paul identified the gospel's theme in order to exalt it further.

The gospel centers on God's Son, Jesus Christ, who was both
human and divine. The phrases "according to the flesh" (v. 3)
and "according to the Spirit" (v. 4) probably do not contrast
the natures of Christ but His relationships.3 He belonged to
two realms or spheres or orders of existence. As to his human
earthly connection, His origin was the highest: He was not just
an Israelite (9:5) but a descendant of David (Matt. 1:1; Luke
1:32; Acts 13:22-23; 2 Tim. 2:8), which was a messianic
qualification (Isa. 11:1).
1Thomas, p. 39.
2George E. Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, p. 394.
3James M. Stifler, The Epistle to the Romans, pp. 24-25; Bruce, p. 69.
"The Son did not merely become man but man

'out of David's seed,' which means man as the
Messiah. Since he was this promised descendant
of David, all the Messianic promises centered in
him."1
Concerning the realm above, Jesus Christ was higher than the
angels (Heb. 1:4), the very Son of God (v. 4). The word power
probably modifies the Son rather than the declaration.2 Paul
probably meant that God declared Jesus to be His powerful
Son, rather than that God powerfully declared that Jesus was
His Son. The point of this passage is the greatness of Jesus,
not the wonder of the resurrection.
"A man who was merely a man and said the sort
of things Jesus said would not be a great moral
teacher. He would either be a lunatic—on a level
with the man who says he is a poached egg—or
else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make
your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son
of God: or else a madman or something worse."3
Jesus was always the Son of God, but the Father declared Him
to be His Son by resurrecting Him. Jesus did not change in
essence—He always was the Son—but was elevated in status
and function by His resurrection. God appointed the Son to a
new and more powerful position in relation to the world at the
Resurrection (cf. Matt. 28:18). He is now not only the Messiah,
but the Lord (sovereign ruler) over all.4
To what does "the Spirit of holiness" (v. 4) refer? It may be

another way of referring to the Holy Spirit.5 On the other hand,
in view of the parallel expression "according to the flesh" (v.
3), and the fact that Paul could have said Holy Spirit if that is
1Richard C. H. Lenski, The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, p. 36.
2Johnson, p. 23.
3C. S. Lewis, Mere Christianity, p. 41.
4See S. Lewis Johnson Jr., "The Jesus That Paul Preached," Bibliotheca Sacra 128:510
(April-June 1971):120-34.
5Godet, p. 80; Bruce, p. 69; John A. Witmer, "Romans," in The Bible Knowledge
Commentary: New Testament, p. 440.

what he meant, probably Paul was referring to the holy nature

of Jesus. Jesus' nature was so holy (perfectly sinless) that
death could not hold Him.1
1:5 In this verse Paul probably meant that he had received the
special grace (unmerited gift) of being an apostle: his
apostleship. He introduced the character and scope of what
follows, in this epistle, by linking his apostleship with the
resurrected Christ. Jesus' descent from David, plus His
resurrection from the dead, proved that He was the same
Messiah and Lord that was promised in the Old Testament.
Therefore the gospel that Paul preached as an apostle could
bring all the Gentiles, not just the Jews, to faith in Christ. It did
not bring them to obey the Law of Moses but to faith in Christ.
Obeying God by trusting in Jesus Christ is "in behalf of His
name" in that it glorifies God and Christ.
"The law lays down what a man must do; the

gospel lays down what God has done."2
"Some one has truly said that the Gospel is 'good

news' not 'good advice,' …"3
Faith is obedience to God: "obedience which consists in or

springs from faith."4 God commands everyone to believe in
Christ (cf. John 6:29; Acts 17:30-31). To disbelieve in Christ
is to disobey God.
"Faith is the act of assent by which the Gospel is

appropriated."5
This verse is not teaching that saving faith always results in

ongoing obedience to God, though that is normally its effect.6
1Henry Alford, The Greek Testament, 2:2:313; Everett F. Harrison, "Romans," in Romans-
Galatians, vol. 10 of The Expositor's Bible Commentary, p. 15; Sanday and Headlam, p. 9;
Stifler, p. 25; A. T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament, 4:324.
2Barclay, p. 3.
3Thomas, p. 43.
4Dunn, p. 24.
5Sanday and Headlam, p. 11.
6See Robert N. Wilkin, "Obedience to the Faith: Romans 1:5," Grace in Focus 10:6
(November-December 1995):2-4.
Both Scripture and experience teach that Christians, those who

have exercised saving faith in Christ, often disobey God. Paul's
point in this verse is not the obedience of Christians but the
obedience of non-Christians who need to obey God by placing
their faith in Christ.
3. The original recipients 1:6-7
1:6-7 Paul assured his readers—the majority of whom were Gentiles

(cf. v. 5)—that they were part of those who whom God had
called for salvation. God had not called them to apostleship as
God had called him (v. 1) but to sainthood, saints being a
common term for believers in the New Testament. This word
refers more to position than condition when used this way,
though the implication of holiness in daily living is strong.
Christians are primarily saints even though we sin. 1
"One of the titles of believers is 'the called.'"2
"God's call is not an invitation but a powerful and

effective reaching out to claim individuals for
himself."3
"In the language of the Acts and Epistles the word

'called' always denotes an effectual calling, and
therefore suggests both the call given by God and
obedience to it on the part of believers."4
"'Calling' in Paul always includes obedience as well

as hearing."5
Verse 7 really continues the thought of verse 1, verses 2-6

being somewhat parenthetical. "Grace" and "peace" were
common salutations in Greek and Jewish letters respectively in
1See Robert L. Saucy, "'Sinners' Who Are Forgiven or 'Saints' Who Sin?" Bibliotheca Sacra
152:608 (October-December 1995):400-12.
2Lenski, p. 49.
3Robert H. Mounce, Romans, p. 63. See also W. W. Klein, "Paul's Use of Kalein: A Proposal,"
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27 (1984):53-64.

4Vine, p. 11.
5Denney, 2:587.
Paul's day. God's grace is both His unmerited favor and His
divine enablement. J. H. Jowett described it as "holy love on
the move."1 God's grace is the basis for any true human peace.
The Hebrew concept of peace (Heb. shalom) did not just mean
freedom from stress, anxiety, and irritation. It included the
fullness of God's blessing. Paul desired a continually deeper and
richer experience of spiritual blessing for his readers. The
linking of Jesus Christ with the Father in verse 7 implies the
deity of the Son.2
The salutation reveals the germ ideas that the writer proceeded to develop
later in this epistle. This is also characteristic of Paul's other epistles. So
far Paul said he had a message that was in harmony with the Old Testament.
It was from the risen Christ, and it was for all people. Furthermore it should
lead people to obey God by exercising faith in Jesus Christ.
William Hendriksen provided a list of all 13 salutations with the number of

words in the original Greek text in each one:3
Romans 93 Philippians 32
Galatians 75 2 Timothy 29
Titus 65 Ephesians 28 (or 30)
1 Corinthians 55 Colossians 28
Philemon 41 2 Thessalonians 27
2 Corinthians 41 1 Thessalonians 19
1Timothy 32
B. PURPOSE 1:8-15
Having begun with a formal and unusually long greeting compared to his
other epistles, Paul next proceeded to address his readers more personally.
1Quoted in Horton Davies, Varieties of English Preaching, 1900 – 1960, p. 54.

3William Hendriksen, New Testament Commentary: Exposition of the Pastoral Epistles, p.
339.
He had not met the Christians to whom he wrote, so he spent some time
getting acquainted and sharing his heart with them.
"One of the first lessons of effective leadership is the

importance of setting priorities. Not only must things be done
right (management) but the right things must be done
(leadership)."1
1:8 Paul felt concern for the welfare of this church. The faith of
the Roman church had become well known in the few years
since it had come into existence (cf. Eph. 1:15-16; Col. 1:3-4;
1 Thess. 1:3). Typically Paul began by offering commendation
to his readers for some praiseworthy trait whenever he could.
Here he thanked God for the Romans through Jesus Christ who
had created their access to God. He praised the Roman
Christians for their obedience to God by trusting in Jesus Christ
(cf. v. 5).
"We must express our love to our friends, not only

by praying for them, but by praising God for
them."2
1:9-10 Paul called God as his witness that he was telling the truth
because what he was about to say might be difficult to believe.
"In my spirit" means "with my whole heart" (NIV).3 Paul
claimed that he prayed for the Romans unceasingly, namely,
frequently—but not without stopping (cf. Eph. 1:15; 3:14;
Phil. 1:3-4; Col. 1:3-4; 1 Thess. 1:2-3). The Greek word
translated unceasingly (adialeiptos, cf. 1 Thess. 5:17) denotes
that not much time elapsed between his prayers for them.
These saints were constantly in his thoughts and prayers.
"We are reminded that the real work of the

ministry is prayer. Preaching is more a result of
the ministry of prayer than it is a ministry itself. A
sermon that does not rise from intense and heart-
1Mounce, p. 65. Cf. Cranfield, 1:78-79.

2Matthew Henry, Commentary on the Whole Bible, p. 1754.
3NIV refers to The Holy Bible: New International Version.
searching prayer has no chance of bearing real

fruit."1
1:11-13 As Paul had prayed often for the Romans, so he had also
planned often to visit them. The clause "I do not want you to
be unaware" (v. 13) always identifies something important
that Paul had to say (cf. 1 Cor. 10:1; 12:1; 1 Thess. 4:13). His
reason for planning to visit these Christians was for fellowship,
namely, mutual sharing of things profitable. One obstacle that
may have prevented Paul from reaching Rome previously was
the imperial edict of A.D. 49 that expelled Jews from Rome (cf.
Acts 18:2).2
Paul mentioned his contribution to fellowship with the Romans

first (v. 11) and theirs to him last (v. 13) while he stressed
reciprocity in between (v. 12). Paul's spiritual gift to them (v.
11) was probably not one specific gift but anything and
everything that would be to their spiritual benefit (cf. 1 Cor.
12:1). In 1 Corinthians 12:1 he mentioned specific gifts
(plural). We should also probably interpret the fruit that he
hoped to obtain (v. 13) broadly rather than specifically.
Probably all the fruit that would come from his ministry among
them is in view.
"Humility is the teacher's best gown. Read again

vs. 9 to 12 to see how Paul wears it. … Said John
Ruskin: 'I believe the first test of a truly great man
is humility.' And Sir Thomas More: 'To be humble
to superiors, is duty; to equals, it is courtesy; to
inferiors, is nobleness; it being a virtue that, for all
its lowliness commands those it stoops to.' Such
was Paul's leadership.3"
1:14-15 Paul's love for Christian fellowship, and his obligation to preach
the gospel to all people, especially to the Gentiles (cf. Gal.
1:11-12; Eph. 3:1-7; 2 Cor. 12:7-10), motivated him to visit
Rome (cf. vv. 1, 5). Having received the grace of God himself,
1Mounce, p. 66.
2See Bruce, p. 16.
3E. M. Blaiklock, Today's Handbook of Bible Characters, pp. 542, 543. Paragraph division
omitted.
he recognized that this placed him in debt to everyone else.

He owed them the opportunity to hear the gospel and to
receive God's grace themselves. Every Christian is indebted to
every non-Christian, because we possess and can share what
can impart life to those who are dead in sin, namely, the
gospel.
The terms Greek and uncultured (v. 14) distinguish Gentiles by

language and culture. In Paul's day, this was a standard way of
describing all races and classes within the Gentile world.1 The
Jews spoke of all who were not Jews as Greeks.2 But the Greek
people spoke of anyone who did not speak the Greek language
as a "barbarian." The Greek word barbaros is onomatopoetic:
it imitates any rough-sounding, unintelligible language.3 The
wise and foolish distinction divides people intellectually (cf. 1
Cor. 1:19, 20, 26, 27).
Paul did not regard his opportunity to preach the gospel as a

burden that he had to bear, or as a duty that he had to fulfill.
Rather he was eager to share the good news with everyone (v.
15).
"If one has the finest intellectual and formal

preparation for preaching but is lacking in zeal, he
cannot hope for much success."4
The salutation (vv. 1-7) introduced Paul to his readers in a formal tone.
However, the explanation of his purpose in desiring to visit Rome (vv. 8-
15) revealed a pastoral heart, warm to the readers and the lost, ready to
edify the saints and evangelize sinners. Verses 8-15 play an integral part
in introducing the argument (progression of thought) and rhetoric
(persuasive language) of Romans.5
1Dunn, p. 33.
2Robertson, 4:326.
3J. P. Lange, "The Epistle of Paul to the Romans," in Commentary on the Holy Scriptures,
p. 70.
4Harrison, p. 18.
5Marty L. Reid, "A Consideration of the Function of Rom 1:8-15 in Light of Greco-Roman
Rhetoric," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 38:2 (June 1995):181-91.

"One spiritual lesson that may be learned from this section is

that preaching requires the proclamation of the gospel. No one
is ever going to be saved by the way believers live. They will
only be saved by hearing the content of the gospel. Faith
comes by hearing and hearing by the Word of God (Rom.
10:17). Hence, the gospel must be proclaimed."1
C. THEME 1:16-17
If anyone thought that Paul had not visited Rome because he doubted the
power of his gospel to work in that sophisticated environment, the apostle
now clarified his reason for not coming (cf. v. 13). These verses conclude
the epistolary introduction and they transition into the body of the letter
by stating Paul's theme. They also summarize Paul's theology as a whole.2
1:16 Paul's third basic attitude toward the gospel now comes out.
Not only did he feel obligated (v. 14) and eager (v. 15) to
proclaim it, but he also felt unashamed to do so (cf. 2 Tim.
1:8-12). This is an example of the figure of speech called
litotes, in which one sets forth a positive idea (I am proud of
the gospel) by expressing its negative opposite ("I am not
ashamed of the gospel"). The reason for using this figure of
speech is to stress the positive idea. The reason for Paul's
proud confidence in the gospel was that the gospel message
has tremendous power.
"We shall not do wrong if we think of the Gospel

as a 'force' in the same kind of sense as that in
which science has revealed to us the great 'forces'
of nature."3
"Like the word of God in the prophets, the Gospel

itself is a power which leads either to life or to
death (cf. I Cor. i. 23 f.; 2 Cor. ii. 15 f.)."4
1Fruchtenbaum, p. 35. Cf. 1 Cor. 1:21.

2Barrett, p. 27.
4Barrett, p. 28.
The Greek word translated power is dunamis, from which the

word dynamite comes. Consequently some interpreters have
concluded that Paul was speaking of the explosive, radical way
in which the gospel produces change in individual lives and
even in history. However the context shows that the apostle
was thinking of its intrinsic ability to affect change.
"The late evangelist Dwight L. Moody commented

that the gospel is like a lion. All the preacher has
to do is to open the door of the cage and get out
of the way!"1
God has the power to deliver physically (Exod. 14:13) and

spiritually (Ps. 51:12, 14). The basic outcome of salvation is
soundness or wholeness. Salvation restores people to what
they cannot experience because of sin. Salvation is an umbrella
term; it covers all aspects of deliverance. The terms
justification, redemption, reconciliation, sanctification, and
glorification describe different aspects of salvation.2
"'The inherent glory of the message of the gospel,

as God's life-giving message to a dying world, so
filled Paul's soul, that like his blessed Master, he
"despised the shame."' So, pray God, may all of
us!"3
The gospel does not announce that everyone is safe because

of what Jesus Christ has done, which is universalism. The
gospel is only effective in those who believe it.4 Believe what?
Believe the good news. What is the good news? It is the news
that Jesus is the Christ (i.e., the Messiah whom God promised
to send) and that He has done everything necessary to save
us from the wrath of God (cf. 1 John 2:2; 5:1). Note that Paul
mentioned no other condition besides believing the good news
in this crucial verse (cf. 4:5). He said nothing about our having
1Mounce, p. 70.
2Definitions of these and other theological terms will follow in these notes.
3Newell, p. 18. He did not identify the source of his quotation.
4See J. Ronald Blue, "Untold Billions: Are They Really Lost?" Bibliotheca Sacra 138:562
(October-December 1981):338-50; and Ramesh P. Richard, "Soteriological Inclusivism and

Dispensationalism," Bibliotheca Sacra 151:601 (January-March 1994):85-108.
to do anything in addition, such as undergoing baptism, joining

a church, pledging commitment, etc. The issue is believing
good news and trusting Christ. Either a person does or does
not do so.1
"The only way to a right relationship with God is

to take God at His word, and to cast oneself, just
as one is, on the mercy and the love of God. It is
the way of faith. It is to know that the important
thing is, not what we can do for God, but what
God has done for us. For Paul the centre of the
Christian faith was that we can never earn or
deserve the favour of God, nor do we need to. The
whole matter is a matter of grace, and all that we
can do is to accept in wondering love and
gratitude and trust what God has done for us. But
that does not free us from obligations or entitle
us to do as we like; it means that for ever and for
ever we must try to be worthy of the love which
does so much for us. But there is a change in life.
We are no longer trying to fulfil [sic] the demands
of stern and austere and condemnatory law; we
are not like criminals before a judge any more; we
are lovers who have given all life in love to the one
who first loved us."2
The gospel has a special relevance to the Jew. We could

translate "first" (Gr. protos) as "preeminently" (cf. 2:9-10).
This preeminence is due to the fact that God chose the Jews
to be the people through whom the gospel would reach the
Gentiles (non-Jews; cf. Gen. 12:3). As a people the Jews have
a leading place in God's plans involving salvation for the rest
of humanity (cf. chs. 9—11). Their priority is primarily
elective—God chose them first—though it was also historical
and methodological.3
1See Thomas L. Constable, "The Gospel Message," in Walvoord: A Tribute, pp. 201-17.
2Barclay, p. xxvi.
3See Wayne A. Brindle, "'To the Jew First': Rhetoric, Strategy, History, or Theology?"
Bibliotheca Sacra 159:634 (April-June 2002):221-33.

Because God purposed to use Israel as His primary instrument

in bringing blessing to the world (Exod. 19:5-6), He gave the
Jews the first opportunity to receive His Son. This was true
both during Jesus' earthly ministry (John 1:11) and following
His ascension (Acts 1:8; 3:26). Paul also followed this pattern
in his ministry (Acts 13:45-46; 28:25, 28).1
Despite her privileged position of priority, Israel must repent

of her rejection of her Messiah, Jesus Christ, before Christ's
earthly millennial (1,000-year) kingdom will begin (Zech.
12:10).2 Meanwhile, the Great Commission makes no
distinction between Jews and Gentiles in the present age.
Jesus Christ has charged Christians with taking the gospel to
everyone (Matt. 28:19-20). He has identified no group as that
to which we must give priority in evangelism.
1:17 In this verse Paul explained what he meant when he said that
when a person believes the gospel he or she is saved (v. 16).
What makes the gospel powerful is its content. The salvation
(deliverance) that God has provided and offers is in keeping
with His righteous character (cf. 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:21).
What did Paul mean by "the righteousness of God"? With the

exception of 2 Corinthians 5:21, Paul used this phrase only in
Romans, where it appears eight times (1:17; 3:5, 21, 22, 25,
26; 10:3 [twice]). It could be a moral attribute of God, either
His rectitude (uprightness) or His faithfulness. It could be a
legal status that God gives to people. It could be both of these
things.3 Or it could be an activity of God, specifically, His saving
action.
"For Paul, as in the OT, 'righteousness of God' is a

relational concept. Bringing together the aspects
of activity and status, we can define it as the act
1See Jim R. Sibley, "Israel and the Gospel of Peter, Paul, and Abraham," Bibliotheca Sacra
173:689 (January-March 2016):18-31.
2See Stanley D. Toussaint and Jay A. Quine, "No, Not Yet: The Contingency of God's
Promised Kingdom," Bibliotheca Sacra 164:654 (April-June 2007):145-46.

by which God brings people into right relationship

with himself."1
The gospel displays the righteousness of God.
What does "from faith to faith" mean? Was Paul describing the
way that God has revealed His righteousness, or how people
should receive it? The position of this phrase in the sentence
favors the first option. The idea might be that God's
righteousness comes from one person who exercises faith to
another person who exercises faith. Still, if that is what Paul
intended, he should have used the Greek preposition apo,
which views "from" as a point of departure. Instead he used
ek, which indicates the basis of something (cf. 3:16; 5:1; Gal.
2:16).
Probably the phrase refers to how people receive God's

righteousness. The idea seems to be that faith is the method
whereby we receive salvation, whatever aspect of salvation
may be in view, and whomever we may be. The NIV
interpretation is probably correct: "by faith from first to last."
"Faith is the starting point, and faith the goal."2
"… man (if righteous [right before God] at all) is

righteous by faith; he also lives by faith."3
Another view is that "from faith to faith" means "from God's

faithfulness (to His covenant promises) to man's response of
faith."4 A third view is that it refers to both the deepening of
faith in an individual and to the spreading of it in the world.5
Every aspect of God's salvation comes to us only by faith. That

is true whether we are speaking of justification (past salvation
from the penalty of sin), practical sanctification (present
1Moo, p. 74. See pages 70-74 for the reasons that this is the best conclusion. He also
wrote a good excursus on "'Righteousness' Language in Paul," pp. 79-90.
2Lightfoot, p. 250.
3Barrett, p. 31.
4Dunn, p. 48.
5Sanday and Headlam, p. 28
salvation from the power of sin), or glorification (future

salvation from the presence of sin). Trusting God results in full
salvation.
"It ["faith"] is the 'Yes' of the soul when the

central proposition of Christianity is presented to
it."1
The words of Habakkuk 2:4 support Paul's statement. Faith is

the vehicle that brings the righteousness of God to people. The
person who believes the good news that the righteous God has
proclaimed becomes righteous himself or herself. The
Pharisees, one of which Paul had been, taught that
righteousness came through keeping the Mosaic Law
scrupulously (cf. Matt. 5:20). The gospel Paul proclaimed, on
the other hand, was in harmony with what Habakkuk had
revealed (cf. v. 2). Martin Luther wrote the following about
this verse:
"Night and day I pondered until I saw the

connection between the justice of God and the
statement that 'the just shall live by his faith.'
Then I grasped that the justice of God is that
righteousness by which through grace and sheer
mercy God justifies us [declares us righteous]
through faith. Thereupon I felt myself to be reborn
and to have gone through open doors into
paradise. The whole of Scripture took on a new
meaning, and whereas before the 'justice of God'
had filled me with hate, now it became to me
inexpressibly sweet in greater love. This passage
of Paul became to me a gate to heaven."2
Many students of Romans believe that Habakkuk 2:4 is the

"text" of Romans, and what follows is exposition of that
Scripture text.
1Idem.,p. 26.
2MartinLuther, quoted in Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand, pp. 49-50. See also J. H. Merle
D'Aubigné, The Story of the Reformation, pp. 63-64.
"Here we have the text of the whole Epistle of

Romans: First, the words 'the gospel'—so dear to
Paul, as will appear. Next, the universal saving
power of this gospel is asserted. Then, the secret
of the gospel's power—the revelation of God's
righteousness on the principle of faith. Finally, the
accord of all this with the Old Testament
Scriptures: 'The righteous shall live by faith.'"1
Thomas suggested the following outline: 1:1—3:20: the

righteous; 3:21—4:25: by faith; and 5:1—16:26: shall live.2
Verses 16-17 are the key verses in Romans because they state the theme
of the revelation that follows. Paul's message was the gospel. He felt no
shame declaring it but was eager to proclaim it because it was a message
that can deliver everyone who believes it from God's wrath. It is a message
of how a righteous God righteously makes people righteous. The theme of
the gospel is the righteousness of God, and the theme of Romans is the
gospel.3
This first section of Romans (1:1-17) introduces the subject of this

epistolary treatise by presenting the gospel as a message that harmonizes
with Old Testament revelation. It is a message that concerns Jesus, the
Messiah and Lord. It is a powerful message since it has the power to save
anyone who believes it.
II. THE NEED FOR GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS 1:18—3:20
Paul began his explanation of the gospel by demonstrating that there is a

universal need for it. Every human being needs to trust in Jesus Christ
because everyone lacks the righteousness that God requires before He will
accept us. Paul showed that everyone is a sinner and is therefore subject
to God’s condemnation.
1Newell,p. 18.
2Thomas, p. 63.
3Moo, pp. 22-30; Witmer, p. 437.
"… we cannot seriously aspire to him [i.e., God] before we

begin to become displeased with ourselves."1
Paul began by demonstrating the spiritual need of all people generally

(1:18-32). Then he dealt more particularly with people who would resist
this verdict, namely, self-righteous people (2:1—3:8). He explained three
principles by which God will judge everyone (2:1-16). Then he zeroed in on
the hardest of all cases: the Jews (2:17-29). He answered four objections
the Jews might raise to God's condemnation of them (3:1-8). Finally, he
supported the fact that all people are under God’s condemnation by citing
Old Testament Scripture (3:9-20). All of this shows that everyone needs
to hear the gospel and to believe it (1:16-17).
"Paul implicitly acknowledges that 1:18—3:20 is an

interruption in his exposition of the righteousness of God by
reprising [repeating] 1:17 in 3:21 … Some think that the
'revelation of God's wrath' is a product of the preaching of the
gospel, so that 1:18—3:20 is as much 'gospel' as is 3:21—
4:25 … But, although Paul clearly considers warning about
judgment to come to be related to his preaching of the gospel
(2:16), his generally positive use of 'gospel' language forbids
us from considering God's wrath and judgment to be part of
the gospel. We must consider 1:18—3:20 as a preparation for,
rather than as part of, Paul's exposition of the gospel of God's
righteousness."2
McGee called this section "sinnerama."3
A. THE NEED OF ALL PEOPLE 1:18-32
Perhaps Paul began by showing the need of all people for God's
righteousness because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, and his Roman
readers were primarily Gentiles. His argument in 1:18—3:20 moves inward
through a series of concentric circles of humanity.
1JohnCalvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 1:1:1.

2Moo,p. 92. Paragraph division omitted.
3McGee, 4:652.
"God never condemns without just cause. Here three bases are
stated for His judgment of the pagan world.
a. For suppressing God's truth (1:18) …
b. For ignoring God's revelation (1:19-20) …
c. For perverting God's glory (1:21-23) …"1
1. The reason for human guilt 1:18
In this verse Paul began to explain why Gentiles need to hear the gospel
and experience salvation. Whereas this verse gives one reason, it also
serves as a general statement that summarizes all human guilt.
God has revealed His wrath as well as His righteousness (v. 17) from heaven
in the gospel message.2 As Paul would explain, the unfolding of history also
reveals God's hatred toward sin and His judgment of sin. The moral
devolution of humanity is not just a natural consequence of man's sinning,
but it is also a result of God's judgment of sinners. The final judgment of
sin will occur in the eschaton (end times), but already God is pouring out
His wrath against sin to a lesser degree (cf. Eph. 5:6; Col. 3:6).3 Paul
described "wrath" as "revealed from heaven" because it comes from God
who is in heaven.4
"God's wrath is his divine displeasure with sin. We call it 'wrath'

because it shares certain basic characteristics of human wrath.
But because it is God's wrath it can have none of the sinful
qualities of its analogical counterpart."5
"Ungodliness" means lack of reverence for God. Man's neglect of God and
rebellion against God are evidences of ungodliness. "Unrighteousness" or
"wickedness" (NIV) means injustice toward other human beings. We see it
1Witmer, p. 442.
2Cranfield, 1:109-10.
3See René A. López, "The First [sic] Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans," in The
Grace New Testament Commentary, 2:627-28, 636; idem, "Do Believers Experience the
Wrath of God?" Journal of the Grace Evangelical Society 15:29 (Autumn 2002):45-66.
4G. Dalman, The Words of Jesus, p. 219. See the excursus on the wrath of God in Romans
in Newell, pp. 40-46.

5Mounce, pp. 76-77.
in any attitude or action that is not loving. Together these two words show
humankind's failure to love God and other people as we should, which are
our two greatest responsibilities (Deut. 6:5; Lev. 19:18; Matt. 22:37-39).
Unrighteousness proceeds from ungodliness. The order of the words is
significant: failure in the religious sphere leads to failure in the moral sphere.
Verses 19-27 demonstrate man's ungodliness, and verses 28-32 show his
unrighteousness (wickedness). "The truth" refers to truth that people
know about God (cf. v. 25). They suppress this truth by their wickedness.
"… whenever the truth starts to exert itself and makes them
feel uneasy in their moral nature, they hold it down, suppress
it. Some drown its voice by rushing on into their immoralities;
others strangle the disturbing voice by argument and by
denial."1
Even if someone acknowledges God for who He is, he still does not honor
God as much as he should. Every person suppresses the revelation of God,
and approves of those who practice evil, to some extent.
2. The ungodliness of humankind 1:19-27
Verse 18 identifies people’s ungodliness and unrighteousness as the

targets of God’s wrath. Some people are more ungodly and unrighteous
than others, but all are ungodly and unrighteous.
1:19-20 These verses begin a discussion of "natural revelation." Verse

19 states the fact of natural revelation, and verse 20 explains
the process.2 Natural revelation describes what everyone
knows about God because of what God has revealed
concerning Himself in nature.3 It is truth about God that is
immediately obvious to every human being. Paul was not
referring to the truth that man has been able to discover
through various disciplines of study (e.g., DNA). What God has
revealed about Himself in Scripture is "special revelation." The
creation bears testimony to its Maker, and every human being
1Lenski,pp. 92-93.
2Witmer, p. 442.
3See Robert L. Thomas, Evangelical Hermeneutics, ch. 5: "General Revelation and Biblical
Hermeneutics," pp. 113-40.

is aware of this silent witness (cf. Ps. 19).1 That is, it is

observable, not audible.
"Napoleon, on a warship in the Mediterranean on

a star-lit night, passed a group of his officers who
were mocking at the idea of a God. He stopped,
and sweeping his hand toward the stars, said,
'Gentlemen, you must get rid of those first!'"2
Four things characterize natural revelation: First, it is a clear

testimony; everyone is aware of it. Second, everyone can
understand it. We can draw conclusions about the Creator from
His creation. "His invisible attributes … have been clearly
perceived" is an oxymoron (a figure of speech in which
apparently contradictory terms appear together). Third, this
revelation has gone out since the creation of the world in every
generation. Fourth, it is a limited revelation in that it does not
reveal everything about God (e.g., His love and grace) but only
some things about Him (i.e., His power and divine nature).
"This is the only New Testament instance of

theiotes, 'divinity', 'divine nature' (NIV). If God's
divinity is shown in creation, his full deity or divine
essence (theotes) is embodied in Christ (Col.
2:9)."3
Natural revelation tells people that there is a Supreme Being,

and it makes them responsible to respond to their Creator in
worship and submission.4 However, it does not give sufficient
information for people to experience salvation. That is why
everyone needs to hear the gospel.
"If people could be saved without ever hearing the

gospel, the worst thing one could do would be to
send a missionary to them. Why give them the
1See Bruce A. Baker, "Romans 1:18-21 and Presuppositional Apologetics," Bibliotheca

Sacra 155:619 (July-September 1998):280-98.
2Newell,p. 29.
3Bruce,p. 80.
4See Ronald E. Mann, "False and True Worship in Romans 1:18-25," Bibliotheca Sacra
157:625 (January-March 2000):26-34.

chance to reject the gospel and end up in hell if

they can get to heaven simply by not hearing the
gospel?"1
"Utter uncompromising, abandonment of hope in

man is the first preliminary to understanding or
preaching the gospel."2
Paul did not explain exactly how God reveals Himself in nature,
and there have been three popular explanations: One is that
He left behind clues or tracks in creation from which everyone
can reason that there is a Creator. Another explanation is that
God personally reveals His presence to everyone through the
medium of creation. Still another view is that everyone has a
vague awareness of God because we recognize that we are
finite creatures living in a world that is subject to change. None
of these views is demonstrably certain, and all of them have
problems. More than one may be true.3 But there is no question
that God has revealed Himself in nature.4
"The being of God may be apprehended

[perceived], but cannot be comprehended [fully
understood]. Finite understandings cannot
perfectly know an infinite being; but, there is that
which ['in part'] may be known."5
1:21-23 Honoring God as God and giving Him thanks (v. 21) are our
primary duties to God in view of who He is. When people reject
truth it becomes increasingly difficult for them to recognize
and accept truth.
2Newell, p. 27.
3For a discussion of them with arguments for the third one, see Richard Alan Young, "The
Knowledge of God in Romans 1:18-23: Exegetical and Theological Reflections," Journal of

the Evangelical Theological Society 43:4 (December 2000):695-707.
4See F. W. Grant, Spiritual Law in the Natural World, for this writer's explanation of how
God's revelations in Scripture and nature harmonize.

5Henry, p. 1754.
"… in their religion, they deposed God from His

place as Creator,—in their lives, they were
ungrateful by the abuse of His gifts."1
"They followed foolishness (ta mataia) and

became foolish (mataioi) themselves."2
"Whenever human wisdom sets itself against God,

the result is soon seen in human foolishness."3
"Man is not improving physically, morally,

intellectually, or spiritually. The pull is downward.
Of course this contradicts all the anthologies of
religion that start with man in a very primitive
condition as a caveman with very little intellectual
qualities and move him up intellectually and begin
moving him toward God. This is absolute error.
Man is moving away from God, and right now the
world is probably farther from God than at any
time in its history."4
Mythology and idolatry have resulted from man's need to

identify some power greater than himself and his refusal to
acknowledge God as that power. Men and women have
elevated themselves to God's position (cf. Dan. 2:38; 3:1;
5:23). In our day humanism (the belief system that attaches
prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural
matters) has replaced the worship of individual human leaders
in most developed countries. People have descended to the
worship of animals as well (cf. Ps. 106:20). This is perhaps
more characteristic of third-world countries.
There seem to be seven steps down into degradation in verses

21b-23b. Other interpreters do not see a progression but
simply seven characteristics.
1Alford, 2:2:323.
2Lightfoot, p. 252.
3Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 69.
4McGee, 4:653.
"This tragic process of human 'god-making'

continues apace in our own day, and Paul's words
have as much relevance for people who have made
money or sex or fame their gods as for those who
carved idols out of wood and stone."1
"They [i.e., many unbelievers] will not say it is by

chance that they are distinct from brute
creatures. Yet they set God aside, the while using
'nature,' which for them is the artificer [inventor]
of all things, as a cloak. They see such exquisite
workmanship in their individual members from
mouth and eyes even to their very toenails. Here
also they substitute nature for God."2
Note the allusions to the creation story in the threefold division

of the animal kingdom in verse 23.3
Certainly there have been a few individuals who have

responded properly to general revelation when they have been
enabled by God's Spirit to do so. Missionaries to primitive
people occasionally come back home with stories about how
some tribe had been praying for God to give them more light
and God sent them a missionary. But Paul's point was that
rejection, rather than acceptance, is typical of humanity
unaided by God Himself. By himself fallen man does not
respond to general revelation.
"When good is omitted, there always comes in its

place an evil committed."4
God has revealed Himself in two basic ways: The first is through
general revelation (in nature, Ps. 19:1-6; Rom. 1:18-21; in
providence [normal human affairs], Dan. 2:21; Matt. 5:45;
Acts 14:15-17; and in the human conscience, Rom. 2:14-15).
1Moo, p. 110. For a relevant exposition of verses 21-22, see Francis A. Schaeffer, Death
in the City, pp. 79-123.
2Calvin,1:5:4.
3See also James M. Howard, "Re-examining Roman 1—8 with the Pentateuch," Bibliotheca
Sacra 177:705 (January-March 2020):70-90.
4Godet, p. 105.
The second is through special revelation (in Scripture, 2 Tim.

3:16-17; 2 Pet. 1:21; and in Christ, John 1:18; 5:36-37; 6:63;
14:10).1
1:24-25 The false religions that people have devised, and to which Paul
just referred, constitute some of God's judgment on
humankind for turning from Him. False religion is not in any
sense good for humankind. It is what people as a whole have
chosen, but it is also a judgment from God, and it tends to
keep people so distracted that they disregard the true God.
"God's wrath mentioned in Romans 1 is not an

active outpouring of divine displeasure but the
removal of restraint that allows sinners to reap
the just fruits of their rebellion."2
God's wrath is active in another sense, however. God gave

people up (v. 24; cf. vv. 26, 28) by turning them over to the
punishment that their crime earned, like a judge deals with a
criminal (cf. Hos. 4:17).
"… it is not that God permitted rebellious people

to fall into uncleanness and bodily dishonor; he
actively, although justly in view of their sin,
consigned them to the consequences of their
acts."3
"If the patient will not submit to the methods

prescribed, but willfully does that which is
prejudicial to him, the physician is not to be
blamed. The fatal symptoms that follow are not
to be imputed to the physician, but to the disease
itself and to the folly of the patient."4
"Two facts must be noticed here. (1) This

delivering up, this hardening the heart, is the
second stage in the downward fall, not the first,
1PaulP. Enns, The Moody Handbook of Theology, pp. 157, 186-87.

2Mounce, p. 80.
3Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 35. Cf. Moo, p. 111; and Acts 7:42.
4Henry, p. 1756.
in the language of Scripture. The first is in the

man's own power. (2) This is not represented as
a negative result of God's dealings, not as a
permissive act, a passive acquiescence on His
part. There is a stage in the downward course
when by God's law sin begets more sin and works
out its own punishment in the degradation of the
whole man. Thus there are moral laws of God's
government just as there are physical laws."1
The third characteristic of humankind in rebellion against God

that Paul identified—after ignorance (v. 21) and idolatry (v.
23)—is impurity (v. 24). Here Paul evidently had natural forms
of moral uncleanness in view such as adultery and prostitution.
He went on in verses 26-27 to describe even worse immorality,
namely, unnatural acts such as homosexuality. "Natural" here
means in keeping with how God has designed people, and
"unnatural" refers to behavior that is contrary to how God has
made us.
People exchanged the truth of God (v. 25; cf. v. 18) for
falsehood (lit. "the lie"). The lie in view is the contention that
we should venerate someone or something in place of the true
God (cf. Gen. 3:1-5; Matt. 4:3-10). Paul's concluding doxology
("Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.") underlined this
folly.
"The doxology expresses the horror of the

Apostle at this dishonour, and puts their sin in a
more striking light."2
"Fetish worship produces fetish morality."3
"It was the greatest honour God did to man that

he made man in the image of God; but it is the
1Lightfoot, p. 254.
2Alford,2:2:324.
3Lightfoot, p. 254.
greatest dishonour man has done to God that he

has made God in the image of man."1
1:26-27 Because people exchanged the truth for this falsehood, God
allowed them to degrade themselves through their passions.
The result was that people exchanged the natural human
functions for what is unnatural. In the Greek text, the words
translated "women" (thelus; v. 26) and "men" (arsen, v. 27)
mean "females" and "males." Ironically the homosexuality
described in these verses does not characterize females and
males of other animal species—only human beings.
"Notice the words Paul uses to describe

lesbianism and homosexuality: 'degrading,'
'unnatural,' 'indecent.' Even though homosexuals
and lesbians say that such conduct is not
degrading or unnatural, that does not change the
character of these sins in God's eyes. Lesbianism
and homosexuality are in themselves wrong."2
"Until 1973 homosexuality was on the American

Psychiatric Association's list of mental disorders,
but it was removed that year. Defenders of the
movement tell us that homosexuality should no
longer be considered a deviant lifestyle but rather
an alternative lifestyle. It has even been compared
to left-handedness in an effort to make it morally
neutral and therefore acceptable."3
Homosexuality is a perversion because it uses sex for a

purpose contrary to those for which God created and intended
it (Gen. 1:28; 2:24).
"This need not demand the conclusion that every

homosexual follows the practice in deliberate
rebellion against God's prescribed order. What is
1Henry, p. 1755.
2Charles C. Ryrie, Biblical Answers to Tough Questions, p. 148.
3Ibid., p. 143.
true historically and theologically is in measure

true, however, experientially."1
AIDS, for example, is probably a general consequence of man's

rebellion against God like other diseases, rather than a special
judgment from God. The "due penalty" is what people
experience as a result of God giving them over and letting them
indulge their sinful desires (cf. 6:23).
"Sin comes from the mind, which perverts the

judgment. The effect of retribution is to abandon
the mind to that depravity."2
"Contemporary homosexuals insist that these

verses mean that it is perverse for a heterosexual
male or female to engage in homosexual relations
but it is not perverse for a homosexual male or
female to do so since homosexuality is such a
person's natural preference. This is strained
exegesis unsupported by the Bible. The only
natural sexual relationship the Bible recognizes is
a heterosexual one (Gen. 2:21-24; Matt. 19:4-6)
within marriage."3
"A contextual and exegetical examination of

Romans 1:26-27 reveals that attempts by some
contemporary writers to do away with Paul's
prohibitions against present-day same-sex
relations are false. Paul did not impose Jewish
customs and rules on his readers; instead he
addressed same-sex relations from the trans-
cultural perspective of God's created order. God's
punishment for sin is rooted in a sinful reversal of
the created order. Nor was homosexuality simply
a sin practiced by idolaters in Paul's day; it was a
distorting consequence of the fall of the human
race in the Garden of Eden. Neither did Paul
1Harrison, p. 25.
2Henri Maurier, The Other Covenant, p. 185.
3Witmer, pp. 443-44. See P. Michael Ukleja, "Homosexuality in the New Testament,"
Bibliotheca Sacra 140:560 (October-December 1983):350-58.

describe homosexual acts by heterosexuals.

Instead he wrote that homosexual activity was an
exchange of the created order (heterosexuality)
for a talionic [equal in kind] perversion
(homosexuality), which is never presented in
Scripture as an acceptable norm for sexuality.
Also Hellenistic pederasty [sexual activity
involving a man and a boy] does not fully account
for the terms and logic of Romans 1:26-27 which
refers to adult-adult mutuality. Therefore it is
clear that in Romans 1:26-27 Paul condemned
homosexuality as a perversion of God's design for
human sexual relations."1
"Paul's attitude to homosexual practice is

unambiguous. … sex treated as an end in itself
becomes a dead end in itself, and sexual
perversion is its own inevitable penalty."2
"A man cannot be delivered up to a greater

slavery than to be given up to his own lusts."3
3. The wickedness of humankind 1:28-32
The second key word in verse 18, unrighteousness (v. 29), reappears at
the head of this list of humankind's sinful practices. It is a general word
describing the evil effects in human relations that people's suppression of
the knowledge of God produces. In the Greek text there is a wordplay that
highlights God's just retribution. As people disapproved of the idea of
retaining God in their thinking, so God gave them over to a disapproved
mind (v. 28). This letting loose has led to all kinds of crazy behavior.
1David E. Malick, "The Condemnation of Homosexuality in Romans 1:26-27," Bibliotheca

Sacra 150:599 (July-September 1993):340. See also Sherwood A. Cole, "Biology,
Homosexuality, and Moral Culpability," Bibliotheca Sacra 154:615 (July-September
1997):355-66; J. Kirby Anderson, Moral Dilemmas, ch. 13: "Homosexuality;" and Darrell
L. Bock and Mikel Del Rosario, "The Table Briefing: Sexuality and Paul's Transcultural
Message in Romans 1:18-32," Bibliotheca Sacra 172:686 (April-June 2015):222-28.
2Dunn, p. 74.
3Henry, p. 1756.
"People who have refused to acknowledge God end up with

minds that are 'disqualified' from being able to understand and
acknowledge the will of God. The result, of course, is that they
do things that are 'not proper.' As in 1:21, Paul stresses that
people who have turned from God are fundamentally unable to
think and decide correctly about God and his will. This tragic
incapacity is the explanation for the apparently inexplicable
failure of people to comprehend, let alone practice, biblical
ethical principles. Only the work of the Spirit in 'renewing the
mind [nous]' (Rom. 12:2) can overcome this deep-seated
blindness and perversity."1
"A mind which is reprobate, worthless, useless, is unable to

fulfill its natural functions as designed by God; it confuses right
and wrong, failing to distinguish what is pleasing to Him from
what is displeasing."2
Unrighteousness (v. 29; wickedness, NIV) is whatever is contrary to what

is right or just. Wickedness (v. 29; evil, NIV) is what is vile and sinister.
Greed (v. 29) is the drive to obtain more. Evil (depravity, NIV) describes
resident moral evil. "Insolent" (v. 30) focuses on activities, "arrogant" (v.
30) on thoughts, and "boastful" (v. 30) on words.3 Most of the rest of
these characteristics need no clarification.4
"Insolent [v. 30]. Greek hybristes, one who behaves with

humiliating and unconscionable arrogance to those who are not
powerful enough to retaliate."5
The final step down in human degradation is people's promotion of

wickedness (v. 32). It is bad to practice these things, but it is even worse
to encourage others to practice them.
"In such cases not only is the voice of conscience stifled, but
the mind has become absolutely callous regarding the moral
1Moo, p. 118.
2Vine, p. 25.
3Richard C. Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, pp. 93-97.
4See René A. López, "A Study of Pauline Passages with Vice Lists," Bibliotheca Sacra
168:671 (July-September 2011):301-16.

5Bruce, p. 81.
degradation and ruin of others, and takes pleasure in their

sinfulness."1
"Granted that commending evil is not, in the ultimate sense,

worse than doing it, it is also true that in a certain respect the
person who commits a sin under the influence of strong
temptation is less reprehensible than the one who
dispassionately agrees with and encourages a sin for which he
or she feels no strong attraction him- or herself."2
"The Stoic recognition of what is proper, in accord with good

order, constitutes evidence for Paul that man generally (not
just the Jew) knows what is right, knows it in fact (or in effect)
to be the requirement of God, and knows that to flout it is to
court death, a death justly deserved."3
This is the longest list of vices in the New Testament. Its purpose is to
show the scope of social evils that result when God hands people over to
a depraved mind after they have refused to acknowledge Him. See 13:13;
Matthew 15:19; 1 Corinthians 5:10-11; 6:9-10; 2 Corinthians 12:20-21;
Galatians 5:19-21; Ephesians 4:31; 5:3-5; Colossians 3:5, 8; 1 Timothy
1:9-10; 2 Timothy 3:2-5; and 1 Peter 4:3 for other vice lists.
Paul's use of the past tense in verses 18-32 suggests that he was viewing
humanity historically. Nevertheless his occasional use of the present tense
shows that he observed many of these conditions in his own day. He was
viewing humankind as a whole, not that every individual has followed this
general pattern of departure from God. One expositor labeled the four
stages in man's tragic devolution that Paul explained as follows: intelligence
(vv. 18-20), ignorance (vv. 21-23), indulgence (vv. 24-27), and
impenitence (vv. 28-32).4
1Vine, p. 27.
2Moo, p. 122.
3Dunn, p. 76.
4Warren W. Wiersbe, The Bible Exposition Commentary, 1:518-19. For another exposition
of 1:18-32 see J. Dwight Pentecost, Pattern for Maturity, pp. 52-59. He also offered
expositions of 6:11-23 (2); 7:1-14; 8:1-8; 8:1-13; 12:1-21; 14:1-13; 14:13-23; 14:22—
15:3; and 15:1-7 in this volume.
B. THE NEED OF GOOD PEOPLE 2:1—3:8
In the previous section (1:18-32) Paul showed humankind condemned for

its refusal to respond appropriately to natural (general) revelation. In this
one (2:1—3:8) his subject is more people's failure to respond to special
revelation. Since the Jews had more knowledge of this revelation than the
Gentiles, they are primarily in view throughout this chapter, though they
are not named until verse 9.1 As in the previous section, specific
accusations follow general terms for sin (cf. 1:18 with 1:23, 26-32; and
2:1-16 with 2:17-29).
Arnold Fruchtenbaum believed that Paul had in mind the uncultured Gentiles
in 1:18-32 and the cultured Gentiles in 2:1-16—following his division of the
Gentiles into "Greeks" and "uncultured" in verse 14.2
Paul addressed those people who considered themselves exceptions to

humankind's general sinfulness in this section of the epistle. Obviously
many people could say in his day, and even more say in ours, that they are
not as bad as the people Paul described in chapter 1. The writer dealt with
this objection more generally in 2:1-16 and more specifically about Jewish
objections in verses 17-29.
"Paul has still his statement in view, that the Gospel is the only
power of God for salvation, and nothing to be ashamed of. If
Judaism can save men, the Gospel is an impertinence; hence
the radical failure of the Jew must be shown."3
"Chapter 1 reveals the unrighteousness of man, and chapter 2

reveals the self-righteousness of man."4
"In chap. 2 … it is the second person singular, 'you,' that Paul

uses in making his accusation (2:1-5, 17-29). This does not
mean that Paul is now accusing his readers of these things;
were he to do that, the second person plural would have been
needed. Rather, Paul utilizes here, and sporadically throughout
the letter, a literary style called diatribe. Diatribe style, which
is attested in several ancient authors as well as elsewhere in
1Denney, 2:595.
3Stifler, p. 36.
4McGee, 4:655.
the NT (e.g., James), uses the literary device of an imaginary

dialogue with a student or opponent. Elements of this style
include frequent questions, posed by the author to his
conversation partner or by the conversation partner, emphatic
rejections of possible objections to a line of argument using
me genoito ('May it never be!'), and the direct address of one's
conversation partner or opponent."1
"It often becomes easier to follow Paul's arguments if the

reader imagines the apostle face to face with a heckler, who
makes interjections and receives replies which sometimes are
withering and brusque. It is by no means impossible that some
of the arguments in Romans first took shape in this way, in the
course of debates in synagogue or market place."2
1. God's principles of judgment 2:1-16
Before showing the guilt of moral and religious people before God (vv. 17-
29), Paul set forth the principles by which God will judge everyone (vv. 1-
16). By doing so he warned the self-righteous. These are principles by
which God judges, not principles by which He saves.
2:1-4 "Therefore" seems more logically to relate back to 1:18-19

than to 1:21-32. Paul addressed those people who might think
they were free from God's wrath because they had not
practiced the things to which Paul had just referred (1:29-32).
The apostle now warned them that they had indeed practiced
the same things (v. 1). He seems to have been thinking as
Jesus did, when our Lord corrected His hearers' superficial view
of sin (e.g., Matt. 5—7). Evil desires constitute sin as well as
evil actions.
"God is saying that by the same token that you

have the right to judge other people by your
standards, He has the right to judge you by His
standards."3
1Moo,p. 125.
2Barrett,
p. 43.
3McGee, 4:656.
The first principle by which God judges is that He judges

righteously (v 2). He judges on the basis of what really exists,
not what merely appears to be. For example, someone might
assume that since his immoral thoughts are not observable he
is free of guilt. But God looks at the heart. Consequently those
who have practiced the same sins as those listed previously,
though perhaps not in the same way, should not think that
they will escape judgment (v. 3). Rather than acting like judges
of the outwardly immoral, these people should view
themselves as sinners subject to God's judgment. They should
not misinterpret the fact that God may not judge them quickly
as an indication that they are blameless. They should realize
that God is simply giving them time to repent (v. 4; cf. Jer.
18:6-11; 2 Pet. 3:9).1
"Repentance plays a surprisingly small part in

Paul's teaching, considering its importance in
contemporary Judaism. Probably this is because
the coming of Christ had revealed to Paul that
acceptance with God requires a stronger action
than the word 'repentance' often connoted at the
time."2
This is the only occurrence of the Greek word metanoia,

translated repentance, in Romans. (A different Greek word,
ametameletos, appears in 11:29 and has been translated
"without repentance" in some English versions.)
"The more light we sin against the more love we

sin against."3
2:5-11 God's wrath is increasing against sinners while He waits to

judge (v. 5). Each day that the self-righteous person persists
in his self-righteousness God adds more guilt to his record. God
will judge him one day (cf. Rev. 20:11-15). That "day of wrath"
(v. 5) will be the day when God pours out His wrath on every
1See Glenn R. Kreider and Thomas M. Mitchell, "Kindness and Repentance: Romans 2:4 and
Ministry to People with Same-Sex Attraction," Bibliotheca Sacra 173:689 (January-March
2016):57-79.
2Moo, p. 134.
3Henry, p. 1757.
sinner and the day when people will perceive His judgment as
righteous. This judgment is in contrast to the judgment that
the self-righteous person passes on himself when he considers
himself guiltless (v. 1).
"God's anger stored up in heaven is the most

tragic stockpile a man could lay aside for
himself."1
The second principle by which God judges is that He will deal

with what every person really did (v. 6). He will not deal with
what we intended or hoped or wanted to do (cf. Ps. 62:12;
Matt. 16:27; et al.).
"A man's destiny on Judgment Day will depend

not on whether he has known God's will but on
whether he has done it."2
Paul probably meant that if a person obeys God perfectly

("who by perseverance in doing good," v. 7) he or she will
receive eternal life. Those who do not obey God perfectly
receive wrath. Later he would clarify that no one can obey God
perfectly so all are under His wrath (3:23-24).3
Another view is that eternal life is not only a free gift but it is
also a reward for good deeds.4 On the one hand, we obtain
eternal life as a gift only by faith (3:20; 4:5; cf. John 3:16;
5:24; 6:40; Eph. 2:8; Titus 3:5). However in another sense as
Christians we experience eternal life to the extent that we do
good deeds (cf. 6:22; Matt. 19:29; Mark 10:30; Luke 18:29-
30; John 10:10; 12:25-26; 17:3; Gal. 6:8). According to this
view Paul's point was this: Those who are self-righteous and
unbelieving store up something that will come on them in the
future, namely, wrath (v. 5). Likewise those who are humble
and believing store up something that will come on them in the
1Mickelsen, p. 1188.
2A. M. Hunter, The Epistle to the Romans, p. 36. Cf. Matt. 25:31-46.
3Moo, pp. 139-42. Cf. Bruce, p. 85.
4E.g., The Nelson Study Bible, p. 1881.
future, namely, glory, honor, and peace. Paul was speaking of

the believer's rewards here.1
Other interpreters believe Paul meant that a person's

perseverance demonstrates that his heart is regenerate.2
However, that is not what Paul said here even though this
statement is true. He said those who persevere will receive
eternal life.
Verse 8 restates the reward of the self-righteous (cf. 1:18).3

The point of verses 9 and 10 is that the true basis of judgment
is not whether one is a Jew or a Greek, or whether that person
was outwardly moral or immoral. It is rather what one actually
did that determines whether he or she is truly moral or
immoral. God will deal with "the Jew first" (v. 9) because his
privilege was greater: He received special revelation in addition
to natural revelation.
"It is not possible to draw a clear distinction

between psuche (soul [v. 9]) and pneuma (spirit).
Psuche is from psucho, to breathe or blow,
pneuma from pneo, to blow. Both are used for the
personality and for the immortal part of man. Paul
is usually dichotomous in his language, but
sometimes trichotomous in a popular sense. We
cannot hold Paul's terms to our modern
psychological distinctions."4
The third principle by which God judges is that He will treat

everyone evenhandedly (v. 11). There is equal justice for all
("no partiality") in God's court.
"Justice is blindfolded, not because she is blind,

but that she may not see men in either silk or rags;
all must appear alike."5
1Vine,p. 32. See Joseph C. Dillow, The Reign of the Servant Kings, pp. 28, 135-45.
2E.g.,Witmer, p. 445; and Cranfield, 1:147.
3See López, "A Study …"
4Robertson, 4:392-93.
5McGee, 4:658.
Verses 6-11 contain one unit of thought. Note the chiastic

structure of this passage.1 However, in this chiasmus, the
emphasis is not on the central element, as is common, but on
the beginning and the end, namely, that God will judge
everyone equitably and impartially.
2:12-16 The Gentiles do not have the Mosaic Law in the sense that God
did not give it to them. He gave it to the Jews. Therefore He
will not judge Gentiles by that Law. He will judge them for
rejecting the natural revelation of Himself that they have. The
Jews in Paul's day did have the Law, and God would judge them
by it (v. 12).2
"That completely answers the teaching that the

mercy of God covers in some way the heathen
world and that the heathen are not lost."3
It is not hearing the Law that makes a person acceptable to

God but doing what it commands (v. 13). "Justified" is a legal
term that is suitable in this discussion of law observance.
Justification is a legal verdict. It reflects a person's position
under the Law. The justified person is one whom God sees as
righteous in relation to His Law (cf. Deut. 25:1). The justified
person is not necessarily blameless; he may have done things
that are wrong. Nevertheless in the eyes of the law (God's
justice) he is not culpable (blameworthy). He does not have to
pay for his crimes.
"To be justified is to be declared righteous by God,

not to be made righteous by God."4
Paul said, in verse 13, that God would declare righteous the
person who did not just listen to the Mosaic Law but did what
it required. The Law warned that anything short of perfect
1A chiasmus is a rhetorical or literary figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or

concepts are repeated in reverse order in the same or a modified form.
2See Jeffrey S. Lamp, "Paul, the Law, Jews, and Gentiles: A Contextual and Exegetical
Reading of Romans 2:12-16," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 42:1 (March
1999):37-51.
3Arno C. Gaebelein, The Annotated Bible, 3:2:17.
4Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 27.
obedience to it—even reading or studying it or hearing it

preached and taught—made a person guilty before God (Deut.
27:26; cf. Gal. 3:10). Moses therefore urged the Israelites not
to rely on their own righteousness for acceptance by God but
to rely on Him (e.g., Deut. 18:15).1
Even Gentiles who do not have the Mosaic Law know that they
should do things that are right and not do things that are
wrong (v. 14). Right and wrong are the basic elements of the
Mosaic Law. Paul did not mean that Gentiles are indifferent to
any law except what they invent in their own self-interest ("a
law to themselves"). He meant that they have a law that is
instinctive, namely, an intuitive perception of what is right and
what is wrong. All people have this. One writer sought to
explain what Paul did not explain, namely, how human beings
can and do know God's moral law apart from special
revelation.2
"… Paul never distinguishes between 'ritual law'

and 'moral law' [when he refers to the Mosaic
Law] …"3
In addition to this innate sense of morality Gentiles also have

consciences (v. 15). The New Testament presents the human
conscience as a computer-like faculty. It has no pre-
programmed data in it, but whatever a person experiences
programs his or her conscience. If he learns that lying is wrong,
for example, his conscience will from then on bring that
information to his mind in appropriate situations.
Therefore some individuals who grow up in cultures that value

a particular practice that other cultures abhor, such as
deception or treachery, have no conscience about being
deceptive or practicing treachery. All people grow up learning
that some things that are truly bad are bad, and other things
that are truly good are good. Thus our conscience, while not a
1See Calvin, 3:14:13.

2See Mark D. Mathewson, "Moral Intuitionism and the Law Inscribed on Our Hearts," Journal
of the Evangelical Theological Society 42:4 (December 1999):629-43.
3Barrett, p. 51.
completely reliable guide, is helpful as we seek to live a morally

consistent life.1
"… in Romans it [the conscience] is a witness (so

here, also ix. 1; cf. 2 Cor. i. 12). This is in accord
with the etymology of the word. It implies man's
ability to detach himself from himself and to view
his character and actions independently. He is
thus able to act as a witness for or against
himself."2
The New Testament speaks of a good conscience (Acts 23:1;

1 Tim. 1:5, 19; 1 Pet. 3:16, 21), a clear conscience (Acts
24:16; 1 Tim. 3:9; 2 Tim. 1:3; Heb. 13:18), a guilty conscience
(Heb. 10:22), a corrupt conscience (Titus 1:15), a weak
conscience (1 Cor. 8:7, 10, 12), and a seared conscience (1
Tim. 4:2).
"… when men have an awareness of divine

judgment adjoined to them as a witness which
does not let them hide their sins but arraigns them
as guilty before the judgment seat—this
awareness is called 'conscience.'"3
Verse 16 completes Paul's earlier statement that God will

judge impartially (vv. 11-13), and it forms the end of the
inclusio dealing with judgment that began with verses 1-5.4
Verses 14-15 are somewhat parenthetical in the flow of Paul's
argument. They qualify his statement that the Gentiles have
no law (v. 12). In verse 16, his point is that God's impartial
judgment will include people's secret thoughts as well as their
overt acts. Both thoughts and actions therefore constitute
deeds (v. 6). Christ Jesus (v. 16) will be God's agent of
judgment (cf. Acts 17:31). "According to my gospel" (v. 16)
1See C. A. Pierce, Conscience in the New Testament; and Roy B. Zuck, "The Doctrine of
Conscience," Bibliotheca Sacra 126:504 (October-December 1969):329-40.
2Barrett, p. 53.
3Calvin, 4:10:3.
4An inclusio is a literary device based on a concentric principle, also known as bracketing,
bookending, or an envelope structure, which consists of creating a frame by placing similar

material at the beginning and end of a section.
means that the gospel Paul preached included the prospect of

judgment. Throughout this section (vv. 1-16), the judgment
of unbelievers (i.e., the Great White Throne judgment, Rev.
20:11-15) is in view.
In summary, in order to convict any self-righteous person of his guilt before

God, Paul reminded his readers of three principles by which God will evaluate
all people. He will judge righteously, in terms of reality, not just appearance
(v. 2). He will judge people because of their deeds, what they actually do,
both covertly and overtly (v. 6). Moreover, He will judge impartially, not
because of how much or how little privilege they have enjoyed but how
they responded to the truth that they had (v. 11).
This last principle has raised a question for many people. Will God condemn
someone who has never heard the gospel of Jesus Christ if he or she
responds appropriately to the limited truth that he or she has? Paul later
showed that no one responds appropriately to the truth that he or she has
(3:23). All fail, so all stand condemned. He also made it very clear that it
is impossible to enjoy salvation without trusting in Jesus Christ (1:16-17;
10:9; cf. John 14:6). That is why Jesus gave the Great Commission and
why the gospel is so important (1:16-17).
"… Paul agreed with the Jewish belief that justification could,
in theory, be secured through works. Where Paul disagreed
with Judaism was in his belief that the power of sin prevents
any person, even the Jew who depends on his or her covenant
status, from actually achieving justification in that manner.
While, therefore, one could be justified by doing the law in
theory, in practice it is impossible …"1
2. The guilt of the Jews 2:17-29
Even though the Jews had the advantages of receiving the Mosaic Law and
the covenant of circumcision, their arrogance and fruitlessness offset these
advantages. Even divinely revealed religion is no substitute for trust and
obedience toward God. Verses 17-29 are similar to 1:18-32. In 2:17-29
Paul showed that Jews are guilty before God just as he formerly proved all
humanity guilty. In both sections he pointed out that people knew the truth
1Moo, p. 155.
but rejected it and consequently became guilty of idolatry, sensuality, and

immorality.
Why did Paul "pick on" the Jews? He did so because they were the most
self-righteous people and therefore the least willing to admit their
sinfulness and their need for salvation. He wrote what he did not because
he hated the Jews but because he loved them and wanted them to be
saved (cf. 9:1-3; 10:1).
"In the previous section Paul addressed his Jewish readers in a

relatively restrained manner. But here the mood changed. Once
again he employed the diatribe style that he used in the
opening verses of chap. 2. His tone became quite severe as he
laid out before them the absolute necessity of bringing their
conduct into line with their profession. From this point on to
the end of the second major division (Rom 3:20), we hear Paul
the preacher convincing his listeners of their need for a
different kind of righteousness. Although in another letter he
claimed that his preaching was not eloquent (1 Cor 2:1-5), it
is hard to deny that here in Romans we are dealing with the
dynamic rhetoric of an evangelist bent on persuasion."1
"Paul here claims for the Jew nothing more than what the Jews
of his day were claiming for themselves; every item on the list
in vv. 17-20 is paralleled in Jewish literature of the time."2
2:17-20 Paul had been speaking of Jews. They are included in the larger
category of good people in verses 1-16. But now he identified
them by the name Jew. The Jews were very self-righteous.
Paul explained the basis of their boast of being righteous in
these verses.
The name Jew contrasts with the name Greek and calls
attention to nationality.3 The Jews gloried in being members
of God's chosen nation (cf. Exod. 19:5-6). They relied on the
Mosaic Law as the path to salvation because God Himself had
1Mounce, pp. 97-98.

2Moo, p. 159.
given it to Moses on Mt. Sinai. They boasted in their knowledge

of God that they had obtained through that Law.
"To glory in God means to find one's highest

treasure in God and to manifest this."1
The Jews also had a relatively precise understanding of what

is more and less important to God (cf. Phil. 1:10). They looked
down on non-Jews as those who needed their guidance even
though, as Paul pointed out earlier, the Gentiles have some
light and law themselves.
"The Jew believed that everyone was destined for

judgment except himself. It would not be any
special goodness which kept him immune from the
wrath of God, but simply the fact that he was a
Jew."2
In these verses Paul first referred to God's gifts to the Jews

(v. 17) and then to the superior capabilities that these gifts
conferred on them (v. 18). Finally, he mentioned the role that
the Jews somewhat pretentiously gloried in playing: God had
called them to enlighten the Gentiles with these gifts and
capabilities (vv. 19-20).3
"Paul is considering the Jewish moralist, and the

business of every moralist is the reformation of
others."4
"It was the custom of the Jews to take a great

deal of pains in teaching their children, and all their
lessons were out of the law; it were well if
Christians were but as industrious to teach their
children out of the gospel."5
1Lenski, p. 180.
2Barclay, p. 35.
3Godet, p. 128.
4Lenski, p. 183.
5Henry, p. 1758.
2:21-24 With a series of rapier-like interrogations (rhetorical questions)

Paul poked holes in the Jews' hypocritical façade.
"Here is the 'Thou art the man' which we have

been expecting since ver. I."1
Some interpreters have concluded that it was not uncommon

for Jews to rob the temples of the pagan Gentiles (v. 22; cf.
Acts 19:37).2 The Jews may have done this by using the
precious metals from idolatrous articles stolen from pagan
temples (cf. Deut. 7:26). By doing so, they betrayed their own
idolatry, which was love of money. Paul probably did not mean
that they robbed temples by withholding their temple dues.3
Rather than staying away from what they professed to abhor,
the Jews went after (worshipped) pagan idols. The Jews'
Gentile neighbors saw their inconsistency and despised
("blasphemed") Yahweh because of it (v. 24). They were
saying in effect: If the Jews behave this way, what a bad God
they must have.
Other interpreters believe that Paul was not claiming that the
Jews literally and typically practiced theft, adultery, and
sacrilege. In fact, the Jews were known by their Gentile
neighbors as living by higher ethical standards than they did.
What Paul meant was that, when these sins are properly
understood (i.e., as involving coveting, lusting, and idolatry),
Jews as well as Gentiles are guilty of all three of them (cf. Matt.
5:21-48).4
The Jews did not apply their own teaching to themselves. Paul
backed up his claim with a quotation from Isaiah 52:5.
"The greatest obstructors of the success of the

word are those whose bad lives contradict their
good doctrine, who in the pulpit preach so well
that it is a pity they should ever come out, and

2E.g.,Fruchtenbaum, p. 75.
3Denney, 2:600.
4Barrett, pp. 56-57.
out of the pulpit live so ill that it is a pity they

should ever come in."1
2:25-27 Next to the Mosaic Law the Jews boasted almost equally in
their circumcision. Most of the Jews in Paul's day believed that
God would not permit any observant Jew to enter hell.
"R. [Rabbi] Levi said; In the Hereafter Abraham will

sit at the entrance to Gehenna, and permit no
circumcised Israelite to descend therein. What
then will he do to those who have sinned very
much? He will remove the foreskin from babes
who died before circumcision and set it upon them
[the sinners], and then let them descend into
Gehenna …"2
Another rabbinic view was that God will send an angel who
stretches (as if to cut) the foreskin of great sinners, and then
they descend into Gehenna.3 The Jews believed that
circumcision guaranteed their acceptance by God provided
they did not sin very much (like some Christians believe that
water baptism guarantees salvation). Paul reminded such
people that reality is more important than profession, and
obedience is more vital than testimony. Circumcision would not
shield them from God's wrath if they failed to do all that He
commanded.
"… in contrast to Jewish teachers, who held that

only a radical decision to renounce the covenant
invalidated one's circumcision, Paul argues that
simple transgression of the law can have the same
effect."4
1Henry, p. 1758.
2Midrash Rabbah, Genesis, 1:409-10. Cf. Genesis Rabbah, trans. Jacob Neusner, 2:182.
The Midrash is an ancient commentary on part of the Hebrew Bible (our Old Testament)
attached to the biblical text.
3Midrash Rabbah, Exodus, pp. 234-35.
4Moo, p. 169.
"In the Greek this second part of verse 25 is

interesting: 'If you are a lawbreaker, your
circumcision has become a foreskin.'"1
In our day cans and bottles have labels on them to indicate

what is inside. Circumcision was a label, and it implied that the
Jew was obedient to God. However, if he was not completely
obedient, the label was not only worthless but misleading. The
contents of the can are more important than the label on the
can. Similarly, if a Gentile was completely obedient to God, the
absence of the label of circumcision was not of major
consequence. The Jews had put more emphasis on the
presence of the label than on the contents of the can. Paul's
point was that disobedience brings condemnation, and perfect
obedience theoretically brings salvation, regardless of whether
one is a Jew or a Gentile.
"Israel's neighbours for the most part practiced

circumcision (the Philistines were a notorious
exception); but the circumcision of Israel's
neighbours was not a sign of God's covenant, as
Israelite circumcision was intended to be."2
The reference to the "letter" of the Law (v. 27) indicates that
the Jews had the Mosaic Law written down. In this verse and
the next two, Paul was contrasting two types of Jews, not
Jews and Christians.
2:28-29 We now discover a second reason that Paul chose to address

his fellow Israelites as Jews in this section (vv. 17-29). Not
only was "Jew" a title that non-Jews used to describe
Israelites, but the word Jew comes from the name Judah, which
means praise. Paul was saying that the person who truly
praises God is not one who merely wears the label of
circumcision but one who really obeys God. Such a person has
a circumcised heart (cf. Deut. 30:6; Jer. 4:4; 9:25-26; Ezek.
44:9). Heart circumcision is a spiritual operation that the Holy
Spirit performs, not a physical operation that conforms to the
1Witmer, p. 447.
2Bruce, p. 89.
letter of the Mosaic Law. The truly obedient person will not
only praise God but God will also praise him. He will not just
receive the praise of men for his professed obedience to God.
"These verses [vv. 25-29] must be kept in their

context, which is that Paul is dealing with Jews
and making a distinction between Jews who
believe and Jews who do not believe. He is not
teaching that every Gentile Christian is a spiritual
Jew. Rather, he is teaching that every Jew is not
a full Jew. A completed Jew is one who has had
both circumcisions, the circumcision of the flesh,
which is outward in obedience to the Abrahamic
covenant, and an inward circumcision of the heart
as an act of obedience to the new covenant."1
In verses 17-29 Paul's point was that perfect obedience is more important
that religious privilege. Even though the Jews boasted in outward matters,
the law and circumcision, they were guilty of failing God inwardly, as were
the Gentiles. Actually a God-fearing Gentile was more pleasing to God than
a disobedient Jew, because God delights in obedience.
3. Answers to objections 3:1-8
In chapter 2, Paul showed that God's judgment of all people is determined

by character rather than ceremony. He put the Jew on the same level as
the Gentile regarding their standing before God. Yet God Himself also made
a distinction between Jews and Gentiles. In 3:1-8 Paul dealt with that
distinction. He did this so that there would be no question in the minds of
his Jewish readers that they were guilty before God and needed to trust in
Jesus Christ. This passage affirms the continuing faithfulness of God to His
covenant people, but it clarifies that His faithfulness in no way precludes
His judging sinful Jews.
"In thus allowing the Roman Christians to 'listen in' on this

dialogue, Paul warns his mainly Gentile audience that they
should not interpret the leveling of distinctions between Jew
1Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, "Israel and the Church," in Issues in Dispensationalism, pp. 128-
29. See also Alva J. McClain, Romans: The Gospel of God's Grace, p. 86; and Robert L.
Saucy, The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism, pp. 195-98.
and Gentile in terms of God's judgment and salvation as the

canceling of all the privileges of Israel."1
3:1-2 Paul asked four rhetorical questions in this section (vv. 1-8),
questions that could have been in the mind of a Jewish
objector. Probably Paul was simply posing these questions and
objections to himself in order to clarify his view for his readers.
This is, again, the diatribe style of rhetoric. The words "then
what" (Gr. ti oun) appear in Romans to raise questions about
what Paul has taught to advance his argument (cf. 3:9; 4:1;
6:1, 15; 7:7; 8:31; 9:14, 19, 30; 11:7).
We could paraphrase the first question as follows: If Jews and

Gentiles are both guilty before God, then what advantage is
there in being a Jew? Particularly, what advantage is there in
being circumcised? The Old Testament regarded being a Jew
and circumcision as advantages in one's relationship to God.
There are many advantages to being a circumcised Jew. Paul

only gave the most important one here (v. 2), but later he
referred to others (9:4-5). The phrase "oracles of God" refers
to special revelation. The word oracles (Gr. logia) stresses the
fact that the Old Testament, and the messianic prophecies in
particular,2 were the very utterances of God preserved and
handed down by earlier generations (cf. v. 3; Acts 7:38; Heb.
5:12; 1 Pet. 4:11).3 "Entrusted" highlights Israel's
responsibility to guard and to propagate what she had received
as a treasure.
Some people today also enjoy spiritual advantages and falsely

conclude that because of these God will give them preferential
treatment. I have heard it said: "My grandfather was a minister,
so God will look with favor on me."
3:3-4 Paul's second question was this: God will not forsake His
promises to bless the nation because some of the Israelites
proved unfaithful will He? The objection that Paul voiced calls
1Moo, p. 180.
2Johnson,
Discovering Romans, pp. 49-50; William G. T. Shedd, A Critical and Doctrinal
Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans, p. 63.
3Cf. Sanday and Headlam pp. 70-71; and Harrison, p. 35.
attention to the promises God had given to Israel in the Old

Testament covenants. These, too, constituted an advantage
for the Jews.
By referring to the unbelief of the Jews (v. 3) Paul was looking

at the root of their unfaithfulness to God. Of the generation
that received the Law at Sinai, for example, only two adults
proved faithful: Caleb and Joshua. Still God brought the whole
nation into Canaan as He had promised, though the unbelieving
generation died in the wilderness.
Paul agreed that Israel's unbelief would not nullify the

faithfulness of God. "Far from it!" God would remain true to His
word to bless Israel as He had promised He would (v. 4). God
would even be faithful if everyone else proved unfaithful
("though every person be found a liar"), not just if some
proved unfaithful. Paul cited David's testimony to God's
faithfulness after David's own unfaithfulness as historic biblical
support.
Today some people improperly count on God's character to

excuse them from the consequences of their sins. For example,
some believe that since God is love, He will be gracious with
them and not punish them.
3:5-6 The third question connects with David's situation (v. 4): Since
the Jews' failings set off God's righteousness more sharply by
contrast—as was true in David's case—might not God deal
more graciously with the Jews in His judgment of them?
Here, Dunn believed, Paul began to debate with himself with

the voice of the other person taking part in the conversation.1
"What shall we say?" means: What inference shall we draw?2
Richard Lenski believed that "we" in verse 5 and following
refers to Paul and the Roman Christians.3
Evidently Paul felt it necessary to explain that he was speaking

from a human viewpoint, or using a human argument, because
1Dunn, p. 141.
2Denney, 2:604.
3Lenski, 219.
he, representing an objector, had suggested that God was

unjust. He did not want his readers to conclude that he really
thought that God was unfaithful to His own Person and Word.
He was just saying that for the sake of the argument.
"It [the technical term "I am speaking from a

human viewpoint"] constitutes an apology for a
statement which, but for the apology, would be
too bold, almost blasphemous."1
Paul's answer was this: God will not show favoritism to the
Jews even though by their great unfaithfulness they glorify the
faithfulness of God. If He did so He would be partial and not
qualified to sit in judgment on humankind ("how will God judge
the world?" cf. Gen. 18:25).
Unfortunately, some people still think that God owes them

mercy because their sinful way of life has provided God with
an opportunity to demonstrate His own excellence, such as His
patience, His love, or His kindness.
3:7-8 The fourth question is very similar to the third. Perhaps Paul
raised it as a response to his immediately preceding answer (v.
6). It clarifies the folly of the idea expressed in the third
question. What an objector might really be saying in question
three comes out in question four: If my lying, for example,
glorifies God by showing Him to be the only perfectly truthful
person, why does God punish me for lying? Paul had been
stressing reality and priorities in chapter 2. This objection gets
down to that level. If circumcision is of secondary importance
compared to perfect obedience to God, is not sinning of
secondary importance to glorifying God?
Paul's reply was that, in spite of accusations to the contrary,

he had not taught that the end justifies the means.
Circumcision was secondary, but it was not sinful. God will not
overlook sin, though He will overlook lack of circumcision
(2:26-29). If anyone thinks that God should overlook his
sinning because in some imagined sense it glorifies God, that
1David Daube, The New Testament and Rabbinic Judaism, p. 396.

person deserves condemnation (v. 8). Paul implied that this

objection is so absurd that it is not worth considering.
A notable historical instance of a person who reasoned as this

objector did is the Russian monk Gregory Rasputin. He was the
evil genius of the Romanov family in the last years of that
family's power. Rasputin taught and exemplified the doctrine
that salvation comes through repeated experiences of sin and
repentance. He held that since those who sin most require
most forgiveness, a sinner who continues to sin with abandon
enjoys, each time he repents, more of God's forgiving grace
than an ordinary sinner. This antinomian (against moral law)
point of view has been more common than is often realized,
even when it is not expressed and practiced so blatantly as it
was by Rasputin.
"Evidently Paul had to face the charge that he

taught antinomianism, and worse."1
To summarize, in verses 1-8 Paul raised and answered four objections that
a Jew might have offered to squirm out from under the guilty verdict that
Paul had pronounced on him in chapter 2. The essential objections are as
follows:
1. The Jews are a privileged people (vv. 1-2).
2. God will remain faithful to the Jews despite their unfaithfulness to

Him (vv. 3-4).
3. God will be merciful since the Jews' failings have magnified God's
righteousness (vv. 5-6).
4. God will overlook the Jews' sins since they contribute to the glory of
God (vv. 7-8).
Self-righteous people still raise these objections. Some people assume that
because God has blessed them He will not condemn them (objection one).
Some believe that the character of God prohibits Him from condemning
them (objection two). Some think that even though they have sinned God
will be merciful and not condemn them (objection three). Some feel that
1Barrett, p. 65.
since everything people do glorifies God in one way or another God would
be unjust to condemn them (objection four).
"Thousands of so-called 'church-members' not only have never

been brought under real conviction of sin and guilt and
personal danger, but rise in anger like the Jews of Paul's day
when one preaches their danger directly to them!"1
C. THE GUILT OF ALL HUMANITY 3:9-20
Having now proven all people, both Jews and Gentiles, under God's wrath,
Paul drove the final nail in humankind's spiritual coffin by citing Scriptural
proof.
3:9 The question "What then?" introduces a conclusion to the

argument that all people are guilty before God. Paul identified
himself with the Jews about whom he had recently been
speaking. Jews are not better (more obedient) than Gentiles,
even though they had received greater privileges from God.
Being "under sin" means being under its domination and
condemnation.
"… the problem with people is not just that they

commit sins; their problem is that they are
enslaved to sin."2
3:10-18 Paul was writing to a primarily Gentile congregation, so he

concluded his argument with an appeal to Scripture. Contrast
the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews who took the opposite
approach when he addressed a primarily Jewish readership. He
began with Scripture and proceeded to argue from it. The
collection of passages that Paul used both affirmed the
universality of sin (vv. 10-12) and showed its pervasive
inroads into all areas of individual and corporate life (vv. 13-
18).
In verses 10-12 a statement of the universality of sin opens

and closes the passage. Sin has affected human intellect,
1Newell, p. 78.
2Moo, p. 201.
emotions, and volition, namely, all aspects of human

personality. Note the repetition of "not even one" and "not
one" plus "all," which are all universal terms. In verses 13-18
Paul described the words (vv. 13-14), acts (vv. 15-17), and
attitudes (v. 18) of people as all tainted by sin.
"The … five quotations (vv 11-14 [sic 10-14],

18), all from the Psalms, are the more interesting,
since all would normally be read within the
synagogue as bolstering the assumption that the
(Jewish) righteous could plead against the
([G]entile) wicked, very much in the spirit of 1
Enoch 99.3-4 …"1
A sixth quotation, from Isaiah 59:7-8 (cf. Prov. 1:16), appears

in verses 15-17.
This passage is one of the most forceful in Scripture that deals

with the total depravity of man. Total depravity does not mean
that every person is as bad as he or she could be. It means
that sin has affected every part of his or her being, and
consequently there is nothing anyone can do to commend
himself or herself to a holy God.
"Depravity means that man fails the test of

pleasing God. He [sic It] denotes his
unmeritoriousness in God's sight. This failure is
total in that (a) it affects all aspects of man's
being, and (b) it affects all people."2
The statement that "there is no one who seeks out God" (v.
11) means that no one seeks God without God prompting him
or her to do so (cf. John 6:44-46). No one seeks after God for
His own sake. It does not mean that people are constitutionally
incapable of seeking God. People can and should seek God
(Acts 17:26-27), and they are responsible for not doing so.
"Paul's portrayal of the unrighteous person may

seem overly pessimistic to many contemporaries.
1Dunn, p. 157.
2Charles C. Ryrie, Basic Theology, pp. 218-19.
After all, do we not all know certain individuals

who live rather exemplary lives apart from Christ?
Certainly they do not fit the description just laid
out. Although it may be true that many of our
acquaintances are not as outwardly wicked as the
litany would suggest, we must remember that
they are also benefactors of a civilization deeply
influenced by a pervasive Judeo-Christian ethic.
Take away the beneficent influence of Christian
social ethics and their social behavior would be
considerably different."1
Verse 18 concludes the quotations by giving the root problem

(cf. 1:18-32).
"It is no kindness, but a terrible wrong, to hide

from a criminal the sentence that must surely
overtake him unless pardoned; for a physician to
conceal from a patient a cancer that will destroy
him unless quickly removed; for one acquainted
with the hidden pitfalls of a path he beholds
someone taking, not to warn him of his danger!"2
"… this collection of OT quotations illustrates the

various forms of sin, the undesirable
characteristics of sinners, the effect of their
action, and their attitude toward God. This is the
same picture that Paul himself has been
painting."3
3:19-20 Paul added that "whatever the Law says" it addresses to those
involved in it, namely, all the Jews. He wrote this to "take the
ground out from under" any Jewish reader who might try to
say that the passages just quoted refer only to the godless.
The result of its condemnation is that no one will be able to
open his mouth in his own defense before God (cf. Rev. 20:11-
14). "All the world" (v. 19) describes all of humanity again.
1Mounce, p. 110.
2Newell, pp. 85-86.
"Probably Paul is using an implicit 'from the

greater to the lesser' argument: if Jews, God's
chosen people, cannot be excluded from the
scope of sin's tyranny, then it surely follows that
Gentiles, who have no claim on God's favor, are
also guilty."1
The purpose of the Mosaic Law was not to provide people with
a series of steps that would lead them to heaven. One of its
purposes was to expose their inability to merit heaven (Gal.
3:24).
"It is the proper use and intendment [intention] of

the law to open our wound, and therefore not
likely to be the remedy."2
Jesus had previously said that no one carries out the Law
completely (John 7:19). Paul had more to say about the works
of the Law (i.e., works done in obedience to the Law, good
works) in Galatians (cf. Gal. 2:16; 3:2, 5, 9-10). If someone
breaks only one law, he or she is a lawbreaker. The Law is
similar to a chain. If someone breaks even one link, the chain
cannot save. If someone wants to earn God's commendation
of being perfectly righteous, he or she must obey God's Law
perfectly (cf. Matt. 5:48). It is impossible therefore to earn
justification (a righteous verdict from God) by performing the
works that God's Law requires.3 Verse 20 probably serves to
confirm human accountability rather than giving a reason for
it.4 "None of mankind"(v. 20) is literally "no flesh" in Greek. By
using this phrase Paul drew attention to the frailty of human
nature.5
1Moo, p. 206.
2Henry, p. 1760.
3See Kenneth W. Allen, "Justification by Faith," Bibliotheca Sacra 135:538 (April-June
1978):109-16.
4Moo, p. 206. See Dunn, p. 159, for a "new perspective" interpretation of this verse.
5Denney, 2:608.
"To hold onto the Law is like a man jumping out

of an airplane, and instead of taking a parachute,
he takes a sack of cement with him."1
Every human being needs the gospel because everyone is a sinner and is
under God's condemnation. In this first major section of Romans (1:18—
3:20) Paul proved the universal sinfulness of humankind. He first showed
the need of all people generally (1:18-32). Then he dealt with the
sinfulness of self-righteous people particularly (2:1—3:8). He set forth
three principles by which God judges (2:1-16), proved the guilt of Jews,
God's chosen people (2:17-29), and answered four objections that Jews
might offer to his argument (3:1-8). Then he concluded by showing that
the Old Testament also taught the depravity of every human being (3:9-
20).
"The whole third chapter of Romans is nothing but a

description of original sin [vs. 1-20]."2
III. THE IMPUTATION OF GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS 3:21—5:21
The first major section of Romans, the need for God's righteousness
(1:18—3:20), proves that people have no hope of obtaining righteousness
on their own. In the second major section, the imputation of God's
righteousness (3:21—5:21), we learn how it comes to us, namely, as a
gracious gift from God. We receive God's righteousness, which results in a
right standing with God, by faith.
In beginning the next section of his argument Paul returned to the major
subject of this epistle: the righteousness of God (v. 21; cf. 1:17). He also
repeated the need for faith (v. 22; cf. 1:16), and he summarized his point
that everyone is guilty before God (v. 22; cf. 1:18—3:20). This brief
recapitulation (vv. 21-22) introduces his explanation of the salvation that
God provides for guilty sinners that follows (vv. 23-26).
"The first main division of the epistle forms a powerful

negative argument for the second, and was evidently so
intended. Since man is a sinner with no help in himself and none
1McGee, 4:665.
2Calvin, 2:1:9. See also ibid., 2:3:2.
in the law, what is left to him but to look to the mercy of God?
… In a court of justice it is only after every defense has failed
and the law itself has been shown to be broken, it is only at
this point that the appeal is made to the judge for his clemency
[mercy]. The epistle has brought us to such a point."1
A. THE DESCRIPTION OF JUSTIFICATION 3:21-26
Paul began by explaining the concept of justification.2
"We now come to the unfolding of that word which Paul in

Chapter One declares to be the very heart of the gospel …"3
3:21 The phrase "the righteousness of God" here refers to God's

method of bringing people into right relationship with Himself.
His method is apart from the Mosaic Law (cf. v. 20). The
definite article before "Law" is absent in the Greek text,
though it probably refers to the Mosaic Law.
Dunn understood "apart from the law" to mean "apart from

the law understood as a badge of Jewishness, understood as
the chief identifying characteristic of covenant membership by
those 'within the law.'"4
The righteousness of God "has been revealed" (perfect tense

in Greek, "stands revealed"), namely, through the coming of
Jesus Christ. The Old Testament revealed that this would be
God's method of obtaining His righteousness even before
Christ appeared. The reference to the Old Testament as "the
Law and the Prophets," two major sections of the Hebrew
Bible, prepares the way for chapter 4 (cf. Matt. 5:17). There
Paul discussed Abraham and David, two representatives of
these two sections of Scripture.
1Stifler,p. 58.
2See Carl F. H. Henry, "Justification: A Doctrine in Crisis," Journal of the Evangelical
Theological Society 38:1 (March 1995):57-65, for discussion of the crisis that Protestant
Catholic reconciliation (rapprochement) poses for the doctrine of justification.
3Newell, p. 92.
4Dunn, p. 177.
3:22 God's righteousness becomes people's possession, and begins

to operate in their life, "through faith in Jesus Christ" (v. 28;
cf. Gal. 2:16; Mark 11:22). "Faith," pistis, can also mean
"faithfulness," but Paul almost always meant "faith" when he
used this Greek word. Strong contextual clues indicate when
he meant "faithfulness."
Here Paul introduced the object of faith, namely, Jesus Christ,

for the first time (cf. 1:16-17). He never wrote that people
obtain salvation because of their faith in Christ, by the way.
This would encourage the idea that our faith makes a
contribution to our salvation and has some merit. Faith simply
takes what God gives. It adds nothing to the gift.
"Faith … plays a double part in justification. It is

the disposition which God accepts, and which He
imputes as righteousness; and it is at the same
time the instrument whereby every one may
appropriate for his own personal advantage this
righteousness of faith."1
Several writers have described faith as the hand of the heart.

It does no work to earn salvation but only accepts a gift that
someone else provides.
"The righteousness of God is not put 'upon' any

one. That is a Romish idea,—still held, alas, among
Protestants who cannot escape the conception of
righteousness as a something bestowed upon us,
rather than a Divine reckoning about us."2
There is no distinction between Jews and Gentiles concerning

their being "under sin" (v. 9). Likewise there is no distinction
regarding the manner by which both Jews and Gentiles obtain
salvation. All receive salvation "through faith."
3:23 All must come to God by faith in Jesus Christ because all have
sinned and fallen short of God's glory (cf. Mark 10:21). The
glory of God refers to the outward display of what God is. It
1Godet, p. 147. Cf. Newell, p. 108.

2Ibid., p. 110.
includes especially the majesty of His powerful Person and the

sublimity of His supremely elevated position.1 Sin separates
people from fellowship with a holy God. We all lack both the
character of God and the fellowship of God because of sin.
"Every man, according to the world's law, is

considered innocent until he is proven guilty. The
Word of God takes the opposite approach. God
says that man is guilty until he is proven
innocent."2
3:24 "We now come to the greatest single verse in the

entire Bible on the manner of justification by faith:
We entreat you, study this verse. We have seen
many a soul, upon understanding it, come into
peace."3
It is all who believe (v. 22), not all who have sinned (v. 23),
who receive justification (v. 24).4 Justification is an act, not a
process. And it is something that God does, not man. As
mentioned previously, justification is a forensic (legal) term.
On the one hand it means to acquit (Exod. 23:7; Deut. 25:1;
Acts 13:39). On the other positive side it means to declare
righteous. But it does not mean to make one's behavior
righteous. It means to make one's position in the sight of God
righteous.
"The word never means to make one righteous, or

holy; but to account one righteous. Justification is
not a change wrought by God in us, but a change
of our relation to God."5
Justification describes a person's status in respect to God's

law, not the condition of his or her character. The condition of
one's character and conduct has to do with sanctification.
1Mickelsen, p. 1192; Harrison, p. 41.

2McGee, 4:318.
3Newell, p. 114.
4See Blue, pp. 338-50.
5Newell, p. 114. See also Moo, p. 227.
"Justification means that God treats sinful men as

if they were of complete and unstained virtue."1
"Do not confuse justification and sanctification.

Sanctification is the process whereby God makes
the believer more and more like Christ.
Sanctification may change from day to day.
Justification never changes. When the sinner
trusts Christ, God declares him righteous, and that
declaration will never be repealed. God looks on us
and deals with us as though we had never sinned
at all!"2
In the quotation above Wiersbe was describing practical

sanctification. There is a sense in which the believer in Christ
is already sanctified (set apart to God), which is positional
sanctification.
God, the Judge, sees the justified sinner "in Christ" (i.e., in
terms of his relation to His Son), with whom the Father is well
pleased (8:1; cf. Phil. 3:8-9; 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:21).
Justification includes forgiveness but is larger than
forgiveness.
"God declares that He reckons righteous the

ungodly man who ceases from all works, and
believes on Him (God), as the God who, on the
ground of Christ's shed blood, 'justifies the
ungodly' (4.5). He declares such an one righteous:
reckoning to him all the absolute value of Christ's
work,—of His expiating death [i.e., His death that
removed our guilt], and of His resurrection, and
placing him in Christ: where he is the
righteousness of God: for Christ is that!"3
"We do not need therefore a personal 'standing'

before God at all. This is the perpetual struggle of
legalistic theology,—to state how we can have a
1Barrett, p. 75.
2Wiersbe, 1:522.
3Newell, p. 100.
'standing' before God. But to maintain this is still

to think of us as separate from Christ (instead of
dead and risen with Him), and needing such a
'standing.' But if we are in Christ in such an
absolute way that Christ Himself has been made
unto us righteousness, we are immediately
relieved from the need of having any 'standing.'
Christ is our standing, Christ Himself! And Christ
being the righteousness of God, we, being thus
utterly and vitally in Christ before God, have no
other place but in Him. We are 'the righteousness
of God in Christ.'"1
God bestows justification freely as a gift. The reason for His

giving it is His own grace, not anything in the sinner.
"Grace means pure unrecompensed kindness and

favor."2
Grace (Gr. charis) is the basis for joy (chara), and it leads to
thanksgiving (eucharistia).
"The redemption which is in Christ Jesus" is the means that

God used to bring the gift of justification to human beings. The
Greek word for redemption used here (apolutroseos) denotes
a deliverance obtained by purchase (cf. Matt. 20:28; 1 Tim.
2:6; 1 Pet. 1:18; 1 Cor. 6:20; 7:23; Gal. 3:13). Everywhere in
the New Testament this Greek word, when used metaphorically
as here, refers to "deliverance effected through the death of
Christ from the retributive wrath of a holy God and the merited
penalty of sin …"3
Paul's use of "Christ Jesus," rather than the normal "Jesus

Christ," stresses the fact that God provided redemption by
supplying the payment. That payment was the Messiah
(Christ) promised in the Old Testament, who was Jesus of
Nazareth.
1Ibid.,
p. 104.
2Lewis S. Chafer, Grace, p. 2. Underlining removed.
3A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, s.v. "apolutrosis," p. 65.
"The emphasis is on the cost of man's

redemption."1
Though the question of who received the ransom price has

divided scholars, Scripture is quite clear that Jesus Christ
offered Himself as a sacrifice to God (Luke 23:46).
"Before you leave verse 24, apply it to yourself, if

you are a believer. Say of yourself: 'God has
declared me righteous without any cause in me,
by His grace, through the redemption from sin's
penalty that is in Christ Jesus.' It is the bold,
believing use for ourselves of the Scripture we
learn, that God desires; and not merely the
knowledge of Scripture."2
"The gospel is that God sets to rights man's

relationship with himself by an act of sheer
generosity which depends on no payment man can
make, which is without reference to whether any
individual in particular is inside the law/covenant
or outside, and which applies to all human beings
without exception."3
The apostles described justification in several different ways,

as the following table illustrates:4
Justified by faith (Rom. This phrase emphasizes the

1:17; 3:28, 30; 5:1). instrument that brings about
justification.
Justified by grace (Rom. This phrase emphasizes the

3:24; 5:16; Titus 3:7). motivation behind
justification.

2Newell, p. 116.
3Dunn, p. 179.
4Modified from Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, p. 91.
Justified by blood (Rom. This phrase emphasizes the

3:25; 5:9). grounds of justification.
Justified by God (Rom. This phrase emphasizes the

3:26; 8:30, 33). source of justification.
Justified by Christ (Rom. This phrase emphasizes the

4:5, 25; 5:18; 1 Cor. 6:11). provider of justification.
Justified by the Spirit (1 This phrase emphasizes the

Cor. 6:11). applier of justification.
Justified by works (James This phrase emphasizes the

2:21, 24-25). evidence of justification.
3:25 Paul stressed faith in this verse. Therefore we should probably

understand his reference to the public display of Christ as
being an allusion to His being presented in the gospel message
rather than to His crucifixion.
There are two possible meanings of "propitiation"

(satisfaction) or "sacrifice of atonement" (NIV, atoning
sacrifice). The Greek word (hilasterion) is an adjective that can
substitute for a noun. It means having placating or expiating
force.1 It could refer to Jesus Christ as the place where God
satisfied His wrath and removed our sins. This is the
substantival usage, translated "propitiation." In favor of this
interpretation is the use of this Greek word to translate the
mercy seat on the ark of the covenant (Exod. 25:17, LXX; Heb.
9:5).2
However it seems more natural to take hilasterion as referring

to Jesus Christ Himself as the sacrifice that satisfied God's
wrath and removed our sins (cf. Luke 18:13; Heb. 2:17). This
is the normal adjectival use, translated "sacrifice of
atonement" (cf. 1 John 2:2; 4:10). Jesus Christ was the
1A Greek-English …, s.v. "hilasterios," p. 301.

2LXX refers to the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament into Greek that was made
in the third century B.C.
sacrifice, but the place where God made atonement was the
Cross.
The translation "through faith in His blood" (NIV) correctly

represents the word order in the Greek text. Paul elsewhere
urged faith in the person of Jesus Christ (vv. 22, 26). Probably
Paul mentioned His blood here as representing His life poured
out as a sacrifice that made amends for our sins, instead of
the person of Christ, in order to draw attention to what made
His sacrifice atoning, namely, His blood (cf. 5:9; Eph. 1:7; 2:13;
Col. 1:20). This then is a metonymy, a figure of speech in which
the name of one thing ("blood") appears in the place of
another (death) associated with it.
The full idea of the first part of the verse would then be this:
God has publicly displayed Jesus Christ in the gospel as a
sacrifice of atonement that satisfied God's wrath and removed
the guilt of our sins. His sacrifice becomes effective for those
who trust in Him.
The antecedent of "this" is the redemption (v. 24) that God

provided in Christ, as is clear in the NIV translation. Another
reason that God provided an atoning sacrifice was to justify
(declare righteous) God's own character (i.e., to vindicate
Him). This was necessary because God had not finally dealt
with sins committed before Jesus died. God had shown
forbearance, not out of weakness or sentimentality as might
be suspected, but because He planned to provide a final
sacrifice in the future, namely, at the Cross.
"In what sense can the Death of Christ be said to

demonstrate the righteousness of God? It
demonstrates it by showing the impossibility of
simply passing over sin."1
God did not forgive the sins of Old Testament saints finally
until Jesus died on the cross. The blood of the animal sacrifices
of Judaism only covered (removed) them temporarily. God did
not exact a full penalty for sin until Jesus died. It is as though

the Old Testament believers, who offered the sacrifices for the
removal of sin that the Mosaic Law required, paid for those sins
with a credit card. God accepted those sacrifices as a
temporary payment. However, the bill came due later, and
Jesus Christ paid that off entirely.1
"Paul has thus pressed into service the language

of the law-court ('justified'), the slave-market
('redemption') and the altar ('expiation', 'atoning
sacrifice') in the attempt to do justice to the
fullness of God's gracious act in Christ. Pardon,
liberation, atonement—all are made available to
men and women by his free initiative and may be
appropriated by faith."2
3:26 This verse explains the significance of Jesus Christ's death

since the Cross. It demonstrates God's righteousness, the
subject of Romans, by showing that God is both just in His
dealings with sin and the Justifier who provides righteous
standing for the sinner. Note that it is only those who have
faith in Jesus who stand justified.
Dunn defined faith as "trust that Christ's ransom and expiatory

sacrifice has been effective, and trust in Jesus himself …"3
"It is God Himself who, according to this passage,

is to be regarded as the author of the whole work
of redemption."4
Verses 21-26 constitute an excellent explanation of God's imputation of

righteousness to believing sinners by describing justification. These verses
contain "God's great statement of justification by faith."5 To summarize,
God can declare sinners righteous because Jesus Christ has paid the penalty
for their sins by dying in their place. His death satisfied God's demands
1See also Kenneth S. Wuest, Word Studies in the Greek New Testament, 1:2:62; Jarvis
Williams, "Violent Atonement in Romans: The Foundation of Paul's Soteriology," Journal of
the Evangelical Theological Society 53:3 (September 2010):579-99.
2Bruce, pp. 101-2.
3Dunn, p. 183.
4Godet, p. 150.
5Newell, p. 92.
against sinners completely. Now God declares righteous those who trust in
Jesus Christ as their Substitute.
"Justification is the act of God whereby He declares the

believing sinner righteous in Christ on the basis of the finished
work of Christ on the cross."1
"… we explain justification simply as the acceptance with

which God receives us into his favor as righteous men. And we
say that it consists in the remission of sins and the imputation
of Christ's righteousness."2
"… the direct exposition of the righteousness by faith ends

with the twenty-sixth verse. If the epistle had ended there it
would not have been incomplete. All the rest is a consideration
of objections [and, I might add, implications], in which the
further unfolding of the righteousness is only incidental."3
The characteristics of justification are that it is: apart from the Law (v. 21),
through faith in Christ (v. 22a), for all people (vv. 22b-23), by grace (v.
24), at great cost to God (vv. 24b-25), and in perfect justice (v. 26).4
B. THE DEFENSE OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH ALONE 3:27-31
Having shown what justification is, Paul went on to reaffirm that it is

available only by faith. He proceeded to expound his great theological thesis
of 3:21-26. Verses 27-31 state this theme, and chapter 4 clarifies and
elaborates it.
3:27-28 There is no place for human boasting in this plan of salvation

(cf. Eph. 2:8-9). In contrast the Jews were inclined to boast
because of their privileges (2:17, 23). The reason is that God's
provision of salvation by faith springs from a different kind of
law—"the law of faith," taught in the Old Testament—than
salvation by works does.
1Wiersbe, 1:522.
2Calvin, 3:11:2.
3Stifler, p. 67.
4Wiersbe, 1:523-24.
"One would think that the sinner would love to be

forgiven at no cost. Unfortunately that is not the
case. After all, sinners have their pride. They
desperately want to claim some role in their own
redemption."1
Salvation by works requires keeping rules. The Mosaic Law did

not require works for salvation, but those who hope to earn
salvation by their works look to the Mosaic Law as what God
requires ("the works of the Law"). God's gift of salvation,
however, rests on a different law or principle that God has also
ordained and revealed. This law states that salvation becomes
ours by faith in Jesus Christ. Faith is what God requires, not
works.
"… He has sent His Son, who has borne sin for
you. You do not look to Christ to do something to
save you: He has done it at the cross. You simply
receive God's testimony as true, setting your seal
thereto. (I often quote I Timothy 1.15 to inquiring
sinners: 'Christ Jesus came into the world to save
sinners.' In response to my question, they confess
that 'came' is in the past tense. Then I say, 'How
sad that you and I were not there, so that He
might have saved us, for He has now gone back
to heaven!' This shuts them up to contemplate
the work Christ finished when He was here; upon
which work, and God's Word concerning it, sinners
must rest: that is faith.) You rest in God's Word
regarding Christ and His work for you. You rest in
Christ's shed blood."2
Some people have difficulty understanding that faith is not a

work because exercising faith is something that we do. While
faith does involve doing something—trusting—the Bible never
regards trusting God as a work. It regards faith, rather, as the
act of believing a statement and relying on the truthfulness of
the One who made it. God said, "everyone who believes in Him
1Mounce, p. 38.
2Newell, p. 109.
[Jesus Christ, His Son] will not perish, but have eternal life"
(John 3:16). Faith involves accepting that promise as true.
Someone has compared saving faith to reaching out to accept
a gift that another person offers, like a Christmas present. One
must extend his or her arm to receive the gift, but that act
does not constitute doing something that earns the gift.
3:29-30 Paul continued to appeal particularly to his Jewish audience in

these verses as in the former two. If justification is by the
Mosaic Law, God must be the God of the Jews only, since God
only gave the Mosaic Law to the Jews. Paul's point was that
there are not two ways of salvation, one for the Jews by works
and the other for the Gentiles by faith. This is only logical, he
reasoned, since there is only one God who is the God of all
humankind. Paul probably used two separate prepositions in
verse 30 ("by," ek, and "through," dia) simply for literary
variety.1 His point was that there is only one method of
obtaining God's righteousness: by faith.2
3:31 Paul was not saying that the Mosaic Law is valueless and
therefore no longer necessary. The absence of the definite
article "the" before the first occurrence of "Law," in this verse
in the Greek text, does not indicate that Paul was only thinking
of law in general, as the context makes clear. Even though he
believed in salvation by faith, Paul saw the Law as having an
important function ("we establish the Law").3 Probably he
meant that its function is to convict people of their inability to
gain acceptance with God by their own works (vv. 19-20).
Another view is that Paul meant the Old Testament (law)

testifies to justification by faith.4 A third view is that faith
provides the complete fulfillment of God's demands in His
Law.5 The Law is not something God has given people to obey
1Moo, p. 252.
2Harrison,p. 46.
3See Femi Adeyemi, "Paul's 'Positive' Statements about the Mosaic Law," Bibliotheca
Sacra 164:653 (January-March 2007):49-58; and Gregory S. MaGee, "Paul's Gospel, the
Law, and God's Universal Reign in Romans 3:31," Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society 57:2 (June 2014):341-50.
4Godet, pp. 166-67; Alford, 2:2:346; Cranfield, 1:224; et al.
5Moo, pp. 254-55; et al.
so they can obtain righteousness. Man's inability to save

himself required the provision of a Savior from God. The Law
in a sense made Jesus Christ's death necessary (vv. 24-25).
S. Lewis Johnson believed that Paul had the Ten
Commandments in mind here (cf. vv. 20, 27, 28).1
The point of verses 27-31 is that justification must come to all people by
faith alone. Paul clarified here that this fact excludes boasting (vv. 27-28).
Justification by faith is also logical in view of the sovereignty of God (vv.
29-30), and it does not nullify the Mosaic Law (v. 31).
"… Luther rendered 'justification by faith' as 'justification by

faith alone.' When taken to task for this liberty, he replied that
he was not translating words but ideas, and that the extra
word was necessary in German in order to bring out the force
of the original. Through all the revisions of his lifetime he would
never relinquish that word 'alone.'"2
C. THE PROOF OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH FROM THE LAW CH. 4
Paul's readers could have understood faith as being a new method of

salvation, since he contrasted faith with the Mosaic Law. The apostle began
this epistle by saying that the gospel reveals a righteousness from God,
implying something new (1:17). Was justification by faith a uniquely
Christian revelation contrasted with Jewish doctrine? No. In this chapter
the apostle showed that God has always justified people by faith alone. In
particular, he emphasized that God declared Abraham, the father of the
Jewish nation, righteous because of his faith. One of the present values of
the Old Testament is that it shows that God justified people by faith in the
past. If Paul could show from the Old Testament that Abraham received
justification by faith, he could convince his Jewish readers that there is only
one method of salvation (3:29-30).
"… as in 3:27-31, Paul's purpose is not only to establish the

doctrine of justification by faith alone, but also, indeed
especially, to draw out the implications of this sola fide [faith
alone]. To accomplish these purposes, Paul 'exposits' Gen.
15:6 … This text is quoted in v. 3 after Paul sets up his

2Bainton, p. 261.
problem in terms of Abraham's 'right' to boast (vv. 1-2).

Thereafter, Paul quotes or alludes to this text in every
paragraph of the chapter, using a series of antitheses to draw
out its meaning and implications."1
1. Abraham's justification by faith 4:1-5
Paul began this chapter by showing that God declared Abraham righteous
because of the patriarch's faith.
"Outside of references to the Lord Jesus Christ, and excluding

also such references as 'Moses said' or 'Moses wrote,' the
names most frequently mentioned in the New Testament are
these (in order): (1) Paul, (2) Peter, (3) John the Baptist, and
(4) Abraham."2
4:1 Paul started with a rhetorical question that he used often in

Romans (cf. 6:1; 7:7; 8:31; 9:14, 30): "What then shall we
say?" By referring to Abraham as "our forefather according to
the flesh" (v. 1), Paul revealed that he was aiming these
comments at his Jewish readers primarily. Abraham's case is
significant for Gentiles as well, however, because in another
sense, as the father of the faithful, he is the father of "us all"
(v. 16). "All" in verse 16 refers to all believers, Jews and
Gentiles alike.
4:2 This verse applies Paul's earlier statement about boasting

(3:27) to Abraham's case for the sake of contrast. Abraham
had no ground for boasting before God, because he received
justification by faith, not by works.
This verse may seem to contradict what James wrote in James

2:21: "Was our father Abraham not justified by works when he
offered up his son Isaac on the altar?" The solution lies in the
meaning of justification. As explained above, justification
means to declare righteous. It does not mean to make
righteous. In Genesis 15:6, we read that God declared Abraham
righteous. In Genesis 22:1-19, James wrote that Abraham's
1Moo, p. 255.
2Johnson, Discovering Romans, pp. 68-69.
works declared him righteous. In other words, two different

things, God and Abraham's works, on two different occasions,
both declared or bore witness to Abraham's righteousness.
4:3 Paul appealed to Scripture as the Word of God.
"'The Bible is the Word of God in such a way that

whatever the Bible says God says.'"1
In Paul's day many of the rabbis taught that Abraham

experienced justification because of his obedience, rather than
because of his faith (cf. Gen. 26:5).
"That Abraham was justified on the ground of his

works was indeed what Paul's Jewish
contemporaries were accustomed to assume.
According to Jub. 23.10, 'Abraham was perfect in
all his deeds with the Lord, and well-pleasing in
righteousness all the days of his life'; and in Kidd.
4:14 it is stated that 'we find that Abraham our
father had performed the whole law before it was
given, for it is written, Because that Abraham
obeyed my voice and kept my charge, my
commandments, my statutes, and my laws [Gen.
26.5]."2
The Jews also believed that Abraham had a surplus of merit

that was available to his descendants: the Jews.3 Consequently
Paul went back to Genesis 15:6 for his authority.
"For the Apostle and his readers the Scripture was

the final and infallible court of appeal."4
Exactly what Abraham believed is not clear in Genesis 15. The

Hebrew conjunction waw used with a perfect tense verb, as in
Genesis 15:6, indicates a break in the action. A good
1Benjamin Warfield, quoted by McGee, 4:671.

2Cranfield,1:227. Jub refers to the Book of Jubilees, a Jewish book dating probably to
the second century B.C. Kiddushin is the last tractate of the third order of the Mishnah
Nashim. Cf. 1 Macc. 2:51.
3Robertson, 4:350; Witmer, p. 453. Cf. Luke 3:8.
4Vine, p. 62.
translation is: Now he [Abram] had believed in the LORD."

Abraham had obviously believed God previously (cf. Gen. 12:1-
4, 7; 14:22-24; Heb. 11:8). However when Abraham was
promised that he would receive an heir from his own body, plus
innumerable descendants (Gen. 15:4), He believed this
promise as well. Later, in Romans 4:13, Paul revealed that
Abraham believed God's promise that "he would be heir of the
world." That is, he believed that God would bless the whole
world through him. Exactly what Abraham believed is incidental
to Paul's point, which was that he trusted God and, specifically,
believed God's promise.
"… Abraham just believed God: gave Him the

honor of being a God of truth."1
Trust in God's promise is what constitutes faith, and what

results in justification. The promises of God vary. These
promises constitute the content of faith. The object of faith
does not vary, however. It is always the person of God. For us,
God's promise is that Jesus Christ died as our Substitute, and
satisfied all of God's demands against sinners (3:24-25; cf.
John 3:16).
Note that God "credited" Abraham's faith "to him as

righteousness" (v. 3). Faith itself is not righteousness. Faith is
not meritorious in itself. It is not our work that adds to God's
work that together results in justification. It is only the vehicle
by which God's righteousness reaches us. However, it is the
only vehicle by which it reaches us.
"Faith rests not on ignorance, but on knowledge.

And this is, indeed, knowledge not only of God but
of the divine will."2
Today, some preachers warn us about "easy believism," a term

that they use for the teaching that faith alone is all that is
necessary for salvation. But Genesis 15:6 presents faith as the
only thing that resulted in Abraham's justification. It sounds
1Newell, p. 139.
2Calvin, 3:2:2.
very much as though Abraham simply gave mental assent to

what God told him. Whereas it is possible for a person simply
to acknowledge certain facts as true (to give mental assent to
them), saving faith goes beyond that and rests one's hope for
the future on them—without adding anything else (cf. Heb.
11:1).
4:4-5 Verses 4-5 contrast faith and works. Work yields wages that
the person working earns and deserves. Faith receives a gift
(v. 4; lit. grace, Gr. charin) that the person believing does not
earn or deserve. Incredibly God justifies those who not only fail
to deserve justification but deserve condemnation, because
they are "ungodly" or "wicked" (NIV; v. 5; cf. 3:24). This is
how far God's grace goes (cf. Deut. 25:1)!
"Here in a nutshell is the Pauline doctrine of

justification by faith."1
"The parable of the publican and the Pharisee

[Luke 18:9-14] is the best commentary upon St
Paul's doctrine of justification by faith …"2
In our day there are many subtle as well as obvious perversions of the
doctrine of justification by faith alone. Advocates of Lordship Salvation
effectively add works to faith when they make total commitment to Jesus
Christ necessary for salvation. One astute writer has observed that this
"front loading" of the gospel with works is "paving the road back to
Rome."3 Some Lordship Salvation advocates believe that an unbeliever only
has to be willing to submit to Christ's Lordship. However, this is only
changing the human work from submitting to being willing to submit. One
Lordship Salvation advocate wrote that to exclude submission to Christ's
Lordship from the gospel message amounts to antinomianism.4 Later he
defined antinomianism as follows:
"antinomianism: the idea that behavior is unrelated to faith, or

that Christians are not bound by any moral law. Antinomianism
2Lightfoot, p. 278.
3Earl D. Radmacher, "First Response to 'Faith According to the Apostle James' by John F.
MacArthur Jr.," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 33:1 (March 1990):40.
4John MacArthur, Faith Works, p. 94.
radically separates justification and sanctification, making

practical holiness elective."1
Clearly this is not the position of most Christians who believe that faith
alone is what God requires instead of faith plus commitment.2
Another subtle modern form of "works salvation" often accompanies an

incorrect interpretation of the biblical doctrine of perseverance. This view
says that if a professing Christian does not continue in the faith and in
holiness all his or her life, allowing for occasional lapses, he or she is not a
true believer. This view "back loads" the gospel with works. Faithfulness to
the Lord thus becomes a condition for salvation. This incorrect
interpretation of perseverance often goes hand in hand with Lordship
Salvation.
Some who hold these views try to get away from their connection with
works by saying that it is God who produces submission and/or
sanctification in the believer, not the believer himself.3 Nonetheless it is
the professing Christian whom God holds responsible for his or her choices,
not Himself.
"Indeed, every command to the believer implies the necessity

of his involvement as part of the process [of sanctification]."4
Another answer that some who hold these views give is that what the Bible
affirms is that man cannot merit eternal life.5 This is not the same, they
say, as doing something necessary to obtain it, such as submitting or
remaining faithful. Yet the Bible uses the word "works," not just "merit"
(vv. 2, 4, 5; Eph. 2:8-9).6
1Ibid.,p. 259. Cf. pp. 94-98.

2For a response to the Reformed claim that dispensationalists are antinomian (i.e., against
law as a standard for Christian living), see Robert A. Pyne, "Antinomianism and
Dispensationalism," Bibliotheca Sacra 153:610 (April-June 1996):141-54.
3E.g., MacArthur, pp. 100-101.
4Charles C. Ryrie, So Great Salvation, p. 152.
5MacArthur, pp. 69, 105-21.
6Three excellent books on salvation by faith alone, all of which respond to Lordship
Salvation, are Ryrie, So Great …; Joseph Dillow, The Reign of the Servant Kings; and Zane
C. Hodges, Absolutely Free!
2. David's testimony to justification by faith 4:6-8
Paul cited another eminent man in Jewish history whose words harmonized
with the apostle's. Whereas Abraham lived before the Mosaic Law, David
lived under it. Abraham's story is in the Law section of the Hebrew Bible
and David's is in the Prophets section. Here is the second witness Paul
referred to in 3:21. Abraham represents the patriarchal period of Israel's
history, and David represents the monarchy period. As Israel's greatest king
one would assume that David would have been a strong advocate of the
Mosaic Law. He was, but he did not view it as the key to justification.
The passage that Paul quoted from David's writings (Ps. 32:1-2) does not
state directly that David himself received justification by faith, though he
did. It stresses that those to whom God "credits" righteousness (i.e., the
justified) are blessed. Paul was carrying the sense of one passage (v. 6)
over to explain the meaning of another (vv. 7-8). The second passage
contained the same word (logizesthai, translated "credits" or "reckons" in
v. 6, and translated "taken into account" in v. 8).
"David is not a new illustration of this doctrine, but a new

witness to it."1
"One of the reasons why Paul quotes these verses is the

presence in them of the key word 'reckon.' The practice of
associating verses from the OT on the basis of verbal parallels
was a common Jewish exegetical technique."2
"He [Paul] merely adduces a saying of David, the inspired

singer, which seems to him to complete the testimony of
Moses about Abraham."3
Psalm 32 is one of David's penitential psalms, which he wrote after he had

sinned greatly. Paul not only proved that David believed in imputed rather
than earned righteousness with this quotation, but he also showed that
when a believer sins his sin does not cancel his justification.
"Forgiveness is more than mere remitting of penalty. Even a

hard-hearted judge might remit a man's fine if it were paid by
1Denney, 2:616.
2Moo,p. 266.
3Godet, p. 172.
someone else, but forgiveness involves the heart of the

forgiver. God's forgiveness is the going forth of God's infinite
tenderness toward the object of His mercy. It is God folding
the sinner, as the returning prodigal was folded, to His bosom.
Such a one is blessed indeed!"1
"… it is not the 'reckoning' of people's good works but God's

act in not reckoning their sins against them that constitutes
forgiveness."2
"God does keep a record of our works, so that He might reward

us when Jesus comes; but He is not keeping a record of our
sins."3
Since God is omniscient He knows everything that has ever happened. By

saying that God forgets our sins the writers of Scripture meant that He will
never bring us into judgment for our sins or condemn us for them (cf. 8:1).
The idea of forgetting sins is anthropomorphic: the writer ascribes an action
of man (forgetting) to God in order to help us understand that God behaves
as though He forgets our sins.
3. The priority of faith to circumcision 4:9-12
The examples of Abraham and David, who were both Jews, led to the
question that Paul raised in the next verse (v. 9). The apostle pointed out
that when God declared Abraham righteous the patriarch was still
uncircumcised. He was a virtual Gentile. It was fourteen years later that
Abraham underwent circumcision (Gen. 17:24-26). His circumcision was a
sign (label) of what he already possessed. This point would have
encouraged Paul's Jewish readers, who made so much of circumcision, to
keep it in its proper place as secondary to faith. Paul used Abraham as more
than just an example of faith but a model to be followed.
1Newell, p. 136.
2Moo, p. 266.
3Wiersbe, 1:525.
"As the recipient and mediator of the promise, his experience

becomes paradigmatic [of the nature of a model] for his
spiritual progeny."1
4. The priority of faith to the promise concerning headship

of many nations 4:13-17
The Jews believed that they had a claim on Abraham that Gentiles did not
have. Obviously he was the father of their nation, and this did place him in
a unique relationship to his physical descendants. However they incorrectly
concluded that all the blessings that God had promised Abraham would
come to them alone. Paul reminded his readers that part of God's promised
blessing to Abraham was that he would be the father of many nations (v.
17). God had given him this promise after his justification (Gen. 17:4-6),
and He repeated it to Abraham's descendants (Gen. 22:17-18). These
nations included the Edomites, the Moabites, the Ammonites, and many
others, including Gentile nations. Therefore the Israelites were not the only
people that God had promised to bless. They did not have an exclusive right
to God's blessings.
4:13 God gave His promise to bless the Gentiles through Abraham
("he would be heir of the world") long before He gave the
Mosaic Law. Consequently it was wrong for the Jews to think
that the blessing of the Gentiles depended on their obedience
to the Law. It depended on God's faithfulness to His promise.
God gave that promise to Abraham, not because of his
obedience, but because of his faith. The giving of that promise
even antedated Abraham's circumcision.2
4:14 To introduce Law-keeping as a condition for the fulfillment of

this promise would have two effects: First, it would make faith
irrelevant. It would subject this simple unconditional promise
to the condition of human obedience. If, for example, a father
promised his son a new bicycle, the boy would look forward to
receiving it as a gift. However, if the father added the condition
that in order to get the bike the boy had to be obedient, he
would destroy his son's confidence that he would get the bike.
1Moo, p. 267.
2See René A. López, "A Study of Pauline Passages on Inheriting the Kingdom," Bibliotheca
Sacra 168:672 (October-December 2011):443-44.
Now obtaining the bicycle depended on obedience. It was no

longer a matter of faith ("faith is made void"). The second
effect, which is also evident in this illustration, is that the
promise would be nullified (i.e., cancelled out).
4:15 Rather than bringing blessing, which God promised Abraham,

the Law brings about wrath, because no one can keep the Law
perfectly. Whenever there is failure, wrath follows. However
where there is no law, there can be no violation, and therefore
no wrath. Douglas Moo explained Paul's logic as follows:
"Violation of law turns 'sin' into the more serious

offense of 'transgression,' meriting God's wrath[.]
God gave the law to the Jews[.]
The Jews have transgressed the law (cf. 2:1-29;

3:9-19)[.]
The law brought wrath to the Jews[.]"1
"Paul, then, is not claiming that there is no 'sin'

where there is no law, but, in almost a 'truism,'
that there is no deliberate disobedience of
positive commands where there is no positive
command to disobey."2
4:16 This verse summarizes the thought of verses 13-15. God gave
His promise to make Abraham the father of many nations (v.
13) unconditionally ("in accordance with grace") after the
patriarch was justified. Abraham obtained the promise simply
by believing it (i.e., "by faith"), not by keeping the Law. This
is the only way that the realization of what God had promised
could be certain. This part of Paul's argument, therefore,
further exalts faith as the only method of justification.3
1Moo, p. 276.
2Ibid.,
p. 277.
3See Robert A. Pyne, "The 'Seed,' the Spirit, and the Blessing of Abraham," Bibliotheca
Sacra 152:606 (April-June 1995):216-17.

"Faith is helplessness reaching out in total

dependence upon God."1
4:17 Paul described God as he did here in harmony with the promise
that he cited. God gave to Abraham the ability to father many
nations when his reproductive powers were dead. God called
into being yet uncreated nations as He had called into being
the yet uncreated cosmos. He created these nations with a
word ("I have made you a father of many nations"), In this case
God's word was a promise (cf. Heb. 11:3; 2 Pet. 3:5).2 Another
view is that God named or addressed these uncreated nations,
even though they did not yet exist. The interpretation hinges
on the meaning of "calls," which is debatable.
5. The exemplary value of Abraham's faith 4:18-22
Paul concluded his proof that faith was the only method of justification
before the Cross by showing that what Abraham did in trusting God is
essentially what everyone must do.
4:18 Abraham's hope rested solely on God's promise. He had no

hope of obtaining descendants naturally. His faith was not a
condition for the reception of the promise, but he believed the
promise with the intention of receiving it.3
"It [Abraham's faith] was both contrary to hope

(as far as nature could give hope), and rested on
hope (that God could do what nature could not)."4
4:19-21 Even though Abraham's faith was stronger at some times than
it was at others (cf. Gen. 17:17, 23-27), Paul could say that
he did not become weak in faith when God gave him the
promise (v. 19).
"When Paul says that Abraham did not 'doubt …

because of unbelief,' he means not that Abraham
1Mounce, p. 127.
2Cranfield,1:246.
3Godet, p. 181.
4Denney, 2:620.
never had momentary hesitations, but that he

avoided a deep-seated and permanent attitude of
distrust and inconsistency in relationship to God
and his promises."1
The patriarch believed God in the face of discouraging facts

that he contemplated courageously ("he did not waver in
unbelief"). He believed despite the knowledge that what God
had promised could not happen naturally. Abraham grew
stronger in faith as time passed. The record of his life in
Genesis shows this (v. 20). He was giving glory to God by
believing that what God had promised He was also able to
perform.
4:22 This verse brings Paul's argument concerning Abraham's

justification to a climax. The apostle had proved the point that
he set out to demonstrate, and he restated Genesis 15:6 as a
conclusion (cf. v. 4).
"The spiritual attitude of a man, who is conscious

that in himself he has no strength, and no hope of
a future, and who nevertheless casts himself
upon, and lives by, the word of God which assures
him of a future, is the necessarily and eternally
right attitude of all souls to God. He whose
attitude it is, is at bottom right with God."2
6. Conclusions from Abraham's example 4:23-25
Paul applied God's dealings with Abraham to his readers in this chapter's
final verses.
4:23-24 God will credit His righteousness to all who believe in Him. As
in verse 3, the content of faith here (v. 24) is not specific. The
more important point is that we trust God as Abraham did. Our
confidence must be in Him.
1Moo, pp. 284-85. Cf. Alford, 2:2:354; James. 1:6-8.

2Denney, 2:621.
Paul was not saying here that we need to believe that God
raised Jesus from the dead. That is important, as he wrote
elsewhere (1 Cor. 15), not as a condition for salvation but
because it is a fact of history. The Resurrection was not part
of the saving work of Christ, but it was the consequence of it.
Having paid the debt of people's sin, death had no claim on
Christ, because He had no sin in Himself (cf. 6:23).
Paul intended his mention of God raising Jesus here to help the
reader to remember that He is the same God who brings life
out of death as the God whom Abraham believed. It may be
easier for us to believe than it was for Abraham, because we
look back on a resurrection completed, whereas Abraham
looked forward to one anticipated.
4:25 What did Paul mean when he spoke of the death and
resurrection of Jesus? The NIV interprets the Greek
proposition dia, which occurs twice in this verse, as "for,"
implying a prospective sense. The NASB translates it as having
a retrospective sense: "because of."
"The clauses are parallel. Christ was raised

because all that was necessary on God's part for
our justification had been effected in the death of
Christ. We had sinned, and therefore Christ was
delivered up. The ground of our justification was
completely provided in the death of Christ, and
therefore He was raised."1
The retrospective sense is its usual significance rather than the

rarer prospective sense, which we could render "with a view
to." "Because of" is probably a clearer translation in view of
the normal retrospective use of dia, which is its use in parallel
statements in this context, and since it makes good sense
here. However Paul may have meant that Jesus underwent
crucifixion because of our transgressions of God's law (cf. Isa.
53:11-12) and He experienced resurrection with a view to our
justification. In other words, it is possible to understand the
preposition in a retrospective sense in the first line and in a
1Vine, p. 71.
prospective sense in the second line.1 God is the implied agent

of the action (cf. 3:25; Isa. 53:12).
Taking both phrases in a prospective sense also makes sense,

as Denney did:
"He was delivered up on account of our offences—

to make atonement for them; and he was raised
on account of our justification—that it might
become an accomplished fact."2
"Christ being raised up, God announces to me,

'Not only were your sins put away by Christ's
blood, so that you are justified from all things; but
I have also raised up Christ; and you shall have
your standing in Him. I have given you this faith in
a Risen Christ, and announce to you that in Him
alone now is your place and standing. Judgment is
forever past for you, both as concerns your sin,
and as concerns My demand that you have a
standing of holiness and righteousness of your
own before Me. All this is past. Christ is now your
standing! He is your life and your righteousness;
and you need nothing of your own forever. I made
Christ to become sin on your behalf, identified Him
with all that you were, in order that you might
become the righteousness of God in Him.'"3
"God's entire redemptive plan is summarized in

this final verse of chap. 4."4
I like the story about old Uncle Oscar and his first airplane ride.
Knowing that he had been somewhat apprehensive about it,
his friends were eager to hear how it went. At the first
opportunity they asked him if he enjoyed the flight. “Well,” he
said, “it wasn’t as bad as I thought it might be. But I’ll tell you
1See Moo, pp. 288-89; Cranfield, 1:252; and Robertson, 4:354.

2Denney, 2:622.
3Newell, pp. 157-58. His review of what justification is and is not, on pages 159-61, is
also helpful.
4Mounce, p. 131.
this. I never did put all my weight down!” Unfortunately that is

how some Christians go through their lives. Even though Jesus’
death satisfied God (1 John 2:2), it does not quite satisfy
them.
Chapter 4 is a unit within Paul's exposition of how God imputes His

righteousness to sinners (3:21—5:21). It serves to show that justification
has always come because of faith toward God and not because the sinner
obeyed God's law. This was true before Jesus Christ died as well as after
He died. Faith is the only way by which anyone has ever received
justification from God. Paul's emphasis was on faith as the method of
obtaining righteousness, not on the content of faith.
"In chapter 4, Paul presented several irrefutable reasons why

justification is by faith: (1) Since justification is a gift, it cannot
be earned by works (vv. 1-8). (2) Since Abraham was justified
before he was circumcised, circumcision has no relationship to
justification (vv. 9-12). (3) Since Abraham was justified
centuries before the Law, justification is not based on the Law
(vv. 13-17). (4) Abraham was justified because of his faith in
God, not because of his works (vv. 18-25)."1
D. THE BENEFITS OF JUSTIFICATION 5:1-11`
Paul's original readers would have had another question because of what
he had written in chapters 1—4: Is this method of justification safe? Since
it is by faith it seems that it would be quite uncertain. Paul next gave
evidence that this method is reliable by explaining the results of
justification by faith.
Moo argued that chapter 5 belongs with chapters 6—8 more than with
3:21—4:25.2 He noted a chiastic structure in chapters 5—8, and he
believed the theme of this section is assurance of glory. Most scholars,
however, have felt that the major break in Paul's thought occurs after
chapter 5 rather than before it.
"In the first eleven verses we have the blessed results of

justification by faith, along with the most comprehensive
1Witmer, p. 455.
2Moo, pp. 290-95.
statement in the Bible of the pure love and grace of God, in

giving Christ for us sinners."1
"Paul has demonstrated from the crucial scriptural testimony

concerning Abraham how scripture's talk of God's
righteousness as reckoned to man should be understood. He
now proceeds to draw out this basic insight and its implications
not only for the individual believer but also for humankind as a
whole."2
5:1 "Therefore" signals that what follows rests on what has

preceded. Paul now put the question of whether justification is
by faith or by works behind him. He had proved that it comes
to us by faith apart from works.
"We must note at once that the Greek form of this

verb 'declared righteous,' or 'justified,' is not the
present participle, 'being declared righteous,' but
rather the aorist participle, 'having been declared
righteous,' or 'justified.' You say, What is the
difference? The answer is, 'being declared
righteous' looks to a state you are in; 'having been
declared righteous' looks back to a fact that
happened. 'Being in a justified state' of course is
incorrect, confusing, as it does, justification and
sanctification."3
"Justification is an act of pure grace. Many

ministers actually stay away from the topic of
grace because they are inwardly afraid that
congregants might misinterpret the message and
cheapen grace by thinking that God somehow
justifies sin. But true grace says that God justifies
the sinner. Don't be afraid of true grace just
because some have cheapened it with a lifestyle
where they take their position before God for
granted and continue unchanged. Yes, to accept
1Newell, p. 162.
2Dunn, pp. 261-62.
3Newell, p. 163.
grace for what it truly is and to live grace out

means that some will take advantage of it. You
can count on that. But we dare not corrupt the
message of grace that permeates the gospel. We
are sinners, and true grace is the only possible
remedy."1
Some important Greek manuscripts read: Let us have peace

with God. If this is the correct reading, the meaning is: Let us
keep on having (and enjoying) peace with God.2
The second of the blessings "that came spilling out of the

cornucopia of justification,"3 after justification itself, is peace
(cf. 1:7; 2:10). However, this is peace with God (i.e.,
reconciliation), not just a subjective feeling of tranquility that
is the peace of God (Phil. 4:7).
"Indeed, to say that we have peace with God is

hardly more than to say that we have been
justified, since justification puts an end to the
legal strife between Judge and accused. No more
than justification is 'peace' an experience; it is an
objective status or condition, a relation which
exists between God and those whom he justifies.
Of course, the objective state is reflected in the
feeling of peace and security which man enjoys
when he knows that he is reconciled to God, and
peace in biblical and Jewish usage is a
comprehensive description of the blessings of
salvation (e.g. Isa. xlviii. 18; 2 Thess. iii. 16)."4
Paul had been speaking of God's wrath being poured out on

sinners (1:18). Those who stand justified need not fear God's
wrath because Jesus Christ has made peace between them and
God by His death (cf. Col. 1:20; Eph. 2:14). Note that
1Charles R. Swindoll, The Swindoll Study Bible, p. 1384.

2Robertson, 4:354; Witmer, p. 456. See also Verlyn D. Verbrugge, "The Grammatical
Internal Evidence for 'EXOMEN in Romans 5:1," Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society 54:3 (September 2011):559-72.
3Harrison, p. 55.
4Barrett, pp. 101-2.
references to peace and reconciliation frame this pericope

(section of text; vv. 1, 11).
"Peace and joy are twin blessings of the gospel:

as an old preacher put it, 'peace is joy resting; joy
is peace dancing.'"1
"Our peace with God is not as between two

nations before at war; but as between a king and
rebellious and guilty subjects."2
"It is well known that Romans lacks any extended

christological discussion per se, but Paul's
repeated insistence in these chapters [5—8] that
all the believer experiences of God's blessings
comes only through Christ develops a very
significant christological focus in its own right.
Christology, we might say, is not the topic of any
part of Rom. 5—8, but it is the basis for
everything in these chapters."3
5:2 The third benefit is access (Gr. prosagoge). The idea here is
that Jesus Christ enables us to enjoy a continuing relationship
with God (cf. Eph. 2:17-18; 3:12). Paul spoke of "this grace in
which we stand" as the realm into which Christ's redeeming
work transfers us. To redeem means to free or release from
the slavery or bondage of sin by the payment of a ransom
price. Paul stressed the fact that our being in this state of
grace is an act of God's grace. Our present position in relation
to God is all from or based on grace, and our justification
admits us into that position.
The last part of the verse focuses on that part of our

reconciliation that we can look forward to with joyful
confidence: hope. Paul had in view the glory that we will
experience when we stand in the Lord's presence. To reconcile
means to remove enmity, making peace between enemies.
1Bruce,p. 114.
2Newell, p. 165.
3Moo, p. 300.
The Greek word kauchometha, translated "celebrate" here, is

the same word translated "boast" earlier (cf. 2:17, 23; 3:27;
4:2). There it was used in a bad sense of selfish, boastful
confidence. Here it means triumphant, rejoicing confidence.
5:3-4 The fourth benefit of justification is joy in tribulations. Peace

with God does not always result in peace with other people.
Nevertheless, the fact that we have peace with God and a
harmonious relationship with Him, with assurance of standing
accepted by Him in His presence, enables us to view present
difficulties with joy. We can celebrate in tribulations because
God has revealed that He uses them to produce steadfast
endurance ("perseverance") and "proven character" in those
who relate to their sufferings properly (cf. Job 23:10; James
1:2-4; Heb. 12).1
"Our English word 'tribulation' comes from a Latin

word tribulum. In Paul's day, a tribulum was a
heavy piece of timber with spikes in it, used for
threshing the grain. The tribulum was drawn over
the grain and it separated the wheat from the
chaff."2
"The whole process produces hope because for

Paul it is itself the process of salvation, the
process whereby God recreates humanity in his
own image …"3
"The newborn child of God is precious in His sight,

but the tested and proven saint means even more
to Him because such a one is a living
demonstration of the character-developing power
of the gospel. When we stand in the presence of
God, all material possessions will have been left
1See Stanley D. Toussaint, "Suffering in Acts and the Pauline Epistles," in Why, O God?
Suffering and Disability in the Bible and Church, pp. 189-90; Charles R. Swindoll, Come
before Winter, "Persistence," pp. 138-40..
2Wiersbe, 1:527.
3Dunn, p. 265.
behind, but all that we have gained by way of

spiritual advance will be retained."1
The quotation above helps us to see how character produces

hope. The hope of glorifying God with our proven characters
when we see Him is in view. Our progress in character
development will then testify to God's grace in our lives.
5:5 This hope, which is the focal point of this pericope, will not
disappoint, "remaining unfulfilled when the hour for fulfillment
arrives."2 That is because God loves us and enables us to
withstand tribulations. He does this through His Holy Spirit,
whom He has given to indwell every justified sinner in the
Church Age (cf. Acts 2:33; Rom. 8:9). Paul developed the Holy
Spirit's ministry to the believer later (ch. 8). The fifth benefit
of justification, therefore, is the indwelling Holy Spirit. Note the
progression in these verses from faith (v. 1), to hope (vv. 2-
5), to love (v. 5; cf. 1 Cor. 13:13).
"The confidence we have for the day of judgment

is not based only on our intellectual recognition of
the fact of God's love, or even only on the
demonstration of God's love on the cross
(although that is important; cf. vv. 6-8), but also
on the inner, subjective certainty that God does
love us."3
"God loves us [now] as He will love us in heaven."4
5:6 The depth of God's love (v. 5) becomes clearer in this verse
and in those that follow (vv. 6-10). Four terms that are
increasingly uncomplimentary describe those for whom Christ
died. The first is "helpless" morally. The idea expressed by the
Greek word (asthenon) is that we were "incapable of working
out any righteousness for ourselves."5 At that very time Christ
died for us. "At the right time" refers to the fullness of time,
1Harrison, p. 57.
2Lenski, p. 339.
3Moo, p. 304.
4J. N. Darby, Synopsis of the Books of the Bible, 4:417.
the right time from God's perspective (cf. 3:26; 8:18; 13:11;
Gal. 4:4).
The second term is "ungodly," which is a strong pejorative

term as Paul used it (cf. 1:18; 4:5). Even though some people
who are lost seek the things of God, everyone neglects God
and rebels against God. This is ungodliness.
5:7 This verse prepares for the next one that contrasts with it.
Paul used the word righteous here in the general sense of an
upright person, not in the theological sense of a person made
right with God by faith in Christ. People normally appreciate a
righteous person more than an upright person. Righteous
carries the idea of one who is not only upright but one who is
loved for it, because he or she reaches out to help others.
5:8 The third term used to describe those for whom Christ died is
"sinners" (cf. 3:23): those who are neither righteous nor good.
Paul here was contrasting the worth of the life laid down, Jesus
Christ's life, and the unworthiness of those who benefit from
His sacrifice. Whereas people may look at one another as
meriting love because they are righteous or good, God views
them as sinners. Nevertheless God loves them. His provision of
His own Son as their Savior demonstrated the depth of His love
(John 3:16).
The preposition in the clause "Christ died for (huper) us"

stresses the substitute character of His sacrifice. It also
highlights the fact that God in His love for us provided that
sacrifice for our welfare.
5:9 So far Paul had referred to five benefits of justification. These

blessings, in addition to justification itself, were peace with
God (v. 1), access into a gracious realm (v. 2), joy in
tribulations (vv. 3-5a), and the indwelling Holy Spirit (v. 5b).
Still there is "much more" (cf. vv. 10, 15, 17, 20).
What Paul next described is a benefit that justified sinners will

experience in the future, namely, deliverance from the
outpouring of God's wrath on the unrighteous (cf. 1:18). Jesus
Christ's blood is both the symbol of His death and the literal
expression of His life poured out as a sacrifice (cf. 3:25).

Having done the harder thing, namely, justifying us when we
were yet sinners (v. 8), how much more will He do the easier
thing, namely, delivering us from coming wrath.
"No clearer passage can be quoted for

distinguishing the spheres of justification and
[progressive] sanctification than this verse and
the next—the one an objective fact accomplished
without us, the other a change operated within us.
Both, though in different ways, proceed from
Christ."1
5:10 "For" (Gr. gar) in this case means: Let me explain more fully.2
The fourth and worst term used to describe those for whom
Christ died is enemies. People are not only helpless to save
themselves (v. 6), neglectful of God (v. 6), and wicked (v. 8),
but they also set themselves against God and His purposes.
Even though many unsaved people profess to love God, God,
who knows their hearts, sees opposition to Himself in them.
Their antagonism toward Him is the proof of their enmity.
Jesus Christ's death reconciled us to God (cf. 2 Cor. 5:18; Col.

1:21-22). The Scriptures always speak of man as being
reconciled to God. They never speak of God as reconciled to
man.3 God reconciles people to Himself, He redeems them from
sin, and He propitiates (satisfies) Himself—all through the
death of His Son. Humankind has offended and departed from
God and needs reconciliation into relationship with Him. It is
people who have turned from God, not God who has turned
from people.4 There are two aspects of reconciliation: one for
all humankind (2 Cor. 5:19), and another for the believer (2
Cor. 5:20). Jesus Christ's death put humankind in a savable
condition, but people still need to experience full reconciliation
with God by believing in His Son.
1Ibid.,p. 129.
2Lenski, p. 351.
3Cf. Lightfoot, p. 284.
4See Lewis S. Chafer, Systematic Theology, 3:91-93.
"Justification and reconciliation are different

metaphors describing the same fact. …
'Reconciliation' evokes the picture of men acting
as rebels against God their king, and making war
upon him; 'justification' that of men who have
offended against the law and are therefore
arraigned before God their judge."1
Jesus Christ's death was responsible for our justification. His

continuing life is responsible for our progressive (practical)
sanctification and our glorification. The idea is not that what
Christ now does for believers saves us now, but it is the fact
that He is alive that saves us.2 Because He lives we can
experience sanctification and glorification as well as
justification. Having done the harder thing for us, namely,
delivering Christ to death in order to reconcile us to Himself,
God will certainly do the easier thing: He will see that we share
Christ's risen life forever.
Some expositors have concluded from Paul's statement that

Christ must have died only for the elect, since he wrote that
God will bestow eternal life on them, and only the elect receive
eternal life.3 I think Paul's point was that since Christ died for
believers, He will certainly give believers eternal life, not that
He died only for believers.
We experience continuing salvation (progressive

sanctification) and ultimate salvation (glorification) because of
Jesus Christ's ongoing life. These present and future aspects
of our salvation were not the direct results of His death, but
they are the consequences of His life after death and
resurrection (cf. 6:8-13). We have salvation in the present and
in the future because our Savior lives. He is still saving us. This
verse shows that we are eternally secure.
5:11 Jesus Christ's death reconciled us to God with the effect that
one day in the future we will stand before Him complete (cf.
1Barrett, p. 108.
2Alford, 2:2:359.
3E.g., Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 83.
vv. 5-10). However, we also enter into the benefits of that

reconciliation now (cf. vv. 1-4). "This" probably refers to our
future salvation, which is its closest antecedent. The seventh
benefit of justification by faith is our present relationship with
God made possible by Christ's reconciling work on the cross.
We were saved by His death in the past, we will be saved by
His life in the future, and we are presently enjoying a current
saving relationship with God—all because of His work of
reconciliation.
In this section Paul identified the following benefits of justification by faith:
1. Past justification (v. 1)
2. Peace with God (v. 1)
3. Access into God's grace (having been under God's wrath, v. 2)
4. Joy in tribulation (vv. 3-5a)
5. The indwelling Holy Spirit (v. 5b)
6. Deliverance from future condemnation (vv. 9-10)
7. Present reconciliation with God (v. 11)
This section of the argument of the book should help any reader realize
that justification by faith is a safe method of salvation. It is the doorway
that leads into many blessings that obedience to the Law could never
guarantee.
"Totally apart from Law, and purely by grace, we have a

salvation that takes care of the past, the present, and the
future. Christ died for us; Christ lives for us; Christ is coming
for us! Hallelujah, what a Savior!"1
1Wiersbe, 1:528.
E. THE RESTORATIVE EFFECTS OF JUSTIFICATION 5:12-21
"This paragraph is evidently intended as a conclusion to the

whole opening section (1:18—5:21)."1
Justification by faith not only carries with it many benefits (vv. 1-11), but
it also overcomes the effects of the Fall. Paul's final argument in support
of justification by faith involves a development of his previous emphasis on
the solidarity that the saved person experiences with their Savior (5:1-2,
9-10). In this section (5:12-21) he expanded that idea by showing that,
just as Adam's sin has affected all people, so Jesus Christ's obedience has
affected all those who believe in Him.
"As Adam's one sin never fails to bring death, so Christ's one
righteous act in behalf of sinners never fails to bring the
opposite award to those who are in Him."2
"There are three great acts of imputation in the Bible. First,

Scripture teaches the imputation of Adam's sin to his
posterity, or to the whole human race (cf. 1 Cor. 15:21-22).
Second, there is the imputation of the sin of the elect to Jesus
Christ, who bore that sin's penalty in his death on the cross
(cf. 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13). Third, there is the imputation of
the righteousness of God to the elect (cf. Rom. 3:24-26; 4:1-
8). It is to the first of these imputations that the passage in
Romans 5:12 [and vv. 13-21] refers."3
The apostle Paul viewed Adam and Christ as heads of two groups of people:
all human beings, and believers, respectively. In this section of his epistle
Paul was not looking primarily at what individual sinners have done, which
had been his interest previously. Rather he was looking at what Adam did
in the Fall and what Jesus Christ did at the Cross—and the consequences
of their actions for humanity.4 Adam's act resulted in his descendants
sinning and dying. All people are sinners not only because we commit acts
of sin, but also because Adam's sin corrupted the human race and made
sin and punishment inevitable for his descendants, as well as for himself.
1Dunn, p. 271.
2Stifler,
p. 95.
4Dunn, p. 288.
However Christ's act of dying made all who trust in Him righteous apart
from their own works.
There are two ways that Adam's sin has been passed on to all of his
descendants. Adam was the head of the human race in two ways: naturally,
and federally. The first way is that sin has been handed down to us by our
parents. Just as they are the human sources of our bodies (our material
part) they are the human source of our souls (our immaterial part). Thus
we inherit our sinful human nature from our parents.
The second way that all people have become sinners is that, as members
of the human race, we participate in the action of the head of the race,
Adam, our federal head. As the head of the human race what Adam did
affects all of his descendants—like the decisions of the president of a
country affect everyone who is a citizen of that country. As federal head
of the human race Adam acted as the representative of every one of his
descendants, and his actions resulted in consequences that those he
represents inevitably experience. Thus Adam's sin has been imputed to us.
"When one man fails in the accomplishment of God's purpose

(as, in measure, all did), God raises up another to take his
place—Joshua to replace Moses, David to replace Saul, Elisha
to replace Elijah[, Jesus to replace Adam]."1
"Starting with himself and the Romans in v. 6-11, Paul in v. 12-

21 sweeps through the world age, from Adam to the last day,
from one border of eternity to the other, Christ being in the
center. This is theology, indeed."2
"The power of Christ's act of obedience to overcome Adam's

act of disobedience is the great theme of this paragraph."3
"The main connection is with the teaching of assurance of final

salvation in the immediately preceding paragraph (vv. 2b, 9-
10). The passage shows why those who have been justified
and reconciled can be so certain that they will be saved from
wrath and share in 'the glory of God': it is because Christ's act
1Bruce,p. 119.
2Lenski,p. 357.
3Moo, p. 315.
of obedience ensures eternal life for all those who are 'in
Christ.'"1
5:12 The first verse of this section (vv. 12-21) picks up the idea of
future salvation from verses 9-10. "Therefore" is transitional
and indicates a loose relation between what has gone before
and what follows.2
Paul did not call Adam and Christ by name in this passage when
he first spoke of them but referred to each as "one man." The
key word "one" occurs 14 times in verses 12-21. Paul thereby
stressed the unity of each head with those under him, who are
also men (i.e., human beings).
If we did not continue reading we might interpret this verse as

meaning that Adam only set a bad example for humankind that
everyone has followed. However Adam's sin had a more direct
and powerful effect than simply that of a bad example (v. 15).
It resulted in his descendants being born sinners, which
accounts in large part for our sinfulness. It resulted in our being
born in a state of sinfulness.
My ancestors on my father's side emigrated to the United

States from Great Britain, and my ancestors on my mother's
side came to the U.S. from Switzerland. Their decision to move
to the United States resulted in my being born in the U.S.A.
Just so, Adam's decision to move into a state of sin resulted
in all of his descendants being born in a state of sin.
Paul personified sin, presenting it as an evil power. He probably

meant physical death in this reference to the effect of sin.
Why did Paul and God hold Adam responsible for the sinfulness
of the race when it was really Eve who sinned first? They did
so because Adam was the person in authority over, and
therefore responsible for, Eve (Gen. 2:18-23; 1 Cor. 11:3).
Furthermore, Eve was deceived (2 Cor. 11:3), but Adam sinned
1Ibid., p. 316.
2Barrett, p. 110.
fully aware of the fact that what he was doing was wrong (1
Tim. 2:14).
Paul compared the manner in which death entered the world,

through sin, with the manner in which it spread to everyone,
also through sin. Death is universal because sin is universal.
Paul's concern here was more with original death ("death
spread to all mankind") than with original sin.
"Death, then, is due immediately to the sinning of

each individual but ultimately to the sin of Adam;
for it was Adam's sin that corrupted human nature
and made individual sinning an inevitability."1
John Witmer compared Adam's sin to a vapor that entered a

house (humanity) through the front door and then penetrated
the whole house.2
"Perhaps what makes this sermon ["Sinners in the

Hands of an Angry God," by Jonathan Edwards]
most offensive to the ears of contemporary
interpreters is not the language of impending
destruction nor even that God is angry. What is
probably most distasteful in Edwards's theology is
the doctrine of original sin, that he would believe
that human beings are born guilty of sin and
deserving of divine wrath. Perhaps implicitly, the
view of the universal goodness of humanity that
permeates the worldview of many people today
has also penetrated evangelical theology as well.
That all humans, including children, are guilty of
sin and therefore deserving of the wrath of God
seems harsh and unfair to modern ears."3
1Moo, p. 325. See also Alford, 2:2:360.

2Witmer, p. 458.
3Glenn R. Kreider, "Sinners in the Hands of a Gracious God," Bibliotheca Sacra 163:651
(July-September 2006):274.
"… nothing evinces the sin of all and the death of

all in the sin of Adam more than the death of little
infants."1
The term "original sin" refers to the fact that people are born
sinners. Scripture reveals that we are born sinners in two ways:
We inherited a sinful nature from our parents, and Adam's sin
was imputed directly to us because we are members of his
race.2
"In general Pelagians differed from Augustine in

denying that the taint of Adam's sin and the
impairment of the will brought by it have been
transmitted to all Adam's descendants, but, in
contrast, declared that each man at birth has the
ability to choose the good. In other words, they
denounced 'original sin.'"3
Dunn warned against using this verse as a proof of the

historicity of Adam.4 But C. K. Barrett believed that Paul
accepted Genesis 1—3 "as a straightforward narrative of
events which really happened."5 I agree with Barrett.
5:13-14 Paul did not carry through the comparison begun in verse 12
here. If he had, verse 13 would have read something like: so
righteousness entered the world by one man and life through
righteousness. Evidently Paul broke off his statement because
he wanted to explain the relationship between sin and the Law,
specifically, why there was physical death before the Law.
Verses 13-14 explain verse 12. He returned to the thought
begun in verse 12 in verse 18.
People died before God gave the Mosaic Law. If there is no law,
there can be no transgression of law (cf. 3:20). Since death is
the penalty for transgression of law, why did those people die?
1John Murray, The Epistle to the Romans, 1:190.

2See Enns, pp. 311-13, for four views of the imputation of sin: the Pelagian, Arminian,
Federal, and Augustinian.
3Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity, p. 181.
4Dunn, pp. 289-90.
5Barrett, p. 111.
The answer is that they died because they sinned in Adam.

Adam transgressed God's moral law in the Garden of Eden, and
ever since then his descendants have transgressed God's
moral law, not just the Mosaic Law. This accounts for the
universality of death. Moral law is an absolute principle
established by God or reason that defines right and wrong.
Verses 12 through 14 describe imputed sin, not inherited sin.

In the case of inherited sin, Adam's sin is passed on from one
generation to the next, from parents to children—because of
Adam's natural headship of the human race (cf. Eph. 2:3). In
the case of imputed sin, Adam's sin is passed on directly from
Adam to each individual—because of Adam's federal headship
of the human race. Ryrie offered the following chart that
compares the ways that all human beings are sinners:1
Aspect Scripture Transmission Principal Remedy

consequence
Inherited Eph. 2:3 Generation to Spiritual Redemption

sin generation death and the gift
of the Holy
Spirit
Imputed Rom. 5:12 Direct from Physical Imputed

sin Adam to me death righteousness
Personal Rom. 3:23 None Loss of Forgiveness

sins 1 John 1:9 fellowship
The idea that people should involuntarily suffer punishment

because of the sins of another person is naturally repugnant
to us. Nevertheless, as the head of the human race, Adam's
actions resulted in consequences that his descendants had to
bear. Likewise any representative leader's decisions result in
consequences that his or her followers must bear. For example,
when our president decides to sign some piece of legislation
into law, it becomes binding on everyone under his authority—
whether we like it or not.
1Ryrie, Basic Theology, p. 229.

It is just one of the facts of life that we all suffer the

consequences of the decisions of those who have preceded us
or are over us in authority (cf. Heb. 7:9-10). Some of those
consequences are good for us and others are bad for us. We
all have to suffer the punishment for our sins ultimately, not
only because Adam sinned, but because we all commit acts of
sin. Some people rebel against God because of this universal
punishment. However God has promised not to punish us if we
will trust in His Son (2 Cor. 5:19). He has provided a way for
us to secure pardon from punishment.
It is the punishment for Adam's sin that we bear, not its guilt.
We are guilty because we sin, but we die (the punishment for
sin) because Adam sinned. Christ bore the punishment of our
sins, not our guilt. He died in our place and for us. We are still
guilty, but God will not condemn us for being guilty, because
He has declared us righteous in Christ (i.e., has justified us).
Guilt is both objective and subjective. We are objectively
guilty, but we should feel no subjective guilt because we have
been justified (declared righteous).
"Every little white coffin,—yea, every coffin,

should remind us of the universal effect of that sin
of Adam, for it was thus and thus only that 'death
passed to all men.'"1
Most evangelicals believe that infants and mentally

handicapped people who are incapable of understanding die
physically because of Adam's sin, but they do not die eternally
(are unsaved) because they are incapable of exercising saving
faith in Christ. Therefore, since God is just, He will have mercy
on them (cf. Gen. 18:25).2 Some people base their belief in
the salvation of such people on 2 Samuel 12:23, but that verse
probably only means that David anticipated going into the
grave (Sheol), where his infant son had gone, not going to
heaven.
1Newell,p. 183.
2SeeRobertson, 4:358-59. See Gleason L. Archer, Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties, pp.
338-90, for discussion of this issue.
Adam was a type or pattern (Gr. tupos) of one who would

follow him, namely, Jesus Christ. A type is a divinely intended
illustration of something else: the antitype. A type may be a
person, as here, or a thing (cf. Heb. 10:19-20), an event (cf.
1 Cor. 10:11), a ceremony (cf. 1 Cor. 5:7), or an institution
(cf. Heb. 9:11-12). Adam is the only Old Testament character
who is explicitly identified as a type of Christ in the New
Testament. Adam's act had universal impact and prefigured
Christ's act, which also had universal impact. The point of
similarity between Adam and Christ is that what each did
resulted in a significant change. Each communicated what
belonged to him (his legacy) to those that he represented.
"Adam came from the earth, but Jesus is the Lord from heaven
(1 Cor. 15:47). Adam was tested in a Garden, surrounded by
beauty and love; Jesus was tempted in a wilderness, and He
died on a cruel cross surrounded by hatred and ugliness. Adam
was a thief, and was cast out of Paradise; but Jesus Christ
turned to a thief and said, 'Today shalt thou be with Me in
Paradise' (Luke 23:43). The Old Testament is 'the book of the
generations of Adam' (Gen. 5:1) and it ends with 'a curse' (Mal.
4:6). The New Testament is 'The book of the generation of
Jesus Christ' (Matt. 1:1) and it ends with 'no more curse' (Rev.
22:3)."1
The rest of this chapter develops seven contrasts (one per verse) between
Adam's act of sin and Christ's act of salvation. As Adam's act of sin
resulted in inevitable death for all his descendants, so Christ's act of
obedience resulted in inevitable life for all who believe in Him.
5:15 In this verse the essences of Adam's act and Christ's act are
contrasted, namely, an "offense" and a "gracious gift."
Paul probably used the phrase "the many" in order to contrast

those individuals in each group with Adam or Christ, who were
individuals (cf. Isa. 53:11-12; Mark 10:45). "Many" is a
comparative word, and it can compare many with all, or with
one, or with a few. In the case of Adam, "the many" means all
people, but in the case of Christ, "the many" means all who
1Wiersbe, 1:530.
receive the benefit of His saving act by faith, namely, all

believers.1
"… the benefits of Christ's obedience extend to

all men potentially. It is only human self-will which
places limits to its operation."2
The effect of Jesus Christ's act on people was totally different

from that of Adam's act, and it was vastly superior to it, as
"much more" indicates (cf. vv. 9, 10, 17, 20). "Much more"
here shows that Jesus Christ did not only cancel the effects of
Adam's sin, but He provided more than Adam lost or even
possessed before the Fall, namely, the righteousness of God.
5:16 In Adam's case, a single sin by a single individual was sufficient

to bring condemnation to the whole human race. In Christ's
case, one act of obedience, which the transgressions of many
people made necessary, was sufficient to bring justification to
all those who believe in Him (v. 16). Here the divine verdicts,
following Adam's act and Christ's act, are in view:
condemnation and justification.
5:17 The consequence of Adam's sin was death reigning over

humankind. The consequence of Christ's obedience was
humankind reigning over death (v. 17). This implies the
believer's ultimate resurrection and participation in Jesus
Christ's reign, as well as his or her reigning over death in this
life. Death and life are the contrasting consequences of
Adam's act and Christ's act.
"That we are to reign in life involves much more

than participation in eternal life; it indicates the
activity of life in fellowship with Christ in His
Kingdom."3
5:18 This verse and the next three summarize Paul's point, as
indicated by "So then." They also complete the thought that
Paul broke off at the end of verse 12. Paul contrasted the
1Dunn, pp. 293-94.

2Lightfoot, p. 291.
3Vine, p. 82.
extents of Adam's act and Christ's act: condemnation came

upon all people, and justification came upon all people who
believe in Christ.
There are really three reasons why all human beings, except
Christ, are guilty before God: First, God imputed Adam's guilt
to each of his descendants. This is called "original sin." This is
a legal matter. Just as children who are born in any given
country are automatically governed by conditions that the
country's forefathers set in motion, so people who are born in
Adam's race automatically fall under conditions that Adam set
in motion. Second, every human being is born with a human
nature that has been defiled by sin. This is called our "sin
nature." This is an inheritance matter (cf. Ps. 51:5). Third,
every person commits acts of sin. This is "personal sin." This
is an individual matter (cf. Rom. 3:23).
"In general, it may be said that the New

Testament teaching concerning original sin and its
consequences finds no analogy in the Rabbinical
writings of that period. As to the mode of
salvation, their doctrine may be broadly summed
up under the designation of work-righteousness."1
"There is nothing about which the natural man is

more blind than about original corruption."2
5:19 Here the contrast is between the issues involved in Adam's act
and in Christ's act. Adam disobeyed God, and Christ obeyed
God. Many will be made righteous both forensically (justified),
when they believe, and finally (glorified), after they believe.
"The many" here, of course, means the justified. Obviously
these verses do not mean that everyone will be justified. The
obedience of Christ is a reference to His death as the ultimate
act of His obedience, rather than to His life of obedience—
since it is His death that saves us.
1Alfred Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days of Christ, p. 177.
2Henry, p. 1769.
"There is no more direct statement in Scripture

concerning justification than we find in verse 19
…"1
5:20 One of the purposes of the Mosaic Law was to illuminate the
sinfulness of people. It did so by exposing behavior that was
until then not obviously contrary to God's will. God gave the
Law to prove man's sinfulness to him, as well as for other
reasons.
"It [the Law] does not create, but it evokes sin."2
"The fact and power of 'sin' introduced into the

world by Adam has not been decreased by the
law, but given a new dimension as rebellion against
the revealed, detailed will of God; sin has become
'transgression' …"3
"['The offense'] seems expressly chosen in order

to remind us that all sins done in defiance of a
definite command are as such repetitions of the
sin of Adam."4
Paul's statement "the Law came in so that" can be understood

as both a purpose clause and a result clause.5 However, when
God provided Jesus Christ, He provided grace (favor) that far
exceeded the sin that He exposed when He provided the Law.
We could translate "abounded": super-abounded, or abounded
more exceedingly (Gr. hupereperisseusen).
"The apostle waxes almost ecstatic as he revels in

the superlative excellence of the divine overruling
that makes sin serve a gracious purpose."6
1Newell, p. 178.
2Lightfoot, p. 293.
3Moo, p. 348. Cf. 7:13; Gal. 3:19.
5Witmer, p. 460.
6Harrison, p. 65.
The contrast in this verse deals with the significances of

Adam's act and Christ's act. The Law showed the significance
of Adam's sin more clearly, and God's provision of Christ
showed the significance of God's grace more clearly.
5:21 Verse 21 is the grand conclusion of the argument in this

section (5:12-21). It brings together the main concepts of sin
and death, and righteousness and life. Paul effectively played
down Adam and exalted Jesus Christ. Here Paul contrasted the
dominions of Adam's act and Christ's act: sin reigning in death
and grace reigning to eternal life.
"Paul often thinks in terms of 'spheres' or

'dominions,' and the language of 'reigning' is
particularly well suited to this idea. Death has its
own dominion: humanity as determined, and
dominated, by Adam. And in this dominion, sin is
in control. But those who 'receive the gift' (v. 17)
enjoy a transfer from this domain to another, the
domain of righteousness, in which grace reigns
and where life is the eventual outcome."1
"The greater the strength of the enemy, the

greater the honour of the conqueror."2
CONTRASTS IN ROMANS 5:12-213
Two men Adam (v. 14) Christ (v. 14)
Two acts One trespass in the One righteous act on

garden (vv. 12, 15, 17, the cross (v. 18)
18, 19)
1Moo,p. 350.
2Henry,p. 1766.
3Adapted from Newell, p. 176. See also the chart in The Bible Knowledge Commentary:
New Testament, p. 461.

Two results Condemnation, guilt, Justification, life, and

and death (vv. 15, 16, kingship (vv. 17, 18,
18, 19) 19)
Two differences
• In degree (v. 15) Sin abounds Grace super-abounds
• In operation One sin by Adam Many sins on Christ

(v. 16) resulting in resulting in
condemnation and the justification and
reign of death for reigning in life for
everyone believers
Two kings Sin reigning through Grace reigning

death (v. 17) through
righteousness (v. 21)
Two abundances Of grace (v. 17)
Of the gift of
righteousness (v. 17)
Two contrasting states Condemned people Justified people

slaves of sin by Adam reigning in life by
Christ
This section (5:12-21) shows that humankind is guilty before God because
all of Adam's descendants are sinners due to Adam's sin. Both personal
sins and the sinful human nature are consequences of Adam's sin. Earlier
Paul wrote that we are all guilty because we have all committed acts of sin
(chs. 3—4). Ultimately, we sin and die because Adam sinned and died.
Jesus Christ's death has righteously removed both causes for
condemnation: guilt for our sins and punishment for Adam's sin. This
section stresses our union with Christ, which Paul explained further in
chapter 6.
IV. THE IMPARTATION OF GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS CHS. 6—8
The apostle moved on from questions about why people need salvation
(1:18—3:20), what God has done to provide it, and how we can appropriate
it (3:21—5:21). He next explained that salvation involves more than a right
standing before God, which justification affords. God also provides salvation
from the present power of sin in the redeemed sinner's daily experience.
This is progressive sanctification (chs. 6—8). (Some expositors regard
5:12-21 as explaining "potential sanctification."1)
When a sinner experiences redemption—"converted" is the subjective

term—he or she simultaneously experiences justification. Justification
imputes God's righteousness to him or her. Justification is the same thing
as "positional sanctification." This term means that God views the believer
as completely holy in his or her standing before God. Consequently, that
person is no longer guilty because of his or her sins (cf. 8:1; 1 Cor. 1:2;
6:11).
SALVATIO N
God's Righteousness GLORIFICATIO N
positional sanctification
death
or
tion rapture
anctifica
ve s
JUSTIFICATION
rogressi
p
REGENERATIO N Man's Sinfulness
When a sinner experiences redemption, he or she begins a process of

progressive practical sanctification. This process of becoming progressively
1E.g., McGee, 4:677.

more righteous (holy) in his or her daily experience is not automatic. It

involves growth and requires the believer to cooperate with God in order
to produce holiness in daily life. God leads the believer and provides the
enablement for him or her to follow, but the believer must choose to follow
and must make use of the resources for sanctification that God provides.1
Our progressive sanctification will end at death or the Rapture, whichever
occurs first. Then the believer will experience glorification. Then his
experiential condition will finally conform to his legal standing before God.
He or she will then be completely righteous as well as having been declared
righteous. God will remove our sinful nature and will conform our lives fully
to His will (8:29).
"Justification is for us; sanctification is in us. Justification

declares the sinner righteous; sanctification makes the sinner
righteous. Justification removes the guilt and penalty of sin;
sanctification removes the growth and the power of sin."2
In chapters 6—8 Paul explained how justified sinners can become more holy
(godly, righteous) in daily living before our glorification. We need to
understand our relationship as believers to sin (i.e., victory, ch. 6), to the
Law (i.e., liberty, ch. 7), and to God (i.e., security, ch. 8) in order to attain
that worthy goal.
"… the fundamental thought is that the believer is united to

Christ. This new principle makes him dead to sin (ch. vi.); but
it also provides a new power which enables him to be free from
law (ch. vii.); and still more, it includes a new possibility, for in
the gift of the Holy Spirit there is a new position for holiness
(ch. viii.)."3
A. THE BELIEVER'S RELATIONSHIP TO SIN CH. 6
"Up to chapter 6, Paul does not discuss the holy life of the
saint. From chapter 6 on, Paul does not discuss the salvation
[i.e., justification] of the sinner."4
1See Ryrie, So Great …, pp. 152-54.

2McGee, 4:681.
4McGee, 4:681.
"Subduing the power of sin is the topic of Rom. 6."1
1. Freedom from sin 6:1-14
Paul began his explanation of the believer's relationship to sin by explaining

the implications of our union with Christ (6:1-14). He had already spoken
of this in 5:12-21 regarding justification, but now he showed how that
union affects our progressive sanctification.
"Justification brings us from the tomb; sanctification delivers

us from the old 'threads' of the unbelieving life."2
"The focus of his discussion, particularly in chapter 6, is not on

how to obey God and avoid sinning, but on why we should obey
God."3
The apostle referred to Jesus Christ's death, burial, and resurrection in this
section of chapter 6. Seen from the viewpoint of His substitute sacrifice,
these events did not involve the believer's participation. Jesus Christ alone
endured the cross, experienced burial, and rose from the grave.
Nevertheless His work of redemption was not only substitutionary but also
representative. It is in this respect that Paul described believers as
identified with Christ in His death, burial, and resurrection in the following
verses. Paul previously introduced the concept of Adam and Christ as our
representatives in 5:12-21 (cf. 2 Cor. 5:14). Sin has no further claim on
Christ because He paid the penalty for sin. Sin no longer has a claim on us
because He died as our representative. We are free from sin's domination
because of our union with Him. This was Paul's line of thought, and it
obviously develops further what Paul wrote in 5:12-21.
"In ch. 6 there are four key words which indicate the believer's
personal responsibility in relation to God's sanctifying work:
(1) to 'know' the facts of our union and identification with
Christ in His death and resurrection (vv. 3, 6, 9); to 'reckon'
or count these facts to be true concerning ourselves (v. 11);
to 'yield,' or present ourselves once for all as alive from the
1Moo, p. 350.
3Robert A. Pyne, "Dependence and Duty: The Spiritual Life in Galatians 5 and Romans 6,"
in Integrity of Heart, Skillfulness of Hands, p. 149.
dead for God's possession and use (vv. 13, 16, 19); and (4)
to 'obey' in the realization that sanctification can proceed only
as we are obedient to the will of God as revealed in His Word
(vv. 16-17)."1
6:1 One writer counted 74 rhetorical questions in Romans.2 This

chapter begins with one of them. Paul had just said that grace
super-abounded where sin increased (5:20). Perhaps then
believers should not worry about practicing sin, since it results
in the demonstration of more of God's grace and His greater
glory. One expression of this view is Voltaire's famous
statement: "God will forgive; that is his 'business.'"3 W. H.
Auden voiced similar sentiments:
"I like committing crimes. God likes forgiving

them. Really the world is admirably arranged."4
Paul probably posed the question to draw out the implications

of God's grace ("Are we to continue in sin so that grace may
increase?").
"… justification by faith is not simply a legal

matter between me and God; it is a living
relationship."5
6:2 This is definitely not a proper conclusion (cf. 3:8). It is illogical

that those who have died in relation to sin should continue to
live in sin. Paul personified sin and described it as having a
ruling power or realm. We died to sin through Christ when we
experienced conversion.
"How despicable it would be for a son or a

daughter to consider himself or herself free to sin,
1The New Scofield Reference Bible, p. 1217.

2B. Kaye, The Argument of Romans with Special Reference to Chapter 6, p. 14.
3Cited by Moo, p. 356.
4W. H. Auden, For the Time Being, p. 116.
5Wiersbe, 1:531.
because he or she knew that a father or a mother

would forgive."1
Note that Paul did not say it is impossible to live in sin, or that
sin is dead to the Christian (i.e., that it no longer appeals to
us). He meant that it is unnecessary and undesirable to live in
sin, to habitually practice it.
For example, if a man's wife died it would be unrealistic for him

to continue living as though she were alive. Her death changed
his relationship to her. He could, of course, continue to live as
though she were alive, but such a man no longer needs to do
so, and he should not.
It is incredible that one advocate of Lordship Salvation wrote

the following:
"What is no-lordship theology but the teaching

that those who have died to sin can indeed live in
it?"2
This expositor caricatured those of us who believe in salvation

by faith alone as "no-lordship" advocates, implying that we do
not believe in the Lordship of Christ. We do believe in it, but
we do not believe that submitting to Jesus Christ's mastery
over every area of our lives, or even being willing to do so, is
a biblical condition for obtaining justification (cf. 6:23; John
3:16; Eph. 2:8-9; et al.). Romans 6:13 and 12:1-2 are three of
the clearest verses in the Bible that submission to the Lordship
of Christ is the duty of every Christian. It is not optional or
unimportant, but it is a command addressed to Christians, not
to unbelievers.
Matthew Henry described the nature of sanctification as

twofold: mortification ("How shall we who died to sin still live
in it?" v. 2) and vivification ("walk in newness of life," v. 4).3
1Barclay,p. 86.
2MacArthur, p. 106.
3Henry, p. 1766.
6:3-4 Our baptism into (with respect to) Jesus Christ resulted in our
death to sin.
"It appears that Paul had both the literal and

figurative in mind in this paragraph, for he used
the readers' experience of water baptism to
remind them of their identification with Christ
through the baptism of the Holy Spirit."1
"Baptism … functions as shorthand for the

conversion experience as a whole."2
Water baptism for the early Christians was an initiation into

Christian living. Ritual (water) baptism joins the believer with
Jesus Christ by public profession. Real (Holy Spirit) baptism
joins him or her with Christ in His death, burial, and
resurrection.
"… there is no evidence in Rom. 6, or in the NT

elsewhere, that the actual physical movements—
immersion and emersion—involved in baptism
were accorded symbolical significance. The focus
in Rom. 6, certainly, is not on the ritual of baptism,
but the simple event of baptism."3
"'Burial with Christ' is a description of the

participation of the believer in Christ's own burial,
a participation that is mediated by baptism."4
"It is not that the believer in baptism is laid in his

own grave, but that through that action he is set
alongside Christ Jesus in his."5
1Wiersbe, 1:531.
2Moo, p. 355.
3Ibid., p. 362.
4Ibid., p. 363.
5G. R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament, p. 130.
"… baptism is introduced not to explain how we

were buried with Christ but to demonstrate that
we were buried with Christ."1
"From this and other references to baptism in

Paul's writings, it is plain that he did not regard
[ritual] baptism as an 'optional extra' in the
Christian life."2
Neither did Paul regard it as essential for salvation (e.g., 1 Cor.

1:17). Jesus' burial was not part of His saving work. It simply
proved that He had died (1 Cor. 15:3-4). Similarly His
resurrection was not part of His saving work. It proved that
death could not hold Him because He was sinless (cf. Acts
2:24).
Some good expositors see no reference to water baptism in

this verse but only Spirit baptism.3
God not only raised Jesus Christ, but He also imparts newness
of life to believers. Walking in newness (a new kind) of life
shows outwardly that the believer has received new life (cf. 2
Cor. 5:17). "Glory" in this verse has power in view (cf. John
11:40).
"Walk by new rules. Make a new choice of the way.

Choose new paths to walk in, new leaders to walk
after, new companions to walk with."4
6:5 In this verse Paul apparently referred to our physical

resurrection in view of what follows. He was speaking of the
Christian's bodily resurrection at a future date, rather than the
believer's resurrection to a new type of life with Christ (cf. Eph.
2:6; Col. 2:12; 3:1). This is parallel to what he said about our
death in the context.
1Moo, p. 364. See his excursus on Paul's "with Christ" concept on pages 391-95.
2Bruce, p. 128.
3E.g., McGee, 4:682.
4Henry, p. 1766.
We could paraphrase "united" as "fused together." The Greek

word (sumphytoi) means "grown together." Our union with
Christ in His death and resurrection is the basis for our future
resurrection.
6:6 As we sinned in Adam, so we died with Christ (cf. Gal. 2:20).

Paul said it is important that we know this, because it is crucial
to understanding our relationship to sin as believers.
"Christian living depends on Christian learning;

duty is always founded on doctrine. If Satan can
keep a Christian ignorant, he can keep him
impotent."1
"Satan's great device is to drive earnest souls

back to beseeching God for what God says has
already been done!"2
Our old "man" or "self" refers to the person we were before

we experienced justification. That person was crucified with
Christ (cf. Col. 3:9). That person is now dead; he no longer
exists as he once was. Nevertheless we can adopt his or her
old characteristics if we choose to do so (cf. Eph. 4:22). The
believer is not the same person he or she used to be before
justification (cf. 2 Cor. 5:17).
The "old self" is not the same as the old nature.3 The old
nature refers to our sinful human nature that every human
being possesses as long as he or she lives. The old nature is
the same as the flesh (cf. 7:5). The old self is the person I was
before I experienced regeneration.
"'The flesh,' which is sin entrenched in the body

[i.e., the old nature], is unchangeably evil, and will
1Wiersbe,1:530.
2Newell,p. 213.
3See John R. W. Stott, Men Made New: An Exposition of Romans 5—8, p. 45.
war against us till Christ comes. Only the Holy

Spirit has power over 'the flesh' (Chapter 8.1)."1
Even though the old self has died, the old nature lives on. I am
not the same person I was before justification because sin no
longer can dominate me, but I still have a sinful human nature.
Human nature has been defined as "the fundamental
tendencies and feelings of mankind."2
I prefer not to use the term "new nature." It does not appear
in Scripture. The New Testament does not present the
Christian as a person with two natures warring within him or
her. Rather it presents the Christian as a person with one sinful
nature (the flesh) that is in conflict with the indwelling Holy
Spirit (cf. Gal. 5:16-23). It also speaks of the Christian as
struggling with the decision to live as the new man that he or
she now is. Our alternative is to live like the old self, who we
were, but are no longer (cf. Rom. 7:13-24).
"What we were 'in Adam' is no more; but, until

heaven, the temptation to live in Adam always
remains."3
Our "body of sin" is not the same as a sinful body, since the
physical body itself is not sinful (cf. Mark 7:21-23). Probably
the body in this expression represents the whole person (cf.
vv. 12-13). We express our sinfulness through our bodies. The
result of our crucifixion with Christ was that the body no longer
needs to be an instrument that we use to sin, since we are no
longer slaves of sin.
6:7 Death ends all claims. Paul illustrated his point in verse 6 by
referring to this general truth in verse 7. Once a person has
died, he or she has no more earthly obligations. Because of our
death with Christ, we have no further obligation to respond to
the dictates of our sinful nature. We may choose to do so, but
1Newell, p. 212. See I. Howard Marshall, "Living in the 'Flesh'," Bibliotheca Sacra 159:636
(October-December 2002):387-403, for an excellent word study of "flesh."
2Will and Ariel Durant, The Lessons of History, p. 31.
3Moo, p. 375.
we do not have to do so, and we should not do so (cf. Eph.

4:22-32).
This verse does not mean that the power of sinful habits or
the effects of sinful influences will cease to bother a person
when he or she becomes a Christian. It does mean that the
Christian is no longer under the slavery to sin that he or she
used to live under. Our senses create a problem for us here.
The unsaved person may think that he is not a slave to sin
when he really is. Conversely the Christian may think that he is
a slave to sin though he is not. The fact remains: God has
broken the chain that once bound us to sin, and, happily, we
are free of its domination. Unfortunately we will not be free of
its enticement until our glorification.
The translation "freed from sin" is legitimate but perhaps

misleading. It may imply a forensic relationship to sin: sinless.
But Paul was speaking of our relationship to sin's power or
dominion in daily living in this section (practical sanctification,
not justification).
6:8 "If" could be translated "since" (first class condition in Greek,

that in this case represents a condition genuinely true to
reality). Believers have died with Christ. Paul now turned from
discussing the effect that our union with Christ has on our
problem with sin (vv. 6-7). He proceeded to explain the affect
that our union with Him has on our problem with death. Death
is the result of sin. Here physical resurrection is in view, as is
clear from the future tense (cf. 1 Cor. 15:54-57). However,
some writers have taken this as referring to our life lived out
here and now.1
"Life with Christ, upon which the believer enters

when he is born of God, never ceases. Its
continuance rests, not upon our efforts any more
than salvation by grace does."2
1E.g., Mounce, p. 152; and Cranfield, 1:312-13.

2Vine, p. 90.
6:9 Death could not hold Jesus Christ, our Representative, in the
grave. It cannot hold the believer there either. Furthermore
neither He nor we will die a second time. We will never again
come under the enslaving, spiritual death-dealing power of sin.
6:10 Jesus Christ will never have to die again, because when He died
for sin, He died to sin. This means that when He died, His
relationship to sin changed. It was never the same again. Sin
now has no power over Him. How could sin have had a claim
on Him who knew no sin? God treated Him as though He were
sinful for our sakes. He bore our sins. After He paid for our sins
He was free to resume His intimate relationship with God
forever.
"This stands in opposition to the doctrine and

practice of the so-called perpetual sacrifice of
Christ in the Roman Catholic Mass."1
6:11 Since God has united us with Christ, we should consider (count,
or reckon) ourselves as those who are not under the
dominating influence of sin any longer. The verb is a present
imperative in the Greek text indicating that we should
definitely and constantly view ourselves this way. We must
realize that we are free to enjoy our new relationship with God
forever.2
Paul previously stressed the importance of knowing certain

facts (vv. 3, 6, 9). Now he said that we should count on their
being true. We must not only understand them but believe
them. He used the same Greek word (logisthesetai, translated
consider) here as he did in his explanation of justification
(2:26; 4:3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 22, 23, 24). God considers
the believer righteous. Similarly, we should consider it true that
our relationship to sin and death has changed. Only as we do
so will we relate to temptation, sin, and death realistically.
If we fail to believe that sin no longer dominates us we will be

much more vulnerable to yield to temptation, to practice sin,
1Witmer, p. 463. Cf. Heb. 7:27; 9:12; 10:10. See Ludwig Ott, Fundamentals of Catholic
Dogma, pp. 402-13, for the Roman Catholic doctrine of the sacrifice of the Mass.
2See Don Matzat, Christ-Esteem.
and to fear death. However if we count on sin not having that

power we will be more apt to resist temptation, to stay clear
of sin, and to anticipate death less fearfully. Logisthesetai is in
the present tense in the Greek text, indicating that we need
to maintain a realistic view of our relationship to sin (i.e., to
keep on considering).
"The word reckon is a word for faith—in the face

of appearances."1
In some parts of the United States, "I reckon" means "I guess."
For example, "I reckon it's going to rain this afternoon." That
is not its meaning here. It means to count on something being
true, to believe it.
"This is no game of 'let's pretend'; believers

should consider themselves to be what God in fact
has made them."2
It is a mistake to conclude, however, that "this makes

impossible a life of habitual sin."3 The Christian may choose to
sin, and to sin repeatedly. That is why Paul proceeded to urge
believers not to let sin reign in their mortal bodies (v. 12).
6:12 Paul had expounded the reality and implications of the

believer's union with Christ in His death, burial, and
resurrection (vv. 1-10). He had also urged his readers,
therefore, to consider themselves dead to sin and alive to God
(v. 11). He now proceeded to call on them to present
themselves to God in a decisive act of self-dedication (vv. 12-
23).
"Therefore" draws a conclusion on the basis of what has

preceded. Since as believers we know that we are no longer
subject to sin's domination, and since we count that as true,
we should not let sin reign in our bodies any longer. That is, we
should not use our bodies, including our minds, to sin. Sin is no
1Newell,p. 225.
2Bruce,p. 132.
3Wuest, 3:1:95.
longer our master, so we can and should stop carrying out its
orders.
"Though we may be sometimes overtaken and

overcome by it, yet let us never be obedient to
it."1
Paul undoubtedly was giving a general prohibition, not implying

that the Roman Christians in particular were letting sin reign
over them (cf. 15:14-15). When temptation comes, we do not
have to yield to it (cf. 1 Cor. 10:13).
"… 'passions' would include not only the physical

lusts and appetites but also those desires that
reside in the mind and will: the desire to have our
own way, the desire to possess what other people
have (cf. 7:7-8), the desire to have dominance
over others."2
"People sometimes see an individual who is under

the power of addiction and say, 'He obviously
can't be a Christian if he's in bondage to this.'
Where do you find support for that in Scripture?
Paul suggests otherwise. A believer can also
become enslaved to greed, anger, sloth, envy, or
lust, for example. But we are commanded not to,
and we are promised that God's power is there to
help us find freedom from this slavery."3
6:13 In particular, we should not use our natural capacities (all our
faculties, not only our limbs) to commit sin. Positively, we
should present ourselves to God, and our body parts (eyes
[representing what we look at], ears [what we listen to],
mouths [what we say], hands [what we do], feet [where we
go], hearts [what we love], minds [what we think about], wills
[the decisions we make], etc.) as His instruments in order to
fulfill His will (cf. 12:1). Believers have a choice. We can
present ourselves to sin or to God, to do its will or His will (cf.
1Henry, p. 1766.
2Moo, p. 383.
3Swindoll, The Swindoll …, p. 1386.
Eph. 4:17-32). The unbeliever only has this choice to a limited

extent, since he is the slave of sin. The unbeliever can
sometimes choose to do what is right, but he or she can never
escape the dominating effect of sin in his or her life.
"Some commentators think that Paul … pictures

this 'presenting' as a 'once-for-all' action, or as
ingressive ('start presenting'), or as urgent. But
the aorist tense in itself does not indicate such
nuances and nothing in the context here clearly
suggests any of them. In fact, the aorist
imperative often lacks any special force, being
used simply to command that an action take
place—without regard for the duration, urgency,
or frequency of the action. This is probably the
case here. However, we may surmise that, as the
negative not presenting ourselves to sin is
constantly necessary, so is the positive giving
ourselves in service to God, our rightful ruler."1
"God is to have the complete use of all that we

are and have."2
"He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to

gain what he cannot lose."3
I find that it is helpful for me to make this conscious

presentation of myself to God daily.
1Moo, p. 385.
2Vine, p. 93.
3Jim Elliot, quoted in Elisabeth Elliot, Shadow of the Almighty, p. 108.
THE CHRISTIAN'S THREE-FOLD ENEMY
The Problem The Solution
The World Flee
(1 John 2:15-17) (1 Tim. 6:11; 2 Tim. 2:22)
Lust of the flesh
Lust of the eyes
Pride of life
The flesh Deny
(Rom. 7:18-24) (Rom. 6:12-13; 8:13)
The devil Resist
(1 Peter 5:8) (1 Peter 5:9)
"The moment we come to exhortation, we have

to do with the will; whereas believing is a matter
of the heart: 'With the heart man believeth.'"1
"Paul's first instruction ('know') centered in the

mind, and this second instruction ('reckon')
focuses on the heart. His third instruction touches
the will."2
Some Reformed interpreters believe that progressive

sanctification is automatic. They believe that God
automatically transforms every true Christian into the image
of Christ during his or her present lifetime. If this
transformation is not obvious, then the person professing to
1Newell, p. 229.
2Wiersbe, 1:532.
be a Christian must not be one. I would respond that he or she

may not be, but there is another possibility:
"Is the Holy Spirit being allowed to transform your

life? There are only two possible answers: yes or
no. If your answer is no, there are two possible
reasons. Either you do not have the Spirit within
you (i.e., you're not a Christian), or He is there but
you prefer to live life on your own."1
"Why does the Lord want your body? To begin

with, the believer's body is God's temple, and He
wants to use it for His glory (1 Cor. 6:19-20; Phil.
1:20-21). But Paul wrote that the body is also
God's tool and God's weapon (Rom. 6:13). God
wants to use the members of the body as tools
for building His kingdom and weapons for fighting
His enemies."2
Whereas presenting our bodies to Christ for His service is not

a requirement for salvation, the person who makes this
presentation furnishes proof that he or she is a child of God by
doing so.
"The surest evidence of our spiritual life is the

dedication of ourselves to God."3
6:14 "In verses 1-11 the Apostle has shown what it

means to be united to Christ; in verses 12 and 13
he has shown the consequences and made his
appeal to the believer; and now in verse 14 he
assures us of the Divine provision for the
complete fulfillment of these exhortations."4
1Charles R. Swindoll, "Is the Holy Spirit Transforming You?" Kindred Spirit 18:1 (January-
April 1994):7. Paragraph division omitted. This article is an excerpt from the same writer's
book Flying Closer to the Flame, p. 52.
2Wiersbe, 1:533.
3Henry, p. 1766.
The apostle concluded this section of his argument with a word

of encouragement: Sin will no longer be master over the
believer. The basic reason for this is that the believer is not
under the Mosaic Law—as the authority under which he or she
lives—but under grace. Satan can no longer use the Law to
hinder the believer's progress (cf. 3:23). God has redeemed
us, not by the Law but by grace. We now live under that
authority. Paul dealt with the tension that this situation
creates for the believer in chapter 7.
Usually the word grace refers to the principle by which God

operates. Yet it also describes the sphere in which the believer
lives, as here (cf. 5:2)—as the Law describes the old realm.
Being under grace is not, however, a condition in which we are
free from any responsibility (cf. Matt. 11:28-30; Titus 2:11-
12), as Paul proceeded to clarify in verses 15-23. Neither was
there an absence of grace under the Mosaic Law.
"It is not restraint, but inspiration, which liberates

from sin: not Mount Sinai but Mount Calvary which
makes saints."1
"Romans 6 is the classic biblical text on the importance of

relating the 'indicative' of what God has done for us with the
'imperative' of what we are to do. Paul stresses that we must
actualize in daily experience the freedom from sin's lordship
(cf. v. 14a) that is ours 'in Christ Jesus.'"2
2. Slavery to righteousness 6:15-23
"The next two sections (vi. 15-23; vii. 1-6) might be described
summarily as a description of the Christian's release, what it is
and what it is not."3
In the first part of this chapter Paul explained that Christ has broken the
bonds of sin that enslave the Christian (vv. 1-14). In the second part, he
warned that even though Christians are free, they can become enslaved to
1Denney, 2:635.
2Moo, pp. 390-91.
sin by yielding to temptation (vv. 15-23; cf. John 8:34). Rather than being
enslaved to sin, as believers, we should voluntarily yield ourselves as slaves
to righteousness.
"Emancipation from Sin is but the prelude to a new service of

Righteousness."1
"Three words summarize the reasons for our yielding: favor

(Rom. 6:14-15), freedom (Rom. 6:16-20), and fruit (Rom.
6:21-23)."2
6:15 Paul's question here is not a repetition of verse 1. There he

asked if we could continue in sin. Here he said, "Are we to sin?"
In verse 1 he was looking at continual sinning. Here he dealt
with specific acts of sin. A sinful lifestyle and acts of sin are
both inappropriate for a believer who is living under God's
gracious authority.
"There is a strong inclination to think that law

stops sinning, that, unless we have at least some
law, we shall not be kept from sinning even when
we are under the fulness of grace; that grace
alone is insufficient for this purpose. For this
reason so many Christians are legalists. On the
other hand, some are inclined to think that, since
grace pardons sins so freely, one need not be so
careful about not sinning, a few sins more or less
make no difference to grace which will take care
of the additional sins."3
"Surely, the objector says, we may take a night

off now and then and sin a little bit 'since we are
under grace.'"4
6:16 Having presented himself to God in dedication (v. 13), the

believer needs to obey Him. Obligation always follows
dedication, whether the dedication is to sin or to obedience
1Ibid.
2Wiersbe, 1:533.
3Lenski,p. 420.
4Robertson, 4:364.
(cf. Matt. 6:24). The outcome of dedication to sin is death

(5:12; 8:13), but the outcome of dedication to obedience is
righteousness. Imparted, moral righteousness (progressive
sanctification) is in view here, not imputed righteousness
(justification, cf. 5:19).
"Many people who have been convicted of the

guilt of sin and have relied on the shed blood of
Christ as putting away that guilt, have not yet,
however, seen a state of sin as abject slavery."1
"Sin has a power of development; it goes beyond

the primary intentions of those who give
themselves to it."2
"Sin will take you farther than you want to go,

keep you longer than you want to stay, and cost
you more than you want to pay."3
6:17 The form of teaching that Paul had in mind here was the
teaching that the Lord Jesus Himself gave during His earthly
ministry and then through His apostles (cf. Gal. 6:2). It is in
contrast to the teaching of the Mosaic Law. God had not
forced Paul's readers to yield to Jesus' teachings as to the
Law. They had willingly embraced it as law for themselves.
They had committed themselves to it from their hearts. Paul
was not stressing the fact that the Lord had committed His
teachings to his readers, as the AV translation implies, but that
they had committed themselves to it.4
6:18 The slavery of the readers to righteousness was therefore

voluntary. It seems that because of our very nature, human
beings must be the slave of something. Righteousness here is
the result of following Christian teaching, and it is the
equivalent of godly living. It is righteous character and
conduct.
1Newell,p. 238.
2Vine,p. 95.
3Unknown source.
4AV refers to The Holy Bible: Authorized King James Version.
Paul did not say that every believer takes advantage of his or
her freedom from sin's tyranny to become a slave of God
("slaves to righteousness"). He said the Roman Christians had
done so, and in this he rejoiced. Dedication to God is voluntary,
not automatic for the Christian (cf. v. 13; 12:1). If a believer
does not truly dedicate himself or herself to God, he or she will
continue to practice sin to a greater extent than he would if
he did present himself to God (v. 16).
6:19 Paul had put his teaching in human terms. He had compared
the believer's situation to that of a free person, on the one
hand, and to a slave on the other. He did this in order to help
his readers grasp his point but also in order to make a strong
impact on them. Paul felt constrained to be very graphic and
direct in view of their past. They had formerly deliberately
yielded to sin ("as slaves to impurity"). Now they needed to
deliberately present themselves as slaves to righteousness (cf.
vv. 13, 16). This would result in their progressive
sanctification.1 Paul personified "impurity," "lawlessness," and
"righteousness." Note again that progressive sanctification is
not totally passive or automatic. It requires some human
action.
"… what we most earnestly assert is that not only

Paul here, but our Lord Himself, and Scripture
generally, sets forth that only those that know the
truth and walk therein, are free."2
6:20 As an added incentive Paul reminded his readers that when

they had chosen the slavery to sin option in the past they did
not gain any moral righteousness. Again, he used
personification: "sin" and "righteousness." What Paul said
applied equally to their pre-conversion and post-conversion
experience.
6:21 His readers reaped no benefits from their slavery to sin. Shame
was its immediate result, and death was its final outcome.
1See Larry J. Waters, "Paradoxes in the Pauline Epistles," Bibliotheca Sacra 167:668
(October-December 2010):435-41.
2Newell, p. 242. Cf. John 8:31-32, 34, 36.
6:22 Now, in contrast, they were free from sin's tyranny because of
their union with Christ. If they presented themselves as slaves
to God voluntarily they could anticipate the benefit of
progressive sanctification (holiness) and the outcome of
eternal life (cf. John 10:10; 17:3). Scripture speaks of eternal
life as both the immediate and the ultimate product of
progressive sanctification. Quality of life is involved as well as
quantity.
6:23 Paul brought his thoughts on this subject to a summary

conclusion in this verse. The principle stated here is applicable
to all people, believers and unbelievers. It contrasts the
masters, sin and God, with the outcomes, death and eternal
life. Paul also distinguished the means whereby death and life
come to people: Death is the wages that a person earns by his
or her working, but eternal life is a gift that is free to those
who rely on the work of Another.
Wages normally maintain life, but the wages of sin result in

death. Employers usually pay wages out regularly and
periodically rather than in a lump sum. Death also comes to the
sinner regularly and periodically during the sinner's lifetime, not
only when he or she dies. Furthermore wages are a right.
"Man has rights only in relation to sin, and these

rights become his judgment. When he throws
himself on God without claim, salvation comes to
him."1
Verses 15-23 teach truth by way of contrasts. Obedience to sin yields

unfruitfulness, shame, and death. Obedience to righteousness results in
progressive sanctification and the fullness (or abundance) of eternal life.
"The obedience of first commitment must be repeated in every

decision of any moral consequence so that it may increasingly
be an obedience which results in righteousness, a
1Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, s.v. "opsonion," by H. W. Heiland,

5(1967):592.
righteousness which results in sanctification, a sanctification

which results in eternal life."1
In chapter 6 Paul prescribed four steps designed to promote practical

sanctification: First, we must know certain facts about our union with
Christ, specifically that sin no longer possesses the dominating power over
the believer that it has over the unbeliever (vv. 3-10). Second, we must
consider these facts to be true of us personally (v. 11). Third, we must
present ourselves to God in dedication as His slaves to perform
righteousness (vv. 12-14). Fourth, we must obey God (vv. 15-23). If we
do not, we will find ourselves falling back under the domination of sin in our
lives and becoming its slaves once again. Each of these verbs has the force
of an active command. Each represents something every believer should
do. These are our basic responsibilities in our progressive sanctification
regarding our relationship to sin.2
Christians over the years have understood the role of dedication in practical
sanctification in several different ways: First, some believe that when a
Christian experiences a second work of grace in his or her life (a "second
blessing" or a spiritual crisis), he or she rises to new heights of holiness
from which he or she never falls. This is the sinless perfection view.
Second, some believe that when a Christian truly dedicates himself or

herself to God, he or she rises to a level of holiness from which he or she
never falls. This is not sinless perfection, but a higher level of holiness than
those who do not dedicate themselves to God experience. This teaching
has been popularized by the Keswick movement.3
Third, some believe that dedication to God is a good idea but not very
important, because Christians struggle with sin all their lives. This is a rather
fatalistic view that does not give enough credit to the transforming power
of the Holy Spirit.
Fourth, some believe that unless a person dedicates himself or herself to

God, or at least is willing to do so, he or she cannot be saved. This view
confuses the requirement for justification (faith) with the requirement for
discipleship (obedience) by mixing them together. Ideally, dedication should
1Dunn, p. 357.
2See Chafer, Systematic Theology, 2:351-54.
3See Evan H. Hopkins, The Law of Liberty in the Spiritual Life.
accompany saving faith, but it does not need to do so for a person to be

saved.
Fifth, some believe that dedicating oneself to God once is all that is
necessary in order to live a consistently upright life. This view often
interprets the aorist tense of the Greek verb, translated "present" in 6:13
and 12:1, as meaning "present once and for all."
Sixth, some believe that, in view of repeated lapses in the Christian's

dedication, repeated dedications are helpful to make progress in Christian
growth. The aorist tense also means to present in an act of decisive
dedication, and it allows for rededications.
I favor the last view. Of course, there are other views, and various
combinations of these six, but I believe these are some of the most
common views within evangelicalism.
B. THE BELIEVER'S RELATIONSHIP TO THE LAW CH. 7
Having explained that we are now under grace (ch. 6), Paul explained that
we are not under the Mosaic Law (ch. 7; cf. 6:15). He followed a similar
pattern as he unpacked his revelation in this chapter like he did in the
former one. He began chapter 6 by explaining that we are no longer the
slaves of sin because of our union with Christ (6:1-14). He then warned us
that we can, nevertheless, become slaves of sin if we yield to it (6:15-23).
In chapter 7 he explained that we are no longer under obligation to keep
the Mosaic Law because of our union with Christ (7:1-6). He then warned
us that we can become slaves to our flesh, nonetheless, if we put ourselves
under the Law (7:7-25).
Paul needed to explain the believer's relationship to the Law because of

people's natural tendency to view keeping laws as a means of making
progress, even progress in sanctification. The apostle had already shown
that the Law has no value in justification (3:20). Now he spoke of it in
relation to progressive sanctification. If believers are not under the Mosaic
Law (6:14), what is our relationship to it?
"Something in human nature makes us want to go to extremes,

a weakness from which Christians are not wholly free. 'Since
we are saved by grace,' some argue, 'we are free to live as we
please,' which is the extreme of license. 'But we cannot ignore
God's Law,' others argue. 'We are saved by grace, to be sure;

but we must live under Law if we are to please God.' This is
the extreme expression of legalism. Paul answered the first
group in Romans 6; the second group he answered in Romans
7. The word law is used twenty-three times in this chapter. In
Romans 6, Paul told us how to stop doing bad things; in
Romans 7 he told how not to do good things."1
McGee titled verses 1 through 14 "the shackles of a saved soul," and verses
15 through 25 "the struggle of a saved soul."2
1. The Law's authority 7:1-6
7:1 For the first time since 1:13 Paul addressed his readers as
"brothers."
"Comparing the other seven instances in which

this address is used, it is easily seen that it always
marks some special concern on Paul's part,
sometimes in connection with a fervent
admonition, sometimes in connection with a
subject that is close to Paul's heart, which he feels
it necessary to impress upon his hearers beyond
other subjects. The latter is the case here where
he comes to speak with regard to our deliverance
from law."3
"Those who know the Law"—the article "the" before "Law" is

absent in the Greek text—were Paul's Roman readers. They
lived in the capital of the empire where officials debated,
enacted, and enforced laws. They of all people were very
familiar with law and legal matters. But it is the acquaintance
of these Roman believers with Old Testament law that was
probably in Paul's mind.4
1Wiersbe, 1:534. Paragraph divisions omitted.

2McGee, 4:688.
3Lenski, pp. 442-43.
4Cranfield, 1:333; Barrett, p. 135.
The Romans would not have argued with Paul that law has
authority only over living people. We can anticipate where Paul
would go with his argument, since he earlier explained the
believer's death with Christ. Since we have died with Christ,
law has no authority over us (cf. 6:14).
"It is a general principle of the law that death

cancels engagements."1
7:2-3 These verses illustrate the truth of the principle stated in verse
1. The law binds a wife to her husband. Paul's example was
especially true in Jewish life, where the Mosaic Law did not
permit a woman to divorce her husband. In the illustration, the
wife represents the believer, and the husband represents the
Law. A married woman is no longer a wife if her husband dies,
so she is free as a woman to marry again.
"As a woman whose husband has died is free to

marry another, so also are believers, since they
have died to the law, free to belong to Christ."2
7:4 "Therefore" introduces an application of the illustration to the

readers. The believer was not "put to death in regard to the
Law" (i.e., freed from its binding authority) because the Law
died, but because he or she died with Christ. Believers have
died to the Mosaic Law (Torah, lit. instruction), not to the Old
Testament. The Old Testament is still authoritative revelation
for the Christian. But the relationship that once existed
between the Old Testament believer and the Mosaic Law no
longer exists for the Christian. The "body of Christ" is the
literal body that died on the cross. Paul viewed Jesus again as
our representative, as he did in 5:12-21 and chapter 6, rather
than as our substitute, as he did in 3:25. Since we died with
Christ, we no longer have to live according to the commands
of the Mosaic Law.
Every believer not only died with Christ but also arose with Him
(6:14). Thus God has joined us to Christ in both His death and
1Lightfoot, p. 300.
2Mounce, p. 160.
resurrection. The phrase "might belong to another" does not

imply that our union is only a possibility. God did unite us with
Christ (6:5). The result of our union should be fruit for God (cf.
John 15:1-6; Gal. 5:22-23).
7:5 This is the first use of the term "the flesh" in the ethical sense
in Romans. As mentioned previously the flesh, used
metaphorically, often refers to our human nature, which is
sinful. The NIV translators interpreted it properly as "sinful
nature." The description itself does not indicate whether the
people in view are saved or unsaved, since both groups have
"the flesh" and live by employing it. Here the context suggests
that Paul had pre-conversion days in mind in this verse. Just as
union with Christ can bear fruit for God (v. 4), so can life in the
flesh can bear fruit for death. The Law aroused sinful passions
by prohibiting them. Forbidden fruit is the sweetest kind in the
mouth, but it often produces a stomachache (cf. Gen. 3).
7:6 Paul summarized verses 1-5 here. Believers died to the Law
just as we died to sin (6:6). The same Greek word translated
died (katargeo) occurs in both verses. Christ's death as our
representative changed (lit. rendered idle) our relationship to
both entities. It is as though God shifted the transmissions of
our lives into neutral gear. Now something else drives our lives,
namely, the Holy Spirit. Sin and the Law no longer drive us
forward, though we can engage those powers (gears) if we
choose to do so and take back control of our lives from God.
"The Christian life turns [operates] on an

inspiration from above, not on an elaborate code
of commands and prohibitions."1
The contrast between "the Spirit" and "the letter" raises a

question about whether Paul meant the Holy Spirit or the spirit
of the Law (cf. 2:27-29). Both meanings fit his argument, so
he could have intended either one or both. The definite article
the is not in the Greek text. On the one hand, "the spirit" of
the Mosaic Law, restated by Christ and the apostles, is what

we are responsible to obey (6:13-19), rather than the letter

of the Mosaic Law.
On the other hand, we serve with the enablement of the

indwelling Holy Spirit, which most Old Testament believers did
not possess.1 The Greek word translated "newness" (kainoteti)
suggests something fresh rather than something recent. Our
service is more recent, but Paul stressed the superiority,
freshness, and vitality of the believer's relationship to God,
having experienced union with Christ.
Perhaps the Holy Spirit was Paul's primary referent, since he

developed the ministry of the Holy Spirit in the believer's life
in chapter 8. But "spirit" and "flesh" probably refer to the new
and old covenants respectively.2 The verse, of course, is saying
nothing about the non-literal, as contrasted with the literal,
interpretation of Scripture.
Paul did not say: We have been released from the ceremonial
part of the Law—as opposed to the whole Law. The Mosaic
Law was a unified code that contained moral, religious, and civil
regulations that regulated the entire life of the Israelites (Exod.
20—Num. 10). God has terminated the whole code as a
regulator of Christians' lives (cf. 10:4).
Christians have received a new code that Paul called "the Law
of Christ" (Gal. 6:2). It contains some of the same
commandments as the old Mosaic Code, including nine of the
Ten Commandments. The only one that Jesus did not carry
over was the fourth commandment about Sabbath
observance. Even though it repeats nine of the Ten
Commandments, the Law of Christ is nevertheless a new code.
Thus Paul could say that God has released us from the Law of
Moses. The Law of Christ consists of the teachings of Jesus
Christ that He communicated during His earthly ministry that
are in the New Testament. It also consists of teachings that
He gave through His apostles and prophets following His
1See Leon Wood, The Holy Spirit in the Old Testament.

2Moo, p. 421.
ascension to heaven.1 This is one of several passages that

reveal that Christians have no obligation to keep the Law of
Moses (cf. 10:4; 14:17; Mark 7:18-19; John 1:17; Acts 10:10-
15; 1 Cor. 8:8; 2 Cor. 3:7-11; Heb. 7:12; 9:10; Gal. 3:24; 4:9-
11; 5:1).2
2. The Law's activity 7:7-12
Paul wrote that the believer is dead to both sin (6:2) and the Law (7:4).
Are they in some sense the same? The answer is no (v. 7). The apostle
referred to the relationship between sin and the Law in verse 5, but now
he developed it more fully. Essentially his argument was that the Law is not
sinful simply because it makes us aware of what is sinful (cf. 3:20). The
Law is similar to an X-ray machine that reveals a tumor. The machine itself
is not bad because it reveals something bad.
The apostle probably appealed to his own personal experience in what

follows. The main alternative views are that he was speaking of Adam's
experience, Israel's experience, or the experience of every man.3 Paul
broadened his own experience into a more general picture of the struggle
that every person faces (vv. 7-13) and the struggle that every believer
encounters when he or she tries to serve God by obeying the Law (vv. 14-
25).
"It is the Apostle's spiritual history, but universalized …"4
Others hold that Paul was describing only the experience of an unbeliever.
Discussion of these views will follow. Every believer, particularly, feels
frustrated by the operation of his or her sinful human nature.
"Before beginning the study of this great struggle of Paul's, let

us get it settled firmly in our minds that Paul is here exercised
not at all about pardon, but about deliverance: 'Who shall
deliver me from this body of death?' The whole question is
1See Charles C. Ryrie, "The End of the Law," Bibliotheca Sacra 124:495 (July-September
1967):239-47.
2See John F. Hart, "Released From the Law for Sanctification: A Dispensational Perspective
on Romans 7:6," in Dispensationalism Tomorrow & Beyond, pp. 397-417.

3See Moo, pp. 425-31, and Cranfield, 1:342-47, for explanations of these other views.
4Denney, 2:639.
concerning indwelling sin, as a power; and not committed sins,

as a danger."1
"He gives a picture of all men under law in order to show why
death to law is a part of the Gospel."2
7:7 Paul's example of the Law, the tenth commandment, clarifies

that by "the Law" he was not referring to the whole Old
Testament. He meant the Mosaic Law and particularly the
moral part of it, namely, the Ten Commandments. Reformed
theologians like to distinguish the moral from the ceremonial
parts of the Mosaic Law at this point. Many of them contend
that God has only terminated the ceremonial part of the Law.3
Here, however, Paul, arguing that the Christian is dead to the
Law, used one of the Ten Commandments as an example of
the Law. He was not saying, of course, that immoral behavior
is all right for the Christian (cf. 8:4).
Paul's use of "sin" in this paragraph shows that he was thinking

of sin as a force within everyone: our sinful human nature. He
was not thinking of an act of sin. It is that force, or sin principle,
that the Law's prohibitions and requirements arouse. The basic
meaning of the Greek word translated sin (hamartia) is "falling
short." We see that we fall short of what God requires when
we become aware of His laws.
"The Law is a mirror that reveals the inner man

and shows us how dirty we are (James 1:22-
25)."4
The demands of the Law—in this case, "You shall not covet"—
make us consciously aware of ("come to know") our sin.
Probably Paul selected the tenth commandment for his
illustration because it deals with desires (i.e., illicit desires of
every kind). Our desires are the roots of our actions. The tenth
commandment is also the most convicting commandment.
1Newell, p. 261.
2GriffithThomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 186.
3E.g., Calvin, 2:458-60.
4Wiersbe, 1:535.
Everyone who is honest would have to admit that he or she

has broken it.
7:8 One illustration of what Paul had in mind here is the story of
the temptation and Fall in Genesis 3. Whenever someone
establishes a law prohibiting something, the natural tendency
of people is to resist it. If you tell a small child: Don't do such-
and-such, you may create a desire within him or her to do it, a
desire that was not there before. The Law is a catalyst that
aids and even initiates the action of sin in us.1
"Suppose a man determined to drive his

automobile to the very limit of its speed. If …
signs along the road would say, No Speed Limit,
the man's only thought would be to press his
machine forward. But now suddenly he encounters
a road with frequent signs limiting speed to thirty
miles an hour. The man's will rebels, and his
rebellion is aroused still further by threats: Speed
Limit Strictly Enforced. Now the man drives on
fiercely, conscious both of his desire to 'speed,'
and his rebellion against restraint. The speed limit
signs did not create the wild desire to rush
forward: that was there before. But the notices
brought the man into conscious conflict with
authority."2
The word coveting covers a wide range of appetites, not just

sexual desires, which the AV translation "lust" (and
"concupiscence," v. 8) implies. "Dead" here (v. 8) means
dormant or inactive, but not completely impotent, as is clear
from verse 9 where this "dead" sin springs to life. The absence
of the verb before dead in the Greek text indicates that what
Paul was saying was a generalization rather than a specific
historical allusion.
7:9 Paul was relatively "alive apart from the Law." No one is ever
completely unrelated to or unaffected by it. However, in his
1Barrett, p. 141.
2Newell, pp. 265-66. Cf. Barclay, p. 99.
past, Paul had lived unaware of the Law's true demands and
was therefore self-righteous (cf. Phil. 3:6). His pre-conversion
struggles were mainly intellectual (e.g., Was Jesus the
Messiah?) rather than moral.
"Saul of Tarsus could have headed the Spanish

Inquisition, and have had no qualms of
conscience!"1
When the commandment entered Paul's consciousness, it

aroused sin, and he died, in the sense that he became aware
of his spiritual deadness. This is true of everyone. Paul was not
speaking of His union with Christ in death here but of his
moment of recognition of his unsaved condition.
"Sin at first is there, but dormant; not until it has

the help of the Law does it become an active
power of mischief."2
7:10 The original intent of the Law (for Old Testament believers to
whom it was given) was to bring people blessing ("life") as
they obeyed it (Lev. 18:5). Nevertheless because Paul did not
obey it, he found that it condemned him.
"… it seems fair to conclude that the law would

have given life had it been perfectly obeyed."3
7:11 Paul personified sin as an actor here. Sin plays the part of a
tempter. It deceived Paul and killed (destroyed) him (cf. Gen.
3:13). Paul's sinful nature urged him to do the very thing the
commandment forbade. This is what sin does to all people.
"So throughout the ages sin makes a double

promise to her victims; first, that no evil
consequences will ensue; secondly, that their view
1Newell, p. 268.
3Moo, p. 439.
of life will be enlarged and that on this increased

knowledge will follow increased happiness."1
"Ever since Adam ate forbidden fruit, we have all

been fond of forbidden paths."2
"As the new Christian grows, he comes into

contact with various philosophies of the Christian
life. He can read books, attend seminars, listen to
tapes, and get a great deal of information. If he is
not careful, he will start following a human leader
and accept his teachings as Law. This practice is
a very subtle form of legalism, and it kills spiritual
growth. No human teacher can take the place of
Christ; no book can take the place of the Bible.
Men can give us information, but only the Spirit
can give us illumination and help us understand
spiritual truths. The Spirit enlightens us and
enables us; no human leader can do that."3
7:12 Here is a concluding reaffirmation of the answer to Paul's

question in verse 7. Far from being sinful, the Law is holy. It
comes from a holy God and searches out sin. It is righteous
because it lays just requirements on people and because it
forbids and condemns sin. It is good because its purpose is to
produce blessing and life (v. 10).4
3. The Law's inability 7:13-25
In verses 13-25 Paul continued to describe his personal struggle with sin
but with mounting intensity. The forces of external Law and internal sin
(i.e., his sinful nature) conflicted. He found no deliverance from this conflict
except through the Lord Jesus Christ (v. 25). Many students of this
passage, including myself, believe that what Paul was describing here was
his own personal struggle as a Christian to obey the Law and so overcome
1Lightfoot,p. 303.
2Henry,p. 1769.
3Wiersbe, 1:536.
4See Adeyemi, pp. 55-57.
the promptings of his sinful nature (his flesh) to disobey it.1 The present
tenses in his testimony support this view. Without God's help he could not
succeed. I will say more in defense of this view later. However, what he
wrote here is not the normal or necessary Christian experience. What is
normal and necessary for a Christian is to obey God, since the Holy Spirit
leads, motivates, and enables us. Disobedience is, in this sense, abnormal
Christian conduct.
7:13 Paul next explained the Law's relationship to death. The

responsibility for death belongs to sin, not the Law (cf. 6:23).
Sin's use of something good, the Law, to bring about
something bad, death, shows the utter sinfulness of sin (cf.
Gen. 3:1).
7:14 As a foundation for what follows the apostle reminded his

readers that all the godly ("we") know that the Law is spiritual
(Gr. pneumatikos; cf. 1 Cor. 3:1). It came from God (cf. vv. 22,
25); it was Holy Spirit-given.2 Paul did not want his readers to
understand what he was going to say about the Law as a
criticism of the God who gave it.
In contrast to the good Law Paul was fleshly (Gr. sarkinos,

made of flesh; cf. 1 Cor. 3:1). People are essentially different
from the Law because we have a sinful nature, whereas the
Law itself is sinless. Therefore there is a basic antagonism
between people and the Law.
"'Sold under sin' is exactly what the new convert

does not know! Forgiven, justified, he knows
himself to be: and he has the joy of it! But now to
find an evil nature, of which he had never become
really conscious, and of which he thought himself
fully rid, when he first believed, is a 'second
lesson' which is often more bitter than the first—
of guilt!"3
1Cf. John F. Hart, "Paul as Weak in Faith in Romans 7:7-25," Bibliotheca Sacra 170:679
(July-September 2013):317-43.
3Newell, p 272.
Paul's statement that he was even now as a Christian the slave

of sin may seem to contradict what he wrote earlier in chapter
6 about no longer being the slave of sin. The phrase "sold into
bondage to sin" is proof to many interpreters that Paul was
describing a non-Christian here. However in chapter 6 Paul did
not say that considering oneself dead to sin means that sin
has lost its appeal for the Christian. It still has a strong appeal
to every Christian because our human nature is still sinful
(6:15-23). He said that considering oneself dead to sin means
that we no longer must follow sin's dictates.
In one sense the Christian is not a slave of sin (6:1-14). We

have died to it through Christ, and it no longer dominates us.
Nevertheless in another sense sin still has a strong attraction
for us, since our basic human nature is still sinful, and we retain
that nature throughout our lifetime. For example, a criminal
released from prison no longer has to live within the sphere of
existence prescribed by prison walls. However, he still has to
live within the confines of his human limitations. God has
liberated Christians from the prison house of sin (6:1-14). Even
so, we still carry with us a sinful nature that will be a source of
temptation for us as long as we live (7:14-25).
In order to minimize the difficulty of grasping this distinction

Paul used different expressions to describe the two
relationships. In chapter 6 he used "slaves," but in chapter 7
he wrote "sold" (v. 14). In chapter 6 he spoke of the
relationship of the new man in Christ (the whole person, the
Christian) to sin. In chapter 7 he spoke of the relationship of
the old nature (a part of every person, including the new man
in Christ) to sin. Adam sold all human beings into bondage to
sin when he sinned (5:12, 14).
"We take it then that Paul is here describing the

Christian as carnal and implying that even in him
there remains, so long as he continues to live this
mortal life, that which is radically opposed to God
(cf. 8.7), though chapter 8 will make it abundantly
clear that he does not regard the Christian as
being carnal in the same unqualified way that the

natural man is carnal."1
7:15 Paul's sinful human nature influenced him to such an extent

that he found himself volitionally doing (with approval) the
very things that he despised intellectually. This caused him to
marvel. All Christians can identify with him in this irony.
7:16 The apostle's attitude toward the Law was not the reason for
his dilemma, since he admitted that the Law is good.
7:17 Rather, his problem was traceable to the sin that dwelled within
him, namely, his sinful human nature. Paul was not trying to
escape responsibility, but he was identifying the source of his
sin: his sinful nature. "I" describes the new man that Paul had
become at his conversion (Gal. 2:20): his true self.2 Viewed as
a whole person, he was dead to sin. Nevertheless, the source
of sin within him was specifically his sinful human nature, which
was still very much alive.
It comes as a terrible discovery for a new believer, or an

untaught believer, to realize that their problem with sin is
complex. We are sinners, not only because we commit acts of
sin (ch. 3), but because, as descendants of Adam, we are born
in sin (ch. 5). We are also sinners because we possess a nature
that is thoroughly sinful (ch. 7). Jesus Christ paid the penalty
for acts of sin, He removed the punishment of original sin, and
He enables us to overcome the power of innate sin.
7:18 "In general, we may say that in verses 14-17, the

emphasis is upon the practicing what is hated,—
that is, the inability to overcome evil in the flesh;
while in verses 18-21, the emphasis is upon the
failure to do the desired good,—the inability, on
account of the flesh, to do right. Thus the double
failure of a quickened man either to overcome evil
1Cranfield, 1:357. Cf. 1 Cor. 2:14—3:3.

2Vine, p. 106.
or to accomplish good—is set forth. There must

come in help from outside, beyond himself!"1
By "good does not dwell in me" Paul meant that sin had
thoroughly corrupted his nature ("my flesh"). Even though he
was a Christian he was still a totally depraved sinner (3:10-18,
23). He knew what he should do, but he did not always do it.
"Total depravity" refers to the fact that sin has affected every
aspect of a person. It does not mean that people are
necessarily as bad as they could be.
7:19-20 These verses restate the idea of verses 15 and 17

respectively. Paul evidently repeated these ideas in order to
heighten our appreciation of the frustration that he felt. He
also wanted to emphasize the importance of this principle and
to help believers identify personally with his experience.
7:21 The statement of this "principle" or law summarizes Paul's

thought.2 Here, when Paul wrote "me," he meant his better
self, his true personality, the one who wants to do good.3
Six 'laws' are to be differentiated in Romans: (1)

the law of Moses, which condemns (3:19); (2) law
as a principle (3:21); (3) the law of faith, which
excludes self-righteousness (3:27); (4) the law of
sin in the members, which is victorious over the
law of the mind (7:21, 23, 25); (5) the law of the
mind, which consents to the law of Moses but
cannot do it because of the law of sin in the
members (7:16, 23); and (6) the law of the Spirit,
having power to deliver the believer from the law
of sin which is in his members, and his conscience
from condemnation by the Mosaic law. Moreover
the Spirit works in the yielded Christian the very
righteousness which Moses' law requires (8:2,
4)."4
1Newell,p. 270. Paragraph division omitted.

2See Saucy, "'Sinners' Who …," pp. 405-11.
3Lightfoot, p. 304.
4The New Scofield …, p. 1220.
7:22-23 Intellectually Paul knew that he should obey the Mosaic Law (v.
22), but morally he found himself in rebellion against what he
knew was right (v. 23).
"In the light of 8:7-8 it is difficult to view the

speaker here [in v. 22] as other than a believer."1
This natural rebelliousness was something he could not rid

himself of. Perhaps Paul used the term "law of the mind" (v.
23) because the mind has the capacity to perceive and make
moral judgments.2
"It is because people do not recognize their all-

badness that they do not find Christ all in all to
them."3
Happily, Paul explained in chapter 8 that someone with infinite

power can enable us to control and overcome our
rebelliousness.
7:24 The agony of this tension, and our inability to rid ourselves of
our sinful nature that urges us to do things that lead to death,
come out even more strongly here ("Wretched man that I
am!"). What Christian has not felt the guilt and pain of doing
things that he or she knows are wrong?4 We will never escape
this battle with temptation in this life. Eugene Peterson recast
Paul's thought in this verse as follows:
"I've tried everything and nothing helps. I'm at the

end of my rope. Is there no one who can do
anything for me?"5
"Here certainly Paul speaks for himself, and not

merely as a spokesperson for humanity at large;
this is not the stylized formulation of one who is
long since removed from the situation in question.
1Bruce, p. 146.
2Witmer, p. 468.
3Newell, p. 278.
4See Toussaint, "Suffering in …," p. 193.
5Eugene H. Peterson, The Message, p. 317.
The one who cries for help so piteously cries from

within the contradiction; he longs for deliverance
from the endless war and frequent defeat."1
"It was Alfred Lord Tennyson who wrote, 'Oh! that

a man would arise in me / that the man I am may
cease to be.'"2
John Wesley taught that it is possible and important for a

Christian to attain freedom from rebellion against God through
a crisis second work of grace by faith.3 Wesleyan scholar Melvin
E. Dieter described Wesley's position as follows:
"There was a remedy for the sickness of systemic

sinfulness, namely, entire sanctification—a
personal, definitive work of God's sanctifying
grace by which the war within oneself might cease
and the heart be fully released from rebellion into
wholehearted love for God and others."4
"In the Church of the Nazarene, the Salvation

Army, the Pilgrim Holiness Church, the Wesleyan
Methodist Church (the latter two now merged into
the Wesleyan Church), the Free Methodist church,
the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), and many
related smaller religious bodies, the Wesleyan
doctrine of sanctification found its major
expression within the Methodist tradition after the
turn of the nineteenth century."5
The Wesleyan doctrine of entire sanctification should not be

understood as synonymous with sinless perfection. Wesleyans
believe that Christians can and do sin. "Entire sanctification,"
1Dunn, p. 410.
2Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 121. The quotation is from Alfred Lord Tennyson,
"Maud: a Monodrama,' pt. 1, sec. 10, stanza 5 (1855).
3Melvin E. Dieter, "The Wesleyan Perspective," in Five Views on Sanctification, p. 19.
4Ibid., p. 17.
5Ibid., p. 39.
for Wesleyans includes freedom from original sin and willful

rebellion but not freedom from all sin.1
Holiness Pentecostals also hold to a second blessing that

supposedly elevates the Christian to a higher level of
spirituality. Non-holiness Pentecostals, including the
Assemblies of God, reject a second work of grace and hold to
progressive sanctification.2 The Keswick movement has
advocated a similar higher level of spirituality from which one
may not fall, not through a second blessing, but from
wholehearted consecration to the Lord.3
If such second levels of spirituality were possible, the Apostle

Paul evidently knew nothing of them. He made no mention of
them in his writings nor did any of the other New Testament
writers. Of course advocates of these doctrines believe that
they have scriptural authority and cite biblical support, but
there are better explanations of these texts.
7:25 The solution to this dilemma is not escape from temptation,

but victory over it "through Jesus Christ our Lord."
"This thanksgiving comes out of place. But St Paul

cannot endure to leave the difficulty unsolved; he
cannot consent to abandon his imaginary self to
the depths of this despair. Thus he gives the
solution parenthetically, though at the cost of
interrupting his argument."4
"The source of Paul's wretchedness is clear. It is

not a 'divided self' [i.e., old nature versus new
nature], but the fact that the last hope of
mankind, religion, has proven to be a broken reed.
Through sin it is no longer a comfort but an
1Ibid,pp. 13-15, 21-25.

2Stanley M. Horton, "The Pentecostal Perspective," in Five View on Sanctification, p. 134.
3See J. Robertson McQuilkin, "The Keswick Perspective," in Five Views on Sanctification,
pp. 151-83.
4Lightfoot, p. 305.
accusation. Man needs not a law but

deliverance."1
"If it were not for Christ, this iniquity that dwells

in us would certainly be our ruin."2
"When we give up, he takes up."3
The last part of this verse is another summary. "I myself"

contrasts with "Jesus Christ." Apparently Paul wanted to state
again the essence of the struggle that he had just described
in order to prepare his readers for the grand deliverance that
he expounded in the next chapter.
There are two problems involving the interpretation of chapter 7 that merit
additional attention. The first is this: Was Paul relating his own unique
experience, or was he offering his own struggle as an example of something
everyone experiences? Our experience would lead us to prefer the latter
alternative, and the text supports it. Certainly Paul must have undergone
this struggle, since he said he did. However, every human being does as
well, because we all possess some knowledge of the law of God—at least
by natural (general) revelation if not through special revelation or the
Mosaic Law—as well as a sinful human nature.
The second question is this: Does the struggle that Paul described in verses
14-25 picture the experience of an unsaved person or a Christian?
Arguments for the unsaved view
Pro Con
1. This was the most popular Other views held by the fathers
view among the early church have since proved false.
fathers.
2. The terminology "fleshly" or These are appropriate terms to use

unspiritual, and "sold into in describing the Christian's
bondage to sin" or sold as a
1Barrett,
p. 151.
2Henry,p. 1770.
slave to sin (v. 14) fits an relationship to his or her sinful

unbeliever better than a human nature.
Christian.
3. If 7:14-25 describes Two different relationships of the

Christians, it conflicts with Christian are in view in these two
how Paul described them in passages: In chapter 6 our
6:3. relationship to sin is in view, but in
chapter 7 it is our relationship to
our human nature that is in view.
4. 8:1 marks a change from 8:1 marks a transition from the

dealing with the unsaved to domination of the sinful human
the saved condition. nature to deliverance through Jesus
Christ.
5. The absence of references to Paul's argument did not require

the Holy Spirit and Jesus these references since the conflict
Christ, except in v. 25, shows in view is between the Law and the
that an unsaved person is in flesh (human nature).
view here.
Arguments for the saved view
Pro Con
1. Augustine and the Reformers Older support by the church fathers

held this view. favors the other view.
2. The change from past tense Paul used the present tense in
in 7:7-13 to present tense in verses 14-25 for vividness of
7:14-25 indicates that verses expression.
14-25 describe Paul's post-
conversion experience.
3. If Paul described his pre- In Philippians 3 Paul described his

Christian life here, he standing before other people, but
contradicted what he said of here he described his relationship to
it in Philippians 3:6. God.
4. The argument of the epistle In chapter 6 Paul also referred to

proceeds from justification pre-conversion experience (vv. 6,
(chs. 3—5) to sanctification 8).
(chs. 6—8).
5. The conflict is true to It is only apparently characteristic

Christian experience. of Christian experience since the
Christian is dead to sin.
6. The last part of verse 25 The end of verse 25 is only a final

implies that this conflict summary statement.
continues after one
acknowledges that
deliverance comes through
Jesus Christ.
As mentioned previously, I believe the evidence for the saved view is

stronger, as do many others.1
The conflict described in verses 13-25 is not the same one that Paul
presented in Galatians 5:16-23. The opponent of the sinful human nature
in Romans 7 is the whole Christian individual who wants to be obedient, but
in Galatians 5 the opponent of the sinful human nature is the Holy Spirit.
The condition of the believer in Romans is under the Law, but in Galatians
it is under Law or grace. The result of the conflict in Romans is inevitable
defeat, but in Galatians it is defeat or victory. The nature of the conflict in
1E.g., Calvin, 2:2:27; Henry, p. 1769; R. Jamieson, A. R. Fausset, and D. Brown,

Commentary Practical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible, pp. 1157-58; Gaebelein,
3:2:44; Vine, pp. 105-9; Lenski, pp. 439-40; MacArthur, pp. 123-38; Cranfield, 1:365-70;
Witmer, p. 467; Bruce, pp. 140-47; Wuest, 4:1:63; McGee, 4:692-94. Moo, pp. 442-51,
has a good discussion of the problem, but he concluded that Paul was describing his own
experience as a typical unregenerate Israelite, as did Anthony A. Hoekema, "Response to
Walvoord," in Five Views on Sanctification, p 232. G. Campbell Morgan, An Exposition of
the Whole Bible, p. 464, believed that Paul was describing his experience before his
conversion. For another interpretation, see Walt Russell, "Insights from Postmodernism's
Emphasis on Interpretive Communities in the Interpretation of Romans 7," Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 37:4 (December 1994):511-27.
Romans is abnormal Christian experience, but in Galatians it is normal

Christian experience.1
This chapter is very important for several reasons. It corrects the popular
idea that our struggle with sin is only against specific sins and habits
whereas it is also against our basic human nature. Second, it shows that
human nature is not essentially good but bad. Third, it argues that
progressive sanctification does not come by obeying laws, which is a form
of legalism called nomism, but it comes apart from law. It also proves that
doing right requires more than just determining to do it. All of these insights
are necessary in order for us to appreciate what Paul proceeded to explain
in chapter 8.
Related to the question of the believer's relationship to the law is the

subject of legalism.
"Legalism is that fleshly attitude which conforms to a code in

order to glorify self. It is not the code itself. Neither is it
participation or nonparticipation [in activities]. It is the
attitude with which we approach the standards of the code
and ultimately the God who authored it."2
Legalism also involves judging the behavior of ourselves, or others, as

acceptable or unacceptable to God by the standard of obedience to laws
that we, rather than God, have imposed. Someone else has defined legalism
(really nomism) as the belief that I can obtain justification and/or
sanctification simply by obeying rules.
SOME RESULTS OF CHRISTIANS' UNION WITH CHRIST IN ROMANS 6 AND 7
Chapter Six Seven
Subject The believer's relationship The believer's relationship

to sin to the Law
1See Stanley D. Toussaint, "The Contrast Between the Spiritual Conflict in Romans 7 and
Galatians 5," Bibliotheca Sacra 123:492 (October-December 1966):310-14; and Bruce,
p. 144.
2Charles C. Ryrie, The Grace of God, p. 120.
Our former Enslavement to sin (cf. Obligation to the Law (of

condition 6:1-11) Moses; cf. 7:1-6)
Our present No longer slaves of sin No longer obligated to

condition (cf. 6:12-14) keep the Law (cf. 7:7-12)
Our present Becoming slaves to sin by Becoming incapable of

danger yielding to it (cf. 6:15-18) overcoming the flesh by
trying to keep the Law (cf.
7:13-24)
Our present Present ourselves to God Trust and obey God who
responsibility and our members as His alone can enable us to
instruments (cf. 6:19-23) overcome the flesh (cf.
7:25ff)
C. THE BELIEVER'S RELATIONSHIP TO GOD CH. 8
"[Philipp] Spener is reported to have said that if holy Scripture

was a ring, and the Epistle to the Romans its precious stone,
chap. viii would be the sparkling point of the jewel."1
"It is undoubtedly the chapter of chapters for the life of the

believer …"2
As the fifth chapter climaxed Paul's revelation concerning the justification

of the sinner, so the eighth chapter culminates the truth concerning the
sanctification of the saint. Both chapters end by affirming the eternal
security of the believer. In chapter 5 our security depends on the Son's life,
and in chapter 8 it depends on the Spirit's power, both of which rest on
the Father's love. This chapter contains the greatest concentration of
references to the Holy Spirit in the New Testament—an average of one
reference almost every two verses. Whereas there are about 30
occurrences of "I" in chapter 7, there are 21 references to the Holy Spirit
in chapter 8. This chapter explains the benefits of sanctification made
1Godet, p. 295.
available through the presence and power of God's Holy Spirit who indwells
every believer.1
"Having dealt in sequence with the continuing impact of the

powers of sin and death in the life of the believer (chap. 6) and
then with the ambivalent role of the law, whether determined
by sin or by God (chap. 7), Paul returns to the conclusion
reached in chap. 5 in the same clear-cut terms already used in
6:4 and 7:5, but now with the focus narrowing to the other
factor (other than the death and resurrection of Christ), which
makes all the difference in the new age: the Spirit (pneuma,
21 times in chap. 8)."2
"It is altogether too narrow a view to see in this portion simply

the antidote to the wretched state pictured in chapter 7.
Actually the chapter gathers up various strands of thought
from the entire discussion of both justification and
sanctification and ties them together with the crowning knot
of glorification."3
Lewis Sperry Chafer called this chapter: "The consummating Scripture on

security."4
1. Our deliverance from the flesh by the power of the Spirit

8:1-11
Paul proceeded to state the believer's condition and then to explain it.
The statement of the believer's condition 8:1-4
8:1 "Therefore" introduces a conclusion based on everything that

Paul wrote from chapter 3 on, not just chapter 7. It continues
the thought that Paul broke off in 7:6.
1See Dillow, pp. 358-82.

2Dunn, p. 412.
3Harrison, p. 85.
4Lewis S. Chafer, "The Consummating Scripture on Security," Bibliotheca Sacra 175:698
(April-June 2018):131-44.
Paul reaffirmed justification as the indispensable basis for

sanctification.1 A Christian must believe that he or she has
permanent acceptance with God before he or she will grow
much in grace and godliness.
"Romans 3:20 shows the 'therefore' of

condemnation; but Romans 8:1 gives the
'therefore' of no condemnation …"2
No condemnation is different from no judgment (2 Cor. 5:10).

No condemnation (Gr. katakrima, penal servitude) means that
God will never condemn believers to an eternity separate from
Himself because of our sins. The reason is not that the believer
has been forgiven, which he has, but because he or she is "in
Christ Jesus." The Savior has suffered the judgment for our
sins as our Substitute. He will experience no condemnation,
and we, as those who are in Him, will not either. Note the
absolute force of this great promise. We are eternally secure!
"The Law condemns; but the believer has a new

relationship to the Law, and therefore he cannot
be condemned."3
James Stewart argued that the concept of being "in Christ"

(union with Him), rather than justification or election or
eschatology or any of the other apostolic themes, is the real
key to understanding Paul's thought and experience (cf. 6:11;
et al).4
8:2 Paul used "law" here in the sense of "principle" (cf. 7:23). He
was not referring to the Mosaic Law (cf. 7:21). These laws
refer to the certainty and regularity that characterize the
operations of the Spirit and sin. The Spirit's work that comes
1For three ways of interpreting the basis of no condemnation, see Chuck Lowe, "'There Is
No Condemnation' (Romans 8:1): But Why Not?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society 42:2 (June 1999):231-50.
2Wiersbe, 1:538.
3Ibid.
4James S. Stewart, A Man in Christ. See especially, pp. vii, 147.
to us because of faith in Jesus Christ leads to fullness of life,

but sin leads to death. Ultimate ends are again in view.
"Both the Spirit and sin and death are called the
law because of the constancy of their influence
and action."1
"The subject here is no longer Christ's work for us,

but the Spirit's work within us. Without the Spirit
within as a law of life, there would be nothing but
condemnation: for the new creature has no power
within himself apart from the blessed Spirit,—as
against a life of perpetual bondage to the flesh,—
'the end of which things is death' (6.21)."2
"… the Spirit brings life because it essentially is

life."3
The law of sin is like the law of gravity: it pulls us down. But
the law of the Spirit is like the law of aerodynamics: it
overcomes the law of sin, lifts us up, and enables us to be
victorious over the flesh.
So far in Romans (1:1—8:1), Paul only referred to the Holy

Spirit once (5:5), but in this chapter he mentions Him 21
times.
8:3 The Mosaic Law cannot set us free from sin and death (v. 2;
cf. ch. 7) because its only appeal is to the willpower of man. It
has to act through the flesh.4 It urges us intellectually to obey
God, but it does not provide sufficient power for obedience.
Fortunately God sent His own Son, out of the depths of His
love, to deal effectively with sin (cf. Heb. 10:1-10).
Paul referred to both the person and work of Christ in this

verse. Jesus Christ came in the likeness of sinful flesh (cf. Phil.
2Newell,p. 288.
4See Alford, 2:2:386.
2:7), but not in sinful flesh or in the likeness of flesh. He was

both sinless and a real human being.
"For sin," the literal Greek rendering, has a wider connotation

than "as an offering for sin" or "a sin offering," and it is the
better translation. The Law could not condemn sin. It could
only identify it. Consequently God sent His own Son to
condemn sin.
"The battle was joined and the triumph secured in

that same flesh which in us is the seat and agent
of sin."1
"For all that are Christ's both the damning and the
domineering power of sin is broken."2
"The 'law of double jeopardy' states that a man

cannot be tried twice for the same crime. Since
Jesus Christ paid the penalty for your sins, and
since you are 'in Christ,' God will not condemn
you."3
The law of double jeopardy is a universally recognized principle

of justice. It is unjust to punish two people for the same crime
unless, of course, more than one person was involved in
committing it.
8:4 Here the purpose of the Incarnation appears in the context of

the struggle of chapter 7. God fulfills the Law's requirement in
believers by His Spirit, who indwells and empowers us.
However, this is not automatic simply because He indwells us.
He fulfills this requirement (i.e., obedience) if and as we walk
according to the Spirit rather than walking according to the
flesh. Walking according to the Spirit means walking in
submission to and dependence on the Spirit (cf. Gal. 5:16).
Walking according to the flesh means behaving as the flesh
dictates and allowing our sinful nature to govern our lives.
1Murray,1:282.
2Henry,p. 1771.
3Wiersbe, 1:539.
"Walking in the flesh means that whatever a

person does, both good and bad, is done in
disregard to God."1
"'To walk according to the flesh,' then, is to have

one's life determined and directed by the values
of 'this world,' of the world in rebellion against
God. It is a lifestyle that is purely 'human' in its
orientation. To 'walk according to the Spirit,' on
the other hand, is to live under the control, and
according to the values, of the 'new age,' created
and dominated by God's Spirit as his
eschatological gift."2
"The law's requirement will be fulfilled by the

determination of the direction, the set, of our lives
by the Spirit, by our being enabled again and again
to decide for the Spirit and against the flesh, to
turn our backs more and more upon our own
insatiable egotism and to turn our faces more and
more toward the freedom which the Spirit of God
has given us."3
"To run and work the law commands,

Yet gives me neither feet nor hands;
But better news the gospel brings:
It bids me fly, and gives me wings."4
"The importance of these verses [1-4] lies in the fact that

they provide a summary of chs. v. to viii., and indicate in brief
but sufficient form the secrets of Christian holiness."5
1Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, pp. 150-51.

2Moo, p. 485. Cf. Kevin W. McFadden, "The Fulfillment of the Law's Dikaioma: Another
Look at Romans 8:1-4," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 52:3 (September
2009):483-97.
3Cranfield, 1:385.
4Writer unknown. Quoted in Bruce, p. 154.
The explanation of the believer's condition 8:5-11
"The antithesis of Flesh and Spirit is the subject of the next

section."1
8:5 Here Paul began to elaborate the difference between "flesh"

and "Spirit." This distinction is difficult to grasp because both
terms have more than one meaning. To "walk according to the
flesh" (v. 4) means to carry out in conduct what the sinful
human nature desires. To be "in accord with the flesh" (v. 5)
means to allow the human nature to dominate one's life. To be
"in the flesh" (v. 8) is to be unregenerate, to be devoid of the
Spirit.
The "Spirit" seems from the context to refer to the Holy Spirit
rather than to the regenerated spirit of man. Those who prefer
the second view tend to describe man as having two natures:
an old sinful one, and a new regenerated one (cf. Gal. 5:16-
17). In favor of the former view, the chapter began with a clear
reference to the Holy Spirit (v. 2). Additional following
references to spirit (Gr. pneuma) would therefore normally
refer to the same Holy Spirit. Furthermore, it is reasonable that
in identifying the basis for Christian victory, Paul would point
to the ultimate source, the Holy Spirit, rather than to a
secondary agent, our regenerated human spirit.
8:6 A mind set on following the flesh concentrates on and desires

the things of the flesh (cf. Phil. 2:5; Col. 3:2). The end of that
attitude is ultimately death. However, a mind set on yielding
to the Holy Spirit will experience life and peace. Peace with God
seems to be in view here. Yet whenever there is peace with
God, peace with other people normally follows.
"… this does not so much mean that a man living

after the flesh is without the life of God, as that
death is the end of this line of conduct, chap. vi.
23, Gal. vi. 8."2

2Denney, 2:646.
8:7-8 A mind set on the flesh is essentially hostile toward God. To

set one's mind on the flesh is contrary to God's law. Here the
law of God refers to God's law that humans are to obey Him.
"'Being in the flesh' may almost be defined as

'pleasing (not God but) oneself'."1
From the end of verse 7 to the end of verse 8 it seems clear

that Paul wanted "to expose the flesh in its stark reality as
being totally alien to God and his purpose."2 What interests a
person reveals his or her essential being. It is possible to walk
according to the flesh (vv. 4-5) and not to be in the flesh,
however. In other words, it is possible to live like an
unregenerate person even though one has experienced
regeneration.
Some expositors have concluded that verse 8 teaches that

regeneration precedes faith.3 However, Acts 16:31 says,
"Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved." In this text
faith precedes regeneration. The solution is probably that
these two things happen simultaneously.
8:9 "However" marks a contrast. Paul's readers were not in the

flesh (unregenerate). They were in the Spirit (regenerate).
They had the indwelling Holy Spirit. We could translate the first
"if" as "since" (first class condition in Greek) because here it
represents a condition that Paul assumed was true to reality
("since indeed the Spirit of God dwells in you"). Everyone who
trusts in Jesus Christ in the age in which we live possesses the
indwelling Holy Spirit (cf. Eph. 1:13; 1 Cor. 12:13).
"Here the great mark of a true Christian is, that

the Spirit of God dwells in him."4
1Barrett, p. 158.
2Harrison, p. 89.
3E.g., Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 128.
4Newell, p. 299.
"This teaches the doctrine of the Tri-unity of the

Godhead; for the Holy Spirit is both the Spirit of
God and the Spirit of Christ."1
This is one of the clearest statements in Scripture that

corrects the false notion that baptism with the Spirit is a
second work of grace for the Christian.
"Nowhere in Scripture do we find a clearer

indication that the Spirit enters a person's life at
the moment of conversion (cf. also 1 Cor 12:13).
If the Spirit needed to wait for some subsequent
commitment to holiness, it follows that he would
be absent between conversion and that later point
in time. But that cannot be because Paul clearly
indicated that a person without the Spirit does not
belong to Christ."2
There are a few instances in the Book of Acts where the Spirit
came on believers after they became Christians (Acts 2:4;
8:17; 10:44-45; 19:6). But these were exceptional occasions
in which the coming of the Spirit was dramatically given in
order to impress people with the Spirit's coming on Jews,
Samaritans, Gentiles, and John the Baptist's disciples.
8:10 "If" is again "Since." Christ is indeed in every believer even

though the believer will die because of sin (cf. vv. 9, 11; Eph.
3:16-17).
"The spirit" in this verse also probably refers to the Holy

Spirit.3 The context favors this interpretation, as does the
sense of the verse. "Alive" is literally "life" (cf. v. 2). The
meaning of the clause evidently is this: The Holy Spirit is the
source of spiritual life for the redeemed person who now
possesses Jesus Christ's imputed righteousness.
1Vine,p. 116.
2Mounce, pp. 178-79.
3See Sanday and Headlam, p. 197.
"… whenever you see a Christian living the

Christian life, you are witnessing a resurrection
miracle!"1
The "body" represents the whole person, not just his or her
physical shell. This was Paul's normal meaning when he used
this word.2 Here he meant by "is dead" that the body is mortal,
that it remains subject to death because of sin.
8:11 "The Spirit" in view is again God's Spirit. The point is that the
same Holy Spirit who raised Jesus will also raise ("give life to")
believers' mortal bodies.
"The Spirit is both the instrumental cause of the

resurrection-act and the permanent substratum
of the resurrection-life."3
"The link which connects the believer with Christ,

and makes him participate in Christ's resurrection,
is the possession of His Spirit (cp. I Thess. iv. 14
…)."4
This verse constitutes a powerful argument for the physical

resurrection of believers. It also contains the longest title of
the Holy Spirit in the New Testament ("the Spirit of Him who
raised Jesus from the dead").5
As noted above (6:6), sometimes Christians describe the change that has
taken place in believers, when they trusted in Christ, as having received a
new nature. The idea is that unbelievers have an old unregenerate nature,
and that Christians now have two natures: the old nature and a new nature.
Sometimes these two natures are seen warring against each other, like two
lion cubs within the believer.
1Zane Hodges, "The Death/Life Option," Grace Evangelical Society News 6:11 (November
1991):3.
2Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, s. v. "soma," by E. Schweizer and F.
Baumgärtel, 7(1971):1064.
3Gerhardus Vos, The Pauline Eschatology, p. 169.
5Vine, p. 117.
However I and others prefer a different explanation of the inner makeup of

the Christian that we believe is more biblical. Rather than getting a new
nature, the New Testament says that we get the Holy Spirit (v. 9). God's
nature now becomes a part of our total makeup, which already includes our
old sinful human nature. The New Testament speaks of our "old self" (Rom.
6:6; Eph. 4:22; Col. 3:9), which refers to who we were before we trusted
Christ. That "old self" contained a sinful human nature. But now we are to
"put on the new self" (Eph. 4:24; Col. 3:10), which means that we are to
live like the new people that we are, having received the Holy Spirit (though
still possessing a sinful human nature).
2. Our new relationship to God 8:12-17
Paul proceeded to apply this truth and then to point out evidence of the
believer's new relationship to God.
The application of the believer's condition 8:12-13
8:12 Because of what God has done for us (vv. 1-11) believers have
an obligation to respond to Him appropriately. However we can
only do so with the Spirit's help. Paul stated only the negative
side of our responsibility here. He could have gone on to say
"… but to God, to live according to the Spirit." He planned to
stress that in the verses that follow.
This verse teaches clearly that the believer still has a sinful
human nature within him, even though he has died with Christ.
God does not eradicate the believer's flesh at conversion. We
can still live according to the flesh if we choose to do so. But
we must not live according to it. Progressive sanctification is
not something the Christian may take or leave. God
commanded us to pursue it (cf. Titus 2:12; 2 Pet. 1:3-11;
3:18).
8:13 Christians who consistently follow the dictates of the flesh can
look forward to death. This cannot be spiritual death
(separation from God forever) in view of specific promises to
the contrary (e.g., vv. 1, 31-39). Therefore it must mean
physical death. Sin produces death in many forms, for example,
separation of the body from the soul (physical death that may
be premature for those who follow the flesh; cf. 1 Cor. 11:30;
1 John 5:16). It may be separation of the person from others

(death in social relationships), or separation of the person from
himself (psychological alienation and mental disorders). Of
course unbelievers who consistently follow the dictates of the
flesh also experience death.
Conversely believers who follow God's will with the enablement

of the Holy Spirit and put the deeds of the body (i.e., the works
of the flesh; cf. 6:6; Col. 3:5) to death will experience life. It is
possible to possess eternal life and yet not experience it fully
(John 10:10). Only Christians who follow God faithfully will
experience their eternal life to its fullest potential. This fullness
of life involves psychological and social wholeness as well as
physical wholeness, under normal circumstances.
The present tense of the verbs is significant. This tense

stresses the necessity of continually putting to death the
deeds of the flesh. Paul viewed the presentation of ourselves
to God as an initial act of commitment (6:13; 12:1), but he
wrote that we must daily and hourly choose to curb our flesh
(cf. 13:14).
"Here is a terrible warning: … It is one of the great

red lights by which God keeps His elect out of fatal
paths."1
"… we must note most carefully that a holy life is

to be lived by us. It is not that we have any
power,—we have none. But God's Spirit dwells in
us for the express object of being called 'upon by
us to put to death the doings of the body.' Self-
control is one of that sweet cluster called 'the
fruit of the Spirit,' in Galatians 5:22."2
1Newell, p. 307.
2Ibid., p. 309.
The confirmation of the believer's condition 8:14-17
Verses 14-17 explain the Spirit's ministry of confirming the reality of the
believer's position as a son of God to him or her.1 Paul believed that the
believer who is aware of his or her secure position will be more effective in
controlling his or her flesh (cf. 6:1-11).
8:14 Paul wrote to the Galatians that the law leads people to Christ
(Gal. 3:24). The Holy Spirit does this too (John 16:8-11). After
believers come to Christ the Holy Spirit continues to lead them
in the moral will of God. The Holy Spirit leads every true child
of God (Gal. 5:18). He goes before them and expects them to
follow Him, like a shepherd expects his sheep to follow him.
However, we can choose to follow or not follow our Shepherd,
to walk according to the Spirit or to walk according to the flesh
(v. 13). The Spirit leads us objectively through the Scriptures,
and subjectively by His internal promptings and providential
guidance (John 20:31; Rom 8:16; Gal. 4:6; 1 John 3:24;
5:13).2 Another view is that to be led by the Spirit here, and
in Galatians 5:18, means that the Spirit determines the
direction of one's life as a whole, rather than that He guides
us day by day.3
"There is deep mystery, no doubt, in the great

double fact of [sic] God is working in us to will,
and on the other hand, of our choosing His will,
moment by moment. We can only affirm that both
are taught in Scripture …"4
The Holy Spirit acts as a guide for the Christian by showing him
or her the way to go, like a guide goes before hikers on a
mountain pathway blazing a safe trail for them. However, as
with hikers, Christians do not have to follow their Guide. We
1On the link between this section and chapter 9 see George C. Gianoulis, "Is Sonship in
Romans 8:14-17 a Link with Romans 9?" Bibliotheca Sacra 166:661 (January-March
2009):70-83.
2See Bernard Ramm, The Witness of the Spirit.
3E.g., Moo, p. 498.
4Newell, p. 310.
can turn aside, and sometimes do, taking a more dangerous

path.
"The difference between huios [son] and teknon

[child] appears to be that whereas teknon
denotes the natural relationship of child to parent,
huios implies, in addition to this, the recognized
status and legal privileges reserved for sons."1
8:15 Unlike sin, the Spirit does not enslave us. He does not compel
or force us to do God's will as slaves of God. Rather, He appeals
to us to submit voluntarily, as sons and daughters of God. The
spirit of adoption in view is probably the Holy Spirit, who has
made us God's sons and daughters by regeneration and
adoption.
Abba and Father are equivalent terms, the first being a

transliteration of the Aramaic word abba and the second a
translation of the Greek pater (cf. Gal. 4:6). Probably Paul used
the Aramaic as well as the Greek term in order to highlight the
intimate relationship the Christian disciple enjoys with God. The
Lord Jesus revealed this intimate relationship during His
training of the Twelve (Mark 14:36).2 In their translations, J.
B. Phillips paraphrased "Abba! Father!" as "Father, my Father,"
and Arthur Way rendered it, "My Father, my own dear Father."
Adoption is another legal term (cf. justification). It indicates

the legal bestowal of a legal standing. Both adoption and
justification result in a permanent condition, and they both
rest on the love and grace of God.3
"Paul could hardly have chosen a better term than

'adoption' to characterize this peace and security.
The word denoted the Greek, and particularly
Roman, legal institution whereby one can 'adopt'
a child and confer on that child all the legal rights
and privileges that would ordinarily accrue to a

2See Joachim Jeremias, The Central Message of the New Testament, p. 28.
3See Francis Lyall, "Roman Law in the Writings of Paul—Adoption," Journal of Biblical
Literature 88 (December 1969):458-66.

natural child. However, while the institution is a

Greco-Roman one, the underlying concept is
rooted in the OT and Judaism [i.e., God's adoption
of Israel]."1
"… the Jews did not practice adoption …"2
8:16 Many people believe that God has provided the believer with
two witnesses to his or her salvation: the Holy Spirit, and the
believer's human spirit (cf. Deut. 17:6; Matt. 18:16). The
former witness is objective in Scripture (cf. v. 14), while the
latter is subjective.
Another view is that the Holy Spirit bears witness to God when
we use our human spirits to pray (v. 15).3 Incidentally, this
second reference to spirit ("our spirit") is probably the only
one in Romans 8 that is not a reference to the Holy Spirit.
"This verse provides ground for the assurance of

salvation on the part of believers. At the same
time it bears testimony against the doctrine of
pantheism, which confounds the human spirit with
the Divine."4
The term children in Romans 8 identifies our family relationship

based on regeneration, whereas the term sons stresses our
legal standing based on adoption. We are both God's children,
by new birth, and His sons, by adoption (cf. v. 14).
8:17 Being adopted children of God makes us His heirs (cf. 1 Pet.
1:3-4).
"Not least of importance in the concept of sonship

is the fact that it links into the theme of
inheritance, not unnaturally since the primary
1Moo, p. 501. Cf. Bruce, p. 157; Ryrie, Basic Theology, pp. 306-7.
2Barrett, p. 163.
3See Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, pp. 216; Robert N. Wilkin, "Assurance by Inner
Witness?" Grace Evangelical Society News 8:2 (March-April 1993):2-3; idem, Confident in
Christ, pp. 69-71.
4Vine, pp. 120-21.
purpose of adoption was to provide a suitable

heir."1
We inherit (are "heirs") along with Jesus Christ our Brother (v.
29). We inherit both sufferings now, as His disciples, and glory,
most of which lies in the future (cf. 1 Pet. 4:13).2 The phrase
"if indeed" seeks to render the first class condition in the
Greek, that in this case we could translate "since." Just as
surely as we share in His sufferings now (Gr. sumpaschomen,
any sufferings we may experience because we live for Him, not
just those connected with our bearing verbal witness for
Christ), we will also share in His glory in the future. This is a
reference to the glorification that every believer will
experience at the end of his or her life (vv. 18-25). Our glory
then will be somewhat proportionate to our suffering for His
sake as His disciples now (cf. 1 Pet. 4:12-19).
The New Testament teaches that the amount of inheritance

the children of God receive will vary depending on our
faithfulness to God (Luke 19:11-27). However there is no
doubt that all Christians are the heirs of God, and will inherit
glorification as well as many other blessings (cf. Eph. 1:3-14;
1 Pet. 1:3-12).3
"All regenerate men have God as their inheritance,

or as Paul puts it, are 'heirs of God' (Rom. 8:17;
Gal. 4:7). That heirship is received on the basis of
only one work, the work of believing. But there is
another inheritance in the New Testament, an
inheritance which, like that of the Israelites, is
merited. They are also heirs of the kingdom and
joint-heirs with the Messiah (2 Tim. 2:12; Rom.
8:17)."4
1Dunn, p. 462.
2See López, "A Study … Inheriting …," pp. 444-46.
3For a study of the variable factors involved in inheriting, see Zane C. Hodges, The Hungry
Inherit.
4Dillow, p. 55. See also William N. W. Pass III, "A Reexamination of Calvin's Approach to
Romans 8:17," Bibliotheca Sacra 170:677 (January-March 2013):69-81.

This verse is not teaching that experiencing glorification, which

is the third stage of every believer's salvation, depends on our
suffering for Jesus' sake. God will eventually glorify every
Christian: those who take a stand for the Lord as well as those
who do not (vv. 29-39).
"Such passages leave no room at all for a 'partial

rapture!' All the saints will share Christ's glory."1
3. Our present sufferings and future glory 8:18-25
Paul proceeded to expound on the thought that he introduced at the end

of verse 17. This passage gives a very wide perspective of God's great plan
of redemption, which is the heart of Paul's theology.2
8:18 In the light of eternity we should view the cost of suffering

with Jesus Christ now as insignificant ("not worthy to be
compared") in view of the glory that lies ahead for us (cf. 2
Cor. 4:17). Paul again used a word, pathemata, which means
sufferings—for any reason and in any form—because we are
His sons. By glory Paul meant the glory that we will experience
at our glorification (v. 17). Our glorification is the third and
final aspect of our salvation, in which God will deliver us from
the presence of sin forever. The Greek preposition eis can
mean either "to" or "in" (NIV), and it probably includes both
ideas here in view of the vastness of this glory. We will not
only see glory, but we will also display glory.3
"There is something to come, something behind

the curtain, that will outshine all."4
8:19 Paul broadened his view of glorification to include all of

creation. He personified it as leaning forward eagerly (intensely
or longingly straining or looking) in anticipation of the great
day when God will fully redeem it too (cf. Gal. 5:5; Phil. 3:20;
1Newell, p. 317.
2See Don N. Howell Jr., "The Center of Pauline Theology," Bibliotheca Sacra 151:601
(January-March 1994):50-70.
3Alford, 2:2:393.
4Henry, p. 1772.
Heb. 9:28). Then God will reveal His sons ("the sons of God")
as such, whereas now we appear simply as Adam's sons. Paul
mentioned the creation here in order to emphasize the
certainty of future salvation for Christians.1
"… the word here translated 'revealing' is

apokalupsis, a removal of a covering,—as when
some wonderful statue has been completed and a
veil thrown over it, people assemble for the
'unveiling' of this work of art. It will be as when
sky rockets are sent up on a festival night: rockets
which, covered with brown paper, seem quite
common and unattractive, but up they are sent
into the air and then they are revealed in all colors
of beauty, and the multitude waiting below shout
in admiration. Now the saints are wrapped up in
the common brown paper of flesh, looking
outwardly like other folks. But the whole creation
is waiting for their unveiling at Christ's coming, for
they are connected with Christ, one with Him, and
are to be glorified with Him at His coming."2
8:20 Because of the Fall God subjected the whole creation to futility
(frustration). Consequently it never reaches the perfection
that He originally intended it to achieve. Probably God is in view
as the one who subjected it, though Satan and Adam were
instrumental in that action.
8:21 In view of prophecies concerning creation's restoration during

Messiah's earthly reign, that time was probably in Paul's mind
(e.g., Jer. 31:12-14; 33). Paul did not have the annihilation of
the present earth in view, which will happen at the end of
Messiah's earthly reign (cf. 2 Pet. 3:11-13). He was writing of
its transformation at the beginning of that reign.
8:22 The whole creation (excluding man, v. 23) acts as though it is

going through birth pains in that it is straining to produce its
1Barrett, p. 165.
2Newell, p. 320.
fruit. Its sufferings are both a result of past events, and they
are a sign of future deliverance (cf. v. 20; Matt. 19:28).
8:23 The saints share this sense of groaning and anticipation that
Paul described the whole creation as feeling. God will fully
redeem both it and us finally. However only the saints have the
first fruits of the Spirit.
God commanded the Israelites to present a portion of their

harvest that ripened first (the "first fruits") as an offering to
Him (Exod. 23:19; Neh. 10:35). This offering acknowledged
that the whole harvest was from Him and that it was really His.
It was an offering that the Israelites made in faith, confident
that the rest of the harvest would follow.
Like these first fruits, God's gift of the Spirit at the

commencement of the believer's Christian life is His pledge
that He will complete the process of salvation. Even though He
has redeemed and adopted us, there is more of redemption
and adoption for us to experience in the future (Eph. 1:13-14;
4:30; 1 John 3:2). When will that take place? It will happen at
the Rapture, when He glorifies our bodies by making them
immortal (Phil. 3:20-21; cf. 1 Cor. 15:44; John 14:1-2). The
judgment seat of Christ will follow, when we will receive more
of our glorious inheritance (1 Pet. 1:3-4; 1 Cor. 3:12-15; 2
Cor. 5:10).
"The 'adoption' here is the full manifestation of

the status of believers when they are invested as
sons and daughters of God (cf. verses 14-17) and
enter on the inheritance which is theirs by virtue
of that status. 'The redemption of our bodies' is
the resurrection, a theme on which Paul had
recently enlarged in 2 Corinthians 4:7—5:10."1
8:24-25 In the meantime, we should look forward with hope to what

God has promised and patiently endure with perseverance our
present sufferings (cf. 5:4).
1Bruce, pp. 164-65.

"The point of these two verses is that the attitude

of hope, so distinctive of the Christian, implies
that there is more in store for him than anything
that is his already."1
4. Our place in God's sovereign plan 8:26-30
In the foregoing verses Paul spoke of God's plan for creation and the
believer. In these verses he showed how central a place His children occupy
in the plan that He is bringing to completion in history.
8:26 Hope helps us in our sufferings (vv. 24-25) and so does the
Holy Spirit. The context suggests that our "weakness"
probably refers to all our limitations as creatures (cf. v. 23; 2
Cor. 12:9-10).
Some translators understood Paul to be saying: We do not

know how to pray as we should, which implies ignorance
concerning the proper method and procedure in prayer. Other
translators thought he meant, "We do not know what to pray
for as we should," implying ignorance regarding the content
and subjects of our praying. The Greek text permits either
interpretation, though it favors the former one. Jesus gave
instruction to His disciples about both content and method in
prayer (Matt. 6:9-15; Luke 11:2-4).
Perhaps what Paul meant was this: We know how to approach

God in prayer and the general subjects that we should pray
about, but we struggle with exactly how to pray most
effectively and exactly what to pray about. The basic principle
of effective praying is that it must be in harmony with the will
of God to be effective (1 John 5:14-15; John 14:13; 15:16;
16:23-24).2 However, what the precise will of God is is often
hard for us to know. The Holy Spirit then comes to our aid:
"the Spirit Himself intercedes for us." To intercede means to
pray for someone else. "Groanings" expresses feelings of
compassion for our weak condition. The Holy Spirit requests

2See Thomas L. Constable, Talking to God: What the Bible Teaches about Prayer, pp. 175-
76.
the Father's help for us with deep compassion (cf. Eph. 6:18).
Essentially He prays for the glory of God to be revealed in us
through our sanctification.1
"We cannot without God, and he will not without

us."2
We should not confuse these groanings with praying in

tongues. This passage promises all Christians God's help, not
just those who had the gift of tongues. Furthermore, the
Scriptures never connect the gift of tongues with intercessory
prayer. This verse seems to be saying that the Holy Spirit prays
for us, not that He prays through us to the Father.3
"… the Holy Spirit does not and cannot groan;

these groans are ours. … These 'groanings' come
from our own hearts even as Paul says that 'he
who searches the hearts' knows what they mean
(v. 27). They are neither uttered nor utterable;
they do not rise to our lips in inarticulate
sounds."4
"I take it that Paul is saying, then, that our failure

to know God's will and consequent inability to
petition God specifically and assuredly is met by
God's Spirit, who himself expresses to God those
intercessory petitions that perfectly match the
will of God. When we do not know what to pray
for—yes, even when we pray for things that are
not best for us—we need not despair, for we can
depend on the Spirit's ministry of perfect
intercession 'on our behalf.'"5
Imagine a loving parent seeking to help a child with a speech

problem or hearing impairment. As the youngster struggles to
1See Donnie Berry, "Groaning for Glory: Another Look at the Spirit's Intercession in Romans
8:26-27," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 63:2 (June 2020):281-96.
2Henry, p. 1773.
3See Cranfield, 1:423.
4Lenski, pp. 547-48.
5Moo, p. 526.
express his feelings and desires, the parent imparts knowledge,

and with his own lips, carefully tries to formulate what the child
wants to say. This is a picture of how the Holy Spirit catches
up our deepest longings and aspirations and brings them in line
with the Father’s ultimate purposes for us.
8:27 The Father understands the Spirit's intercession for the saints
even though we ourselves cannot hear it. We can be assured
that His intercession is effective in securing God's help for us
because the Spirit prays in harmony with God's will.
Thus God Himself, by the Spirit, comes to our aid whenever we

need help. He also assures us in His Word that we will get
assistance from the Father. The consequence of this promise
should be that when we feel frustrated about our inability to
pray about a particular need we can relax. We can have
confidence that our compassionate God understands just how
we feel and what we want or need, and He will respond
according to His will.1
"The assurance Paul feels able to give is that God,

who looks beyond outward appearance and mere
words, recognizes full well what the inarticulate
groans signify—namely, that basic orientation to
and dependence on God which still looks to God
even when it has nothing to say."2
8:28 "We have been dealing in the first part of the

chapter with the human will and its consent to
walk by the Spirit. Not so from the 28th verse to
the chapter's end. It will be all God from now on!"3
Different translators have interpreted this verse in different

ways. Some saw "God" as the subject and have translated it
"God causes …". Others believed that "all things" is the
subject and rendered it "all things God works …" (NIV).
However, the differences are not significant. The whole
1See Curtis C. Mitchell, "The Holy Spirit's Intercessory Ministry," Bibliotheca Sacra 139:555
(July-September 1982):230-42.
2Dunn, p. 493.
3Newell, p. 330.
chapter, even all of Scripture, presents God as sovereign over

all the affairs of life.1 Consequently we know what Paul meant.
God orders all the events of life, not just the intercession of
the indwelling Spirit, so that they culminate in the blessing of
His children (cf. vv. 26-27).
"All things" means just that: everything, "every event of life."2

In the context, these "things" include the misfortunes that the
believer experiences. The "good" is what is good from God's
perspective, and, in view of verses 18-27, conformity to the
Son of God is particularly prominent (v. 29). "Those who love
God" could be a group of believers who love God more than
others. However, since Paul described them from the divine
side as the elect of God ("those called"), they must refer to
all Christians (cf. 1 John 4:19). This is the only place in Romans
where Paul wrote of the believer's love for God. Everywhere
else he referred to God's love for the believer.
This verse does not say that God causes all things—period.
Nowhere in Scripture do we read that God causes sin or evil.
He permits these things, but that is much different than
causing them.3 Therefore when tragedy touches a believer, we
should not conclude that this is one of the "all things" that
God causes. Rather, this verse says that God brings good out
of all things, even tragedies, for the Christian. The causes of
tragedy are Satan, the sinful choices of people, and the
consequences of living in a sinful world (cf. James 1:13-14):
Satan, sin, and sinners. Even though God permits and allows
bad things to happen, Scripture never lays the blame for these
things on God, and neither should we.
"Sometimes Romans 8:28 is not easy to accept.

But Paul did not say, 'We understand how all
things work together for good' to the believer. He
1See A. W. Tozer, The Knowledge of the Holy, pp. 115-20, for his helpful discussion of
God's attribute of sovereignty.
2Alford, 2:2:397.
3See Charles R. Swindoll, The Mystery of God's Will, pp. 18-28.
said, 'We know that they do.' We know many

things we do not understand."1
8:29 Paul next explained God's calling in terms of His foreknowledge

and predestination. It is a mistake to conclude that God knew
beforehand who would believe on His Son and then predestined
those individuals for salvation. Foreknowledge is a term that
specifically describes God's decision to elect: to choose to
bless someone (cf. ch. 9; 1 Pet. 1:20). Notice that it is only
those whom He foreknows that He predestines, not everyone.
This indicates that a limited foreknowledge is in view, not just
general knowledge of everyone and everything, which God
possesses.
Foreknowledge here does not mean simply knowledge of an

event that precedes that event. If God knows that something
will happen before it does, He is in some sense responsible for
making it happen, since He is sovereign (cf. 11:2; Acts 2:23;
1 Pet. 1:2). Yet, as mentioned above, the Bible does not regard
Him as the direct cause of all that happens, or blameworthy
because bad things happen. The reason for God's choice of the
elect was not human merit (Eph. 1:4), or even the faith of the
elect, but God's love and purpose (v. 28; cf. Deut. 7:6-8).2
"Theologians rightly point out that prior to

knowledge must be the divine decree. Unless God
determines in some sense that something will
happen, he cannot 'know' that it will. For God to
foreknow requires an earlier decree."3
"Nothing could be foreknown as certain that had

not been made certain by foreordination, nor
could anything be foreordained that was not
foreknown."4
1Vance Havner, Vance Havner: Just a Preacher, p. 157.

2See The Nelson …, p. 1894, for a concise summary of the Arminian and Calvinist
interpretations of foreknowledge.
4Chafer, Systematic Theology, 3:173.
Of three passages bearing on the relationship between

foreknowledge and foreordination, two mention foreknowledge
as preceding foreordination (Rom. 8:29; 1 Pet. 1:2), while the
other one reverses this order (Acts 2:23). This shows that
these divine activities coincide; they should not be thought of
as occurring in sequence.
"To suggest that 'foreknowledge' refers merely to

God's advance knowledge of human actions is
refuted by His choice of Israel. If God foreknew the
people of Israel because of His advanced
knowledge of a favorable response, He was wrong!
Israel rebelled against God and rejected their
Messiah. God 'foreknew' the people of Israel (Rom.
11:2) in the sense that He sovereignly chose them
to be His own in spite of the unbelief that He knew
would characterize that nation (10:21)."1
"Predestined" (or foreordained) means that God determined

the destiny of the elect previously, specifically, before Creation
(Eph. 1:3-4). That destiny is conformity to Jesus Christ's
image, which is much more than just deliverance from sin and
death. God accomplished this goal partially through believers'
justification. He is presently accomplishing it partially through
our progressive sanctification, and He will accomplish it
completely through our glorification.
"This blessed hope—that believers will be

conformed to the image of His own Son—explains
God's dealings with them as His chosen sons in
this present age. He is ever at work to reproduce
the moral image of Christ in them. All that now
comes into their lives He uses for their good to
further that glorious goal. His aim for them now is
not to make them happy, materially prosperous,
or famous, but to make them Christlike. He now
uses 'all things,' the sad as well as the glad, the
painful as well as the pleasant, the things that
1J.Carl Laney, God, p. 133. See also The Theological Wordbook, s.v. "Foreknowledge," by
John F. Walvoord, pp. 128-30.
perplex and disappoint as well as the things they

eagerly strive and pray for, to further His eternal
purpose for them. In His infinite wisdom He knows
what is needed to bring about that
transformation. For some of His own He may need
to use hotter fire and strike with harder blows
than in His dealings with others to effect the
formation of Christ's image in them. This may be
because some believers may be more resistant to
His moulding activities or are more prone to insist
on their own efforts."1
The Son became as we are (v. 3) so that we could become as

He is. In this respect we are brothers of Jesus Christ.
"Firstborn" refers to Jesus Christ's relation to resurrection (cf.
Col. 1:15), the event that inaugurated His entrance into the
glorified state that we will share with Him eventually.
"This distinctive designation of Jesus Christ

expresses His position of priority to and
preeminence over all the other members of the
family."2
"As the final cause of all things is the glory of God,

so the final cause of the Incarnation and of the
effect of the Incarnation upon man is that the Son
may be surrounded by a multitude of the
redeemed."3
8:30 Paul summarized the steps involved in our realization of God's

purpose: calling, justification, and glorification. Though
glorification is yet future, the apostle spoke of it here as past.
He could do so, not because it has already happened, but
because it is so certain to take place that it is as good as
having happened already (cf. Isa. 53). Bruce suggested that
perhaps Paul was imitating the Hebrew prophetic past tense,
1D. Edmond Hiebert, "Romans 8:28-29 and the Assurance of the Believer," Bibliotheca
Sacra 148:590 (April-June 1991):182.
2Ibid., p. 183. See also Calvin, 2:13:2.
in which a future event is spoken of as past because of the

certainty of its coming (cf. Jude 14).1
Another view is that the process of glorification has already

begun in the believer.2 Paul left sanctification out of this list
because it is the one stage of our salvation in which human
cooperation is essential. Paul listed only those things that God
does by Himself in order to stress His sovereign working to
bring the believer to His goal.3
"The argument, when condensed, comes to this:

that the very ones He foreknew, these, without
the loss of one, He glorified."4
"Bridging the gap between predestination and

justification by faith, God's effectual call brings
the elect to salvation. This effectual call consists
of a divine summons to salvation along with
illumination, through which the elect rightly
perceive the gospel and inevitably trust in Jesus
Christ."5
"God's intention, Paul emphasizes, is to bring to

glory every person who has been justified by faith
in Jesus Christ. Our assurance of ultimate victory
rests on this promise of God to us."6
1Bruce, p. 168.
2See Dane Ortlund, "Inaugurated Glorification: Revisiting Romans 8:30," Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 57:1 (2014):111-33.
3On the apparent conflict between God's sovereignty and human freedom, see Lewis, pp.
52-53.
4Stifler, p. 149.
5Robert A. Pyne, "The Role of the Holy Spirit in Conversion," Bibliotheca Sacra 150:598
(April-June 1993):218.
6Moo, p. 536.
5. Our eternal security 8:31-39
In this climactic section the apostle developed the fact that God will not
lose one person whom He has foreknown, and he rejoiced in this great truth.
He asked and answered seven questions to drive home this truth.
"Nowhere in the annals of sacred literature do we find anything

to match the power and beauty of this remarkable paean of
praise."1
"This whole passage … strikes all thoughtful interpreters and

readers, as transcending almost every thing in language …"2
"… God's, or Christ's, love is the motif of this paragraph,

mentioned three times (vv. 35, 37, 39; cf. Rom. 5:5-8)."3
Godet titled this section: "Hymn of the Assurance of Salvation."4
8:31 The key to the believer's security is: "God is for us." What He
has done for us through His Son in the past and what He is
doing for us through the Spirit in the present should give us
confidence as we look forward to the future. He will certainly
complete His work of salvation by glorifying us in the future
(cf. Phil. 1:6). Nobody and nothing can stand in His way: "who
is against us?"
8:32 God's plan for us cost Him dearly: He did not spare His own
Son (cf. Gen. 22:16).
"The same God who three times is said by Paul in

Romans 1 to have given up men and women (cf.
1:24, 26, 28) is now said by Paul to have given up
his only son for us (cf. 8:32)."5
Having made the greatest possible sacrifice for us already, we

can be assured that God will also do whatever else may be
1Mounce, p. 173.
2Jamieson, et al., p. 1163.
3Moo, p. 539.
4Godet, p. 329. See also Robert G. Gromacki, Salvation is Forever; R. T. Kendall, Once
Saved Always Saved; Michael Eaton, No Condemnation; Robert N. Wilkin, Secure and Sure.
necessary ("give us all things") in order to conform us to the

image of His Son (cf. 2 Pet. 1:3).
"If you buy a costly watch at the jeweller's [sic],

he sends it to you in a lovely case which he gives
you freely—with your purchase. … For 'all things'
of this created universe,—yea, even all gifts or
blessings God may give us, here or hereafter, are
but nothing, compared with Christ!"1
"Romans 5:8-10 and 8:32 appear to me to be

unanswerable texts for those who deny the
scriptural teaching of Christ's substitutionary
atonement. These passages state plainly that, if
Jesus gave Himself for us in atonement,
everything else must follow because, having done
the most that He could do in dying as our
substitute, the lesser things—such as conviction
of sin, repentance, effectual grace, faith—must
inevitably follow. God's great eternal purpose,
expressed so beautifully in 8:28-30, must reach
its fruition in glorification for all those for whom
He died."2
8:33 The question that opens this verse ("Who will bring a charge
against God's elect?"), along with the two others that follow
in verses 34 and 35, expands on the implications of "If God is
for us, who is against us?" (v. 31).
Satan is the accuser of the brethren (Rev. 12:10; cf. Job 1—

2). He charges God's chosen ones with sin. However, when he
does this, he gets nowhere with God, because all sin is against
God ultimately (Ps. 51:4), and He has already acquitted the
elect. Therefore God, not Satan, is the only one in the position
to charge the believer with guilt. But He will not do so because
He is for us. The Father already provided His Son to pay the
1Newell,p. 337.
2S.Lewis Johnson Jr., "Behold the Lamb: The Gospel and Substitutionary Atonement," in
The Coming Evangelical Crisis, p. 134.
penalty for our sins, Christ already paid the penalty, and God
has already declared us righteous.
"… 'to justify' means nothing else than to acquit

of guilt him who was accused, as if his innocence
were confirmed."1
Some see in this verse proof that Christ died only for the
elect.2 But the contrast in this verse is between God bringing
a charge against the elect and His justifying the elect, not
between the elect and the non-elect.
8:34 Christ Jesus is God's appointed Judge who will condemn the
unrighteous (Acts 17:31), but He will not condemn the elect.
Paul cited four reasons: First, Christ died for us and thereby
removed our guilt. Second, He arose from the dead and is
therefore able to give life to those who trust in Him (cf. John
11:25; 14:19). Third, He has ascended to the position of
supreme authority in heaven at the right hand of God, where
He represents us (v. 29). Fourth, He presently intercedes for
us to the Father for our welfare (Heb. 4:14-16; 7:25; cf. Rom.
8:26).
8:35 "The love of Christ" could mean (1) our love for Christ, (2) His
love for us, or (3) our sense of His love for us. View 2 is
probably what Paul meant.3 Present trials and sufferings are no
indication that God has withdrawn His love from us.
"The world likes to point to our afflictions as proof

of the fact that Christ has ceased to love us, or
that his love is imaginary."4
Even though the Father allowed His Son to suffer, He did not
stop loving Him. The Father deals with His adopted sons as He
dealt with His unique Son (cf. John 16:33). Paul listed seven
things, in increasing intensity, that a believer might experience
that some might think could come between a believer and
1Calvin,3:11:3.
2E.g.,
Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 144.
3See Alford, 2:2:400-401.
4Lenski, p. 573.
Christ's love.1 Paul himself experienced them all (2 Cor. 11:23-

28).
"Justification is not concerned with our spiritual

condition, but with our spiritual relation; not with
our actual state, but with our judicial position. …
Justification is the restoration of this true relation
to God, and as such includes (a) the removal of
condemnation by the gift of forgiveness [v. 33];
(b) the removal of guilt by the reckoning (or
imputation) of righteousness [v. 34]; and (c) the
removal of separation by the restoration to
fellowship [v. 35]."2
8:36 Suffering has always been the portion of the righteous (Ps.
44:22). The sufferings in view are the consequence of our
identification with Christ (cf. Acts 5:41; 1 Pet. 2:21-25; 4:14-
19).
8:37 Verses 37-39 express very eloquently the impregnability of

our position as believers. "In all these things" is possibly the
translation of a Hebraism meaning "in spite of all these
things."3 Another interpretation is that Paul meant "in the
midst of all these things."4 The Greek word hypernikomen
suggests hyper-conquerors. Our victory is sure. The Cross is
the great proof of God's love for us, and it is the basis for our
victory. It proves that God is for us (v. 31).
8:38 God will continue to love us when we die, and He will continue
to love us whatever may befall us before we die. He loves us
on both sides of the grave ("neither death, nor life"). Neither
helpful nor hostile angelic beings ("nor angels, nor
principalities") can change God's commitment to love us.
Nothing that the present or future may hold ("nor things
present, nor things to come") can do so either. No force of
any kind ("nor powers") can remove us from His loving care.
1Witmer, p. 475.
2W. H. Griffith Thomas, Grace and Power, pp. 28-29. Paragraph divisions omitted.
3Bruce, p. 171.
4Cranfield, 1:440-41; Dunn, p. 506.
Paul listed the extremities of existence in this verse and the

next.1 These are the things that can separate us from the love
of our other friends.2
8:39 Space ("nor height, nor depth") cannot separate us from God's
loving care either. Finally, nothing in all creation ("nor any
other created thing") can drive a wedge between our loving
God and His redeemed people. That has to include the behavior
and beliefs of His own children as well (John 10:28-29). Not
even the redeemed can remove themselves from God's love,
which Christ Jesus has secured for them.3
"Since God alone is creator, nothing else is

omitted in krisis ['creature']."4
God's love for His own implies His choice of His own for Himself,
since He chooses to set His love on whom He will (cf. Song of
Sol. 2:2; 4:1; Mal. 1:2; et al.).
If I hold a wooden pencil in my hands, I can break it easily. But

if I insert the pencil inside a stout wooden dowel with a hole
running through it, I will not be able to break it. Just so,
Christians are safe because they are "in Christ."
Someone might contend that, even though God will never stop
loving us, He may withdraw salvation from us if we do not keep
loving and obeying Him (cf. Jude 21). However, such a
statement reflects failure to appreciate the full significance of
God's love for the believer. His love involves a commitment to
finish the good work that He has begun in us (cf. Phil. 1:6).
God has revealed all of Romans 6—8 in order to help us
appreciate this fact.
Furthermore, the nature of our salvation argues against this

view. Salvation is a gracious work of God for us. Our good
works did not earn us salvation, and our bad works cannot take
it from us. The fact that we have responsibilities in our
1Witmer, p. 475.
2Henry, p. 1775.
3See Gromacki, p. 72; Radmacher, Salvation, pp. 187-201.
4Dunn, p. 508.
progressive sanctification does not mean that we have to keep

ourselves saved. Our sanctification is only a small part of our
total salvation. Sinful behavior cannot separate a believer from
his or her salvation any more than sinful conduct can separate
a beloved child from his relationship to his loving father.
"This [verses 38 and 39] is the grandest sentence

in Greek literature."1
Paul's paean (hymn) of praise concludes this section of the epistle that
expounds God's present work of salvation in and for those whom He has
redeemed (chs. 6—8).
"Nowhere has the feeling of St. Paul been displayed in such

overflowing measure, and yet the thread of logical deduction
is not broken for an instant. This passage sums up, as we have
seen, all that Paul has hitherto expounded in this Epistle."2
"The results of justification are thus fully presented (chapters

5 to 8). No one has ever set them forth so compactly and so
profoundly, in a way that is so stimulating, effective, and
uplifting."3
V. THE VINDICATION OF GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS CHS. 9—11
"The first eight chapters of Romans emphasize faith. Chapters

9—11 emphasize hope. Chapters 12—16 emphasize love."4
A major problem concerning God's righteousness arises out of what Paul

just claimed for God. It is this: If God is for His elect and will never remove
His love from them, why has He set aside His chosen people, the Jews? It
certainly looks as though something separated them from His love. For
example, He allowed them to experience the Holocaust. If God has turned
away from Israel, are Christians really that secure? The problem focuses on
God's righteous dealings with humankind, and, therefore, it was one that
1Charles B. Williams, A Commentary on the Pauline Epistles, p. 278.

2Godet, p. 335.
3Lenski, p. 578.
4McGee, 4:708.
Paul needed to deal with in this epistle, which deals with the righteousness
of God.
In chapters 9—11 the apostle defended the righteousness of God in His

dealings with Israel. Having explained how God justifies sinners, Paul now
found it necessary to justify God Himself in order to prove and declare Him
righteous. The theological term that describes a vindication of God is
theodicy. The apostle to the Gentiles proceeded to show that God had not
removed His love from the Jews. Nothing had separated them from His
love. God's present dealings with Israel do not indicate that He has
abandoned them but must be viewed in the light of His future plans for the
nation. In the future God will glorify Israel.1
"More than half the OT quotations in Romans come in chaps.

9—11, and about 40 percent of these are from Isaiah …"2
In chapter 9 Paul dealt primarily with God's dealings with Israel in the past,
in chapter 10 with the Jews' present situation, and in chapter 11 with His
future plans for Israel.
"The chief subject of chapter 9 is the sovereignty of God. That

of chapter 10 is the possibilities of faith. That of chapter 11
is God's grace and mercy."3
We note in these three chapters that God's dealings with Israel as a nation
are similar to His dealings with individual Christians, whom Paul had been
speaking of in recent chapters. God elected both Israel (Gen. 12:1-3; Exod.
19:5-6; et al.) and each Christian (John 6:37, 44-45, 64-65; 10:26; Acts
13:48; 16:14; et al.).4 Unsaved Israel, viewed as a whole (as well as many
unsaved individuals), tried to establish its own righteousness by obeying
the Mosaic Law instead of by faith in God. A mass conversion of Israel will
occur in the future (11:25-32). Paul pictured this great event as similar to
the grand picture of the climax of individual salvation that he gave us in
chapter 8. God will prove faithful to His promises to Israel as well as to His
1For a brief tracing of Paul's argument through these chapters, see Robert Thomas,
Evangelical Hermeneutics, pp. 495-99.
2James D. G. Dunn, Romans 9—16, p. 520.
3Vine, p. 136.
4See Thomas R. Schreiner, "Does Romans 9 Teach Individual Election unto Salvation? Some
Exegetical and Theological Reflections," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

36:1 (March 1993):25-40.
promises to individual Christians. The whole section dealing with Israel

culminates in rapturous praise to God (11:33-36) like the section dealing
with individual salvation did (8:31-39). While these parallels do exist and
are clear in the text, Paul did not stress them.
Throughout this whole section Paul was speaking of Israel as the ethnic
Jews only, not all the people of God in general throughout history, as most
covenant theologians interpret the name Israel, especially in chapter 11.
Covenant theologians believe that the church inherits the promises that
God gave to Israel whereas dispensational theologians believe that Israel
will inherit those promises.
A. ISRAEL'S PAST ELECTION CH. 9
Paul began by tracing God's dealings with the nation of Israel in the past.
He first reminded his readers that God had blessed Israel (vv. 1-5). Then
he pointed out that God's choice to bless Israel in a special way did not
arise out of Israel's heritage (vv. 6-10) or out of Israel's actions or behavior
(vv. 11-13). His choice to bless Israel arose out of His own love and
sovereign choice to bless the Jews more than other people. Israel's
disobedience did not lead Him to cast her off permanently. God had been
merciful to Israel. Israel's rejection of Christ led God to show mercy to
Gentiles by treating them on an equal basis with Jews (in the church).
"No conjunction or particle connects the two chapters, and the

tone shifts dramatically from celebration (8:31-39) to
lamentation (9:1-3)."1
1. God's blessing on Israel 9:1-5
9:1 The apostle opened his discussion of God's relations with Israel
very personally: by sharing his heart for his own people. Some
might have thought that Paul hated the Jews, since he had
departed from Judaism and now preached a Law-free gospel.
Therefore he took pains to affirm his love for his fellow Jews—
with a triple oath.
1Moo, p. 555.
"No man will ever even begin to try to save men

unless he first loves them."1
Paul claimed two witnesses that testified that he was telling

the truth when he professed love for the Jews. These
witnesses were (1) his own position in Christ who is: The Truth,
and (2) his clear conscience that the Holy Spirit had sensitized.
"… Paul takes his stand as one for whom

everything focuses in Christ—his gospel, his
relation to his people, his day-by-day
responsibility as believer and apostle—the
implication being that any kind of deliberate
falsification is not possible for one so conscious of
his dependence on Christ. The effect for the
Christian listeners would be to underscore the
reliability of the oath."2
The human conscience is not the same as the voice of God.
"To many people conscience is almost all that

they have by way of knowledge of God. This still
small voice which makes them feel guilty and
unhappy before, during, or after wrong-doing, is
God speaking to them. … Yet to make conscience
into God is a highly dangerous thing to do. …
Conscience can be so easily perverted or morbidly
developed in the sensitive person, and so easily
ignored and silenced by the insensitive, that it
makes a very unsatisfactory god."3
9:2 Paul's great sorrow and unceasing grief over Israel's condition
contrast with his joy and exultation over his own condition
(8:38-39).
1Barclay, p. 130.
2Dunn, Romans 9—16, p. 531.
3J. B. Philips, Your God Is Too Small, p. 9. Paragraph divisions omitted.
"The words are the more touching when we

remember that Israel not only did not like Paul;
they hated him (cf. Acts 22:22; 25:24)."1
9:3 "I could wish" introduces a wish that God would not possibly
grant (8:35). Nevertheless it was Paul's sincere wish. Hel had
given up many things for the salvation of others (Phil. 3:8).
Moses voiced a similar self-sacrificing wish for the Israelites'
salvation (Exod. 32:30-35). Paul's brethren here were not his
spiritual but his racial brothers and sisters ("my kinsmen
according to the flesh"). Even though he was the apostle to
the Gentiles he still took pleasure in being a Jew.
9:4 Paul shared much in common with his blood brothers and
sisters. The name "Israelites" denotes the chosen people of
God, whereas the name "Jews" simply distinguishes them from
Gentiles.2 Here the apostle pointed out further advantages of
the Jews (cf. 3:2). He named eight of their special blessings in
verses 4 and 5.
First, God graciously had adopted Israel (cf. 8:15; Exod. 4:22;
Deut. 14:1-2). Second, the Israelites had the glory of God's
visible presence among them, notably in the pillar of cloud and
fire (Exod. 40:34; 1 Kings 8:11). Third, God took the initiative
in reaching out to Israel with covenants that bound Him and
the nation together (i.e., the Abrahamic, Land or Palestinian,
Davidic, and New Covenants). All of these covenants belong
exclusively to Israel, though Gentiles benefit from them.
Fourth, the giving (not receiving, NIV) of the Mosaic Law was
a great privilege for Israel. Fifth, the Jewish temple service
enabled Israel to have fellowship with God. Sixth, the promises
revealed to the patriarchs guaranteed God's action for them.
"He also gave them His Law to govern their

political, social, and religious life, and to guarantee
His blessing if they obeyed."3

2See Cranfield, 2:460-61, for a summary of the way "Israel" was used in the Hebrew
Scriptures and in Judaism.
3Wiersbe, 1:543.
"… in the last four words Paul has summed up the

four most distinctive features of first-century
Judaism, as perceived and noted both by Jews
themselves and by non-Jews …"1
"The meaning and extent of these promises are

the linchpin in Paul's interpretation of salvation
history; see 9:6b-13; 11:15; and especially 11:28,
which forms with this verse an 'inclusio'
surrounding Paul's discussion in these chapters."2
9:5 Seventh, the patriarchs were "the fathers" to whom God gave
the promises even before Israel was a nation. Eighth, the
Messiah ("the Christ") came from Israel. Here Paul called Jesus
"God" (cf. Phil. 2:6, 10-11; Titus 2:13; 2 Pet. 1:2).3
"It is a very full proof of the Godhead of Christ; he

is not only over all, as Mediator, but he is God
blessed for ever."4
Paul did not explicitly compare Israel's blessings and ours. His point was
simply that God had blessed Israel greatly. Obviously, even though God had
blessed the Israelites greatly, their blessings did not exceed those of
Christians today. The writer of the Book of Hebrews argued that God's
blessings of Christians under the New Covenant surpass His blessings of
Israelites under the Old (Mosaic) Covenant.
2. God's election of Israel 9:6-13
Paul's train of thought unfolds as follows in these verses: Because God's

election of Israel did not depend on natural descent (vv. 6-10) or human
merit (vv. 11-14), Israel's disobedience cannot nullify God's determined
purpose for the nation.
9:6 The word of God that was in Paul's mind when he wrote this
verse was evidently God's revelation of His plans for Israel in

2Moo, pp. 564-65.
3See Bruce, p. 176; and Robertson, 4:381.
4Henry, p. 1776.
the Old Testament. There God revealed that He had chosen

Israel to be a kingdom of priests (Exod. 19:5-6). The Israelites
were to function as priests in the world by bringing the nations
to God (cf. Isa. 42:6). They were to do this by demonstrating
through their life in the Holy Land how glorious it can be to live
under the government of God.
Israel had failed to carry out God's purpose for her thus far and
consequently had suffered His discipline. It looked as though
the word that God had spoken concerning Israel's purpose had
failed. The Greek word translated failed (ekpeptoken) means
gone off its course, like a ship. Paul proceeded to show that
God would accomplish His purpose for Israel in the rest of
chapters 9—11. The first part of verse 6 has been called "the
text or thesis to be expounded."1
"… Romans 9—11 contains 11 occurrences of the

term 'Israel,' and in every case it refers to ethnic,
or national, Israel. Never does the term include
Gentiles within its meaning. The NT use of the
term is identical with the Pauline sense in this
section."2
Even though all the physical descendants of Israel (Jacob)

constitute the nation of Israel, as Scripture speaks of Israel,
God spoke of Israel in a more restricted sense as well, namely,
saved Israelites (cf. John 8:39, 44; Gal. 6:16). Paul had
previously pointed out this distinction between the outward
Jew and the inward Jew (2:28-29).
Non-dispensationalists, who believe that the church replaces

Israel in God's program (i.e., "replacement theology"),
frequently appeal to this verse for support. They take the first
"Israel" here as the "old Israel," and the second "Israel" as the
"new Israel," the church.3 Saved Gentiles are also Abraham's
seed, but they are not in view here. Paul was considering only

2S.Lewis Johnson Jr., "Evidence from Romans 9—11," in A Case for Premillennialism: A
New Consensus, p. 203.
3For further refutation of this interpretation, see Saucy, The Case …, pp. 195-98.
two kinds of Israelites: natural (ethnic) Israelites, both saved

and unsaved, and spiritual Israelites, saved natural Israelites.1
"… St. Paul does not mean here to distinguish a

spiritual Israel (i.e. the Christian Church) from the
fleshly Israel, but to state that the promises made
to Israel might be fulfilled even if some of his
descendants were shut out from them. What he
states is that not all the physical descendants of
Jacob are necessarily inheritors of the Divine
promises implied in the sacred name Israel."2
Normal interpretation of references to Israel throughout

Scripture identifies Israel as the physical descendants of the
patriarch Israel (i.e., Jacob). While Scripture sometimes
ascribes more than one referent to words, it always gives clues
as to which meaning is in view. For example, the word flesh has
three referents in Scripture: the physical material that covers
our bodies (our skin), all that Christians were in Adam (before
we became Christians), and sinful human nature. Clues to the
referent are usually in the context of the passage in which the
word appears, either the near context or a larger context.
Dispensationalists believe that Scripture gives no warrant for
interpreting "Israel" as anything other than Jews, saved or
unsaved.3
9:7 Even though God promised to bless Abraham's descendants, it

was only one main branch of his family ("through Isaac") that
He singled out for special blessing. God's special elective
purpose applied only to Isaac and his line of descendants. This
reference to God's choice of Isaac over Ishmael is the first of
three Old Testament illustrations of God's sovereignty. The
other two are Jacob/Esau (vv. 10-13) and Pharaoh (vv. 14-
18).
"In chapters 9, 10, and 11 of Romans, Paul

illustrates the use of the Old Testament by a New
1See Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, pp. 181-82.

2Sanday and Headlam, p. 240. Cf. McGee, 4:711.
3See Darrell L. Bock and Mikel Del Rosario, "The Table Briefing: Does Israel Have a Future
in God's Program?" Bibliotheca Sacra 172:685 (January-March 2015):100-107.

Testament writer. In his letters he cites the Old

Testament 93 times (1/3 of the total Old
Testament citations, with introductory formulas,
in the New); yet twenty-six of his quotes occur in
these three chapters of Romans."1
9:8 It was not all the natural children of Abraham ("children of the
flesh") that God had in mind when He spoke of uniquely
blessing Abraham's seed. It was only regarding the children
born supernaturally—in fulfillment of God's promise to
Abraham about seed—that He was speaking, namely, Isaac's
descendants ("children of the promise").
"What counts is grace, not race."2
9:9 God did not choose to bless Isaac, after his birth, only because
he was Abraham's son. Rather He promised Abraham, before
Isaac's birth, that He would provide and bless a son for the
patriarch supernaturally ("at this time"). His unusual birth
confirmed God's choice of Isaac, as the channel of special
blessing, to his parents.
9:10-12 God's special election of one portion of Abraham's

descendants for special blessing is also evident in His choice
of Jacob rather than Esau. Someone might suggest that Isaac
was obviously the natural son through whom blessing would
come, since he was the first son born to both Abraham and
Sarah, and he was their legitimate son. But of Isaac and
Rebekah's two sons, Jacob was not the first born.
Furthermore, Esau and Jacob both had the same mother as
well as the same father, so that was not a factor, as an
objector might claim it was in Isaac's and Ishmael's case. Also,
Jacob and Esau might have normally shared the firstborn
privilege, since they were twins. One conception produced
both of them.
However, God chose Jacob even though Rebekah bore Esau

before Jacob. As in the case of Isaac, God made a choice
1Edwin A. Blum, "The Apostles' View of Scripture, in Inerrancy, p. 41.

2N. T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, p. 238.
between them before their birth. Their birth was also

supernatural since their mother was barren. God chose Jacob
before he had done any deeds ("anything good or bad') or
demonstrated a character worthy of God's special blessing.
The fact that Jacob became a less admirable person, in some
respects, than Esau, shows that God's choice was not due to
Jacob but to God Himself.
"Surely, if Paul had assumed that faith was the

basis for God's election, he would have pointed
this out when he raised the question in v. 14
about the fairness of God's election. All he would
have needed to say at that point was 'of course
God is not unjust in choosing Jacob and rejecting
Esau, for his choosing took into account the faith
of one and the unbelief of the other.'"1
"'the Divine purpose which has worked on the

principle of selection.' These words are the key to
chaps. ix—xi and suggest the solution of the
problem before St. Paul."2
9:13 By quoting Malachi 1:2-3 Paul raised his discussion from the
level of personal election to national election. Malachi was
speaking of nations, as the context of this Malachi quotation
shows. Paul's point was that God does not wait until He sees
how individuals or nations develop, and what choices they
make, before He elects them. God chose Jacob and the nation
of Israel for reasons that lay within Himself, not because they
merited election (cf. Deut. 7:6-8). This is a powerful refutation
of the claim that election results from prior knowledge: that
God chooses a person for salvation having foreseen that he or
she will believe the gospel.3
"The connection of this quotation with v. 12

suggests that God's love is the same as his
election: God chose Jacob to inherit the blessings
1Moo, p. 583.
3See Calvin, 3:21:5 and 6.
promised first to Abraham. … If God's love of

Jacob consists in his choosing Jacob to be the
'seed' who would inherit the blessings promised to
Abraham, then God's hatred of Esau is best
understood to refer to God's decision not to
bestow this privilege on Esau. It might best be
translated 'reject.' 'Love' and 'hate' are not here,
then, emotions that God feels but actions that he
carries out."1
"… the point made here does not pertain to the

question of loving more and loving less; rather, it
literally means that God took Jacob to be His, but
Esau He set aside. God made only one of these
sons the recipient of Messianic promises and not
the other. It is not a question of personal
animosity or personal preference."2
"The strong contrast [love and hate] is a Semitic

idiom that heightens the comparison by stating it
in absolute terms."3
"… the Hebrew idiom means, 'I preferred Jacob to

Esau' …"4
This "love" equals "elect" equation is also clear in Genesis

29:30 and 31. In verse 30, we read that Jacob "loved Rachel
more than Leah." In the next verse, we read that "Leah was
[literally] hated."
"As to 'Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated,' a woman

once said to Mr. Spurgeon, 'I cannot understand
why God should say that He hated Esau.' 'That,'
Spurgeon replied, 'is not my difficulty, madam. My
1Moo, p. 587. Cf. Godet, p. 350; Cranfield, 2:480. See also Matt. 6:24; Luke 14:26; and
John 12:25.
3Mounce, p. 199.
4Barrett, p. 182.
trouble is to understand how God could love

Jacob!'"1
In verses 6-13 Paul established that Israel was the object of God's choice
for special blessing because of His own gracious will. He did not choose
Israel because of the Israelites' natural descent from Abraham or because
of any superior qualities in them.
3. God's freedom to elect 9:14-18
The question of fairness arises whenever someone makes a choice to favor

one person or group over another. In this pericope Paul dealt with the
justice of God in doing what He did.
"These verses are a detour from the main road of Paul's

argument. Paul takes this detour because he knows that his
insistence on God's initiative in determining who should be
saved and who rejected (see vv. 10-13 especially) will meet
with questions and even objections. Appropriately, therefore,
Paul reverts to the diatribe style, with its question-and-answer
format and references to a dialogue partner, that he has
utilized earlier in the letter (see 2:1—3:8; 3:27-31; 6—7)."2
9:14 The apostle first flatly denied the charge that God is unjust:
"There is no injustice with God, is there? Far from it!" God
cannot be unjust because He is God.
9:15 Then Paul proceeded to refute the charge that God is unjust.
When the whole nation of Israel rebelled against God by
worshipping the golden calf (Exod. 32), God took the lives of
only 3,000 of the rebels. He could have justly killed the whole
nation. His mercy caused Him to do something that appeared
to be unjust.
"The grace of God has been spoken of in this

Epistle often before; but not until these chapters
1Newell, p. 364.
2Moo, pp. 549-50.
is mercy named; and until mercy is understood,

grace cannot be fully appreciated."1
9:16 It is not a person's determination ("wants") or effort ("runs")

that causes God to be merciful, but His own sovereign choice.
God is under no obligation to show mercy or extend grace to
anyone. If we insist on receiving just treatment from God, what
we will get is condemnation (3:23).
9:17 God said that He raised Pharaoh up. God had mercifully spared
Pharaoh up to the moment when He said these words to him—
through six plagues—and in spite of his consistent opposition
to God. God did not mean that He had created Pharaoh and
allowed him to sit on Egypt's throne, though He had done that
too. This is clear from Exodus 9:16, which Paul quoted here.
Pharaoh deserved death for his opposition and insolence to

God—without question. However, God said that He would not
take his life in the remaining plagues so that his continuing
opposition and God's victory over him would result in greater
glory for God (cf. Josh. 9:9; Ps. 76:10). Here is another
example, similar to the one in verse 15, of God not giving
people what they deserve but extending mercy to them
instead.
"Paul introduced this quotation with the words,

For the Scripture says, for he equated the words
of God with the words of Scripture."2
"dunamis ["power"] is usually taken as a reference

to God's power as creator … but Cranfield is
probably right in seeing here a reference primarily
to God's saving power (1:16; 1 Cor 1:18, 24; 2:5;
6:14; 2 Cor 4:7; 6:7; 13:4; etc.)."3
9:18 This statement summarizes Paul's point. In chapter 1 the

apostle had spoken about the way that God gives people over
to their own evil desires as a form of punishment for their sins.
1Newell, p. 355.
2Witmer, p. 477.
3Dunn, Romans 9—16, p. 554. Cf. Cranfield, 2:487.
This is how God hardens people's hearts. In Pharaoh's case we

see this working out clearly. God was not unjust because He
allowed the hardening process to continue. His justice
demanded punishment. Similarly, a person may choose to drink
poison or he may choose not to, but if he chooses to drink it,
inevitable consequences will follow.
"Neither here nor anywhere else is God said to

harden anyone who had not first hardened
himself."1
"God's hardening, then, is an action that renders

a person insensitive to God and his word and that,
if not reversed, culminates in eternal damnation."2
"God's hardening does not, then, cause spiritual

insensitivity to the things of God; it maintains
people in the state of sin that already
characterizes them."3
"People are not lost because they are hardened;

they are hardened because they are already
lost."4
"He [Paul] never says or implies that God has

created man for the purpose of his damnation.
What he does say is that in His government of the
world God reserves to Himself perfect freedom of
dealing with man on His own conditions and not
on man's."5
1Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans, p. 361.

2Moo, p. 597.
3Ibid., p. 599. See also Dorian G. Coover Cox, "The Hardening of Pharaoh's Heart in Its
Literary and Cultural Contexts," Bibliotheca Sacra 163:651 (July-September 2006):292-

311.
4Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, p. 188.
5Sanday and Headlam, p. 258. See also Charles C. Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New
Testament, p. 173; J. Sidlow Baxter, Explore the Book, 6:86-90.

"Those who are saved must thank God only, and

those who perish must thank themselves only."1
"… we say boldly, that a believer's heart is not

fully yielded to God until it accepts without
question, and without demanding softening, this
eighteenth verse."2
Paul did not include the fact that Pharaoh hardened his own heart before
God hardened his heart, which Moses plainly stated in Exodus.3 Paul's point
was simply that God can freely and justly extend mercy, or not extend
mercy, to those who deserve His judgment.
"The reconciliation of God's sovereignty and man's

responsibility is beyond our power. The Bible states and
emphasizes both, and then leaves them. We shall be wise if we
do the same."4
"The attempt to understand the relation between the human

will and the Divine seems to lead of necessity to an antinomy
which thought has not as yet succeeded in transcending."5
4. God's mercy toward Israel 9:19-29
Next Paul dealt with a question that rises out of what he had just argued
for, namely, God's freedom to extend mercy to whom He will. Is it not
logical that if God is going to show mercy to whom He will, in spite of human
actions and merit, that human actions really provide no basis for His judging
us? Is not the basis of judgment really God's will rather than human actions?
9:19 Paul posed the question in this verse: "Why does He [God] still
find fault [blame us]? For who has resisted His will?" Then he
answered it in the verses that follow. However, he did not
1Henry, p. 1777.
2Newell, p. 369.
3See my comments on Exodus 4:19-23 in my notes on Exodus.
4Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 257. Cf. p. 266.
5Denney, 2:663. An antinomy is a contradiction between two beliefs or conclusions that
are in themselves reasonable; a paradox.

answer the question directly but "dealt with the attitude of

the heart that produced the question."1
9:20 In the first place it is presumptuous for human beings, the

objects of divine judgment, to sit in judgment on their Judge
("answers back to God"). Judging is God's prerogative, not
ours. Creatures have no right to complain about their Creator's
behavior.
"… men are not lost because they are hardened;

they are hardened because they are lost; they are
lost because they are sinners."2
9:21 The illustration in this verse clarifies the inappropriateness of

the objector's critical attitude. Clearly Israel is in view as the
pottery vessel in the illustration (cf. Isa. 29:16; Jer. 18:6).
Israel had no right to criticize God for shaping her for a
particular purpose of His own choosing. Actually Israel had
nothing to complain about, since God had formed her for an
honorable purpose. The same is true of individuals.
"Neither Moses, nor Pharaoh, nor anyone else,

could choose his parents, his genetic structure, or
his time and place of birth. We have to believe
that these matters are in the hands of God."3
"It is the recognition that Paul refuses to be drawn

into a discussion of the fairness or unfairness of
God's judgment, and that he is intent on using
Israel's history to illuminate God's purpose in
salvation-history, which provides the key to the
difficult verses 22-23/24."4
"The question of [the objector in] v. 19 is wrongly

framed, for God is not making complaints against
men who have had no opportunity of being good

2Newell,p. 371.
3Wiersbe, 1:545.
[like earthenware pots], but commending his love

to willful rebels in the death of his Son (v. 8)."1
9:22 People prepare themselves for destruction by pursuing sin (ch.

1; cf. Matt. 7:13; 1 Thess. 2:15-16; 2 Thess. 2:3; Phil. 3:19).
However, the Greek verb translated prepared in this verse is
probably a passive rather than a middle, though the form of
the passive and middle tenses is identical in Greek. The passive
is much more common in the New Testament. Paul probably
meant that God prepares some people for destruction. Pharaoh
was one of the objects of His wrath. Paul had in mind those in
Israel who had opposed the gospel in his day. God was patient
and merciful with them (cf. 2:3-4; Acts 2:38; 3:19-20; 2 Pet.
3:9).
9:23-24 Those who believe the gospel are those in whom God will
display the riches of His glory, not His wrath.
"Paul teaches that God has brought upon certain

people whom he chooses on the basis of nothing
but his own will a condition of spiritual stupor, a
condition that leads to eternal condemnation."2
"In verses 22 and 23 we have a strong indication

of why God determined that evil should exist in his
universe. The greatest good that people can have
is the knowledge of God, and the revelation of God
would be incomplete if we did not know him in his
justice and in his mercy. But we can never know
him in these attributes if sin does not exist in the
universe. Thus, God has evidently determined that
sin should exist in his world in order that the
angels and humans can know him in his justice by
his judgment of sin, and that people alone should
know him in his mercy by virtue of the saving
ministry of the Lamb of God."3
1Barrett,p. 188.
2Moo, p. 609.
The objects of God's mercy include both Jews and Gentiles (cf.
1:16; 2:10-11; 3:22).
"Men fit themselves for hell; but it is God that fits

men for heaven."1
9:25-26 The inclusion of Gentiles ("not My people") in this group of the

objects of God's mercy is in harmony with Old Testament
prophecy. But how Hosea 2:23 and 1:10, which Paul quoted
here, should be understood is debatable. Some interpreters
say that this is a direct fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy.2
Other interpreters claim that this was an initial partial
fulfillment that does not eliminate a future complete
fulfillment.3 Another explanation is that Paul saw an analogy
between God's present calling of Gentiles and His future calling
of Israel.4 Others say that it is an application because of a
similar situation.5 However one takes this Old Testament
quotation the point of it is clear: Gentiles were not a distinct
people, as were the Jews, but constituted the mass of
humanity. Nevertheless, by God's grace, believing Gentiles
have become members of the new people of God ("sons of the
living God").
9:27-28 Israel's election as a nation did not preclude God's judgment

of the unbelievers in it. His mercy and faithfulness are
observable in His sparing a remnant. Isaiah 10:22-23
anticipated the depletion of Israel through Sennacherib's
invasion. That was God's instrument of judgment. When Paul
wrote, the believing remnant of Israel was within the church,
as it is today.
1GriffithThomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 261. See also Henry, p. 1777.

2E.g., McClain, p. 183; and John A. Battle Jr., "Paul's Use of the Old Testament in Romans
9:25-26," Grace Theological Journal 2 (1981):115-29.
3E.g., Darrell L. Bock, "The Reign of the Lord Christ," in Dispensationalism, Israel and the
Church: The Search for Definition, pp. 37-67; W. Edward Glenny, "The Israel Imagery of 1
Peter 2," in ibid., pp. 156-87; and idem, "The 'People of God' in Romans 9:25-26,"
Bibliotheca Sacra 152:605 (January-March 1995):42-59.
4Johnson, "Evidence from …," p. 209-11; Witmer, p. 479.
9:29 If God had not tempered His judgment with mercy He would
have destroyed Israel as completely ("thoroughly and quickly,"
v. 28) as He had obliterated Sodom and Gomorrah. The
remnant of believers ("descendants") among the mass of
racial Jews is proof of God's mercy to the children of Israel.
"The reason that all attempts to annihilate the

Jews have failed is because there has always been
a believing remnant among the Jews."1
"The remnant is not the germ of a new people;

Paul expects Israel as a whole to be restored [cf.
11:26]."2
"St. Paul in this section (vv. 19-29) expands and strengthens

the previous argument. He had proved in vv. 14-18 the
absolute character of the Divine sovereignty from the O. T.; he
now proves the same from the fundamental relations of God
to man implied in that fact which all his antagonists must
admit—that God had created man."3
5. God's mercy toward the Gentiles 9:30-33
This short pericope concludes Paul's argument concerning Israel's past

election, and it begins the train of thought that he continued in chapter
10. The use of "righteousness" ten times in 9:30—10:21 illustrates the
unity of this section and identifies a major theme in it.
"In Romans 9:1-29, Paul dealt with Israel's rejection of the

Messiahship of Yeshua [Jesus] from the standpoint of divine
sovereignty, showing that God's program had not failed. All
that has happened is within His program of sovereignty and
election. In this section [9:30—10:21], Paul will deal with the
same subject but from the standpoint of human responsibility,
and he will show how and why Israel has failed."4
1Ibid.,
p. 191.
2Denney, 2:666.
9:30-31 A question by Paul, which often marks a new argument in

Romans, introduced his concluding summary that he couched
in terminology suggestive of a foot race. Israel struggled hard
to obtain the prize of righteousness, the righteousness that
God requires for acceptance by Him. But Israel crossed the
finish line behind the Gentiles, who were not running as hard.
Israel as a whole hoped to gain righteousness by doing good
works (law-keeping), but believing Gentiles obtained the prize
by believing the gospel ("faith"). Again, the contrast between
law and faith recurs.
"Hardly a passage in the New Testament is

stronger than this one in its exposure of the
futility of works as a means of justification."1
9:32-33 Israel as a whole, excluding the believing remnant, failed to gain

a righteous standing before God because she tried to win it by
works. A stone on the racetrack over which she stumbled
impeded her progress. Intent on winning in her own effort,
Israel failed to recognize the Stone prophesied in Scripture,
who was sent to provide salvation for her.
The quotation is from Isaiah 8:14 and 28:16 (cf. 1 Pet. 2:6-
8). God intended the Messiah to be the provider of salvation.
However, the Jews did not allow Him to fulfill this function for
them. Consequently this Stone became a stone that they
stumbled over (cf. 1 Cor. 1:23). Because the Jews rejected
their Messiah, their progress toward God's goal for them was
impeded. Specifically, the earthly messianic kingdom was
postponed.
Israel's rejection of Jesus Christ did not make God unfaithful or unrighteous
in His dealings with the nation. What it did do was make it possible for
Gentiles to surpass the Jews as the main recipients of salvation.
1Harrison, p. 109.
B. ISRAEL'S PRESENT REJECTION CH. 10
The chapter division signals a shift in Paul's emphasis from God's dealings
with Israel in the past to His dealings with them in the present.
"The concluding verses of the ninth chapter and the whole of

the tenth are devoted to proving the guilt of Israel."1
1. The reason God has set Israel aside 10:1-7
The reason for Israel's failure mentioned in 9:32-33, namely, her rejection
of Christ, led Paul to develop that subject further in this section.
10:1 This pericope opens with Paul returning to his feelings of

compassionate concern for his fellow Israelites' salvation (9:1-
3). Mention of their deliberate rejection of Christ (9:32-33)
evidently triggered this emotional expression.
"The reality of his love is seen in the fact that he

prayed for them."2
"Spiritual desires should always be turned into

prayer."3
"Every preacher should labour to be the means of

saving his hearers."4
10:2 Ironically it was Israel's zeal of God that set her up for failure.
Zeal also characterized Paul's life, which in many ways
duplicated Israel's experience as a nation. It had kept him from
believing on Christ too (cf. Acts 22:3; Gal. 1:14). Paul and
Israel both had zeal for God, but it was zeal that lacked
knowledge, knowledge that Jesus was the Messiah (1 Tim.
1:13).
10:3 The Jews were ignorant of the righteousness that comes from
God as a gift (1:17). They sought to earn righteousness by

2Mounce, pp. 206-7.
3Vine, p. 153.
4C. H. Spurgeon, An All Round Ministry, p. 236.
keeping the Law. Instead, they should have humbly received

the gift of righteousness that God gives to those who believe
on His Son (cf. Phil. 3:9).
"The Law was designed not to bring about self-

righteousness or self-hope, but contrariwise, self-
despair."1
"In true faith, there is need of a great deal of

submission."2
One advocate of "covenant nomism" interpreted Paul as saying

that the Jews claimed to have "a special relationship with God
secure for all who remain loyal to the covenant."3 This is
another way of saying that the Jews trusted in their own
efforts for their salvation.
10:4 The Greek word telos and its English equivalent "end" can refer
either to termination (as in "the end of the matter") or to
purpose (as in "to the end that"). Paul believed that Jesus
Christ was the "end" (goal or "culmination" NIV) of the Mosaic
Law in both respects. Jesus Christ both fulfilled the demands
of the Mosaic Law, and He terminated it. Paul spoke of the Law
as having a function to fulfill in history after which Jesus Christ
terminated it (7:6; Gal. 3:19, 23; cf. Mark 7:18-19; Luke
16:16; John 1:17; Acts 10:10-15; Rom. 14:17; 1 Cor. 8:8; 2
Cor. 3:6-18; Gal. 4:9-11; 5:1; Eph. 2:15; Col. 2:14, 17; Heb.
7:12; 9:10). Furthermore he described the purpose of the Law
as bringing people to Christ (7:7-13; Gal. 3:24; cf. Matt. 5:17).
The Mosaic Covenant is evidently in view, rather than the whole
Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy).4
"In the progress of salvation history the beginning

of the end of the role of law is in the coming of
1Newell, p. 389.
2Henry, p. 1778.
4Ibid., p. 591, believed that the Torah was what Paul meant.
Christ. Its end is based on the work he effected

and applied to the church he established."1
In the verse before us Paul evidently meant that the Mosaic

Law ended when Jesus Christ died. The support for this view
is that Paul had just been contrasting, in 9:30-33, the Law with
the righteousness that comes through faith in Christ. The Jews
incorrectly imagined that the Law was a means of justification.
But when Jesus Christ came He provided the real means of
justification. Paul did not mean that the Law was at one time
a means of justification that ended when Jesus Christ died. The
Jews only thought of the Law as a means of obtaining
righteousness. It is that supposed function of the Law, to
justify, that ends for everyone who believes in Christ.
God gave the Mosaic Law for two purposes primarily: One
purpose was to reveal the character and standards of a holy
God. Understanding the Law people would recognize their
inability to be good enough to earn acceptance by God for
salvation and consequently look to God for salvation (7:13,
Gal. 3:24). The second purpose was to regulate the moral,
religious, and civil life of the children of Israel (Deut. 4:1). God
never intended the Law to provide eternal salvation for the
Israelites (3:20). He did not give it for a redemptive purpose.
God has preserved the Mosaic Law in Scripture for Christians
because of its revelatory value. He never intended Christians
to regulate their lives by its precepts.
"It is because Reformed theology has kept us

Gentiles under the Law,—if not as a means of
righteousness, then as 'a rule of life,' that all the
trouble has arisen. The Law is no more a rule of
life than it is a means of righteousness."2
God has terminated the whole Mosaic Law. It is one unified

code (cf. 7:6). God wants Christians to observe nine of the
Ten Commandments because they are part of the Law of
1David K. Lowery, "Christ, the End of the Law in Romans 10:4," in Dispensationalism, Israel
and the Church, p. 246.
2Newell, p. 393.
Christ. This is the regulatory code that God has given the
church, namely, the teachings of Christ and the apostles (Gal.
6:2).1
10:5 Paul supported his contention that justification results from

faith in Christ (v. 4) through verse 13. These verses contrast
righteousness that comes through the law and that which is
based on faith. Paul used the Law (Deut. 30:6, 11, 14) to
prove that Moses showed that it was futile to trust in law-
keeping for salvation. Moses revealed that the person who
practiced the righteousness commanded in the Law would live
(Lev. 18:5; cf. Gal. 3:12). Here living means experiencing
justification (cf. 2:13). However, no one can keep the whole
Law (3:19-20).
10:6-7 Positively Moses taught that justification comes by faith (Deut.

30:11-14). In the context of Moses' statement there is a
strong emphasis on an attitude of loving obedience rather than
a legalistic approach to earning righteousness (Deut. 30:6-
10). Moses' point was that the Israelites should not think that
pleasing God was something beyond their reach. A proper
attitude of faith toward God is essentially what He requires.
"'To say in thy heart' is a Hebraism for 'to think

secretly' and is used especially regarding some
unworthy thought which one fears to utter
aloud."2
In quoting this passage Paul made his own application of it in

harmony with his argument. It was vain for the Israelites to
think that they had to be good enough to ascend into heaven
in order to bring the promised Messiah down to earth to save
His people.
1See J. Dwight Pentecost, "The Purpose of the Law," Bibliotheca Sacra 128:511 (July-
September 1971):227-33; Hal Harless, "The Cessation of the Mosaic Covenant,"
Bibliotheca Sacra 160:639 (July-September 2003):349-66; and Ping-Kuen Eric Li, "The
Relationship of the Christian to the Law as Expressed in Romans 10:4" (Th.M. thesis, Dallas
Theological Seminary, 1991).
2Lenski, p. 650.
"'Bringing Christ down from heaven' means to

precipitate the Incarnation. This has already taken
place; the Messiah has appeared, and it is
therefore impossible to hasten his coming (as
some devout Jews thought to do) by perfect
obedience to the law and penitence for its
transgression."1
Likewise it was foolish for them to think that they had to be

good enough to raise Messiah up from the dead, which the
prophets had predicted would happen. God had already
accomplished those things for the ungodly in the incarnation
and resurrection of Jesus Christ. All they had to do was accept
what God had done for them in Christ.
2. The remedy for rejection 10:8-15
10:8 Paul quoted Moses again (Deut. 30:14) in order to reaffirm the
fact that the great lawgiver taught that salvation came by
faith. The "word of faith" means the message that
righteousness comes by faith. Faith is easy compared to a
lifetime of slavish obedience to the Law. Anyone can express
it easily, with the mouth, and accept it easily, with the heart.
10:9 The terms mouth and heart, which have been a source of
confusion in the interpretation of this verse, come from Moses'
words that Paul quoted in the preceding verse. The statement
quoted accounts for the unusual order of "confess" and then
"believe" in this verse. The normal chronological order is that
one believes first and then acknowledges his or her belief (i.e.,
confesses; cf. v. 10; 2 Cor. 4:13-14).
"But the two formulations interpret each other, so

that what is to be both believed and confessed is
the more precisely defined."2
"Paul is saying that man needs to bring into

agreement his confession and his life. The mouth
1Barrett, p. 199.
2Cranfield, 2:527.
and the heart should be in harmony, saying the

same thing."1
"Confess" means to say the same thing about something as

someone else does (Gr. homologeo; cf. 1 John 1:9). In this
context it refers to saying the same thing about Jesus Christ
as other believers in Him do. It is an acknowledgment of one's
faith in Christ. Obedient Christians in the early church made
this confession verbally and in water baptism, as we do today
(cf. Matt. 28:19-20).
In the early church the phrase "Jesus is Lord" was one of the
most common and simple expressions by which believers
confessed their faith in Christ (cf. Acts. 2:36; 1 Cor. 8:6; 12:3;
Phil. 2:11). It is a confession parallel and very similar to Israel's
basic confession of faith in Yahweh: "The LORD is our God"
(Deut. 6:4, the Shema). In the Roman world faithful citizens
were increasingly being expected to acknowledge that Caesar
was Lord, by which they meant divine. So the original
recipients of this epistle, especially, had to face the issue of
who really is deity, Jesus or Caesar.
"We take it that, for Paul, the confession that

Jesus is Lord meant the acknowledgment that
Jesus shares the name and the nature, the
holiness, the authority, power, majesty and
eternity of the one and only true God."2
"Paul's statement in vv. 9, 10 is misunderstood

when it is made to support the claim that one
cannot be saved unless he makes Jesus the Lord
of his life by a personal commitment. Such a
commitment is most important [cf. 6:13-19;
12:1]; however, in this passage, Paul is speaking
of the objective lordship of Christ, which is the
1McGee, 4:718.
2Cranfield, 2:529. Cf. Bruce, p. 176; and Mickelsen, pp. 1214-15.
very cornerstone for faith, something without

which no one could be saved."1
The fact that Jesus is Lord (God and Savior) became clear
when He arose from the dead (cf. v. 7). Jesus' resurrection
was the proof that He really was the divine Messiah, God's Holy
One (cf. Ps. 16:10-11). Belief in the resurrection of Jesus
Christ meant belief that Jesus is Lord. Paul was probably
speaking of belief in His resurrection as an evidence of saving
faith, not as a condition for salvation.
Jesus' resurrection was not part of His saving work. His death
saved us (3:25). While the resurrection is part of the good
news of salvation, the gospel message (1 Cor. 15:3-4), belief
in the resurrection of Christ is not a condition for salvation. A
person could experience regeneration if he or she only knew
and believed that Jesus Christ died for their sins—without
knowing of His resurrection.
What if a person heard the gospel, including the fact that Jesus
arose from the dead, and did not believe that Jesus arose? If
he disbelieved in Jesus' resurrection because he did not believe
Jesus Christ is whom He claimed to be, that person would not
experience regeneration. However, if he disbelieved in Jesus'
resurrection because he did not believe in the possibility of
bodily resurrection, he probably would experience
regeneration. In the latter case, he would just need teaching
on this subject.
10:10 This verse summarizes the ideas in the previous verse in

general terms. Paul frequently summarized in Romans, and
often these summaries refer to the results of the action in
view, as here (cf. 4:25; 5:21; 6:23; 7:25).
Belief in Jesus Christ in one's heart results in acceptance by

God (i.e., forgiveness, imputed righteousness, justification,
and positional sanctification). Testimony to one's belief in
Jesus Christ normally follows, and it normally is verbal ("with
1Harrison, p. 112. See also Ryrie, So Great …, pp. 70-73; idem, Balancing the Christian
Life, pp. 169-81; Roy B. Zuck, "Cheap Grace?" Kindred Spirit 13:2 (Summer 1989):4-7;
and Constable, "The Gospel …," p. 209.
the mouth"). Paul was describing the normal consequence of

belief. Witmer wrote that the confession is to God.1 One's
confession that Jesus is Lord would be to God initially (i.e.,
expressing trust in Christ to the Father), but most interpreters
have believed that the confession in view goes beyond God
and includes other people as well. This seems to be a
reasonable conclusion, since the confession is to be made with
the mouth.
In what sense does this confession (profession) result in

salvation? Paul obviously did not mean that confession of
Jesus Christ secures acceptance with God, since he had just
said belief in the heart does that (v. 9; cf. ch. 4). Salvation is
a broad term that includes many kinds of deliverance, as we
have seen. What aspect of salvation does taking a public stand
for Christ secure? For one thing, it saves the person making
the confession from the potential discipline of God.2 It also
saves him or her from the loss of reward, which those who are
unwilling to identify themselves with Him will suffer to some
extent (cf. Matt. 10:32-33; 2 Tim. 2:12). Furthermore, it often
results in the eternal salvation of other people who hear the
confession of faith and then believe themselves.
10:11 Paul removed all doubt about the requirement for justification,
which his statement in verses 9-10 might have created, with
this quotation from Isaiah 28:16. Belief in God, specifically in
His promise, is the only condition for justification (cf. 3:24-
25). God's promise is also the basis of the believer's assurance
that he or she possesses salvation (cf. 1 John 5:12-13).
10:12 The blessing of justification is available to Jew and Gentile alike

(cf. 3:22). Its source is "the same Lord." This reference
confirms the fact that "Lord" in verse 9 refers to Jesus as God,
rather than as personal master, as does the next verse. He is
"Lord of all" (cf. 3:29-30).
10:13 The LORD of Joel 2:32 is the same God as the Lord Jesus Christ.
Peter also appealed to Joel 2:32, in his Pentecost sermon, for
1Witmer, p. 481. See also Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, pp. 203-4.

2See Dillow, pp. 122-24.
the same reason that Paul did here (Acts 2:21). Both apostles
wanted to show that the door of salvation is open to everyone.
When the elect call on God they are responding to His call of
them (8:28-30). The only prayer of an unbeliever that God has
promised to answer is this prayer for salvation, though He
sometimes graciously answers other prayers that they pray.
Possibly Paul had a more restricted concept of salvation in

mind in this verse, as Dillow suggested:
"This verse (10:13) is a quotation from Joel 2:32

and refers to the physical deliverance from the
future day of wrath upon the earth and the
restoration of the Jews to Palestine and not
deliverance from hell."1
10:14-15 "They" refers to the lost, particularly the elect. Paul presented
the logical sequence in a lost person's coming to faith in Jesus
Christ in reverse order here. Faith depends on knowledge of
facts. Someone has to proclaim these facts for others to know
about them. The word "preacher" unfortunately implies an
ordained minister, but Paul meant "someone preaching" (NIV),
namely, any Christian who is proclaiming the gospel.
Being sent (v. 15) suggests that those heralding the gospel
operate under orders from a higher authority. This description
also implies that that authority has given them their message.
God has sent every Christian to proclaim the gospel to the lost
(Matt. 28:19-20; John 20:21). Unfortunately many Christians
are waiting for some special calling from God to go. They do
not realize that God has already sent them. Where we go, and
to what segments of humanity we proclaim the gospel, are
secondary issues. If we get active proclaiming the gospel, God
will direct us where He wants to use us (Ps. 37:23).
As is clear from Paul's quotation of Isaiah 52:7, the message

is one of good news that brings joy to those who accept it.
"How beautiful are the feet" is a figurative way of describing
and expressing gratitude for the obedience of the messengers
1Ibid., p. 124.
who have brought good news. The context of Isaiah's words

was the announcement of God's favor in restoring Jerusalem
following the Babylonian Captivity.
3. The continuing unbelief of Israel 10:16-21
Even though the door of salvation is open to Jews as well as to Gentiles

(vv. 8-15), the majority within Israel still refuse to believe in Jesus Christ.
10:16 In spite of the good news of Israel's restoration (Isa. 52:7),

and the promises of Messiah's coming and deliverance, most
of the Jews did not believe: "Who has believed our report?"
(cf. Isa. 53:1).
10:17 This verse summarizes the thought of verses 14-16. The word
of Christ could mean the word from Him, namely, the message
that He has sent us to proclaim (v. 15).1 It could also refer to
the message about Christ (v. 9). Both meanings could have
been in Paul's mind. In either case, the gospel is in view.
"What faith really is, in biblical language, is

receiving the testimony of God. It is the inward
conviction that what God says to us in the gospel
is true. That—and that alone—is saving faith."2
10:18 This rhetorical question ("They have never heard, have they?")
suggests the possibility that Israel's rejection of her Messiah
may have been due to a failure to get the message to the Jews
(v. 14). However Paul's quotation of Psalm 19:4 clarifies that
the Jews had heard. Every human being hears the testimony
of nature (ch. 1), and all Israel had heard the special revelation
of God concerning His Son from the prophets. They could not
plead ignorance as a nation.
"But perhaps it would be simpler to think that Paul

engages in hyperbole, using the language of the
Psalm to assert that very many people by the time
Paul writes Romans have had opportunity to hear.
1Cranfield, 2:537.
2Hodges, Absolutely Free! p. 31. Cf. pp. 37-43.
It cannot be lack of opportunity, then, that

explains why so few Jews have come to
experience the salvation God offers in Christ."1
10:19 Might there be a second possible reason for Israel's rejection

of the gospel? Even though the Jews heard the message,
perhaps they did not understand it.
The quotation from Deuteronomy 32:21 comes from Moses'

criticism of Israel for forsaking Yahweh. God said that He would
give Israel a desire to return to Himself (provoke her to
jealousy) by blessing another people. This is what had
happened since Jesus Christ had died. God had opened the
door of the church to the Gentiles ("those who are not a
nation"). This should have made Israel more desirous of
returning to God, accepting His Messiah, and experiencing
God's blessing. However this had not happened, as the record
of the church's growth in Acts proves. As time went by fewer
and fewer Jews responded to the gospel, whereas more and
more Gentiles accepted it. This response by the Jews was not
due to ignorance but to deliberate rejection.
"The apostle understands the Deuteronomy

passage to predict that, since Israel will worship
'no-gods,' the idols, God will provoke them to
jealousy by a 'no-people,' that is, the Gentiles,
who were not the chosen people, as Abraham's
descendants were (cf. 11:11, 14)."2
10:20 Isaiah 65:1-2 supports Deuteronomy 32:21 with emphasis on

the fact that the Gentiles came to God ("I was found by those
who did not seek Me").
10:21 The Jews, on the other hand, refused to come to God, even
when He reached out to draw them to Himself ("all day long").
The reason that God has temporarily set them aside is their
stubborn ("obstinate") rebelliousness. Moses and the prophets
warned Israel of this attitude repeatedly, but the Chosen
1Moo, p. 667.
People persisted in it even after God had provided their

Messiah.
"It is a wonder of mercy in God that his goodness

is not overcome by man's badness; and it is a
wonder of wickedness in man that his badness is
not overcome by God's goodness."1
Chapter 10 deals with Israel's present rejection of Jesus Christ that has
resulted in God's temporary rejection of her. Both rejections will change in
the future, as the next chapter explains.
C. ISRAEL'S FUTURE SALVATION CH. 11
In chapter 9 Paul glorified God's past grace in sovereignly choosing Israel

as a vessel that would honor Him in a special way in time and space. In
chapter 10 he spoke of Israel's present refusal to respond to God's
provision of Jesus Christ. In chapter 11 Paul revealed God's future plans for
Israel that, when accomplished, will fully vindicate His righteousness.
This chapter proves that God has a future for ethnic Israel, the racial
descendants of Jacob. That future is distinct from the future of the church,
which true believers of both Jewish and Gentile races living now compose.
Romans 11 not only vindicates God, but it vindicates dispensational
theology. Covenant theology, on the other hand, argues that God will fulfill
the promises concerning future blessing that He gave Israel in the church.2
"This chapter from the historical point of view is logically

necessary. The Old Testament clearly promises Israel headship
or leadership in the world's worship … Israel as a separate
people is to be restored and to realize the promises made to
them in the Old Testament."3
1Henry, p. 1780.
2See Saucy, The Case …, pp. 250-63, for a good presentation of Israel's future restoration
in this chapter, and Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, pp. 310-17.
3Stifler, p. 183.
"The great historian Arnold Toynbee classified Israel as 'a fossil

civilization' and did not know what to do with it. For some
reason, the nation did not fit into his historical theories."1
1. Israel's rejection not total 11:1-10
The first pericope in this chapter gives hope for the future by showing that
even now some Jews believe in Christ. A future for Israel is possible, but
more than that, it is certain based on God's promises.
11:1 The opening question carries on the diatribe rhetorical style of

10:18 and 19. "God has not [totally] rejected" the Israelites,
even though they have, on the whole, rejected Him. The proof
of this is that Paul himself was a member of the believing
remnant, being a Christian Jew. Many Jewish Christians today
prefer to refer to themselves as Messianic Jews. Paul even
came from the small and sometimes despised tribe of Benjamin
(cf. Judg. 19—21), yet God had saved him.
This verse alone proves that God has a future for Israel as a
nation.
11:2 The fact that Paul and other believing Jews have had faith,
though they have been relatively few compared to the total
number of ethnic Jews, proves that God has not completely
rejected the people whom He had elected (i.e., foreknew, cf.
8:29). In Elijah's day, Israel's departure from God was
widespread.
11:3-4 Elijah wrongly concluded that he was the only Israelite who had
remained faithful to the Lord. But God assured him that He had
preserved 7,000 other Israelites who constituted a believing
remnant within the unfaithful nation.
"The very fact of God's choice excludes the

possibility of his desertion of his own."2
1Wiersbe, 1:550.
2Harrison, p. 117.
11:5 Not only in Elijah's day but also in both Paul's day and our day
there are believing Jews who constitute a remnant among the
physical descendants of Jacob. By referring to "God's gracious
choice" Paul identified the real reason for the presence of a
believing remnant.
11:6 The apostle elaborated the final thought of verse 5 here. It is

the grace of God, not the works of the remnant, that is the
real cause of their condition. Believing Jews are not superior.
They are just greatly blessed.
11:7 Verses 7-10 summarize the argument (v. 7) with supporting

Old Testament quotations (vv. 8-10). Verse 7 ties back to
10:3.
The Greek word translated hardened (eporothesan) is not the

same one that Paul used in 9:18 (sklerunei). The one he used
in 9:18 simply pictures a hardening. The one he used here
describes a special hardening, with the result that the hardness
renders the person more difficult to get through to from then
on. It is as though a callus had built up over the Israelites that
made them less sensitive to God.1
"… God's hardening permanently binds people in

the sin that they have chosen for themselves."2
"This postponement in Israelite history is not so

much an interruption of redemption as an
extension of predicted hardening (Rom. 11:7-10).
The Exile, which was a punishment for national
disobedience, has therefore been prolonged
during the present age until the appointed time
for Israel's national (and spiritual) restoration
(Acts 1:7; 3:21; Rom. 11:25-27)."3
11:8 The quotation in this verse is a combination of Deuteronomy

29:4 and Isaiah 29:10. Paul used these passages to prove the
1H. P. Liddon, Explanatory Analysis of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, pp. 199-200.
2Moo, p. 681.
3J. Randall Price, "Prophetic Postponement in Daniel 9 and Other Texts," in Issues in
Dispensationalism, p. 136.
following point: The Israelites did not follow God faithfully even
though they saw God's miraculous deliverance from Egypt,
experienced His preservation in the wilderness, and heard the
warnings of the prophets. God gave them a spirit of stupor
because they failed to respond to the numerous blessings that
He bestowed on them.1 A similar example would be a person
losing his appetite for steak because he eats steak every day.
This was apparently an instance of God giving the Jews over
to the natural consequences of their actions (1:24, 26, 28).
11:9-10 The Jews regarded Psalm 69 as Messianic in Paul's day (cf.

John 15:25). The quotation from this psalm (vv. 22-23)
records David's desire. He wished that his enemies' "table" (a
metaphor for what is associated with it, i.e., blessings) would
become something that they would stumble over ("a
stumbling block"). The enemies in view were the Lord's
enemies, as well as the king's enemies, since David was the
LORD's anointed. This is what actually happened to the
Israelites who had set themselves against God by rejecting His
Son. Inability to see clearly and bondage to the Law had
resulted (cf. Acts 15:10).
The Greek phrase dia pantos usually means continually. It

probably means that here as well, rather than forever.2 Paul
would explain that Israel's obstinacy and bondage would not
last indefinitely (v. 26). He explained that God had brought
upon the Jews what David had prayed would happen to his
persecutors.
"Their table is their table-fellowship: the unity and

interrelatedness created by the law and so highly
valued in Judaism were no more than a delusion
since they were a union in sin (iii. 20), not
righteousness. The bent back is a symbol of
bondage; compare Gal. iv. 25."3
1Robertson, 4:393.
2Cranfield, 2:552.
3Barrett, p. 211.
Even though as a whole Israel had reaped the fruit of her own stubborn
rebellion against God, He had chosen a remnant within the nation for
salvation. The presence of this remnant shows that God has not cast off
His chosen people totally, nor has He been unfaithful to His promises to
them.
2. Israel's rejection not final 11:11-24
Now Paul put the remnant aside and dealt with Israel as a whole. Even while
Israel resists God's plan centered in Messiah, the Lord is at work bringing
Gentiles to salvation. Gentile salvation really depends on Israel's covenant
relationship with God, which Paul illustrated with an olive tree. The salvation
of Gentiles in the present age not only magnifies the grace of God, but it
will also provoke Israel to jealousy and lead her ultimately to return to the
Lord.
11:11 Another rhetorical question marks another advance in the

movement of Paul's thought. The stumbling of Israel did not
result in a hopeless fall (cf. 9:32-33; 11:9). God now deals with
Gentiles on the same basis as Jews, regarding their salvation,
because Israel as a whole rejected Jesus Christ. One reason
God chose to do this was to make Israel jealous of the Gentiles
as the recipients of God's blessings so that Israel would turn
back to God.
To illustrate, sometimes parents will reward one of their

children for being obedient, but will withhold a reward from
another one of their children who has been disobedient. The
intent of that treatment is, in part, to motivate the disobedient
child to become more obedient (cf. Matt. 22:1-14; Luke
14:15-24).
11:12 Paul here anticipated the national repentance of Israel, which

he articulated later (v. 26). God had promised to bless the
world through Israel (Gen. 12:1-3). How much more blessing
will come to the world when Israel turns back to God ("their
fulfillment" or fullness) than is coming to the world now while
she is in rebellion against God!
"While pleroma probably has a qualitative

denotation—'fullness'—the context and the
parallel with v. 25 suggest that this 'fullness' is

attained through a numerical process. Paul would
then be suggesting that the present 'defeat' of
Israel, in which Israel is numerically reduced to a
small remnant, will be reversed by the addition of
far greater numbers of true believers: this will be
Israel's destined 'fullness.'"1
"From one point of view the unbelief of the Jews

was a transgression (paraptoma), from another it
was a defeat, for they were repulsed from the
Messianic kingdom, since they had failed to obtain
what they sought."2
11:13-14 Here Paul applied what he had said earlier to his own ministry.
By evangelizing Gentiles Paul was causing more Jews to
become jealous of God's blessings on Gentile converts. He was
thereby playing a part in bringing some Jews to faith.
"The Gentiles are not saved merely for their own

sake, but for the sake of God's election of Israel."3
"However strange it may sound, the way to

salvation of Israel is by the mission to the
Gentiles."4
11:15 When Israel returns to God and He accepts her, the results for
all humankind will be comparable to life from the dead (cf.
Ezek. 37). God's blessings on humanity now ("reconciliation")
will pale by comparison with what the world will experience
then (i.e., during the Millennium).5
"The reconciling of the world does not mean that

all men will be reconciled, but that all who will may
1Moo, p. 690.
3James Daane, The Freedom of God, p. 145.
4Johannes Munck, Paul and the Salvation of Mankind, p. 301.
5See Jim R. Sibley, "Has the Church Put Israel on the Shelf? The Evidence from Romans
11:15," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 58:3 (September 2015):571-81.

be reconciled. The scope of reconciliation is the

whole world and the instrument is the Gospel."1
11:16 The "first piece of dough" describes the believing remnant in

Israel now: Christian Jews. The "lump" refers to the whole
nation: Israel. God has consecrated both groups to Himself.
The "root" probably refers to the Abrahamic Covenant, and

the "branches" probably refer to the believing and unbelieving
Gentiles and Jews, in view of how Paul proceeded to develop
this illustration in verses 17-24.2 Moo saw the root as the
patriarchs and God's promises to them.3 J. N. Darby and Arno
Gaebelein believed that the root refers to Abraham.4 Others
have held that the first piece of dough and the root refer to
Abraham and the patriarchs.5
11:17 The cultivated olive tree probably represents God's promised

blessings. The olive tree was a symbol of the nation of Israel
in the Old Testament (Jer. 11:16-17; Hos. 14:4-6). So some
interpreters believe that the wild olive tree therefore
represents the Gentile world.6 The "rich root" of the cultivated
tree probably corresponds to the Abrahamic Covenant7 (or the
patriarchs, or Abraham) from which all of God's future
promised blessings sprang. We might add to the illustration by
saying that the roots derive their nourishment from God
Himself.
Paul said that God grafted Gentiles in among the Jews. They
became partakers with the Jews of the blessings that come
through the root. That is, Gentiles have become partakers with
the Jews of the promises that God gave in the Abrahamic
Covenant.
1Vine, p. 165.
2See J. Dwight Pentecost, Thy Kingdom Come, p. 286.
3Moo, p. 698.
4Darby, 4:207; Gaebelein, 3:2:68.
5Alford, 2:2:430; Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 180; Marvin R. Wilson, Our Father
Abraham, pp. 14-15.

6Bruce, p. 204.
7Ryrie, Biblical Theology …, p. 214; Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, p. 223.
"Men graft to mend the tree; but God grafts to

mend the branch."1
Paul did not say that the Gentiles became part of Israel, only
that they partake with Israel of the blessings of the root. This
is a very important point of distinction. The olive tree is not
the church, or the so-called "new Israel," in which God has
united Jewish and Gentile believers in one body (Eph. 3:6). This
is the view of many amillennialists and covenant theologians.2
The branches from the wild olive tree retain their own identity
as wild branches (Gentiles), even though they receive
blessings that come through the Abrahamic Covenant (e.g.,
the Messiah, the Scriptures, etc.). Some believe that the
grafted in branches represent specifically all who profess to be
Christians (i.e., Christendom), saved and unsaved alike.3 I
prefer the view that they are simply Gentiles.
A common misunderstanding of this figure is that the olive tree

is a symbol of all believers throughout history: all the people
of God. The natural branches, in this view, represent Israel, and
the grafted in branches represent the church, not the Gentiles.
The Old Testament use of the olive tree as a symbol of the
nation of Israel argues against this view. Furthermore this
verse says "some" of the natural olive branches (Israelites,
according to this view) "were broken off" the tree. If the tree
represents all believers, this must mean that some believing
Israelites have ceased to be part of the people of God. This of
course is not true.
Some interpreters have objected to Paul's illustration because

he spoke of grafting wild branches into a good olive tree.
Horticulturalists know that the opposite is normally done: good
branches are grafted into a wild tree. However Paul proceeded
to say that what he was describing was "contrary to nature"
1Henry, p. 1782.
2E.g., ibid., et al.
3E.g., Gaebelein, 3:2:68.
(v. 24). He knew that his illustration was not typical

horticultural practice, which he changed for his own purpose.1
11:18 Gentile believers should not feel superior to ("arrogant

toward") Jewish unbelievers, the branches that God has
broken off the tree of blessing (vv. 17, 19). Gentile believers
might conclude that their salvation is what was responsible for
the continuing existence of Israel (cf. v. 14). Actually it is
God's faithfulness in honoring the Abrahamic Covenant (the
root) that is responsible for that.
11:19-20 It is true that one of the reasons that Gentiles have become
partakers of the blessings of the Abrahamic Covenant is that
many of the Jews have not believed. Of course, it was always
God's purpose to bless Gentiles (Gen. 12:1-3). However, the
Gentile believer who may feel superior to the unbelieving Jew
needs to remember something: The only reason he is where he
is (partaking of blessings from the Abrahamic Covenant), is
because he has simply believed God ("you stand by your
faith"). He is not there because he has done some meritorious
work that would be a ground for boasting (cf. 5:2) Therefore
Paul warned: "Do not be conceited, but fear."
11:21 Throughout this whole discussion Paul was viewing Gentile

believers and Jewish unbelievers as two groups. This fact is
clear from his use of the singular "you" in the Greek text (su,
vv. 17-24). If he had been speaking of individual believers we
might conclude that this verse provides some basis for
believing that a believer could lose his or her salvation. Paul's
point was: if God set aside Jews ("did not spare the natural
branches") temporarily, because of their unbelief, He could do
(not will do) the same with Gentiles because of their boasting.
11:22 "Those who fell" are the unbelieving Jews, and "you" are the
believing Gentiles. The positions are reversible. Gentiles can
become the object of God's severity, and Jews can become
the object of His kindness. This depends on their responses to
1See Godet, p. 406.

God. Their response determines whether God will spare them

(v. 21) or cut them off (v. 22) as a group, not individually.
11:23 Belief is what resulted in God grafting in believing Gentiles (v.

17), and belief could result in Him grafting in believing Jews in
the future ("God is able to graft them in again"). In the
illustration the whole trunk of the cultivated olive tree
represents the blessings of the Abrahamic Covenant and the
natural branches are Jews. Again, Paul was not speaking of
individual salvation here but of God's program for Jews and
Gentiles as groups.
11:24 Here is another of Paul's "much more" comparisons (5:9, 19,

15, 17; cf. Luke 11:13). If God did the difficult thing, namely,
grafting wild branches (believing Gentiles) onto the trunk
(God's blessings), it should not be hard to believe that He will
do the easier thing. The easier thing is restoring the pruned
natural branches of the cultivated tree (unbelieving Jews who
will come to faith in Christ) to their former position (as
beneficiaries of God's blessings).
"The restoration of converted Jews to the

Patriarchal communion must from the nature of
the case be more natural than the conversion of
the heathen."1
Obviously the branches formerly broken off do not represent

the same individuals as those grafted in in the future. They are
Jews who, in the former case, did not believe and, in the latter
case, will believe. However, the grafting in of Jews in the future
will not involve the breaking off (rejection) of Gentile believers.
"The important place the olive has had in Rome's

economy from Bible times until now is indicated
by Italy's being the leading olive-growing country
in the world today [in 1989]. Thus it should not
seem strange that the apostle, when writing to
1Liddon, p. 314. Cf. Sanday and Headlam, p. 330.

the church at Rome, would use the figure of the

olive tree."1
3. Israel's restoration assured 11:25-32
Paul previously laid the groundwork for this section. His point so far was
that God is able to restore Israel. That is, He can restore the nation of
Israel—which now has many natural branches (unbelieving Jews) broken
off—to its former condition as a blessed and fruitful nation in the world.
Now we learn that He is not only able to do this, but He will do it. This
section is the climax of everything that Paul wrote in chapters 9—11.
"The same mercy that has overtaken the Gentiles who were
formerly disobedient will finally overtake the now disobedient
Israel."2
"Just as when treating of the Resurrection, his argument

passes into revelation, 'Behold, I tell you a mystery' (I Cor. xv.
51): so here he declares not merely as the result of his
argument, but as an authoritative revelation, the mystery of
the Divine purpose."3
11:25 A "mystery" in the New Testament refers to a truth previously

unknown but now revealed. It does not mean something
incomprehensible or something eerie. In the mystery religions
of the Greco-Roman world initiates received secret information
that was unknown to non-initiates. A modern counterpart is
the "secret societies" (e.g., the Masons, the Eastern Star, et
al.). The previously unrevealed revelation in this case was that
Israel (ethnic Jews) would experience a partial hardening of
heart from God until the full number of elect Gentiles would be
saved. God's plan to put the nation of Israel aside temporarily
should not make Gentile believers think too highly of
themselves. God designed this plan to display His own glory.
We must be careful not to equate the modern State of Israel

with the Israel spoken of in the Bible. Biblical Israel was a
1Wilson,p. 13.
2Harrison,p. 123.
3Sanday and Headlam, pp. 333-34.
sovereign nation among nations in the world that lost its

sovereignty when Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem in
586 B.C. Whereas some Jews have organized the modern
State of Israel, God has promised that He will yet cause the
great majority of Jewish people to believe on His Son and
return to the Promised Land as believers in Him. This will
happen when Jesus Christ returns to the earth. He will then
reestablish Israel as the specially blessed people of God and
reign over them (and the whole world) as their Davidic King
(cf. Zech. 12—14). The present State of Israel is not enjoying
the abundant blessings that God promised to bring on Israel
when Christ returns.
The "fullness of the Gentiles" refers to the "full number of the

Gentiles" (NIV; cf. v. 12; Luke 21:23-24; Acts 15:14). When
all the Gentiles whom God has chosen for salvation during the
present age of Jewish rejection (or setting aside, i.e., "the
times of the Gentiles," Luke 21:24) have experienced
salvation, God will initiate a revival of faith among the Jews.
Even though some Jews trust in Christ now, God is not
presently working through them as Israel, as He will in the
future (i.e., in the Millennium), after multitudes of them turn
to faith in Christ. He is now working through the church.
"Till the accomplishment of the conversion of the

Gentiles, there will be among the Jews only
individual conversions; but this goal reached, their
conversion en masse will take place."1
11:26 "The first clause of v. 26 is the storm center in

the interpretation of Rom. 9—11 and of NT
teaching about the Jews and their future."2
"It is impossible to entertain an exegesis which

understands 'Israel' here in a different sense from
'Israel' in verse 25 ([that is, it is impossible to
1Godet,p. 411. See also pp. 528-30.

2Moo, p. 719. See H. Wayne House, "The Future of National Israel," Bibliotheca Sacra
166:664 (October-December 2009):643-81, for a discussion of the major views.
understand "Israel" in verse 26 as meaning] 'a

hardening has come upon part of Israel')."1
Nevertheless, many interpreters have done this. For example,

amillennialist Lenski wrote:
"In v. 25 'Israel' is a physical nation; hence it is

claimed that in v. 26 'all Israel' must have the
same meaning. But in 9:7 we read: 'all those of
Israel (the physical nation), not these are Israel
(the spiritual Israel).' In that same brief sentence
'Israel' is used in different senses."2
"All Israel" means Israel as a whole in contrast to the relatively

small believing remnant of Jews. The context makes this clear.
This conclusion does not require that every individual Israelite
living at this time will be saved. It only requires the salvation
of the bulk of the nation (cf. 1 Kings 12:1; 2 Chron. 12:1-5;
Dan. 9:11; Zech. 12—13).3 Similarly, "all Israel" has
temporarily been set aside as a whole and does not believe the
gospel (v. 25), though individuals within the nation do believe.
"To understand this great statement ["all Israel

will be saved"], as some still do, merely of such a
gradual inbringing of individual Jews, that there
shall at length remain none in unbelief, is to do
manifest violence both to it and to the whole
context. It can only mean the ultimate ingathering
of Israel as a nation, in contrast with the present
'remnant.'"4
Whenever the name "Israel" appears in the New Testament, it

refers either to the whole nation of Jacob's racial descendants
(ethnic Jews) or to the believing remnant within that group. It
is not another name for the church. John Calvin believed
"Israel" meant "the church," and covenant theologians have
1Bruce, p. 209.
2Lenski, p. 726.
3Bruce, p. 209. Cf. Mickelsen, p. 1218; Dunn, Romans 9—16, p. 681; Johnson, Discovering
Romans, p. 186.
4Jamieson, et al., p. 1172.
followed in his train.1 "All Israel" does not refer to all Jews who
have been believers throughout history either.2 If that were
what Paul meant, this statement would be irrelevant to his
argument.3
"So" here means "when that has happened" (NEB), or "then

after this" (JB).4 It may also mean "in this manner," namely, in
the way that Paul described in verses 11-24.5
"Whatever is happening to Israel now, Paul has

been given the divinely revealed assurance that all
will come out right for Israel in the end, that God's
faithfulness to his first love will be demonstrated
for all to see."6
The quotation from Isaiah 59:20-21 not only supported Paul's

assertion but also hinted at the time this revival will take place.
It will happen when Messiah will come out of the heavenly
Jerusalem (heaven; Gal. 4:26; Heb. 12:22). This will be at His
second coming (Zech. 12:10).7
"Israel … was chosen for a fourfold mission: (1) to

witness to the unity of God in the midst of
universal idolatry (cp. Dt. 6:4 with Isa. 43:10-12);
(2) to illustrate to the nations the blessedness of
serving the true God (Dt. 33:26-29; 1 Chr. 17:20-
21; Ps. 144:15); (3) to receive, preserve, and
transmit the Scriptures (Dt. 4:5-8; Rom. 3:1-2);
and (4) to be the human channel for the Messiah
(Gen. 3:15; 12:3; 22:18; 28:10-14; 49:10; 2
1See John Calvin, The Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Romans and to the Thessalonians,
p. 255; C. B. Williams, p. 298.
2For defense of this view, see Ben L. Merkle, "Romans 11 and the Future of Ethnic Israel,"
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43:4 (December 2000):709-21.

3Murray, 2:96-98.
4NEB refers to The New English Bible with the Apocrypha, and JB refers to The Jerusalem
Bible.
5Cranfield, 2:576.
7See Toussaint and Quine, pp. 146-47.
Sam. 7:12-16; Isa. 7:14; 9:6; Mt. 1:1; Rom.

1:3)."1
11:27 Isaiah 27:9 also predicted a great removal of Israel's sins (i.e.,
the sins of believing Jews when Christ returns) and connected
this removal with the bestowal of the New Covenant blessings
on Israel (cf. Jer. 31:31-34).
"… the history of God's dealings with ethnic Israel

as set out in Romans 11:1-10, the logic of Israel's
reversal of fortune in verses 11-15, supported by
the illustration of the olive tree and the regrafting
of the natural branches of ethnic Israel into it
'again' in verses 16-24, and the prophecy of the
salvation of 'all Israel' in verses 25-27 combine to
establish the future of ethnic Israel as a glorious
hope of both Israel and the church."2
11:28 Under the present economy God views Israel's physical

descendants (as a whole) as His enemies because of their
unbelief. They are enemies of His additionally for the sake of
the Gentiles to whom He extends grace in this period of Jewish
unbelief. However from the standpoint of their national
election for a special purpose, they are the objects of His love
because of the patriarchs.
11:29 The special privileges that God gave Israel are probably what
Paul intended by his reference here to God's gifts (cf. 9:4-5).
These privileges have intimate connection with God's calling of
Israel for a special purpose. God will not withdraw these from
Israel (they "are irrevocable"). He did not choose Israel for her
goodness, and He will not abandon her for her badness. Paul
said virtually the same thing about the security of individual
Christians in 8:31-39.
11:30-31 These verses are a warning to Gentile believers. Gentiles should

beware of becoming critical of God for planning to bless the
Jews in the future. We should also beware of becoming proud

2Johnson, "Evidence from …," p. 219.
because we are presently the special objects of God's favor.

We need to remember that God chose Israel so that we who
are Gentiles could enjoy salvation (Gen. 12:1-3).
11:32 The conclusion of the matter is this: As everyone has been

disobedient, Gentiles and Jews alike, so God will show mercy
to all as well (cf. 3:9; Gal. 3:22). That is, He will show mercy
to all without distinction (between Gentiles and Jews), not to
all without exception (cf. 9:17). This is a great ground of
assurance.
"A critical frame of reference in Paul's treatment

of Israel's salvation is a distinction between
corporate and individual election."1
This concludes the argument of chapters 9—11.
"Ethnic Israel has a future, because God will accomplish

salvation for Israel according to his new-covenant promise.
This awaits the fullness of the Gentiles, when Israel's hardening
will be removed and when Gentile provocation will have taken
its course. All Israel will be saved in such a way that God's
mercy will be evident to all."2
"Perhaps the view most commonly held among evangelical

non-dispensationalists is that Israel's future is simply an
incorporation of that people into the church. Hoekema speaks
for many when he writes, '… the future of believing Israelites
is not to be separated from the future of believing Gentiles.'
He states that Israel has no particular place in God's future
salvation economy: 'Israel's hope for the future is exactly the
same as that of believing Gentiles: salvation and ultimate
glorification through faith in Christ.'"3
1Moo, p. 737.
2J.Lanier Burns, "The Future of Ethnic Israel in Romans 11," in Dispensationalism, Israel
and the Church, p. 216.
3Saucy, The Case …, p. 23. The quotation is from Anthony Hoekema, The Bible and the
Future, p. 201.
Nothing remains but to praise God for His righteousness in dealing with
Israel as He has and as He will.
4. Praise for God's wise plan 11:33-36
This doxology corresponds to the one at the end of chapter 8, where Paul
concluded his exposition of God's plan for bringing His righteousness to
humankind (8:31-39). There the emphasis was on the people of God. Here
it is on the plan of God. There it was on individual salvation, here it is on
the national salvation of the Jews.
"Here theology turns to poetry. Here the seeking of the mind

turns to the adoration of the heart."1
"In an argument which began with man's rebellion against God

as creator (1:18-25), what could be more appropriate than a
final acclamation of God the creator?"2
Vine noted the chiastic structure of this doxology:3
A "Oh, the depth
B of the riches
C both of the wisdom
D and knowledge of God!
E How unsearchable are His judgments
E' and unfathomable His ways!
D' For who has known the mind of the LORD?
C' or who became His counselor?
B' Or who has first given to Him, that it should be paid back to him?
1Barclay, p. 167.
3Vine, p. 173.
A' For from Him, and through Him, and to Him are all things. To Him be
the glory forever. Amen."
11:33 God's wisdom is His ability to arrange His plan so that it results
in good for both Jews and Gentiles and His own glory. His
knowledge testifies to His ability to construct such a plan—His
divine ingenuity. His decisions ("judgments") spring from logic
that extends beyond human ability to comprehend. His
procedures ("ways") are so complex that humans cannot
discover them without the aid of divine revelation (cf. Isa.
55:8-9).
"I have heard many Christians say, 'Why are the

heathen lost when they haven't heard the gospel?
God has no right to condemn them!' My friend,
God has every right imaginable. He is God. And
what He is doing is right. If you don't think it is
right, your thinking is wrong. And if you don't
think He is being smart, you are wrong. God is not
stupid. You and I may be stupid, but God is not."1
11:34 Paul agreed with Isaiah again (Isa. 40:13-14). No one can fully
know God's mind. God is so wise that He has no need of
counselors.
11:35 Job's observation that God has never needed to depend on

human assistance, which would put Him in man's debt (Job
35:7; 41:11), is also true. The fact that God makes people His
partners in executing His will in the world does not mean that
He cannot accomplish His purposes without human agents. He
can.
11:36 God is the source from which all things come ("from Him"), the
means (agent) by which all things happen ("through Him"), and
the goal toward which all things are moving ("to Him"). He is
likewise the originator, sustainer, and completer of everything
ultimately (cf. Col. 1:16-17). In view of all these attributes,
roles, and redemptive works (vv. 33-36) He deserves all glory
forever.
1McGee, 4:726.
The primary focus of this doxology, which harmonizes with the theme of
chapters 9—11, is God's great plan of salvation through history. However,
"all things" (v. 36) includes the lives of individuals as well.
In chapter 11, Paul cited five witnesses to Israel's future salvation: himself
(v. 1), Elijah (vv. 2-10), the Gentiles (vv. 11-15), the patriarchs (vv. 16-
24), and God (vv. 25-36).1
Paul had now concluded his theological exposition of how unrighteous

human beings can obtain the righteousness of God. Only the explanation of
the implications of possessing this righteousness remained for him to spell
out. This practical guidance (in 12:1—15:13) is especially important since
the Christian is no longer under the regulations of the Mosaic Law (7:6;
10:4). What follows is New Covenant teaching.
VI. THE PRACTICE OF GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS 12:1—15:13
In contrasting chapters 1—11 with chapters 12—16 of Romans perhaps

the most important distinction is that the first part deals primarily with
God's actions for humanity and the last part deals with people's actions in
response to God's. This is an oversimplification of the book, but the
distinction is a valid one. God's provision contrasts with man's responsibility
to behave in a manner consistent with what God has done, is doing, and
will do for him (cf. Eph. 4:1; Phil. 2:12-13). The first part is more
information for belief whereas the last part is more exhortation for action.
The first part stresses right relations with God and the last part right
relations with other people.
"Doctrine must always precede exhortation since in doctrine

the saint is shown his exalted position which makes the
exhortation to a holy life, a reasonable one, and in doctrine,
the saint is informed as to the resources of grace he possesses
with which to obey the exhortations."2
"Someone may suggest that we have already studied the

practical application in the section on sanctification. There the
1See Fruchtenbaum, The Book …, pp. 311-86, for a discussion of differing view on
chapters 9—11.
2Wuest, 1:2:204.
gospel walked in shoe leather, it is true, but there is a sharp

distinction in these two sections. Under 'sanctification' we
were dealing with Christian character; in this section we are
dealing with Christian conduct. There it was the inner man;
here it is the outward man. There it was the condition of the
Christian; here it is the consecration of the Christian. There it
was who the Christian is; here it is what he does. We have seen
the privileges of grace; we now consider the precepts of grace.
Enunciation of the way of life must be followed by evidences
of life. Announcement of justification by faith must be
augmented by activity of life."1
"Sin is death, disease, and departure; righteousness must meet

all three aspects. In Romans 3:21 to 5:11, the main thought is
of sin as death; in 5:12 to 8:39, of sin as disease. In chapters
12 to 16 the ruling idea is of sin as departure. Thus the Apostle
deals with justification, sanctification, and consecration."2
state
church
God
moral
religious
civil
Essentially this exhortation, which is both positive and negative, deals with
behavior within the spheres of life where the believer lives. These areas are
his or her relationship to God, to other members of the body of Christ, and
to the civil state. There is a general correspondence here with the
instruction that God gave the Israelites through Moses for life in Israel. Paul
dealt with the same areas of life: moral, religious and civil life. The
differences with the Mosaic Code are as striking as the similarities. Romans
does not contain all the Law of Christ (Gal. 6:2), but each of the other New
1McGee, 4:728.
2Griffith Thomas, Grace and …, pp. 44-45.
Testament books makes its unique contribution to our understanding of

God's will for Christians.
"One of the most striking features of Rom. 12:1—15:13 is the

way in which its various themes resemble teaching that Paul
gives elsewhere [cf. 12:1-2 and Eph. 4:17-24; 12:3-8 and 1
Cor. 12 and Eph. 4:11-17; 12:9-21 and 1 Thess. 4:9-12 and
1 Cor. 13; 13:8-10 and Gal. 5:13-15; 13:11-14 and 1 Thess.
5:1-11; 14:1—15:13 and 1 Cor. 8—10]."1
"The main idea running through the whole section seems to be

that of peace and unity for the Church in all relations both
internal and external."2
Chapters 12—13 give directions for Christian conduct generally, and

14:1—15:13 deals with a specific problem that the Roman Christians faced
and which all Christians share.
"It is so easy to put down rules of conduct, but Paul is not

doing that. He has delivered us from the Mosaic Law, and he
did not deliver us in order to put us under another legal system.
… However, Paul puts down great principles that are to guide
the believer."3
A. DEDICATION TO GOD 12:1-2
Verses 1 and 2 of chapter 12 deal with the Christian's most important

relationship: his or her relationship to God. These verses are both parallel
to the sections to follow that deal with the Christian's conduct, and they
introduce them. Our relationship to God is foundational and governs all our
other conduct. Dunn entitled this section of verses "the basis for
responsible living—the Christian's worship."4
Paul had already called for the Christian to present himself or herself to God
(6:13, 19). Now he repeated that duty as the Christian's most imperative
1Moo, p. 745.
3McGee, 4:728.
obligation. He had also spoken of false worship and corrupted minds (1:25,
28). This exhortation ties into these two former passages especially.
12:1 "Therefore" draws a conclusion from all that Paul had

presented so far, not just chapters 9—11 (cf. 2:1; 5:1; 8:1).
This is clear from what he proceeded to say. The charge rises
out of humankind's universal condemnation by God (3:20), the
justification that God has provided freely (5:1), and the
assurance of acceptance that the believing sinner can have
(8:1). Because of all this it is only reasonable to present our
lives to God as living sacrifices (12:1). In particular, the
exhortation to present ourselves to God in 6:13 and 19 is in
view.
Exhortation now replaces instruction. Urging (Gr. parakaleo)

lies between commanding and beseeching. "I urge you" is "one
of the tenderest expressions in all the Bible."1 Paul used
parakaleo about 50 times in his epistles (1 Cor. 4:16; Eph. 4:1;
1 Tim. 2:1; et al.). Probably he did not command his readers
because the attitude with which one presents himself or
herself to God is crucial. The apostle did not want his readers
to comply because he had commanded them to do so but
because they wanted to in response to what God had done for
them. Therefore he made his appeal as strong as possible
without commanding. He had previously commanded this
conduct (6:13, 19).
"… I BESEECH YOU — What an astonishing word

to come from God! From a God against whom we
had sinned, and under whose judgment we were!
What a word to us, believers,—a race of sinners
so lately at enmity with God,—'I beseech you!'"2
The phrase "the mercies of God" refers to all that Paul revealed
in this epistle that God has done for the believer. Paul used the
singular mercy in the Greek text evidently because of his
recent exposition of God's mercy in 11:30-32. Mercy denotes
the quality in God that led Him to deliver us from our sin and
1J. P. McBeth, Exegetical and Practical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, p. 229.
2Newell, p. 447. Cf. Phile. 9-10; 2 Cor. 5:20.
misery. It contrasts with grace. Mercy expresses deliverance

from condemnation that we deserve, and grace describes the
bestowal of blessings that we do not deserve. Paul called us
to sacrifice ourselves to God because He has been merciful to
us. In pagan religions of Paul's day the worshippers typically
first offered sacrifices to secure the mercy of the gods. That
is unnecessary in Christianity because God has taken the
initiative and provided the sacrifice that secured His mercy for
us.
Hebrew thought viewed the body as the representation of the

whole person. Paul was urging the presentation of the whole
person, not just the outer shell (cf. 6:13).1 However the body
does stand in antithesis to the mind in verse 2, so the physical
body does seem to be what Paul was stressing particularly (cf.
1 Cor. 6:20; 2 Cor. 4:10; Phil. 1:20).2 Jewish priests needed
to present themselves without blemish as sacrifices to God
before they could serve Him (cf. Mal. 1:8-13). The same is true
in Christianity. The believer-priest's whole life needs to be
given over to the Lord (cf. Lev. 1). We need to separate from
sin to God. This is the essence of holiness (cf. 6:19). This kind
of sacrifice is acceptable to God and pleases Him.
Some scholars claim that the tense of the verb translated

"present" (aorist in Greek) presupposes a decisive offering
made once-for-all.3 Others say that the aorist tense does not
carry the once-for-all meaning, and that Paul simply meant that
we should make this offering, without implying how often.4 In
view of the nature of the commitment that Paul called for, it
seems that we should make it decisively, as often as we desire.
What the Christian needs to present is his or her life for service
to God. In Israel the whole burnt offering, which represented
the entire person of the offerer (Lev. 1), burned up completely
on the altar. The offerer could not reclaim it because it
1Cranfield, 2:598-99; Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 324.

2Liddon, p. 228; D. Edmond Hiebert, "Presentation and Transformation: An Exposition of
Romans 12:1-2," Bibliotheca Sacra 151:603 (July-September 1994):314.
3E.g., Harrison, p. 127.
4E.g., Moo, p. 750.
belonged to God. Paul implied that this should also characterize

the Christian's self-sacrifice.
"The sacrifices of the new order do not consist in

taking the lives of others, like the ancient animal
sacrifices, but in giving one's own (cf. Heb. 13:15-
16; 1 Pet. 2:5)."1
"Spiritual service of worship" or "reasonable service" (AV)

means that the sacrifice should be thoughtful and deliberate.
The animals in Jewish sacrifices could not offer themselves this
way because they were animals.
"Paul means, a worship consisting not in outward

rites but in the movement of man's inward being.
This is better described as 'spiritual worship' than
as 'rational', for Paul is not thinking of what is
meant in modern English by 'rational'."2
There are many ways in which we can worship God, but self-
dedication is the most fundamental and important way. This
service of worship should precede all other service of worship,
or else worship and service are superficial. Two notable
examples of this decisive dedication of self are Isaac (Gen. 22)
and our Lord Jesus Christ (John 6:38). Both individuals allowed
themselves to be bound and offered up as sacrifices.
It was during his first visit to Great Britain in 1867, at the age
of 30, that D. L. Moody, who became the most effective
evangelist of the 19th century, heard the challenging words:
"The world has yet to see what God will do, with, and for, and
through, and in and by, the man who is fully and wholly
consecrated to Him." He responded: "I will try my utmost to
be that man."3
12:2 Verse 1 deals with making the commitment, and verse 2 deals
with maintaining it.
1Bruce, p. 213.
2Barrett,p. 231.
3W. R. Moody, The Life of Dwight L. Moody, p. 122.
"The first verse calls for an explicit act; the second

commands a resultant lifelong process. These
verses are a call for an act of presentation and the
resultant duty of transformation."1
Both activities are important. The present tense in the Greek

text of verse 2 indicates a continuing responsibility, in contrast
to the aorist tense in verse 1 that stresses a decisive act. The
"world" (Gr. aion) is the spirit of our age that seeks to exclude
God from life (1 John 2:15). The world seeks to "squeeze you
into its own mold."2 The Christian should be continually
renewing his or her mind by returning mentally to the decision
to dedicate self to God, and by reaffirming that decision. This
continual rededication to God will result in the transformation
of the Christian into Christ's image (8:29; cf. Mark 9:2-3). A
daily rededication is none too often.
"This re-programming of the mind does not take

place overnight but is a lifelong process by which
our way of thinking is to resemble more and more
the way God wants us to think."3
The Holy Spirit is the unidentified transformer whom Paul set

in contrast to the world (8:9-11; cf. Matt. 17:1-2; 2 Cor. 3:18;
6:17-18; 7:1; Col. 3:9-10; 1 Thess. 5:23; Titus 3:5). "Prove"
or "test and approve" (NIV) involves evaluating and choosing
to practice what is the will of God instead of what the world
recommends (cf. Eph. 5:8-10). We clarify what God's will for
us is by rededicating ourselves to God often. God's will
sometimes becomes blurred when our commitment to Him
wavers (cf. Eph. 5:8-10; Jas. 1:6-8). Nevertheless, it is always
good. Notice that total commitment to the Lordship of Jesus
Christ is a prerequisite for experiencing God's will.
Dedication results in discernment that leads to delight in God's

will. The initial dedication and the subsequent reaffirmation
both please God (vv. 1-2; cf. Phil. 4:18; Heb. 13:16). "Good"
1Hiebert, "Presentation and …," p. 312.

2J.B. Phillips' paraphrase.
3Moo, p. 757.
means essentially good. "Acceptable" means pleasing to God.

"Perfect" means it cannot get any better.
Kenneth Wuest's interpretive paraphrase of this verse is

helpful:
"And stop assuming an outward expression that

does not come from within you and is not
representative of what you are in your inner being,
but is patterned after this age; but change your
outward expression to one that comes from within
and is representative of your inner being, by the
renewing of your mind, resulting in your putting to
the test what is the will of God, the good and well-
pleasing, and complete will, and having found that
it meets specification, placing your approval upon
it."1
Romans 12:1-2 are extremely important verses for Christians. They express
our most important responsibility to God, namely, submitting completely
to His Lordship over our lives. The popular saying: "God is my co-pilot,"
does not give God His rightful place. God wants and deserves to be our
Pilot, not our co-pilot. Christians should make this commitment as close to
the moment of their justification as possible. However, notice that Paul
addressed his appeal to believers, not to the unsaved. Dedication to God is
a response to the mercy of God that we already received in salvation. It is
not a condition for receiving that mercy. It is a voluntary commitment that
every Christian should make out of love for the Savior, but it is not one
that every Christian does make. It is possible to be a Christian without ever
making this commitment, since it is voluntary.
"To require from the unsaved a dedication to His lordship for

their salvation is to make imperative what is only voluntary for
believers (Rom. 12:1; 1 Pet. 3:15)."2
"With this combined emphasis on commitment to and

dependence on God, marked out in distinction from the more
typical Jewish reliance on cult [ritual worship] and law, Paul has
1Wuest,1:2:209.
2LivingstonBlauvelt Jr., "Does the Bible Teach Lordship Salvation?" Bibliotheca Sacra
143:569 (January-March 1986):38.
set out the basis for responsible living and for the more
specific parenesis [exhortation] which follows."1
"What follows is instruction on how the newly redefined people

of God should live as such …"2
B. CONDUCT WITHIN THE CHURCH 12:3-21
Every Christian has the same duty toward God, namely, self-dedication (vv.
1-2). But the will of God for one Christian will differ from His will for another
concerning life and ministry within the body of Christ, the church (vv. 3-
21).
1. The diversity of gifts 12:3-8
12:3 Paul began this pericope with a reminder of his apostolic

authority. He probably did so because what he was about to
say required personal application that would affect the
conduct of his readers. The Romans had not met Paul
personally, so he urged them to receive his teaching humbly.
A humble attitude was also important as they evaluated and
exercised the individual abilities that God had given each of
them (cf. 1 Pet. 4:10). Paul had had experiences with
Christians who were proud because of their spiritual gifts in
Corinth, where he was when he wrote this epistle (cf. 1 Cor.
12:14-31; 13:4; 4:12, 20).
The main point of this entire paragraph (vv. 3-8) is that

Christians should not think more highly of themselves than
they should but use sound judgment in evaluating themselves.
"Humility is the direct effect of consecration,

because pride is, and ever has been, the great
enemy of true righteousness."3
The faith in view in this verse, and in verse 6, seems to refer

to one's ability to view and use his or her gifts as abilities that

2Ibid., p. 708.
God has given. It also involves trusting in God to work through

us to bring blessing to others. Such a view of oneself, in
relation to his or her gifts, is sound judgment because it is
consistent with reality.
The measure of faith, therefore, does not refer to how much

faith one can muster up but to the amount of faith that God
has given each Christian. This amount varies from believer to
believer. We can see this evidenced in that it is easier for some
Christians to trust God than it is for others to do so. Spiritual
gifts do not reflect the worth of the person who has them. For
example, a person who has gifts that enable him or her to
minister effectively to large crowds of people should not
conclude that he or she is a superior Christian.
"The man who is humble before God is unlikely to

be arrogant before his fellow-creatures."1
12:4-5 It is important that we remember that we are part of a larger

organism ("body"). We are not just a loose collection of
individuals ("members") each doing our own thing. Paul had
previously used the body to illustrate the church in 1
Corinthians 12. What he said here summarized the main idea
that he expounded more fully there. The body of Christ is a
unified organism ("one body"), and its members are diverse,
personally and in their functions.
"Your right hand has never yet had a fight with

the left: on the contrary, each constantly helps
the other!"2
All the members belong to each other. There is mutuality in

the church. As members of each other we cannot work
independently effectively. Each member benefits from the
contribution of every other member as well. This realization
should help us to avoid becoming proud.
1Barrett, p. 235.
2Newell, pp. 460-61.
"The point is that each member functions to serve

the body, not the body to serve the members."1
12:6 The gifts that we have are abilities that God has given us by
His grace (cf. 1 Cor. 12:6; Eph. 4:7; 1 Pet. 4:10). They are
capacities for His service.2
"Spiritual gifts are tools to build with, not toys to

play with or weapons to fight with."3
The list of seven gifts that follows is not exhaustive but only
illustrative (cf. 1 Cor. 12:27-28). Paul's point here was that it
is important that we use our gifts and that we use them in the
proper way. All the gifts must be used according to the
proportion (Gr. analogia) of the faith that God has given each
of us in order to be effective. The faith in view, as in verse 3,
is probably the amount of faith that God has given us, not what
we believe, namely, Christian teaching. In other words, we
should use our gifts trusting in God as much as we can.
(1) Probably Paul meant "prophecy" in the sense of

communicating revealed truth in order to exhort, encourage,
and comfort people (cf. 1 Cor. 14:3, 31) and, perhaps, to
praise God (1 Chron. 25:1). Predicting or proclaiming new
revelation is probably not what he meant. All the other gifts
listed here have served the whole church throughout its
history, so probably Paul viewed prophecy this way, too. If so,
none of the seven gifts listed here are "sign gifts."
12:7 All the gifts that Paul mentioned in verses 6-8 need to be
exercised within the body of Christ for its members' mutual
benefit (cf. v. 5). Obviously other gifts have other purposes.
However Paul was stressing here the need to recognize that
the members of the body contribute to the common welfare.
1Witmer, p. 488.
2For defense of the view that spiritual gifts are ministries rather than abilities, see Kenneth
Berding, "Confusing Word and Concept in 'Spiritual Gifts': Have We Forgotten James Barr's
Exhortations?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43:1 (March 200):37-51.
3Wiersbe, 1:555.
For each gift listed, he was speaking of the way we use these
gifts.
(2) "Service" or "serving" (v. 7, Gr. diakonia) probably refers

to ministering to the material needs of other believers.1
(3) "Teaching" involves explaining what God has revealed (cf.

1 Cor. 14:6). It differs from prophesying in that prophesying
(from propheteuo, lit. to speak forth) evidently included
communicating any word from God, inspired or uninspired (1
Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11).2
"… teaching preserves continuity, but prophecy

gives life; with teaching a community will not die,
but without prophecy it will not live."3
12:8 (4) "Exhorts" translates the Greek word parakalesis (cf. v. 1),
sometimes rendered comfort. Both words are good
translations. The context provides the clue to the main idea
wherever the word appears. Here, "exhortation" is perhaps the
best. Whereas teaching appeals to the mind, exhortation
(preaching) appeals to the will.
(5) "Giving" is capable of broad application within the body.

We should practice giving with singleness of heart, namely,
freedom from mixed motives (cf. Acts 5:1-11), "in sincere
concern."4 The idea is not so much giving lavishly as giving
single-mindedly, whole-heartedly: in order to please the Lord.
"Mixed motives wither liberality."5
(6) People with leadership gifts experience the temptation to

simply enjoy the benefits of their position instead of providing
true leadership by serving. Instead of "the one who is in
1Cranfield,2:622.
2See John E. Johnson, "The Old Testament Offices as Paradigm for Pastoral Identity,"
Bibliotheca Sacra 152:606 (April-June 1995):182-200.
3James D. G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit, p. 284.
4Idem, Romans 9—16, p. 730.
5Vine, p. 180.
leadership, with diligence" the RSV has "he who gives aid, with
zeal."1
(7) Showing mercy relates to ministering to the sick and

specially needy. A cheerful rather than a grudging attitude is
an important part of such ministry.
"He [Paul] did not think of spiritual gifts as synonymous with

the eye-catching and very physical; the charismatic Spirit came
to expression characteristically for him in service, no doubt
often hidden from the public eye, in the humdrum maintenance
of others in the basics of everyday living, as the Spirit of the
crucified."2
"With these seven works Paul covers all the main lines of
activity in the church."3
2. The necessity of love 12:9-21
Verses 9-13 deal with the importance of demonstrating love to fellow

believers, and verses 14-21 broaden this responsibility to include wider
application to non-believers. Note this passage's similarity with Jesus'
instructions in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5—7).
"From the thought of humility the idea of love naturally

follows, for humility will necessarily express itself in affection
for those around."4
Love for fellow believers 12:9-13
"Nowhere else in Paul's writings do we find a more concise

collection of ethical injunctions. In these five verses are
thirteen exhortations ranging from love of Christians to
hospitality for strangers. There are no finite verbs in the
paragraph. There are, however, ten participles that serve as
imperatives. In the three other clauses (vv. 9, 10, 11) an
imperative must be supplied. Each of the thirteen exhortations
1RSV refers to The Holy Bible: Revised Standard Version.

3Lenski, p. 765.
could serve as the text for a full-length sermon. What they

deal with are basic to effective Christian living."1
12:9 (1) Love is of primary importance (cf. Lev. 19:18; Matt. 22:39;
1 Cor. 13). However, it must be sincere ("free of hypocrisy";
cf. 1 John 4:19-21). This command acts as a heading for this
whole list of exhortations.
"Paul is not always talking specifically about love,

but he keeps coming back to love as the single
most important criterion for approved Christian
behavior."2
(2) The totally committed Christian should detest evil like his
or her Lord does. This is a matter of the heart, which God can
change. Some forms of evil remain attractive to believers, but
God can, over time, change our attitude toward them.
(3) Cleaving to what is good is the opposite of hating what is

evil. Seeking out and pursuing good things can help us wean
our hearts away from what is evil. There is an expulsive force
in a positive affection.
"What God seeks in the believer is not so much a

single worthy act as it is a continuing quality of
life."3
12:10 (4) Christians need to express love to individual people as well

as to ideals (v. 9).We should love one another like brothers
and sisters love each other. "Devoted" (Gr. philostorgoi)
suggests family affection (cf. 1 Tim. 5:1-2). This is one of four
Greek words for love, the others being agape (self-sacrificing
love), philos (affectionate regard), and eros (physical love).
"This too is part of the redefinition of boundaries

in which Paul engages—a sense of family
belongingness which transcended immediate
1Mounce, p. 236.
2Moo,p. 774.
3Mounce, p. 237.
family ties and did not depend on natural or ethnic

bonds [in contrast to Judaism]."1
(5) Giving recognition and appreciation to those who deserve

it is a concrete way of expressing love. We are to do this by
giving preference to others over ourselves.
12:11 (6) It is natural for Christians to slack off in their diligence in

when they have been Christians for some time. Diligence
involves careful and persistent work or effort.
(7) Apollos was a model of someone who maintained fervency

in his service (Acts 18:24-25; cf. Rev. 3:15-16), as was Paul.
They were "aglow with the Spirit."2
(8) It is also a temptation to turn away from serving the Lord.

Though changing circumstances and the seasons of life may
affect where and how we serve the Lord, we should always
look for ways to serve Him—even after retirement.
12:12 (9) We must never lose sight of our hope as believers. This will
help us to persevere in tribulation (cf. 5:3-4). The NEB
translates this phrase "Let hope keep you joyful."
"I think of a brother down in my Southland years

ago. In a church service they were giving favorite
Scripture verses. He stood and said that his
favorite verse was 'It came to pass." Everyone
looked puzzled. The preacher stood up and said,
'Brother, how in the world can "It came to pass"
be your favorite?' His answer was, 'When I have
trouble, and when I have problems, I like to read
that verse, 'It came to pass," and I know that my
trouble or my problem has come to pass; it hasn't
come to stay.' He was looking for a new day out
there, and that is what Paul has in mind when he
says, 'rejoicing in hope."3

2Ibid., p. 742.
3McGee, 4:732.
(10) Perseverance is not automatic for the Christian. Paul

encouraged it here, and there are many other exhortations in
Scripture to "keep on keeping on."
(11) Prayer is our great resource whenever we feel stress and

strain (cf. Phil. 4:6-7). Note the same progression—from hope,
to perseverance, to prayer—in 8:24-27. We should not just
pray, but we should be devoted to prayer (cf. Acts 1:14).1 It
should have high priority in our lives. Frequent attendance at
prayer meetings is one indication of devotion to prayer.
12:13 (12) We should never be so self-centered that we fail to reach

out to others and contribute to the needs of the saints.
"It is not enough to draw out the soul, but we

must draw out the purse to the hungry."2
(13) The practice of hospitality was especially important in

Paul's day because there were few public lodging places, and
those that existed were more often than not undesirable. But
hospitality (lit. love of strangers) is still important in our day.
Opening one's home to others is a unique way to demonstrate
Christian love to them.
"… one is not just to wait and take the stranger

in, if he actually presents himself at the door, but
to go out and look for those to whom one can
show hospitality …"3
God the Father and God the Son are our great examples in all of these
exhortations.
Love for all 12:14-21
In this section Paul urged activity that is contrary to how people normally
function, that is, how they operate in the flesh.
1See Dan R. Crawford, compiler, Giving Ourselves to Prayer.

2Henry, p. 1786.
3Cranfield, 2:639-40. See also Vine, p. 181.
"The exhortations in this section are to some extent parallel

to those in the Sermon on the Mount …"1
12:14 Paul repeated Jesus' instruction here (Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27-
28). To persecute means to pursue, namely, to chase after or
hunt down. To bless involves both wishing God's best on
people and praying for them.
"The principle of nonretaliation for personal injury

permeates the entire New Testament."2
12:15 Believers should share the joys and sorrows of their neighbors,
especially fellow believers (1 Cor. 12:26; Phil. 4:14).
"To weep with those that weep is easier than to

rejoice with those who rejoice. Those who rejoice
neither need, expect, nor feel grateful for
sympathy in the same degree as those who
weep."3
"His [Jesus'] first miracle [i.e., turning water into

wine, John 2] was performed in rejoicing with
them that rejoice and His greatest miracle [i.e.,
the raising of Lazarus, John 11] while weeping
with those that wept."4
12:16 The first part of this verse means: "Have equal regard for one
another" (NEB). Feelings of superiority are neither realistic nor
appropriate for those who owe all to God's grace. The secret
to not being wise in one's own estimation is to remember how
much we do not know.
12:17 The Christian can never justify returning evil treatment for evil
treatment. The second exhortation probably means that we
should give thought to how we do what is right, so that our
witness may be most effective to believers and unbelievers
alike (cf. Col. 4:5; 1 Tim. 3:7). Sometimes Christians do things
1Ibid.
2Mounce, p. 239.
3Denney, 2:693.
4Vine, p. 182.
that everyone else thinks are inappropriate. This should never

be.
12:18 Paul strongly advocated being a peacemaker (cf. Matt. 5:9),

but he did not promote peace at any price. In some situations
peace might give way to conflict if, for example, the truth is
at stake (cf. Gal. 2:11). In any case, the believer should not be
the instigator of trouble under normal circumstances. Note
Paul's two qualifiers regarding living at peace in this verse. It is
not always possible to live peacefully with some people,
because they make it impossible.
"Just do the best you can."1
12:19 If hostility does erupt, the Christian should not retaliate (take
revenge; cf. v. 17; Prov. 20:22; 24:29; Ps. 94:1; Matt. 5:39;
Luke 6:29; 1 Thess. 4:6; Heb. 10:30). Rather, he or she should
trust God to right the wrong (cf. 1 Sam. 24—26). Long ago
God promised to take care of His people when others wrong
them (Deut. 32:35). We have a responsibility to defend the
weak and to pursue justice, but we should not retaliate, but
trust God, when others attack us personally (cf. David).
"There was a man, an officer in one of the

churches I served, who did me a great injury, a
terrible injury. My first thought was to clobber
him, but I remembered this passage of Scripture.
I went to the Lord and said, 'Lord, I'd like to hit
back and I can, but I don't think I will. I'll turn him
over to You, and I expect you to handle him.' Well,
I saw that man the other day. I have never looked
at a person who is as unhappy as that man is. He
has troubles, friend. The Lord has taken him to the
woodshed and whipped him within an inch of his
life. When I looked into that man's face, I couldn't
help but feel sorry for him."2
1McGee, 4:733.
2Ibid., 4:734.
12:20 Instead of showing one's enemy unkindness, the believer

should do him or her positive good (cf. Matt. 5:44). This may
result in the antagonist feeling ashamed, acknowledging his
error, and even turning to God in repentance.
One interpretation of heaping burning coals on one's head is

that it figuratively describes doing good that results in the
conviction and shame of the enemy.1 The expression
supposedly alludes to the old custom of carrying burning coals
in a pan. When one's fire went out at home, a person would
have to go to a neighbor and request hot coals that he or she
would then carry home in a pan, typically on the head. Carrying
the coals involved some danger, discomfort, and uneasiness
for the person carrying them. Nevertheless they were the
evidence of the neighbor's love. Likewise the person who
receives good for evil feels uncomfortable because of his
neighbor's love. This guilt may convict the wrongdoer of his or
her ways in a gentle manner.2
A better interpretation, I think, takes the burning coals as a

figure of God's judgment that will come on the enemy if he
persists in his antagonism. The figure of coals of fire in the Old
Testament consistently refers to God's anger and judgment
(cf. 2 Sam. 22:9, 13; Ps. 11:6; 18:13; 140:9-10; Prov. 25:21-
22). Thus the meaning appears to be that the Christian can
return good for evil with the assurance that God will eventually
punish his or her enemy.3
12:21 Paul again concluded his exhortations with a summary. Being

overcome by evil means giving in to the temptation to pay
back evil for evil. When people do wrong they expect to receive
evil from those that they have wronged. When they receive
kindness instead their hard hearts often become softer. The
1Sanday and Headlam, p. 365; Witmer, p. 490.

2Cf.Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 347.
3See John N. Day, "'Coals of Fire' in Romans 12:19-20," Bibliotheca Sacra 160:640
(October-December 2003):414-20; John Piper, "Love Your Enemies": Jesus' Love

Command in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Early Christian Paraenesis, p. 115; and Krister
Stendahl, "Hate, Non-Retaliation, and Love: 1 QS x, 17-20 and Rom. 12:19-20," Harvard
Theological Review 55(1962):352.
best way to get rid of an enemy is to turn him or her into a

friend.1
There is a progression in 12:9-21. Paul moved from the Christian's duty to

his fellow believers to acts that would affect non-Christians as well.
However all that Paul wrote in 12:3-21 is directly applicable to life within
the body of Christ. The believer may encounter enemies in the church as
well as in the world.
"He [Paul] takes it for granted that Christians will live out their
daily lives and wider relationships motivated by the same love
as in their relationships with fellow believers."2
The general nature of the commands in this pericope illustrates the

essentially gracious character of the New Covenant's Law of Christ (Gal.
6:2) under which Christians now live. Compare this with the legal nature of
the commands in the Mosaic Law (cf. 10:4). God gave the Israelites many
explicit commands about how they were to behave in a multitude of specific
situations. The commands in verses 9-21, as well as those in all the New
Testament, are much more general, and they are more like principles. This
is one reason the New Testament writers said that the Israelites lived under
law and we live under grace.
C. CONDUCT WITHIN THE STATE CH. 13
This chapter broadens the Christian's sphere of responsibility by extending

it to include the civil government under which he or she lives. Romans 13
is the premier New Testament passage that explains the believer's civil
responsibilities (cf. Mark 12:17; John 18:33-38; Titus 3:1; 1 Pet. 2:13-17).
Here Paul expounded what it means to give to Caesar what belongs to him
(Matt. 22:21). This subject has bearing on the spread of the gospel, so it
is especially appropriate in this epistle. The connection with 12:17-21 is
obvious. This passage also ties in with 12:1-2 as one sphere of application
of that exhortation. The church is not a nation among nations, as Israel
1Bruce, p. 218.
was. Consequently it was important that Paul should clarify Christians'

duties to our earthly rulers as well as our duty to our heavenly Ruler.1
1. Conduct towards the government 13:1-7
Paul passed from a loosely connected series of exhortations in 12:9-21 to

a well-organized argument about a single subject in 13:1-7 (cf. Matt.
22:15-22; Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:20-26; 1 Pet. 2:13-14).
"Forbidding the Christian from taking vengeance and allowing

God to exercise this right in the last judgment [cf. 12:19-21]
might lead one to think that God was letting evildoers have
their way in this world. Not so, says Paul in 13:1-7: for God,
through governing authorities, is even now inflicting wrath on
evildoers (vv. 3-4)."2
13:1 When Paul wrote "Every person" (Gr. psyche) he probably had
every Christian person in mind, since he was writing to
Christians. Nevertheless what he taught about his readers'
conduct toward their civil government also applies to the
unsaved. He was not legislating Christian behavior for
unbelievers, but when unbelievers behave this way the best
responses follow for them too.
Subjection, or submission, involves placing oneself under the

authority of another and doing or not doing what the authority
requires. Paul did not say "obey." Submission includes
obedience, but it also includes an attitude from which the
obedience springs. Submission involves an attitude of
compliance and deference that is not necessarily present in
obedience. Submission implies support. The Christian might
have to disobey his government (cf. Acts 5:29), but in those
cases he or she must still be submissive and bear the
1See John A. Witmer, "The Man with Two Countries," Bibliotheca Sacra 133:532 (October-
December 1976):338-49; W. Robert Cook, "Biblical Light on the Christian's Civil
Responsibility," Bibliotheca Sacra 127:505 (January-March 1970):44-47); and Charles C.
Ryrie, What You Should Know about Social Responsibility, pp. 77-84; or idem, You Mean
the Bible Teaches That …, pp. 11-22. For the view that the Christian has only one
citizenship—in heaven—but has responsibilities on earth, see Fred R. Lybrand Jr., Heavenly
Citizenship: The Spiritual Alternative to Power Politics.
2Moo, p. 792.
consequences of his or her disobedience (cf. Dan. 4:17, 25,

32). "Governing authorities" is a term that embraces all the
rulers who govern the citizen.
"Paul's reminder is, in effect, to say: since you

cannot change the terms under which you live,
and since your position is already hazardous,
remember the political realities of the politically
powerless and live accordingly."1
Every ruler exercises his or her authority because God has

allowed him or her to occupy his or her position—even Satan
(Luke 4:6). The Christian should acknowledge that the
government under which he or she lives has received authority
from God to govern, regardless of whether it governs well or
poorly.
God has established three institutions to control life in our

dispensation: the family (Gen. 2:18-25), the civil government
(Gen. 9:1-7), and the church (Acts 2). In each institution there
are authorities to whom we need to submit for God's will to be
done. Women are not the only people that God commands to
be submissive or supportive (Eph. 5:22). Male and female
adults, children, citizens, and church members also need to
demonstrate a submissive spirit.
"… the prime task of government is to establish

order; organized central force is the sole
alternative to incalculable and disruptive force in
private hands."2
13:2 Refusal to submit to one's government is tantamount to

refusing to submit to God. Those who resist God's ordained
authority can expect to receive condemnation by the
government. This condemnation is really the indirect judgment
of God (cf. Matt. 26:52).

2Durant, p. 68.
"Capital punishment was ordained in Genesis 9:5-

6, and it has not been abolished [by God]."1
"The clear implication is of a state of affairs, a

structure of society, that cannot be changed, so
that resistance is not only against God's ordering
of society, but wasteful of time and energy."2
13:3 There are two possible ways to explain this verse, which, on
the surface, seems very naive. Each of these interpretations
will have very different results for those who hold them. The
problem is that rulers sometimes are, perhaps often, a cause
of fear for those who do right. Government authorities
sometimes abuse their powers for selfish ends. If they do not
abuse but serve the welfare of the people as they should, we
have no reason to fear them and can submit to them fairly
easily. But what if they are evil?
The first way some people have interpreted this verse is to

assume that Paul was speaking only of the norm.3 The normal
situation would be a good government that punishes evil and
rewards good. Obviously rebellion and revolution would be
wrong in such a situation. However, those actions might not
be wrong if the state ceased to serve its God-given function
and began denying the rights and removing the liberties of its
citizens.
Moderate advocates of this interpretation usually do not

suggest that the church, as an institution, should lead a
revolution. Most of them would say, however, that Christians
as individuals could justifiably participate in a revolution
against such a government. Christians should at least speak
out against such abuses. We must be careful not to confuse
submission with silence, because silence can express approval.
The second way of interpreting this verse is to take Paul's

words at face value and trust in the reassuring truth expressed
in 8:28. The Christian who takes this view would not
1Wiersbe,1:557. See Newell, pp. 497-98, for a brief excursus on capital punishment.
3See Sanday and Headlam, p. 367.
participate in a revolution, although he might speak out against

a government's evils. He should prepare himself to accept the
consequences of his actions. Such was the position of some
pastors in Nazi Germany during World War II, for example, who
went to prison, not for revolting against the government, but
for speaking out against it. Another alternative might be to
flee from the persecution of a hostile government (cf. Matt.
10:23). This is what the Huguenots, who fled from France to
England, and the Puritans, who fled from England to America,
did.
I tend to prefer the second option, mainly because I would be

uncomfortable to assume that Paul meant something that he
did not state. I prefer to accept what he said at face value. In
this case the rulers would not be a cause of fear for the
Christian either way, whether the rulers were just or unjust.
The Christian would be obedient to God by submitting in either
case. The objection to this view is that evil governments do
not "praise" those who oppose them. But in a sense they do.
Perhaps Paul meant that when good people stand up against
evil governments even the evil rulers respect those who
oppose them.
The martyrdom of Christians by Nero, shortly after Paul wrote

Romans, was an indirect praise of them for their fidelity to
Christ. The evil government itself may not issue a certificate
of commendation to the faithful Christian, but his or her
submissive conduct can still result in his praise. Even if no other
human being ever learned of a martyr's conduct, God would
still know about it, and He would praise him or her.
13:4 God will use government, whether good or bad, in order to

bring the submissive Christian what is good from His
perspective (cf. 8:28). Christians who are not submissive
should fear because government has received its power to
punish evildoers from God.
"… Romans 13:4 does teach the right of

government to take the life of a criminal, although
in what cases is not specified."1
13:5 There are two reasons that a Christian needs to be submissive

to his or her government: One is that the government may
punish him if he is not submissive. The other is that God may
punish him. God's punishment may be during the Christian's
lifetime or after that, at the judgment seat of Christ. In the
latter case the punishment might involve the loss of some
reward that the believer would otherwise have received had he
or she been submissive. "Conscience" refers to the believer's
knowledge of God's will and purposes.2
"The United States Government maintains a

'Conscience Fund' for people who want to pay
their debts to the Government and yet remain
anonymous. Some city governments have a similar
fund. I read about a city that had investigated
some tax frauds and announced that several
citizens were going to be indicted. They did not
release the names of the culprits. That week, a
number of people visited the City Hall to
'straighten out their taxes'—and many of them
were not on the indictment list. When conscience
begins to work, we cannot live with ourselves until
we have made things right."3
13:6 Our double duty—to government and to God—should also

make the Christian submissive when the bill for his taxes comes
due. Government workers are indirectly God's servants, and we
should support God's servants (Luke 10:7). Individual rulers
may be unworthy, but the institution of government is not.
Governments cannot function without revenue. This is the
third time that Paul referred to rulers as servants of God (twice
in v. 4).
1Ryrie, Biblical Answers …, p. 31. See also pp. 28-31; and Anderson, ch. 7: "Capital
Punishment."
2Moo, p. 803.
3Wiersbe, 1:557.
"Capital punishment finds divine justification from

this passage."1
13:7 Paul, like Jesus, commanded believers to pay or give back (Gr.
apodote) to the government what they owe for that services
that it provides (cf. Mark 12:14, 17). Paying taxes has always
been repugnant to people, including Christians. Some
Christians argue this way: Since the government uses my tax
money for purposes that are contrary to God's will, I do not
want to support evil by paying taxes.
But Jesus came out flatly in favor of paying taxes, and He led
His disciples in doing so, even though the Roman government
to which He paid them crucified Him. Likewise Paul here urged
Christians to pay taxes to whom taxes are due (e.g., income
taxes, etc.). "Custom" may refer to indirect taxes (e.g., sales
taxes, etc.).2 Paul also commanded his readers to show
respect for those in positions of civil authority—because of
their office, if not because of their personal lives. He called us
to honor all who serve the public in civil service positions—
because they too are God's servants being a part of the
government (e.g., veterans, police officers, fire fighters, first
responders, etc.).
"It is a striking fact that the discussion builds up

to its climax on the subject of paying taxes. This
is unlikely to be accidental, and these verses [vv.
6-7] should not be regarded as an anticlimax or
simply another argument. Nowhere else does Paul
include such instruction in any of his letters, and
there must have been some reason for his doing
so here. Those listening to his letter read out in
Rome itself would know well enough what that
reason was—the abuses, particularly of indirect
taxation, which were causing increasing unrest in
the capital at that very time."3

2Moo, p. 805.
Peter practiced and taught submission to governmental rulers

like Paul did (Acts 4:1-3; 12:3-5; 1 Pet. 2:13-17). Peter did
disobey his rulers, but he willingly suffered the consequences
for his disobedience. He only disobeyed the law under which
he lived as a citizen of Israel when it conflicted with the law
under which he lived as a citizen of heaven (Acts 4:19-20;
5:29). In the Great Tribulation, believers must not give
allegiance to the Beast who will rule over the whole earth, but
they must remain loyal to Christ. I believe that Paul's emphasis
on submission, rather than obedience, allows room for civil
disobedience when the civil government requires, but not
permits, the Christian to disobey God (cf. Exod. 1:17-21).
When the will of the people conflicts with the will of God, the
Christian must choose to do the will of God (Acts 5:29).1
For example, the Christian's obligation to submit to a

government that requires abortions would be different from
his or her duty to one that only permits them. I believe a
Christian should disobey a government when it requires him or
her to practice abortion, but not if it only permits abortions
(cf. Exod. 1:15-22). I do not believe a Christian should break
the law in order to protest an ungodly practice that his or her
government only permits. If he or she disagrees with a law,
that Christian should pursue whatever options exist to change
the law, short of breaking the law. I believe that those who
choose to break the law simply to make a statement, even
though they are willing to suffer the consequences (e.g., go to
jail), violate New Testament teaching on this subject.
"… where a government was not serving God for the good of
its citizens, any appeal to this passage as a way of maintaining
their [the oppressed's] subservience would be a complete
distortion and an abuse both of Paul's purpose and of its
continuing scriptural significance."2
1See Charles C. Ryrie, "The Christian and Civil Disobedience," Bibliotheca Sacra 127:506
(April-June 1970):153-62; and Denny Burk, "Is Paul's Gospel Counterimperial? Evaluating
the Prospects of the 'Fresh Perspective' for Evangelical Theology," Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 51:2 (June 2008):309-37.
2. Conduct toward unbelievers 13:8-10
Paul had previously glorified the importance of love among believers (12:9-
10; cf. 1 Cor. 13). Now he urged this attitude toward all people, though
unbelievers are primarily in view in this chapter. The connecting link in the
argument is our obligations to the government (v. 7) and to our fellow
citizens (v. 8; cf. Gal. 5:13-15).
13:8 The translation "Owe nothing to anyone" is misleading,

because it contradicts Jesus' teaching to loan to those who
want to borrow from us (Matt. 5:42; Luke 6:35; cf. Exod.
22:25; Ps. 37:26). He implied that borrowing is not always
wrong. The New Testament does not forbid borrowing, but it
does forbid the practice of charging exorbitant interest on
loans and failing to pay debts (Matt. 25:27; Luke 19:23).
There are two kinds of debts: those with the lender's consent,
and those without his consent. It is the second type to which
Paul apparently referred here. The NIV's "Let no debt remain
outstanding" avoids the problem and gives the proper sense
of the command.
"Christians are to leave no debts, no obligations

to their fellowmen, undischarged."1
"… do not continue in anyone's debt, while you

are able to pay it."2
Some Christians who have trouble controlling their

indebtedness have found motivation for cutting up their credit
cards in this verse, but Paul did not say that all borrowing is
wrong.
We do have a debt that continues forever ("to love one

another"). This debt is our obligation to seek the welfare of
our fellow human beings (cf. 8:4). The Mosaic Law required the
same thing (Lev. 19:18, cf. Matt. 22:39), but it provided no
internal power to love. In Christ, however, we have the
1Cranfield, 2:673. Cf. Barrett, p. 249.

2Henry, p. 1789.
indwelling Holy Spirit, who produces love within us as a fruit of

His life (Gal. 5:22-23).
"This is not a prohibition against a proper use of

credit; it is an underscoring of a Christian's
obligation to express divine love in all
interpersonal relationships."1
13:9-10 Paul again appealed to the Mosaic Law to show that what he
had written in verse 8 was in harmony with what God had
commanded earlier. Whereas the Mosaic Law specified
numerous situations in which the Israelites were to practice
love, the Law of Christ contains comparatively few. The simple
principle is enough: "Love your neighbor as yourself." This is
another excellent example of the essentially legal character of
the Mosaic Law and the gracious character of Christ's
teachings. Jesus Christ gave us a model to follow in loving
(John 13:34). Love promotes obedience.
"The Christian, who belongs to the New Covenant

people of God, is no longer 'under the [Mosaic]
law,' the law for the Old Covenant people of God;
he is under a 'new law,' 'the law of Christ' (see Gal.
6:2 and 1 Cor. 9:19-21). And central to this new
law is a command that Christ himself took from
the Mosaic law and made central to his new
demand: the command to love our neighbors as
ourselves (cf. Gal. 6:2 with 5:13-14)."2
"This verse is not a command to love ourselves. It

is a recognition that we do love ourselves, and
commands us to love others just as genuinely and
sincerely."3
1Witmer, "Romans," p. 491.

2Moo, pp. 816-17.
3The Nelson …, p. 1905.
"What is commanded is that we are to have the

same loving regard for others that we have
instinctively for ourselves."1
3. Conduct in view of our hope 13:11-14
Paul's thought moved from identifying responsibilities to urging their

practice. What lies before us as Christians provides essential motivation for
doing so.
"Four things we are here taught, as a Christian's directory for

his day's work: when to awake, how to dress ourselves, how
to walk, and what provision to make."2
13:11 "This" refers to the duties urged earlier, not only in this
chapter but also in chapter 12. It is important that we follow
God's will carefully because the final phase of our salvation will
take place very soon (i.e., glorification, cf. 1 Pet. 1:9). We
must get ready to meet the Lord, after which we must give an
account of our stewardship to Him (cf. 14:10; Phil. 3:20; 1
Thess. 5:6; 1 Cor. 15:34). It is possible for us to go through
our lives as believers lethargic and insensible, as though asleep,
but such a condition is not wise in view of what lies ahead of
us.
13:12 Here Paul was thinking similarly to the way he thought when
he wrote 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11. "The night" represents our
earthly life, plagued as it is with spiritual darkness and danger.
When the Lord Jesus calls us to Himself at the Rapture, which
"day is near," a new "day" will begin for us, in which we will
walk and live in sinless light. In view of this prospect we need
to prepare for it by laying aside evil deeds ("deeds of
darkness"), like a garment, and putting on deeds of holiness
("the armor of light"). Paul called these new clothes armor
because we are still at war with sin and the forces of evil (cf.
Eph. 6:11).
1Mounce, p. 246.
2Henry, p. 1789.
"Christ's return is the next event in God's plan;

Paul knew it could take place at any time and
sought to prepare Christians—both in his
generation and in ours—for that 'blessed hope.'"1
13:13 Our behavior, and especially those things that Paul called on
his readers to do in 13:1-10, should be distinctively Christian
since we live among unbelievers. The practices that he urged
us to avoid here were common in Corinth, where Paul was when
he wrote this epistle. He observed them constantly.
Intemperance often leads to sexual sin ("promiscuity and
debauchery"), which frequently results in interpersonal
conflicts ("strife and jealousy").2
13:14 In one sense every believer puts on Jesus Christ when he or

she trusts Him as Savior (Gal. 3:27). However in another sense
we put Him on when we dedicate ourselves to Him as our Lord
(12:1).3 The first step in putting on the armor of light (v. 12)
is committing ourselves to follow Jesus Christ wholeheartedly.
"A literary parallel to this use of 'put on' is quoted

from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman
Antiquities 11.5, where 'to put on Tarquin' means
to play the part of Tarquin."4
However dedicating is not the only thing that is necessary.

There must also be a deliberate turning away from desires to
indulge the flesh (cf. ch. 6; 2 Tim. 2:22; 1 Pet. 2:11).
"… we must continually renew that life with which

we have been clothed (Eph. iv. 24; Col. iii. 12)."5
Chapter 13 deals with living in the world as a Christian. Paul counseled

submission to human government and love for all people while we actively
wait for our Lord to appear.
1Moo, p. 822.
2See López, "A Study … Vice Lists."
3See Cranfield, 2:688-89.
4Bruce, p. 229.
D. CONDUCT WITHIN CHRISTIAN LIBERTY 14:1—15:13
In 14:1—15:13 Paul gave special attention to the problem of knowing how

to live in Christian freedom. This section of Romans deals with Christian
conduct for which God does not specify exactly what to do in every
situation (cf. 1 Cor. 8). In such cases, some Christians will do one thing and
others another, both within God's will. How to handle these situations is
the focus of this section.
Paul moved on to discuss a problem that arises as the dedicated Christian

seeks to live within God's will in the body of Christ (12:3-21) and in the
body politic (ch. 13). As Christians the 613 specific commands of the
Mosaic Law no longer govern our conduct (7:6; 10:4), but the principles
that Jesus Christ and His apostles revealed do (cf. chs. 12—13). How then
should we deal with conflicting applications of these principles? How should
we conduct ourselves when our interpretation of God's will differs from that
of another believer? Paul explained how believers can disagree on
nonessentials and still maintain unity in the church.
"From speaking of those who were too lax in the indulgence of

natural appetites [13:11-14], the subject passes mainly to
those who are too scrupulous. The object is not to remove
these scruples, but to show those who have them and those
who have them not how to live in Christian peace."1
The command to accept one another (fellow believers) begins (14:1) and
climaxes this section (15:7). Within it Paul also gave three other "one
another" references (14:13, 19; 15:5).
"… the section evidences Paul's knowledge of circumstances

in Rome itself, at least in broad terms, with tensions between
those who saw themselves as part of an essentially Jewish
movement and therefore obligated to observe the
characteristic and distinctively Jewish customs, and those who
shared Pauls' understanding of the gospel which transcended
Jewish particularity."2
1Stifler, p. 222.
1. The folly of judging one another 14:1-12
The apostle dealt first with the importance of not judging one another. This
was a particular temptation for those Christians who believed that they
should refrain from some practices, which they believed were displeasing
to God, but which other Christians felt were legitimate. When Paul wrote,
the first group included Jewish Christians who, because of their background
in Judaism, tended to perpetuate the practices commanded in the Mosaic
Code. Some Jewish Christians do this today as well. In our day this group
also includes Christians, both Jewish and Gentile, who for one reason or
another do not believe that certain non-moral practices are proper for a
believer, even though other Christians consider them permissible.
A non-moral practice is neither right nor wrong in itself. It does not involve
sin or morality. Examples include food, drink, recreation, clothing, personal
grooming, birth control, schooling, lifestyles, et al.—when no sin is involved.
Some Christians who have black-and-white mentalities have difficulty
recognizing the existence of non-moral activity; to them everything is
either right or wrong. However, the Bible teaches that there are many
activities that may be right but are unadvisable for any number of reasons.
Also, there are actions that are right for some people but not right for
others.
"This paragraph divides into three sections: vv. 1-3, 4-9, and
10-12. The divisions between the sections are marked with
similar rhetorical questions, each using the second person
singular: 'Who are you who is judging the servant of another?'
(v. 4a); 'Why are you judging your brother?' (v. 10a). … The
first (vv. 1-3) and the third (vv. 10-12) state in almost
identical language the main point of the paragraph: the 'strong'
are not to 'despise' the 'weak'; the 'weak' are not to 'judge'
the 'strong' (cf. vv. 3a and 10a). In the central section, vv. 4-
9, Paul provides the theological foundation for these
commands: every Christian is a servant of the Lord; and it is
to that 'master,' and not to any other fellow servant, that the
believer must answer."1
14:1 Paul spoke here to those who, like himself, understood the
implications of Christian liberty. The other group, the "weak in
1Moo, pp. 834-35.

faith," consisted of those whose faith was not strong enough

to enable them to exercise the full liberty they had in Christ.
Paul may have coined the designations "weak" and "strong,"
or these may have been terms with which his Roman readers
were already familiar.
"The weakness in faith to which this chapter

refers is not weakness in basic Christian faith but
weakness in assurance that one's faith permits
one to do certain things …"1
In view of what Paul wrote about the "weak," they appear to

have been mainly Jewish Christians who refrained from certain
foods and observed certain days because they remained loyal
to the teachings of the Mosaic Law. Peter at one time
struggled with the extent of his liberty, and he developed from
being weak to being strong in faith (Acts 10). However in the
process of his growth he had a relapse (Gal. 2:11-12). The
weak in faith have an overly sensitive conscience about doing
things that are permissible for a Christian.
A sensitive conscience is a good thing, but it can sometimes

lead a person to restrict his or her freedom unnecessarily. Paul
urged the stronger Christian, who appreciated the extent of
his freedom in Christ, to accept his weaker brother as an equal.
Nevertheless he was not to accept him outwardly (not tolerate
his behavior), and then condemn him inwardly (mentally),
much less publicly, for his scruples.
"The liberty of the Christian assembly should be

able to embrace divergent views and practices
without a feeling that they must be resolved or
that a common mind must be achieved on every
point of disagreement."2
14:2 Paul offered a specific case of disagreement. He did not say

why the weaker brother chose not to eat meat. This brother's
reasons were immaterial to Paul. The point is that for some
1Cranfield, 2:700.
reason this Christian believed that he would please God more

by not eating meat than by eating it. He was wrong. God has
not forbidden Christians from eating any food (1 Tim. 4:3-4).
Eating food is a non-moral matter. It is neither morally good
nor morally bad. What we eat does not in itself affect our
relationship with God. The contrast with life in Israel is again
striking where, in order to please God, an Israelite had to
abstain from certain foods. Under certain circumstances eating
certain food could become a moral issue (cf. Acts 15:20; 1
Cor. 11:20-21), but in itself food is non-moral.
14:3 The person who eats meat should not view himself as superior,
even though he is right that eating meat is a non-moral issue.
Nor should he look down on his extremely sensitive fellow
Christian, who does not feel free to eat certain kinds of meat,
with a condescending attitude. The weaker brother should not
judge the more liberal Christian as being displeasing to God
either, because God has accepted him.
14:4 The weaker brother needs to remember to whom the stronger

brother is responsible and leave his judgment to God. Paul
assured the weaker brother that the stronger brother would
stand approved by God because God approves his liberty.
God's grace provides both the possibility and the power for
standing ("the Lord is able to make him stand"). The first part
of this verse sounds very much like 2:1 and 3, where Paul
rebuked the self-satisfied Jew.
Fritz Ridenour suggested three practical things to do to show

love to someone with whom we disagree: Be genuine, be
accepting, and be understanding (which requires listening).1
14:5 Here is a second illustration. In this case the weaker brother

does something, and the stronger one does not do it (v. 6).
This is the opposite of the situation that Paul pictured in the
previous illustration. Again, the reason that the weaker brother
observes the day is immaterial. The point is that he observes
the day (v. 6), and regards one day above another. At the time
Paul was writing, Sabbath and Jewish feast-day observances
1Fritz Ridenour, How to Be a Christian Without Being Religious, pp. 124-29.

were matters of disagreement among Christians. The Jewish

believers tended to observe these because they were part of
their Jewish heritage, but the Gentile believers did not. Today
the idea that by observing a certain day we please God more
than we would if we did not is quite common. Some Christians
believe that we should behave differently on Sunday, during
Lent, or on some other "religious" day.
"The fundamental principle is that such things are

in themselves indifferent, but that each person
must be fully assured in his own conscience that
he is doing right."1
14:6 The most important thing is to seek to please the Lord in all
that we do.2 Christians will come to differing conclusions about
what this means in practice, but their submission to Jesus
Christ's Lordship is primary. Paul meant that one person does
not eat meat and another does eat meat, but both give God
thanks for whatever they do eat (v. 2; cf. 1 Tim. 4:4-5).
14:7-8 In verse 7 Paul did not mean that our behavior influences other
people. Obviously it does. He meant that no Christian should
live to please himself alone, but that all of us should live to
please the Lord. The context makes this clear (vv. 6, 8).
Actually, the dedicated Christian's desire to please the Lord
will continue beyond the grave, so Paul could also say that we
do not die for ourselves ("not one dies for himself"). Our whole
existence, this side of the grave and the other, in life and in
death ("whether we live or die"), should express our
commitment to please the Lord (8:38-39; cf. Phil. 1:20; 2 Cor.
5:9). James Denney believed, correctly I think, that this refers
also to choosing the time or mode of our death:
"He [the Christian who lives to please the Lord]

dies when the Lord will, as the Lord will [as
opposed to when and how he pleases], and even
by his death glorifies God."3

2SeeGodet, p. 457.
3Denney, 2:703.
Death does not just mark a transition for the Christian from
struggle to rest. Death (not only at the end of our life, but
dying to our selfish desires) is also a doorway that leads to
new, enlarged opportunities for service and worship (cf. Luke
19:11-27). Intimate relationship to the Lord is and continues
to be of primary importance. God controls the events leading
to our death as He does those governing our life.
14:9 Jesus Christ also lived, died, and lives again. Consequently He
is Lord of both those who have died and those who are still
alive. Paul's point was that He is the Judge and we are not.
14:10 Both the critical weaker brother and the scorning stronger
brother are guilty of the same offense, namely, judging
prematurely and without authority. Jesus Christ (v. 9) is the
God (v. 10) who will judge (cf. John 5:22, 27). This then is
another reference to the judgment seat (Gr. bema) of Christ
(2 Cor. 5:10; cf. 1 Cor. 3:12-15; Eph. 6:8).1
"The remembrance that all Christians will have to

stand before the judgment-seat of God is a
powerful dissuasive from all sitting in judgment on
one's fellows."2
14:11 Everyone will bow in judgment before the Son of God (Isa.
45:23; 49:13; cf. Phil. 2:10-11). Christians will do so at the
judgment seat of Christ following the Rapture (Luke 14:14; 1
Thess. 4:13-17; 1 Cor. 4:5; 2 Tim. 4:8; Rev. 22:12). Old
Testament saints will do so at the Second Coming (Isa. 26:19;
Dan. 12:2). Unbelievers will do so at the great white throne
judgment at the end of the Millennium (Rev. 20:11-15). Of
course, no one judged at the judgment seat of Christ will be
an unbeliever. The Lord will judge believers for our faithfulness
to our stewardship during our earthly lives. The judgment we
receive will apparently determine our opportunity to serve Him
in the future (Matt. 25:14-30; Luke 19:11-27).
1See Joe L. Wall, Going for the Gold.

2Cranfield, 2:709.
14:12 In this summary statement Paul identified the personal

responsibility that every Christian has, namely, to give an
account of himself or herself to God. We will not have to
answer for our fellow Christians or anyone else, but we will
have to account for our own deeds.
"We stand before God in the awful loneliness of

our own souls; to God we can take nothing but the
self and the character which in life we have been
building up."1
In this pericope (vv. 1-12) the apostle stressed the folly of judging our
fellow Christians who relate to non-moral practices differently from the way
we do. There is a strong emphasis on recognizing Jesus' Lordship in our
lives in these verses (cf. 12:1-2). The word Lord occurs seven times in
verses 5-9.
2. The evil of offending one another 14:13-23
In the previous section of verses Paul addressed both the "weak" and the
"strong" Christians, but he spoke mainly about the weaker brother's
temptation to condemn the stronger believer. In this section he dealt more
with the temptation that the stronger brother faces. Paul structured his
argument in a chiasm.2
A Warning about stumbling blocks (13b)
B Nothing is "unclean" in itself (14a)
C Warning about destroying one for whom Christ died (15b)
C' Warning about tearing down the work of God (20a)
B' All things are "clean" in themselves (20b)
A' Warning about causing another believer to stumble (21)
14:13 The Greek word translated obstacle or stumbling block (NIV;

proskomma) refers to an object on a path against which
1Barclay, p. 205.
2Moo, p. 850.
someone strikes his foot and consequently stumbles or falls

(cf. 1 Cor. 8:9). The stronger brother's liberty might retard
the weaker brother's progress as he walks the Christian path.
It might set him back temporarily or even do permanent
damage to his overly sensitive conscience (cf. Matt. 18:6-7;
Mark 9:42; Luke 17:1-2).
Another Greek word translated stumbling block or obstacle

(NIV; skandalon) describes a snare that was used to catch an
animal or victim as it walked by (cf. Matt 16:23; 1 Cor. 8:13).
The stronger brother's liberty might even constitute a
temptation for the weaker brother to sin. It might tempt him
to go beyond his stronger brother's behavior, and cast off
restraint in moral, as well as non-moral (Gr. adiaphora,
indifferent), matters.
"It was one thing for God to lay the stumbling

stone of Christ in the path of his people (9:33). It
is quite another for the self-consciously 'strong'
(mainly Gentile) to do so."1
"Here now is indeed a field for judging! and it is

ourselves, not our brother, which we are to
judge!"2
14:14 The Lord Jesus taught that the distinction between

ceremonially clean and unclean food had come to an end (Mark
7:15-23). Nevertheless not all Christians had grasped this
teaching (e.g., Acts 10:9-15). Many have still regarded the
Jewish dietary laws as God's will for them. Is it any wonder that
many Christians, even today, mistakenly think that the Mosaic
Code constitutes their rule of life? Defilement springs from the
mind, not material objects (cf. Matt. 12:34-35; 15:18-19;
Titus 1:15). "Nothing is unclean in itself" must be interpreted
within its context: no kind of food is now ritually unclean in
itself.

2Newell, p. 510.
"Conscience alone is not an infallible guide as to

the right or wrong of a thing in itself; but to act
against one's conscience, even when it is
misguided, is always wrong."1
"Our wills, in all their choices should follow the

dictates of our understandings. This order is
broken if the understanding (though misguided)
tells us that such a thing is a sin, and yet we will
do it. This is a will to do evil; there is the same
corruption of the will in the doing of it as if really
it were a sin."2
14:15 The words hurt and destroy describe two different stages.
When one person sees another doing what his own conscience
condemns, it grieves him or causes him pain. When he then
proceeds to do what his conscience condemns, he commits sin
and ultimately experiences moral destruction.
The apostle's point was this: If your behavior regarding non-

moral things is creating spiritual problems for another
Christian, your conduct is not loving (cf. 12:10). The welfare
of a brother should obviously take precedence over our liberty
to do something non-moral (cf. 1 Cor. 8:13). The stronger
brother's conduct could destroy the weaker brother's walk
with God temporarily, or even permanently. It would be terrible
for a Christian to destroy someone whom our Lord has saved.
14:16 The good thing refers to the liberty to eat meat or to do

anything non-moral. People could legitimately speak of it as
evil if it resulted in the fall of a brother.
14:17 The kingdom of God here refers to the realm in which we live
as Christians.
"[The 'kingdom of God' is] an echo of our Lord's

teaching. The phrase is used normally in St. Paul
of that Messianic kingdom which is to be the
reward and goal of the Christian life … Hence it
1Vine, p. 200.
2Henry, p. 1792. Cf. Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 220.
comes to mean the principles or ideas on which

that kingdom is founded, and which are already
exhibited in this world (cf. I Cor. iv. 20)."1
Alva McClain believed that Paul was referring to the future

millennial kingdom here:
"The thought here fits a future Kingdom better

than a present one. For surely in the present life
no one can deny the importance of meat and
drink; but so far as the Church is concerned in the
future Kingdom, these things will be of no
consequence. Therefore, since the Church is to
reign in that Kingdom, its members should not
judge or grieve one another in such matters here
and now (cf. vss. 13-21)."2
The emphasis in this reference to the kingdom of God is on the

authority of God over His own. The primary issues in the lives
of dedicated Christians should not be external non-moral
practices but the great spiritual qualities that the Holy Spirit
seeks to produce in them. These qualities include right
conduct, or righteousness (cf. 6:13, 16, 18), peace with God
(cf. Phil. 4:7), and joy (cf. Gal. 5:22-23). Paul wanted his
readers to keep their priorities in perspective.
14:18 Acceptance with God for Christians involves emphasizing these

great kingdom graces, rather than whether or not we engage
in some non-moral practice.
"Those are most pleasing to God that are best

pleased with him."3
This emphasis also wins the approval of other people because

they can recognize what is more and less important.
1Sanday and Headlam, p. 391. See also Robert L. Saucy, "The Presence of the Kingdom
and the Life of the Church," Bibliotheca Sacra 145:577 (January-March 1988):42.
2Alva J. McClain, The Greatness of the Kingdom, p. 434. Cf. Denney, 2:705.
3Henry, p. 1792.
"Let us ask ourselves, Does my walk please God?

Is it approved in the hearts of men?"1
14:19 The things which make for peace in the context refer to
practices that do not cause others to stumble and attitudes
that are non-judgmental. Peace between the strong and the
weak is in view primarily. Rather than tearing one another
down, we should do things that build one another up (1 Cor.
10:23; 1 Thess. 5:11). For the strong this might mean
foregoing some legitimate non-moral practice. For the weak it
could mean refraining from verbal criticism and judgmental
thinking.
"… Paul is really not as concerned about 'not

being a stumbling block' as he is about 'becoming
a stepping stone.'"2
14:20 "Christian history, alas, shows numerous examples

of people utterly earnest about nonessentials,
who have felt at liberty to break the unity of the
Church for the sake of their particular fetish."3
Even though God permits the eating of all foods, for example,
He does not sanction eating a food if a Christian causes
spiritual problems for someone else ("causes offense") by
eating it. This destroys the work that God is doing in building
His church.
"While freedom is a right, it is not a guide for

conduct. Love serves that purpose. Rights are to
be laid aside in the interest of love."4
14:21 It is interesting that the apostle mentioned drinking wine, since

that is one of the most problematic non-moral practices in
American evangelicalism. Paul himself was willing to forego any
particular food or drink in order to avoid causing spiritual
growth problems for a brother or sister (1 Cor. 8:13; cf. Mark
1Newell, pp. 513-14.

2Ridenour, p. 136.
3Hunter, p. 121.
9:42). Certainly we should be willing to do the same. People

willingly alter their pace of walking while leading a small child
by the hand so the child will not stumble. How much more
should we be willing to alter our Christian walk for the benefit
of a weaker brother or sister in Christ whom we are leading.
"… modern Christians who … abstain from all

alcoholic beverages do so not because they fear
ritual contamination. Some abstain because they
are leery of a product that has had such a sad
history of 'enslaving' those who partake (see the
principle of 1 Cor. 6:12b). Many others do not
drink because they do not want to set a bad
example for others who might not be able to
handle alcohol. Abstinence on these grounds may
be a laudable course of action; but it has little
basis in Paul's argument in these chapters. For the
'weak' here are not those who cannot control their
drinking. They are people who are not convinced
that their faith in Christ allows them to do a
particular thing. They are not 'weak' in respect to
handling alcohol; they are 'weak' in respect to
their faith (14:1). And Paul urges the 'strong' to
abstain, not because their example might lead the
'weak' to drink to excess but because their
example might lead the 'weak' to drink and so to
violate their conscience (14:22-23)."1
14:22 Paul evidently wrote this verse primarily with the strong in view
(cf. v. 23). He did not want his readers to force their
convictions about non-moral practices on others. The strong
believer can be happy in his private enjoyment of non-moral
practices, because he knows that he is neither violating the will
of God nor the conscience of a weak brother. Another inferior
interpretation is that Paul meant …
"… blessed is he who never judges himself in what

he values, who has learned never to trust his own
judgment regarding any value but ever goes to
1Moo, p. 881.
God's Word for God's judgment and regards as

valuable only what that judgment approves!"1
14:23 This verse, in contrast to verse 22, seems addressed

particularly to the weak. The weak brother, who eats
something that he believes he should not eat, stands
condemned by his own conscience and by God (cf. Gal. 2:11).
His action is contrary to what he believes is right. "Faith" here,
as in verses 1 and 22, does not refer to the teachings of
Christianity but to what a person believes to be the will of God
for him or her.2 If a person does what he believes to be wrong
(eats with doubts), even though it is not wrong in itself, it
becomes sin for him. He has violated what he believes to be
God's will, so his action has become an act of rebellion against
God for him. Perhaps "the one who creates divisions" would be
a better translation of diakrinomenos than "the one who
doubts."3
"Whatever is done without the conviction that

God has approved it is by definition sin. God has
called us to a life of faith. Trust is the willingness
to put all of life before God for his approval. Any
doubt concerning an action automatically
removes that action from the category of that
which is acceptable."4
"For a Christian not a single decision and action

can be good which he does not think he can justify
on the ground of his Christian conviction and his
liberty before God in Christ."5
1Lenski, p. 852.
2See Cranfield, 2:729.
3David DeGraaf, "Some Doubts about Doubt: The New Testament Use of Diakrino," Journal
of the Evangelical Theological Society 48:8 (December 2005):733-55.

4Mounce, pp. 258-59. See also Calvin, Institutes of …, 4:13:20.
5H. Ridderbos, Paul: An Outline of His Theology, p. 291. See also Dunn, Romans 9—16, p.
835; McGee, 4:745.

"Paul's words meant, then, that it is wrong to do

anything we think is wrong, although it is not
always right to do what we think is right."1
3. The importance of pleasing one another 15:1-6
Paul now developed the key concept to which he referred in chapter 14,
namely, putting the welfare of others before that of self (cf. Gal. 6:2). This
is love. He cited the example of Christ, who lived free of taboos and
unnecessary inhibitions, but was always careful to bear with the
weaknesses of others.
15:1 The strong ought to take the initiative in resolving the tension
between the strong and the weak. The strong need to be
willing to limit their Christian liberty, if, by doing so, they can
reduce the problems of their brethren. The weak need
knowledge, and the strong need love. By "bear the weaknesses
of those without strength" Paul was not saying that the strong
must determine to put up with the weak. He meant: "Those of
us who are strong must accept as our own burden the tender
scruples of the weak" (REB).2
S. Lewis Johnson Jr. has given good advice based on what Paul
wrote about the strong bearing the weakness of the weak:
"Strong believers should avoid confirming legalists

in their weakness by continually yielding on the
things that offend the legalists. It is the
responsibility of weak believers to grow to
strength, and that can hardly be done if the strong
always yield without explanation. Then the life of
the body of believers becomes determined by the
narrowest and the most prejudiced of its
members. That would not be so bad, were it not
also an inevitable result that the unbelieving world
is led to conclude that the gospel itself depends
on obedience to the scruples and inhibitions of the
weak. The gospel issue, then is no longer the issue

2REB refers to The Revised English Bible. See also Vine, p. 205.
of Christ and his saving cross alone, but the cross

plus obedience to the scruples. Salvation appears
to unbelievers to be the product of faith and
works, not of faith alone, dishonoring Christ's
work and confusing the good news."1
15:2 All Christians, not just the strong, need to apply this principle
of love. Paul was not saying that we should be people-pleasers
and do whatever anyone wants us to do simply because it will
please them (cf. Gal. 1:10, 19; Eph. 6:6; Col. 3:22; 1 Thess.
2:4). The goal of our behavior should be the other person's
welfare and spiritual edification (cf. 1 Cor. 9:19-23). We should
not please others rather than God, but we should please others
rather than ourselves.
15:3 The apostle illustrated the commitment to doing the will of

God, that he advocated with the example of Jesus Christ. In
Him we can see the difference between a people-pleaser and a
people-lover. Sacrificing His own preferences for the welfare of
others did not make Him acceptable to everyone, but it did
make Him acceptable to His Father.
"Paul has no room for a piety which neglects the

neighbor. Strength means not only accepting
those who differ as brothers, but also a readiness
to take responsibility (as Paul does here) for their
right to hold these different views."2
David voiced the testimony that Paul quoted here regarding

his zeal for God's house (Ps. 69:9). Christians need to show as
strong a commitment to building up God's spiritual house as
David displayed in promoting His physical house.
"Convictions about what constitutes Christian

conduct sometimes reflect ecclesiastical and
social backgrounds, but the principles written in
this passage are timeless. They may be stated as
follows: Christians (1) are not to judge the
1Johnson, Discovering Romans, p. 224. Cf. Ray Stedman, From Glory to Glory, 2:156-57.
practice of other Christians in respect to doubtful

things (v. 3); (2) are personally accountable to
God for their actions (v. 12); (3) are not to do
anything that will put a stumbling block before
their brethren (v. 13); (4) have Christian liberty
regarding what they do (vv. 14, 20); (5) are to do
what will edify their brethren (v. 19); (6) should,
for the sake of their weaker brethren, voluntarily
abstain from certain practices (v. 21); (7) are to
do only what can be done without self-
condemnation (v. 22); and (8) are to follow the
example of Christ, who did not live to please
Himself (15:1-3)."1
McGee summarized Paul's principles of Christian conduct

regarding doubtful things as: conviction, conscience, and
consideration.2
15:4 Paul used his reference to David's experience as an occasion

to comment on the usefulness of all Old Testament Scripture
("whatever was written in earlier times").3 It provides
motivation for perseverance and gives encouragement as we
seek to remain faithful in our commitment to do God's will.
These Scriptures give us hope because in them we see God's
approval of those who persevered faithfully in spite of
opposition and frustration (cf. Heb. 11).
"Two points then St. Paul teaches, the permanent

value of the great moral and spiritual truths of the
O. T., and the witness of the O. T. to Christ."4
"In my opinion, the greatest sin in the church of

Jesus Christ in this generation is ignorance of the
Word of God. Many times I have heard a church
officer say, 'Well, I don't know much about the
Bible, but …' and then he gives his opinion, which

2See McGee, 4:741-47.
3See George W. Knight, III, "The Scriptures Were Written for Our Instruction," Journal of
the Evangelical Theological Society 39:1 (March 1996):3-13.
often actually contradicts the Word of God! Why

doesn't he know much about the Bible? These
things were written aforetime for our learning.
God wants you to know His Word."1
15:5 Perseverance and encouragement come to us through the

Scriptures, but they are gifts from God. Paul wished that all his
readers, both the strong and the weak, would appropriate
these gifts and apply them in their interpersonal relationships.2
The result would be unity in the church.
"The centripetal magnetism of the Lord can

effectively counter the centrifugal force of
individual judgment and opinion."3
15:6 United vocal praise of God in the assembly would be an

evidence of unity among the strong and the weak. Christians
who do not love God and one another often have difficulty
praising God together in church meetings.
"… Paul looks not merely for a tacit toleration of

differences, but for a mutual acceptance which
expresses itself in the common act of worship."4
"This suggests to us that the local church must

major in the Word of God and prayer. The first real
danger to the unity of the church came because
the Apostles were too busy to minister God's
Word and pray (Acts 6:1-7)."5
4. The importance of accepting one another 15:7-13
This section concludes Paul's instructions concerning the importance of

accepting one another as Christians that he began in 14:1. In this section
the apostle charged both the strong and the weak.
1McGee, 4:747.
2See Cranfield, 2:736, for helpful comments on Paul's prayerful wishes.
3Harrison, p. 153.
5Wiersbe, 1:562.
15:7 "Accept" repeats Paul's opening exhortation (14:1). "One

another" encompasses the two groups: the strong and the
weak. It is inconsistent for a Christian to reject someone whom
God has accepted. We are to accept one another as Jesus
Christ has accepted us. We are fellow members of the family
of God. Accepting one another glorifies God.
15:8 Verses 8-10 expand the idea of Jesus Christ accepting us.
Verse 8 deals with His acceptance of Jews ("the
circumcision"). He not only accepted Jewish believers but
came to serve the Jewish people, as the Old Testament
predicted, fulfilling God's promise to the patriarchs (Mark
10:45; Matt. 15:24; cf. Gal. 3:16). Consequently the typically
stronger Gentile believers should not despise their occasionally
weaker Jewish brethren.
Why did Paul refer to the Jews here as "the circumcision"? He

may have regarded them as the most awkward and irritating
of scrupulous persons.1 Or he may have used this term
because of its connection to "the promises given to the
fathers." This term also is a way of distinguishing the Jews
from the Gentiles (v. 9).
15:9-10 These verses deal with Jesus Christ's acceptance of Gentiles.

The citations show that God always purposed to have mercy
on the Gentiles. Therefore conservative Jewish believers
should not despise their more liberal Gentile brethren. I use the
adjectives conservative and liberal to describe their
relationship to non-moral matters. Four quotations from the
Old Testament follow, which support Paul's assertions in
verses 8 and 9a as a whole.
Psalm 18:49 pictures David rejoicing in God for his victories

over the nations that had become subject to him. In
Deuteronomy 32:43, Moses saw the Gentiles praising God with
the Israelites. These passages would have encouraged Paul's
Jewish readers to accept their Gentile brethren.
1Barrett, p. 271.
15:11-12 Two more quotations picture the Gentiles by themselves

praising God—apart from participation with Israel (Ps. 117:1;
Isa. 11:10). Perhaps Paul cited these references in order to
help his Jewish readers remember that their Gentile brethren
did not need to come to God through the Jews or Judaism. Nor
did not need to practice some of the things that Jewish
Christians did as a part of their cultural heritage.
"The four quotations are taken from all three parts

of the Old Testament, the Law (v. 10), the Psalms
(vv. 9, 11), and the Prophets (v. 12). Accordingly
the truth of the inclusion of Jew and Gentile in
Christ through the Gospel is shown to extend
through the whole range of Old Testament
prophecy. This, adds point to the preceding
exhortations as to mutual forbearance."1
Some interpreters have concluded that verse 12 teaches that

Christ is presently reigning over the nations as Messianic King.
But the context makes clear that Paul was not claiming a
present fulfillment of this prophecy. Fulfillment lies in the
future: in the Millennium.
15:13 This verse concludes the section dealing with the practice of
God's righteousness (12:1—15:13). It is another pious wish
that amounts to a prayer (cf. v. 5).
The mention of hope points forward to the future. Throughout

this epistle Paul kept referring to the fact that God had not
finished His saving work in his readers' lives. They were still
under construction as Christians. There was more to God's
salvation than they had experienced so far. In closing his
treatise on God's righteousness the apostle focused his
readers' attention on the rest of their sanctification and their
final glorification.
The God of hope is the God who inspires hope in, and provides
hope for, His redeemed ones. Christians can be filled with all
joy because of what God has already done for them, and what
1Vine, p. 209.
He is still doing for them. We can also be filled with all peace
as we realize both what He is doing for us now and what He
will do for us in the future. It is possible for us to "abound in
hope" because the power of the omnipotent Holy Spirit is at
work in us (cf. ch. 8).
"The achievement of all God's purposes for the

spiritual welfare of His children comes from the
power given by the Spirit of God. What a fitting
closing reminder to the apostle's discussion of
Christian living."1
This concludes Paul's exposition of the theme of the righteousness of God

that constitutes the heart of this epistle (1:18—15:13). Paul showed
man's need of God's righteousness (1:18—3:20), how God imputes it to
people who trust in His Son (3:21—5:21), and how He imparts it to those
to whom He has imputed it (chs. 6—8). Moreover, he demonstrated that
God is consistently righteous in doing all these things (chs. 9—11). He
ended by urging his readers to practice their righteousness in their most
important relationships: with God, with the world, and with their fellow
believers (12:1—15:13).
VII. CONCLUSION 15:14—16:27
The conclusion of the epistle corresponds to its introduction (1:1-17; cf.

15:14 and 1:8; 15:15b-21 and 1:3, 13; 15:22 and 1:13a; 15:27 and 1:14;
15:29 and 1:11-12; and 15:30-32 and 1:9-10). Both sections deal with
matters of personal interest to Paul, and they frame his exposition of the
righteousness of God (cf. 1 Cor. 1:1-9; 16:5-24). However in both sections
what Paul wrote about himself pertained to the gospel of Jesus Christ.
A. PAUL'S MINISTRY 15:14-33
The apostle first gave information concerning his past labors (15:14-21).
Then he explained his present program (15:22-29). Finally he shared his
future plans (15:30-33).
1Witmer, "Romans," p. 496.

1. Past labors 15:14-21
Paul had been somewhat critical of the strong and the weak in the Roman
church (14:1—15:13). He now balanced those comments by pointing out
other strengths in the church besides the faith of his Roman brethren (1:8).
"Almost as though the whole sweep of the argument from

1:16 to 15:13 had been one long parenthesis, Paul returns to
the theme and mood of 1:8-15."1
15:14 Paul's knowledge of the church in Rome had come to him

through sources other than personal observation (vv. 22-24;
cf. 1:8).
Goodness is moral excellence that comes through the working

of God's Spirit (Gal. 5:22; cf. Rom. 6:13). Goodness is
necessary to apply truth to life, as is knowledge. This was
primarily a self-taught church (6:17), and the believers were
able to instruct one another. Admonish (or instruct) means to
inculcate, to instill in, to implant in (cf. Col. 3:16; 1 Thess.
5:14).
"Morally, they were 'full of goodness,'

intellectually they were 'complete in knowledge,'
and functionally they were 'competent to instruct
one another.'"2
15:15 The apostle gave his readers credit for some knowledge of
what he had written in the foregoing chapters. Nevertheless
they needed reminding, as do all of God's people. This is the
closest Paul got to explaining his purpose for writing Romans
in this epistle, but this purpose statement is obviously very
general.
15:16 Paul had a special obligation to this primarily Gentile

congregation (1:13) because God had sent him to minister to
the Gentiles. As a believer-priest it was his duty to bring people
to God with the gospel. He regarded the Gentiles who were
coming to faith and growing through his ministry as his offering

2Mounce, p. 266.
to God.1 These Gentiles would be acceptable to God as the

Holy Spirit set them apart to God as His possession (cf. 1 Cor.
6:11). Positional sanctification is in view here rather than
progressive sanctification.
15:17-18 Paul had grounds to boast because Gentiles had come to Jesus
Christ through his ministry. But he gave all the credit for what
had happened to Jesus Christ who had worked through His
servant to lead the Gentiles to obey God in word and deed.
Obedience in this context involved putting their trust in Christ
(cf. 1:5; 16:26; Acts 17:30; 1 Pet. 1:2).
15:19 Signs and wonders, standard biblical phraseology for miracles,

accredited the messenger of God and validated the message
that he proclaimed (Acts 2:22; 5:12).2 The power of the Holy
Spirit enabled people to see the connection between the
miracle and the message, and, therefore, to believe the gospel
and experience salvation.
Paul's arena of ministry when he wrote this epistle stretched

about 1,400 miles, from Jerusalem to the Roman province of
Illyricum.
"At this period Illurikon [Illyricum] stretched down

the northeast coast of the Adriatic (across from
Italy), from somewhere near the top of the
Adriatic Gulf, to Macedonia (coinciding roughly
with modern Yugoslavia and Albania)."3
Currently, this region includes northern Albania, with much of

former Yugoslavia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. There is no record
in Acts of Paul having gone there, though he may have done
so on his second missionary journey (Acts 17:1-9) or during
his third journey (Acts 21:1-2). Another possibility is that he
meant that Illyricum was the next province beyond the one
1See William A. Simmons, "Priest—Sacrifice—Life as Worship: A Pauline Matrix for

Understanding Romans," Bibliotheca Sacra 172:685 (January-March 2015):85-99.
2See Ken L. Sarles, "An Appraisal of the Signs and Wonders Movement," Bibliotheca Sacra
145:577 (January-March 1988):57-82.

that he had evangelized: Macedonia.1 Paul's claim to have fully

preached the gospel means that he had faithfully proclaimed
it, not that he had personally delivered it to every individual.
"Paul's vision then could be likened to lighting a

series of candles at intervals in a curve round the
northeastern quadrant of the Mediterranean;
having lit them and ensured that the flame was
steady, he left it to others to widen the pool of
light while he went on to light more at further
discrete centers of influence."2
15:20 This verse, along with verses 18-19, explains why Paul had not
yet been able to visit Rome. His desire to do pioneer missionary
work grew out of his zeal to reach as many unsaved people as
possible (cf. 1:14). He went to unreached people ("not where
Christ was already known by name") to preach the gospel
(Matt. 28:19-20). He did not wait for them to come and inquire
about it.
1Alford, 2:2:462.
2Dunn, p. 869.
"The duty of an Apostle was with the foundation,

not the superstructure. I Cor. iii. 10."1
15:21 Apparently Paul found encouragement to pursue his goal in this

prophecy from Isaiah, which describes the mission of the
Servant of the LORD (Isa. 52:15).
2. Present program 15:22-29
Paul wanted the Roman Christians' help in two matters: First, he wanted
their help in reaching another destination, namely, Spain (vv. 23-24).
Second, he wanted their prayer support for his task of taking a collection
to the poor saints in Jerusalem (vv. 25-29).
"The long discussion from 1:16—15:13 was preparing the way

for these more detailed requests in two ways: on the one hand,
it served as an indication of what Paul could contribute to them
in the mutual sharing of their faith—the teaching embodied in
the letter is in part exchange for the help he asks from them;
and, on the other, it indicated the argument he would use to
defend himself in Jerusalem, if called upon to do so, as he no
doubt fully expected to be."2
15:22 This verse captures the point of what Paul explained in the
preceding pericope: "For this reason [i.e., that Paul had
committed himself to reaching the unreached] I have often
been prevented from coming to you."
15:23-24 The apostle felt that the Christians in the areas that he had
evangelized were in a good position to carry on the
propagation of the gospel in their territories ("no further place
for me in these regions"). Consequently he believed that he
could look to comparatively unreached fields farther to the
west in what is now Europe (cf. 1:11-12): "whenever I go to
Spain."
"Parts of Spain (which in the ancient world

included all the Iberian peninsula) had been
1Denney, 2:713-14.
occupied by Rome since about 200 B.C.; but it was

only in Paul's lifetime that the Romans had fully
organized the entire area."1
15:25-26 The purpose of Paul's collection of money ("a contribution")

from the Macedonian and Achaean churches was to relieve the
poverty that existed among the Jewish Christians in Jerusalem.
A secondary purpose was to cement relations between Gentile
and Jewish believers (cf. 1 Cor. 16:1-4; 2 Cor. 8—9).
15:27 The money that Paul was collecting was both a love-gift and
an obligation. He could say that the givers owed it because the
gospel, which they benefited from, had come from Jerusalem
and Judea to the Gentiles (cf. 11:11, 17). Believers in Asia
Minor also contributed to this fund (1 Cor. 16:1; Acts 20:4).
"In summary, the principle of verse 27 is that

Gentile believers are indebted to Jewish believers,
and they ought to pay their debt by sharing their
material blessings with them."2
15:28 Paul evidently anticipated the completion of this project

eagerly. The money given was "fruit" in that it was the product
of gospel seed-sowing. Paul, as an apostle to the Gentiles,
evidently wanted the gift to serve as a token of the Gentile
churches' love and gratitude to the Jerusalem church. Or,
possibly, he wanted it to serve as a token of the "fruit" that
God had produced among the Gentiles because of the
Jerusalem church.3
15:29 The blessing of Christ in view was God's blessing on Paul by

allowing him to reach Rome. The apostle probably also had in
mind the blessing that would come to the Romans through his
ministry among them. He did not know at this time that he
would later arrive in Rome in chains (Acts 28:16).
1Moo, p. 900. See also The New Bible Dictionary, s.v. "Spain," by A. F. Walls, p. 1209.
3Cranfield, 2:775.
3. Future plans 15:30-33
15:30 Paul drew attention to the great need that he felt for his
readers' prayers by using the same term ("urge") that he did
when he appealed for them to dedicate themselves to God
(12:1). He exhorted them on the basis of their relationship
with their Lord Jesus Christ and their love that the Holy Spirit
inspires. Paul realized that, in view of the spiritual forces
antagonistic to his ministry, energetic praying was necessary
(cf. Eph. 6:18-20; 2 Cor. 1:10-11).
"… our praying must not be a casual experience

that has no heart or earnestness. We should put
as much fervor into our praying as a wrestler does
into his wrestling!"1
"Prayer is never rendered superfluous by any

circumstances, not even by the knowledge of
God's will and purpose. On the contrary, the
revelation of that will is an incentive to prayer. See
Ezek. 36:37."2
"A Christian's intercession is a means of sharing in

the ministry of others."3
15:31 Paul identified two immediate prayer requests: One was safety
from the opposition of hostile unbelieving Jews (cf. Acts 9:29-
30) and the distrust of Jewish Christians. The other was that
the Jewish Christians would receive the monetary gift of their
Gentile brethren. If they did not receive it the unity of the
saints would be in jeopardy.
15:32 The granting of these two requests would hopefully contribute

to the realization of a third goal. This goal was Paul's joyful
arrival in Rome in God's will (1:10) and his refreshment in the
fellowship of the Roman Christians.
1Wiersbe, 1:565.
2Vine,
p. 214.
3Witmer, p. 498.
15:33 Even though Paul's life was full of turmoil because of his
ministry, he wished the peace that comes from God as a special
portion for all the Roman saints.
"St. Paul concludes his request for a prayer with a

prayer of his own for them. 'Peace,' a keynote of
the Epistle, is one of his last thoughts."1
"Far from being an afterthought that included only a few

personal remarks, Romans 15:14-33 is key for understanding
the Book of Romans and Paul's theology of missions. As such,
it offers significant insights for a contemporary biblical
theology of missions. The passage is a reminder, first, that all
missionary efforts must be dependent on God and all results
must be recognized as the work of God's grace. Second, the
task of missions is a priestly privilege of presenting the nations
to God. Third, missions must maintain a balance between the
ultimate goal of establishing mature strategic congregations
and not losing the urgency of evangelism among the
unreached. Fourth, those who carry the gospel to the
unreached among the nations are helping fulfill the purposes
of God in salvation history. Fifth, reciprocal, mutual
partnerships, so central to the task of missions, must emerge
among churches around the world."2
B. PERSONAL MATTERS CH. 16
This last chapter is very letter-like in its spontaneous arrangement of

material. Paul evidently related matters as they occurred to him. He named
36 persons in this chapter. Eight of these people were with Paul, and the
rest were in Rome. He identified 27 men and eight women by name, plus
two more by their relationship to someone else. In addition he referred to
at least two households (vv. 10-11) and three house churches (vv. 5, 14,
15) plus some other unnamed men (v. 14) and two other women (vv. 13,
15). The households might also have been house churches. Most of the
names are Gentile, which reflects the mainly Gentile population of the

2Steve Strauss, "Missions Theology in Romans 15:14-33," Bibliotheca Sacra 160:640
(October-December 2003):474.
church in Rome, and most are those of slaves and freedmen and
freedwomen.1
Several commentators have believed that chapter 16 was originally a

separate letter that Paul wrote to the church at Ephesus.2 The hypothesis
behind this view is that since Paul had not visited Rome he could not have
known so many people, whom he greeted. He had ministered for three years
in Ephesus and undoubtedly knew many people there. This view is highly
improbable.3
"This sixteenth chapter is neglected by many to their own loss.

It is by far the most extensive, intimate and particular of all
the words of loving greeting in Paul's marvelous letters. No one
can afford to miss this wonderful outpouring of the heart of
our apostle toward the saints whom he so loved—which means
all the real Church of God!"4
"… Paul's extensive request for greetings in Rom. 16 may

reflect his desire to mention all the Christians in Rome he
knows—a procedure plainly impossible in those letters directed
to churches where he has ministered."5
"… Paul was a friend maker as well as a soul winner. He did not
try to live an isolated life; he had friends in the Lord, and he
appreciated them."6
1. A commendation 16:1-2
Phoebe (lit. Bright or Radiant) was evidently the woman who carried this
epistle from Corinth to Rome.
1See P. Lampe, "The Roman Christians in Romans 16," in The Romans Debate, pp. 227-
29.
2E.g., Deissmann, Paul, p. 21.
3See Bruce, pp. 253-57, for an effective rebuttal.
4Newell, p. 548.
5Moo, p. 917.
6Wiersbe, 1:565.
"The name itself was one of the names of the goddess, Diana,
and this would suggest that she was a convert from
heathenism, not a Jewess."1
She was a servant (Gr. diakonon) of the church in her hometown, Cenchrea,
which was the port of Corinth (Acts 18:18; 2 Cor. 1:1). It is unclear whether
Phoebe held office as a deaconess, as some have assumed.2 She may have
been an informal servant of the church without office.3 Paul stressed her
service, not her office.
"The word itself (diakonos) does appear to have been on the

way to technical use by the time this epistle was written (xii.
7), but whether it was so used of women is not certain."4
The Greek word prostatis, "helper," occurs only here in the New Testament
and probably means a helper in the sense of a benefactor or patron. Phoebe
was Paul's sister in the Lord, as seems clear from his reference to her as
"our" sister. Letters of commendation were common in Paul's day (cf. 2
Cor. 3:1). Paul's words here constituted such a letter for Phoebe.
Notice that the ministry of women in the Roman church is quite evident in
this chapter. Paul referred to nine prominent women: Phoebe, Prisca, Mary,
Tryphena, Thyphosa, Persis, Rufus' mother, Julia, and Nereus' sister.
2. Various greetings to Christians in Rome 16:3-16
It may seem unusual that Paul knew so many people by name in the church
in Rome, since he had never visited it. However travel in the Roman Empire
was fairly easy during Paul's lifetime. Perhaps he had met some of these
people elsewhere and knew others of them by reputation.
Most of the names are Latin or Greek, but some of these people were
evidently Jews who, like Paul, also had Greek or Latin names (e.g., vv. 7,
11). In his epistles Paul greeted more individuals by name in the churches
that he had not visited than in those that he had (cf. Col.). He may have
1GriffithThomas, St. Paul's Epistle …, p. 417.

2Lenski, p. 899; Moo, p. 914; Bruce, p. 252; Mickelsen, p. 1225; McGee, 4:755.
3Charles C. Ryrie, The Place of Women in the Church, p. 88.
4Barrett, p. 282. Cf. Denney, 2:717-18.
wanted to establish a more personal contact with the congregations that

had not seen his face.
16:3-5a Paul had met Prisca (Priscilla is the diminutive form of her
name) and her husband Aquila in Corinth (Acts 18:2). They
had risked their lives for Paul. When he left for Ephesus he took
them with him (Acts 18:18), but he left them in Ephesus when
he moved on to Jerusalem (Acts 18:19). In Ephesus they
helped Apollos (Acts 18:24-28). Later they returned to Rome
where they had lived previously (Acts 18:2). Later still they
returned to Ephesus (2 Tim. 4:19). Churches normally met in
houses at that time, and one met in their house (cf. v. 23; 1
Cor. 16:19).
"There is no decisive evidence until the third

century of the existence of special buildings used
for churches. The references seem all to be to
places in private houses, sometimes very probably
houses of a large size."1
16:5b-7 Most of the people mentioned in these verses require no

explanatory comment. Asia (v. 5) was the Roman province of
Asia, of which Ephesus was the capital. Junias (or Junia, or
Junianus, v. 7) was perhaps the wife of Andronicus (cf. vv. 3,
15), though this may not be a woman's name.2 The term
kinfolk (v. 7; cf. vv. 11, 21) seems to refer to relatives of Paul
only in the sense of being fellow Jews (cf. 9:13; Phil. 1:7;
4:14).
"Fellow-prisoners" may mean voluntary servants committed to

the Lord, since Paul was not in prison. However he had been in
prison (2 Cor. 6:5; 11:23), so the imprisonment in view may
have been literal. "Apostles" (v. 7) here must have the general
meaning of representatives (traveling missionaries) rather
than being a technical reference to one of the 13 official
apostles (cf. Acts 14:4, 14; 2 Cor. 8:23; 1 Thess. 2:6; Phil.
2:25).

2See Esther Yue L. Ng, "Was Junia(s) in Rom 16:7 a Female Apostle? And So What?"
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 63:3 (September 2020):517-33.
16:8-15 "Those who are of the household of Aristobulus" (v. 10) were
probably his slaves (household servants). Since Paul did not
greet Aristobulus himself here, this man may have been an
unbeliever.
"Although Aristobulus was a common name (MM,

BGD), there is certainly a strong plausibility in the
suggestion that the Aristobulus here mentioned
was the grandson of Herod the Great and brother
of Agrippa I."1
Tryphena (v. 12, Dainty) and Tryphosa (Delicate) may have

been sisters. Both names derive from the verb truphao,
meaning to live delicately or luxuriously (cf. James 5:5). Rufus
(v. 13) may have been the son of Simon of Cyrene, who carried
Jesus' cross (cf. Mark 15:21). Rufus' mother may have been
Paul's ("and mine") only in the sense that she had at one time
acted like a mother to him. It is unlikely that he would have
referred to her as he did if she had been his physical mother.
"Let Christian mothers find here a great field for

that wonderful heart of instinctive loving care
given by God to mothers,—that they extend their
maternal care beyond their own family circle, to all
Christians, and especially to all laborers for Christ.
The Lord will remember it at His coming!"2
"The brothers and sisters [or saints] with them" (vv. 14, 15)
probably refers to the other Christians who met with those
named in a house church.
"Very probably … Philologus and Julia, husband

and wife, or brother and sister, were slaves in the
emperor's household."3
1Dunn, Romans 9—16, p. 896. MM stands for J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan, The Vocabulary
of the Greek Testament; and BGD is W. Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New
Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, English translation. See also J. B.
Lightfoot, St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, p. 174.
2Newell, p. 554.
3Dunn, Romans 9—16, p. 898. Cf. Denney, 2:721.
16:16 The holy kiss was, and still is, a common affectionate greeting,
expressing mutual love, forgiveness, and unity in Christ. Paul
relayed the greetings of all the churches that he represented.
"The greeting thus has a 'political' overtone: Paul

speaks for all these churches, and they are behind
him in his mission as articulated both in theological
and political terms in the preceding chapters …"1
Paul's acknowledgement of his co-workers (vv. 3, 9; cf. v. 7) shows that

he was not a "lone ranger" minister. He had strong personal connections
with several of the people whom he named. The significant number of
women (nine) mentioned in these verses argues against the view of some
that Paul was a woman-hater. Obviously women played important roles in
the ministry of the early church, and Paul appreciated them.
3. A warning 16:17-20
Again Paul introduced his comments with a strong exhortation (cf. 12:1;
15:30). He warned the Roman Christians about false teachers who might
enter the fold of the faithful. The brevity of Paul's warning argues against
concluding that false teachers were at that time active in the church.
"Paul at this point probably took the pen from his amanuensis
(Tertius) and added a final personal note. This was certainly
his regular style, and though he does not draw attention to the
fact as he did when writing to the churches of his own mission,
it would be evident enough from the change of writing style
on the papyrus."2
16:17-18 False teachers were, and are, a danger to all the churches. Paul
urged his Roman readers to avoid them.3
"If Paul had one particular group [of false

teachers] in mind, we cannot be at all certain
which it was. But he may well have had more than
one group in mind, or he may have been warning
1Dunn,Romans 9—16, p. 899.

2Ibid.,
p. 906.
3See Ted G. Kitchens, "Perimeters of Corrective Church Discipline," Bibliotheca Sacra
148:590 (April-June 1991):205-7.

in a quite general way against a danger which he

knew would always threaten the churches but
could present itself in many different forms."1
16:19 Paul was confident that his readers could handle this threat,
because they had a reputation for following the apostles'
instructions. The innocent among God's people tend to accept
false teachers, and the wise normally reject them. Paul wanted
his readers to be wise concerning all good, and innocent only
with regard to evil (cf. Matt. 10:16; 2 Cor. 11:1-4, 13-15).
"… so wise as not to be deceived, and yet so

simple as not to be deceivers."2
16:20 Satan is behind all evil ultimately, under God's sovereign plan.
God desires peac" among His people, not the antagonism that
some in the church who chose to follow Satan's spokesmen
would create. "Soon crush" does not imply that Jesus Christ
would return soon necessarily. Paul meant that the Roman
Christians would frustrate Satan's work among them soon,
when they rejected the false teachers. His terminology
suggests that he had Genesis 3:15 in mind.
Paul's benediction magnified God's grace, as does this whole

epistle. Usually such a benediction signaled the end of a Pauline
letter, but the apostle had more to communicate in this
instance.3
4. Greetings from Paul's companions 16:21-24
The men that Paul mentioned in verses 21 and 22 all seem to be fellow
missionaries who were working with him in Corinth when he wrote this
epistle. Lucius may have been Luke, the writer of Luke and Acts.4 Jason
may have been Paul's host in Thessalonica (cf. Acts 17:5-9). Sosipater was
probably Sopater of Berea, who accompanied Paul when he left Greece
1Cranfield,2:802.
2Henry, p. 1800.
3For a chart of Paul's benedictions in his epistles, see The Bible Knowledge Commentary:
New Testament, p. 500.

4See John Wenham, "The Identification of Luke," Evangelical Quarterly 63:1 (1991):38-
41.
toward the end of his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4). Tertius was
Paul's amanuensis (copyist/secretary, scribe) who wrote down this epistle
for him.
"A crucial and debated question is the degree of freedom that

a letter writer might give to his or her scribe in the choice of
wording. A reasonable conclusion is that the freedom given to
an amanuensis would have differed depending on the skill of
the amanuensis and the nature of the relationship between the
writer and the amanuensis It may be, for instance, that when
Paul used a close and trusted companion for his amanuensis,
he gave that person some degree of freedom to choose the
exact wording of the letter—always, we can assume, checking
the letter over and attesting to its accurate representation of
his thoughts with his closing greeting. Many scholars think that
the influence of various amanuenses may explain the
differences in Greek style among the Pauline letters, rendering
it difficult, if not impossible, to draw conclusions about
authorship based on such criteria."1
The men in verse 23 were evidently all Corinthian believers.
Erastus, the city treasurer "has been identified with the civic
official of that name mentioned in a Latin inscription on a
marble paving-block discovered at Corinth in 1929 by
members of the American School at Athens: 'ERASTVS. PRO.
AED. S. P. STRAVIT' ('Erastus, in return for his aedileship, laid
this pavement at his own expense'). The aedile ('commissioner
for public works') was a responsible magistrate in a Roman
city. The office of oikonomos, perhaps 'clerk of works' rather
than 'city treasurer', was a much humbler one (Lat. arcarius).
Since the pavement seems to belong to a later part of the first
century, it might be inferred that Erastus acquitted himself so
satisfactorily in the inferior office that he was promoted to the
higher magistracy, and showed his appreciation of the honour
thus done him by presenting the city with a marble pavement.
1Carson and Moo, pp. 334-35.

He need not be identified with the Erastus of Acts 19:22 or 2

Timothy 4:20; the name was common enough."1
The name of Quartus "is stuck on at the end since, presumably,

of those closest to Tertius at the time of writing, he was known
to some of the Christians at Rome."2
Some later manuscripts have as verse 24: "The grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ be with you all. Amen"
5. A doxology 16:25-27
The apostle brought together words and ideas from his earlier epistles, as
well as from this one, in this doxology.
16:25-26 The apostle was confident that God could do for his readers
what they needed (cf. 1:11; Eph. 3:20): "Him who is able to
establish you." The "gospel" is God's chief tool to that end.
"My gospel" identifies the one that Paul had preached widely
and had expounded in this epistle. The "preaching of Jesus
Christ" is another name for the gospel that stresses its
subject: Jesus Christ. Proclamation ("preaching") followed
"revelation" (Jesus presented and revealed to Israel, as the
Messiah-Savior of the world).
The "mystery" refers in particular to those revelations that

God had not given previously but had revealed to Paul and the
other apostles and to the revelations that had been given
previously but had not been completely understood (cf. 11:25;
Gal. 1:12, 15-16; Eph. 3:9; Col. 1:26; 4:3). Even though the
Old Testament prophets revealed the gospel (good news),
they did not always grasp all of its implications (1 Pet. 1:10-
12; cf. Rom. 1:1-2).
The commandment of God in view is probably the expression

of God's will. This new revelation and the understanding of
1Bruce, p. 266.
previous revelation was now available to all nations, not just to

the Jews.
16:27 As the only God, He is the God of both Jews and Gentiles (cf.
3:29-30). As the wise God, He is the author of the plan of
salvation for all humankind that Paul had expounded (cf.
11:33).
"What does the Bible mean when it calls God wise?

In Scripture wisdom is a moral as well as an
intellectual quality, more than mere intelligence or
knowledge, just as it is more than mere cleverness
or cunning. To be truly wise, in the Bible sense,
one's intelligence and cleverness must be
harnessed to a right end. Wisdom is the power to
see, and the inclination to choose, the best and
highest goal, together with the surest means of
attaining it."1
God is worthy of all glory, not only because of who He is, but
because of all that He has done. Our access to Him is through
His Son: Jesus Christ.
This doxology is similar to the others in 8:31-39 and 11:33-36.
1J. I. Packer, Knowing God, p. 80.

Sequence of Paul's Activities

Date Event Reference
Birth in Tarsus Acts 22:3
Early life and theological education in Acts 22:3

Jerusalem under Gamaliel
34 Participation in Stephen’s stoning outside Acts 7:57—8:1

Jerusalem
34 Leadership in the persecution of Acts 9:1

Christians in Jerusalem
34 Leadership in the persecution of Acts 9:2

Christians beyond Jerusalem to Damascus
34 Conversion on the road to Damascus Acts 9:3-17
34 Baptism in Damascus Acts 9:18
34 Preaching in Damascus Acts 9:19-22
34 Trip to Arabia Gal. 1:17
34 Return to Damascus Gal. 1:17
37 Trip to Jerusalem Acts 9:26; Gal.

1:18
37 Meeting with Peter and James and Acts 9:27-29;Gal.

preaching in Jerusalem 1:18-19
37 Trip to Tarsus via Caesarea Acts 9:30; Gal.

1:21
37- Ministry in and around Tarsus Acts 11:25

43
37- Caught up to the third heaven 2 Cor. 12:2-4

43
43 Move to Antioch of Syria on Barnabas’ Acts 11:26

invitation
43 Ministry in Antioch of Syria Acts 11:26
47 Trip to Jerusalem with Barnabas and Titus Acts 11:30; Gal.

to deliver a famine relief gift 2:1-10
47 Return to Antioch Acts 12:25
47- Continued ministry in Antioch Acts 13:1-3

48
48- First missionary journey with Barnabas and Acts 13:4—14:27

49 John Mark
48 Ministry in Cyprus Acts 13:4-12
48 Voyage to Asia Minor Acts 13:13
48 Separation from John Mark who departed Acts 13:13

at Perga
48 Ministry at Pisidian Antioch Acts 13:14-52
48- Ministry at Iconium Acts 14:1-5

49
49 Ministry at Lystra Acts 14:8-19
49 Ministry at Derbe Acts 14:20-23
49 Return to Attalia Acts 14:24-25
49 Return to Syrian Antioch Acts 14:26
49 Ministry in Syrian Antioch Acts 14:27-15:2
49 Rebuke of Peter Gal. 2:11-14

49 Writing of Galatians
49 Trip to Jerusalem with Barnabas via Acts 15:3

Phoenicia and Samaria
49 Jerusalem Council Acts 15:4-29
49 Return to Syrian Antioch with Barnabas, Acts 15:22, 30

Silas, and Judas
49 Separation from Silas and Judas who Acts 15:31-33

returned to Jerusalem
49- Ministry in Syrian Antioch Acts 15:35

50
50 Division of opinion with Barnabas over Acts 15:36-39

John Mark
50 Separation from Barnabas and John Mark Acts 15:39

who returned to Cyprus
50- Second missionary journey with Silas and Acts 15:40—

52 others 18:22
50 Ministry in Syria and Cilicia Acts 15:41
50 Ministry in Derbe and Lystra Acts 16:1a
50 Partnership with Timothy who joined Acts 16:1b-3

Paul and Silas
50 Ministry in other Galatian churches Acts 16:4-6
50 Exclusion from Asia and Bithynia Acts 16:7-8
50 Macedonian vision at Troas Acts 16:9-10
50 Voyage from Troas to Samothrace to Acts 16:11

Neapolis with Luke
50 Ministry in Philippi Acts 16:12-40

50 Separation from Luke who remained at Cf. "we" in Acts

Philippi 16:12 with "they"
in Acts 17:1
50- Ministry in Thessalonica Acts 17:1-9

51
51 Ministry in Berea Acts 17:10-15
51 Separation from Silas and Timothy Acts 17:14

who remained in Berea
51 Ministry in Athens Acts 17:16-34
51 Ministry in Corinth Acts 18:1-17
51 Association with Aquilla and Priscilla Acts 18:2-3
51 Reunion with Silas and Timothy Acts 18:5
51 Writing of 1 and 2 Thessalonians
52 Trip to Ephesus with Aquilla and Priscilla Acts 18:18
52 Separation from Aquilla and Priscilla Acts 18:18-19

who proceeded to Syria
52 Ministry in Ephesus Acts 18:19-21
52 Return to Syrian Antioch via Caesarea and Acts 18:21-22

Jerusalem
52- Layover in Syrian Antioch Acts 18:23a

53
53- Third missionary journey Acts 18:23b—

57 21:19
53 Ministry in Galatia Acts 18:23b; 19:1
53 Apollos’ ministry in Ephesus Acts 18:24

53 Aquilla and Priscilla’s ministry to Acts 18:26

Apollos
53 Apollos’ ministry in Achaia Acts 18:27-28
53- Ministry in Ephesus and Asia Acts 19:1—20:1

56
53- Writing of the “former letter” to 1 Cor. 5:9

56 Corinth
56 Writing of 1 Corinthians
56 The “painful visit’ to Corinth and 2 Cor., 2:1; 12:14;

return 13:1-2
56 Writing of the “severe letter” to 2 Cor. 2:3-4; 7:8-

Corinth 12; 12:17-19
56 Sending of Timothy and Erastus to Acts 19:22

Macedonia
56 Trip to Troas from Ephesus
56 Wait for Titus
56 Trip to Macedonia from Troas Acts 20:1
56 Reunion with Titus in Macedonia
56 Writing of 2 Corinthians
56 Ministry in Macedonia Acts 20:2
56 Ministry in Greece (Achaia and Corinth) Acts 20:2-3
56- Writing of Romans

57
57 Return to Macedonia and Philippi with Acts 20:3-4

Sopater, Aristarchus, Secundus, Gaius,
Timothy, Tychicus, Trophimus, and Luke
57 Trip of his companions except Luke to Acts 20:5

Troas
57 Trip to Troas with Luke Acts 20:6
57 Ministry at Troas Acts 20:7-12
57 Trip to Assos by land while Luke and Acts 20:13

another brother travel by ship
57 Trip to Miletus by ship with Luke and the Acts 20:14-16

other brother
57 Ministry at Miletus Acts 20:17-38
57 Trip from Miletus to Caesarea with Luke Acts 21:1-7

and the other brother via Tyre
57 Ministry at Caesarea Acts 21:8-14
57 Trip to Jerusalem Acts 21:15-16
57 Ministry at Jerusalem Acts 21:17—

23:30
57 Report to the church Acts 21:17-26
57 Arrest in the temple Acts 21:27-40
57 Speech in the temple courtyard Acts 22:1-21
57 Imprisonment in Jerusalem Acts 22:22—

23:30
57 Trip to Caesarea Acts 23:31-35
57- Ministry in Caesarea Acts 24:1—26:32

59
57 Defense before Felix Acts 24:1-27
59 Defense before Festus Acts 25:1-12

59 Defense before Agrippa and Festus Acts 26:1-32
59- Journey to Rome with Luke and Aristarchus Acts 27:1—28:16

60
59 Trip to Crete Acts 27:1-13
59 Shipwreck Acts 27:14-44
59- Ministry on Malta Acts 28:1-10

60
60 Trip from Malta to Rome Acts 28:11-16
60- Ministry in Rome Acts 28:16-31

62
60- Writing of the Prison Epistles

62
62 Release from Rome
62 Return to the Aegean area
62- Writing of 1 Timothy and Titus

66
67 Arrest
67- Imprisonment in Rome

68
67 Writing of 2 Timothy
68 Martyrdom in Rome
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Notes on

WRITER AND DATE

Throughout the history of the church, from post-apostolic times to the

and traveled by land to Macedonia, where he wrote 2 Corinthians (A.D. 56).

"The greeting in Romans does not imply a strongly knit church

As Paul looked forward to returning to Jerusalem between his departure

Sacra 128:509 (January-March 1971):62-67; Walter B. Russell, III, "An Alternative

Another reason for writing Romans was undoubtedly Paul's desire to

"It is interesting to note that this great document of Christian

"The peculiar position of the apostle at the time of writing, as

1William Barclay, The Letter to the Romans, p. xxii.

apologetic [defensive] elements which are all found combined

James Dunn summarized Paul's purposes for writing Romans as three:

"While letters were by no means unknown in the world of the

Greco-Roman letters typically contained an address and greeting, a body,

Adolf Deissmann distinguished between "letters" (unstudied, private

Letters were not a typical method of religious instruction in Judaism. New

1W. H. Griffith Thomas, St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, p. 20.

1-59; idem, Paul, pp. 9-26.

"The Epistle to the Romans is the first great work of Christian

"It is the only part of Scripture in which there is found a

The Book of Romans is distinctive among Paul's inspired writings in several

B. Wallis, "Soteriology and Eschatology in Romans," Journal of the Evangelical Theological

"One feature of the treatise section is the repeated use of

"Romans at the head of the Pauline corpus and the Pastoral

"Since the great truth of justification by faith alone is at the

in Rome was 'an evangelical imperative.'1 The proclamation of

Martin Luther wrote the following commendation of this epistle:

"[Romans] is worthy not only that every Christian should know

1"Cf. Claude Thompson, "Social Reform: An Evangelical Imperative," Christianity Today

1. The writer 1:1

II. The need for God's righteousness 1:18—3:20

A. The need of all people 1:18-32

1. The reason for human guilt 1:18

B. The need of good people 2:1—3:8

1. God's principles of judgment 2:1-16

C. The guilt of all humanity 3:9-20

III. The imputation of God's righteousness 3:21—5:21

A. The description of justification 3:21-26

1. Abraham's justification by faith 4:1-5

3. The priority of faith to circumcision 4:9-12

D. The benefits of justification 5:1-11

IV. The impartation of God's righteousness chs. 6—8

A. The believer's relationship to sin ch. 6

1. Freedom from sin 6:1-14

B. The believer's relationship to the Law ch. 7

1. The Law's authority 7:1-6

C. The believer's relationship to God ch. 8

1. Our deliverance from the flesh by the power of the Spirit

V. The vindication of God's righteousness chs. 9—11

A. Israel's past election ch. 9

1. God's blessings on Israel 9:1-5

B. Israel's present rejection ch. 10

1. The reason God has set Israel aside 10:1-7

C. Israel's future salvation ch. 11

1. Israel's rejection not total 11:1-10

VI. The practice of God's righteousness 12:1—15:13

A. Dedication to God 12:1-2

1. The diversity of gifts 12:3-8