Chapter

Learning
Disabilities
1
and Related
Disabilities:
Characteristics
and Current
Directions

Chapter Introduction

1.1 Recent Changes in Special Education

1.1a Intellectual Disabilities

1.1b Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

1.1c The Series of Special Education Laws

1.1d Learning Disabilities

1.1e Other Disabilities

1.2 The Category of Learning Disabilities: A Field in Transition

1.2a Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

1.2b Definitions of Learning Disabilities

1.2c Common Elements in the Definitions of Learning Disabilities

 1.2d Gifted and Talented Children With Learning Disabilities

1.2e Characteristics of Learning Disabilities

1.2f Characteristics at Different Stages of Life

1.2g Some Eminent People With Learning Disabilities

1.2h The Cross-Cultural Nature of Learning Disabilities

1.2i History of the Field of Learning Disabilities

1.2j The Common Core Standards

1.3 Neurosciences and Study of the Brain

1.3a The Brain: Its Structure and Functions

1.3b Recent Brain Research

1.3c Advances With Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(fMRI)

1.4 New Issues and Directions

1.4a More Inclusive Placements

1.4b Response-to-lntervention (RTI)

1.4c Standards for Teachers

1.4d Assistive and Instructional Technology

1.4e Universal Design for Learning

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 energyy/ iStockphoto.com

A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell

where his influence stops.

—Henry Adams

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1
Describe key changes in special education

1.2
Describe the categories of learning disabilities and
other related disabilities
 1.3
Describe the neurosciences and the brain

1.4
Identify new issues and directions in special
education

Part 1 of this book consists of Chapter 1, “Learning Disabilities and

Related Disabilities: Characteristics and Current Directions.” In
this chapter, we consider

1. some significant changes in special education,

2. the category of learning disabilities and the history of

learning disabilities,

3. related other disabilities,

4. neurosciences and study of the brain, and

5. major current issues in the field of special education.

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special

Educator Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council
for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.
 CEC Initial Preparation Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical
Practice
6.0—Beginning special education professionals use foundational
knowledge of the field and their professional Ethical Principles and
Practice Standards to inform special education practice, to engage in
lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.

6.2—Beginning special education professionals understand how

foundational knowledge and current issues influence professional
practice.

6.3—Beginning special education professionals understand that diversity

is a part of families, cultures, and schools, and that complex human
issues can interact with the delivery of special education services.

This book focuses both on students with learning disabilities (a

category in special education) and on students with disabilities.
Learning disabilities and related other disabilities are conditions
that impede learning for many children, adolescents, and adults,
affecting their schooling and their adult lives. Some states have
categorical certification and programs for specific categories of
special education, such as for learning disabilities or
emotional/behavioral disorders. Some states have noncategorical
(or cross-categorical) certification and programs for students with
mild/moderate disabilities.

1.1 Recent Changes in Special Education

A number of recent significant changes have occurred in the field
of special education (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). Based
on data from the 2012 report:

The term Intellectual Disabilities replaces the term

Mental Retardation. The term “mental retardation” has
been in the federal law for special education for over 50
years, but over time it has taken on a pejorative connotation.
 In October 2010, the law changed the term to “intellectual
disabilities.”

Although Learning Disabilities remains the largest

category of disability, the percentage of children
identified with learning disabilities has decreased
considerably. Over 4.4% of the population ages 6 through
21 were identified with learning disabilities in 2000, but in
2012 this percentage decreased to 4.0% (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012).

The category of “Other Health Impaired” (OHI) has

increased significantly. The category of OHI includes
children with “attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder”
(ADHD). Because an increasing number of students are
identified with ADHD, the category of OHI has increased
significantly. Almost 1% of the general population is
identified with OHI (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).

The number of children identified with “Autism”

has increased significantly. This is in part due to the
expanded designation of autism to include “autism spectrum
disorder.” In 2000, 1% of the population was identified with
autism, but this percentage increased to 3% (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012). The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that a new estimate
of American children having autism spectrum disorder is 1
in 50 (CDC, 2013).

Common Core Standards

Over the next several years, most schools will be working to

implement the common core standards since the majority of
the states have adopted them. These will have major
implications for students with disabilities as educators work to
provide universally designed procedures to ensure that
students with disabilities have access to the standards. All
educators will also be working to task analyze the common core
skills to determine the specific strategies that will be utilized to
ensure progress in the standards. An increasing emphasis on
differentiated instruction will be necessary to include all
students in the common core. Specific attention to vocabulary
development and critical thinking will be essential.
 These standards are designed to result in uniform expectations
and are sequential. New assessments based on these standards
will be utilized. There is a strong emphasis within the common
core on critical thinking skills, literacy, collaborative work, text
complexity and on 21st century skills for career preparation.

According to the National Governors, Association for Best

Practices, teachers, parents, and community leaders have
weighed in to help create the Common Core State Standards.
The standards communicate what is expected of students at
each grade level. Provided teachers are given adequate training
and support, these standards will allow teachers to be better
equipped to know exactly to how to help students learn and
establish individualized benchmarks for them. The Common
Core Standards focus on the core conceptual understandings
and procedures and give students the opportunity to master
them. (National Governors Association Center for Best
Practices, 2010).

The concepts and strategies presented in this text are broad in

scope and are applicable for students with disabilities. Table 1.1
describes some of the characteristics of students with disabilities.

Table 1.1 Common Learning and Behavioral Characteristics of

Students With Related Other Disabilities

Characteristic Description

Disorders of attention Does not focus when a lesson is presented; short

attention span, easily distracted, poor concentration;
may display hyperactivity

Poor motor abilities Difficulty with gross motor abilities and fine motor
coordination (exhibits general awkwardness and
clumsiness)

Psychological Problems in processing auditory or visual information

processing differences (difficulty in interpreting visual or auditory stimuli)

Poor cognitive Does not know how to go about the task of learning
strategies for learning and studying; lacks organizational skills; passive
learning style (do not direct their own learning)

Oral language Underlying language disorders (problems in language

difficulties development, listening, speaking, and vocabulary)
 Characteristic Description

Reading difficulties Problems in learning to decode words, basic word-

recognition skills, or reading comprehension

Writing difficulties Performs poorly in tasks requiring written expression,

spelling, and handwriting

Mathematics Difficulty with quantitative thinking, arithmetic, time,

difficulties space, and calculation facts

Poor social skills Does not know how to act and talk in social situations;
difficulty with establishing satisfying social relationships
and friendships

© Cengage Learning

In the following section, we briefly review the major categories of

special education. Specifically, we review the categories of
Intellectual Disabilities, Social/Emotional Disturbance, Learning
Disabilities, and Other Disabilities.

1.1a Intellectual Disabilities

The term Intellectual Disabilities is used in the 30th Annual
Report to Congress (U.S. Department of Education, 2012) instead
of mental retardation, which was previously used in the special
education law (IDEA-2004). Many special educators and parents
have long felt that the term mental retardation is stigmatizing and
demeaning. In response to this concern, the American Association
for Mental Retardation (AAMR), the foremost organization
supporting the needs of people with mental retardation, in
February 2007 changed its name to the American Association on
Intellectual Disabilities (http://www.aaidd.org). The law and
many agencies and organizations now refer to intellectual
disabilities rather than to mental retardation. On September 24,
2010, Congress passed S. 2781 known as “Rosa’s Law,” which
changed the term mental retardation to intellectual disabilities in
all laws that refer to individuals with disabilities. In “Rosa’s Law”
an intellectual disability shall mean a condition previously
referred to as mental retardation or a variation of this term, and
shall have the same meaning with respect to programs or
qualifications for programs for individuals with such conditions.
(S. 2781, September 24, 2010).

In 2002, the AAMR’s definition of mental retardation was revised

as follows:

Mental retardation is characterized by

significant limitations both in intellectual
functioning and in adaptive behavior as
expressed in conceptual, social, and practical
adaptive skills. The disability originates before
age 18.

The revised definition recognizes that mental retardation is a set

of conditions that blends together intelligence and adaptive
behavior. Adaptive behavior refers to practical skills, such as
self-care skills, independent skills, or social skills. The levels of
mental retardation are structured by the level of supports that the
student needs. Thus, mental retardation is a particular state of
functioning that begins in childhood and is characterized by
limitations in both intelligence and adaptive skills (Kirk et al.,
2009; Hunt & Marshall, 2013).

Students with mild intellectual disabilities can learn academic

skills, but their learning rate is slow and they will need sufficient
supports along the way.

Levels of Intellectual Disabilities When levels of

intellectual disabilities were based on IQ scores, they were defined
with the terms mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Currently
four levels of intellectual disabilities are based on the level of
support that students need (Table 1.2).
 Table 1.2 Levels of Support Needed by Students With
Intellectual Disabilities

1. Intermittent support Support provided as needed, and not at all times.

This level is similar to mild intellectual disabilities.

2. Limited support Support provided on a regular basis for a short

period of time. This level is similar to moderate
intellectual disabilities.

3. Extensive support Support provided on an ongoing and regular basis.

This level is similar to severe intellectual disabilities.

4. Pervasive support Support consists of constant high-intensity help

across environments and involves more staff
members. This level is similar to profound
intellectual disabilities.

© Cengage Learning

Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities Most students

with intellectual disabilities considered mild (87%) are likely to be
in programs for mild disabilities. About 16% of all students with
intellectual disabilities are in general education classes for 80% or
more of the day, and 29% are in regular classes for 40% to 79% of
the day (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). About 8% of all
students with disabilities are in the category of intellectual
disabilities. Useful websites for intellectual disabilities include
http://thearc.org (the ARC) and http://www.aaidd.org (American
Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities).
Children with intellectual disabilities are found in every economic,
racial, cultural, and language group.

1.1b Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

The term used in the federal law is emotional disturbance
(Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA-
 2004). Emotional Disturbance is defined in the federal IDEA-
2004 regulations, shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Emotional Disturbance as Defined in Federal Law

(IDEA-2004 Regulations)

A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long

period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects educational
performance—
A. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health
factors;
B. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers;
C. Inappropriate types of behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances;
D. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
E. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems

© Cengage Learning

Many experts note that there are problems with the federal
definition; and instead, they suggest using the term
emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) (Kauffman & Landrum,
2009; Forness & Knitzer, 1992; Stichter, Conroy, & Kauffman,
2008). Forness & Knitzer (1992) indicate that the term
emotional/behavioral disorders has several advantages over the
federal term of emotional disturbance. It

a. reflects terminology that reflects current professional

preference,

b. includes both disorders of emotion and behavior,

c. focuses on behaviors that occur within the school, and

d. excludes minor or temporary problems.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 ©Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Foundations: Aligning

Instruction with Federal Legislation.” In this video a teacher, a specialist, an
intern, and the principal discuss the federal laws of the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB), and the implementation of these laws.

Questions
1. What problems did these educators discuss in the process of
implementing these laws?

2. What are the differences between IDEA and NCLB?

Many states and school programs use the term

emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD).
Emotional/behavioral disorders interfere with learning, and
students with this type of disability present a significant challenge
to teachers and others. Often students with emotional/behavioral
disorders are included in programs for mild disabilities.

Characteristics of Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

The characteristics of emotional disorders and behavioral
disorders differ. Emotional disorders involve feelings about
oneself. For example, the student may feel so chronically sad or
 depressed or have such a low self-concept that these feelings
interfere with the individual’s outlook on life and ability to learn.

Behavioral disorders involve more overt problems, such as

aggressive or antisocial behavior. Often behavioral and emotional
challenges are interdependent or overlap with each other and are
interrelated. A student who feels poorly about himself or herself
may engage in specific behaviors that lead to being socially
isolated. A student who is depressed may engage in withdrawal
behavior, which leads to poor peer relationships. Moreover,
emotional and behavioral challenges occur in diverse populations,
and they are found in every economic, racial, cultural, and
language group.

Students with emotional/behavioral disorders are discussed in

detail in Chapter 6, “Social, Emotional, and Behavioral
Challenges.” Chapter 6 also describes teaching strategies and the
needed supports for students with emotional and behavioral
challenges.

Prevalence of Emotional Disturbance About 7% of all

students with disabilities are identified under the category of
emotional disturbance (see Table 1.4). About 35% of these
students are in general education classes (80% or more of the day)
and 21% are in general education classes for 40% to 80% of the
day (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).

Table 1.4 Categories of Children With Disabilities, Ages 6–17

 Source: From U. S. Department of Education. (2012). Thirtieth annual report to Congress on the
implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Westat.

1.1c The Series of Special Education Laws

There have been a series of special education laws, as shown in
Table 1.5. Under this series of laws, all children and youth ages 3
through 21 with disabilities have a right to a free and appropriate
public education. Further, each state must have a special
education plan that is in compliance with the federal law.

Table 1.5 Series of Special Education Laws

Year Number Name of Law

1975 P.L. 94-142 The Education of All Handicapped

Children Act
 Year Number Name of Law

1986 P.L. 99-457 The Education for All Handicapped

Children Act Amendments

1990 P.L. 101-476 The Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act of 1990

1997 P.L. 105-117 The Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act of 1997

2004 P.L. 108-456 The Individuals with Disabilities

Education Improvement Act of 2004

© Cengage Learning

Special education laws are considered civil rights legislation that

guarantees education to individuals with disabilities. The first law
providing for students with disabilities was called the Education
for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142),
passed by Congress in 1975. The most recent law in the series is
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (IDEA-2004).

1.1d Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities are typically included within
the designation of “high incidence disabilities.” A more detailed
discussion of learning disabilities is given in the next section. A
concise description of learning disabilities is that it is a
neurological condition that interferes with a person’s ability to
store, process, or produce information. It can affect the person’s
ability to read, write, speak, spell, compute math, reason, and can
also affect one’s attention, memory, coordination, social skills, and
emotional maturity (Learning Disabilities Association of America,
2009). There are several other widely used definitions of learning
disabilities, which are presented in the next section, on the
category of learning disabilities.
 About 40% of all students with disabilities are identified under the
category of learning disabilities. About 55% of these students are
in general education classes for 80% or more of the school day,
and about 31% are in regular classes for 40% to 79% if the school
day (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). Students with learning
disabilities are often included in groups of mild disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities are found in every economic,
racial, cultural, and language group.

1.1e Other Disabilities

Children with other disabilities are often included in the
designation high incidence disabilities, depending in large
measure on the individual state’s certification requirements for
special education teachers, as well as specific programs that are in
the schools. For example, in Illinois, the initial certification for
special education teachers certifies teachers to teach seven
different categories of disabilities: learning disabilities, intellectual
disabilities, emotional/behavioral disturbance, orthopedic
impairments, traumatic brain injury, autism, and other health
impairments. Thus, types of other disabilities that may be
included in mild disabilities depend on individual state
certification regulations and school programs. Children with other
disabilities are found in every economic, racial, cultural, and
language group.

Did You Get It?

The U.S. Department of Education has pointed to several trends in its

2012 Annual Report to Congress. One such change pertains specifically
to the category of “Learning Disabilities,” a category whose number of
identified students has in recent years.

a. virtually remained the same

b. decreased slightly
 c. decreased markedly

d. increased dramatically

1.2 The Category of Learning Disabilities:

A Field in Transition
A learning disability is a neurological condition that interferes
with a person’s ability to store, process, or produce information,
affecting the person’s ability to read, write, speak, spell, or
compute mathematics. It can also interfere with attention,
memory, coordination, and social skills. If provided with the right
support and interventions, students with learning disabilities can
succeed in school and have a successful, and often distinguished,
career later in life. Parents and teachers can help the student
achieve success by both fostering the student’s strengths and
knowing the student’s weaknesses.

The enigma of the youngster who encounters extraordinary

difficulty in learning, of course, is not new. Throughout the years,
children from all walks of life, in all cultures, nations, and
language groups have experienced serious difficulties in learning.
The condition of learning disabilities has been recognized for over
50 years, and its recognition offered a welcome explanation for
misunderstood children who were encountering serious problems
in school and in learning.

1.2a Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

Beginning in 2000, the number of students identified with
learning disabilities in the public schools has decreased. In 1997,
 4.4% of the population were identified with learning disabilities.
By the year 2006, the number had dropped to 4.0%. This decrease
in learning disabilities occurred, even though the numbers of
students eligible for special education continued to grow—
increasing 16% over the past 7 years (see Figure 1.1). Probably,
some students are being identified in other areas of disabilities,
such as ADHD or Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Figure 1.1 Students With Learning Disabilities

© Cengage Learning 2015

Several possible reasons for this decrease in the prevalence of

students identified with learning disabilities are suggested by
Cortiella (2009) in the State of Learning Disabilities. They
include:

Shifts of students to other disability categories, such as

ADHD, which is included in the category, Other Health
Impairments, or Autism.

Expansion and attention to early childhood education.

Improvements in reading instruction provided in general

education.

Shifts in identification approaches, including the use of

Response-to-Intervention (RTI).
1.2b Definitions of Learning Disabilities
The Federal Definition The most widely used definition of
learning disabilities first appeared in 1975 in Public Law 94-142,
the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. It also has been
incorporated in the series of revisions of this law, including the
federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
of 2004 (IDEA-2004): The definition of learning disabilities in the
federal law forms the basis of many state definitions, and it is used
by many schools. The definition of learning disabilities in the
federal law IDEA-2004 is:

The term “specific learning disability” means a

disorder in one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken
or written, which disorder may manifest itself
in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or to do mathematical
calculations. Such term includes such
conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia,
and developmental aphasia. Such term does
not include a learning problem that is
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or
motor disabilities; of mental retardation; of
emotional disturbance; or of environmental,
cultural, or economic disadvantage.
—Source: U.S. Department of Education. 2012. The
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (IDEA-2004). Washington, DC.

To summarize, the federal definition of learning disabilities

includes the following major concepts (some of which have
become controversial):

1. The individual has a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes. (These processes refer to mental
abilities, such as memory, auditory perception, visual
perception, oral language, and thinking.)
 2. The individual has difficulty in learning, specifically, in
speaking, listening, writing, reading (word-recognition skills
and comprehension), and mathematics (calculation and
reasoning).

3. The problem is not primarily due to other causes, such as

visual or hearing impairments, motor disabilities,
intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance, or economic,
environmental, or cultural disadvantage.

In addition, there is an operational definition in IDEA-2004 that

first appeared in a separate set of regulations for children with
learning disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 1977). These
regulations state that a student has a specific learning disability if:

1. the student has a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in understanding or in
using language, spoken or written, which disorder may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations;

2. the student may have such conditions as perceptual

disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction,
dyslexia, and developmental aphasia;

3. the student does not achieve at the proper age and ability
levels in one or more specific areas when provided with
appropriate learning experiences; and

4. the student has a severe discrepancy between achievement

and intellectual ability in one or more of these seven areas:

a. oral expression,

b. listening comprehension,

c. written expression,

d. basic reading skills,

e. reading comprehension,

f. mathematics calculation, and

g. mathematics reasoning.

To determine eligibility for services for a student with learning

disabilities, the school may consider whether a severe discrepancy
exists between the student’s apparent ability for learning and his
or her low level of achievement. As noted later in this chapter and
in Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process,” the school may
also consider the student’s response-to-intervention to determine
eligibility.

Other Significant Definitions of Learning Disabilities

Two other significant definitions of learning disabilities are
offered by the National Joint Committee on Learning
Disabilities and the Interagency Committee on Learning
Disabilities. Additional definitions of learning disabilities have
been developed by other organizations and in other countries.

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities

(NJCLD) The National Joint Committee on Learning
Disabilities (NJCLD) is an organization of representatives from
14 professional organizations and disciplines involved with
learning disabilities. The NJCLD definition includes the following
highlights (National Joint Committee of Learning Disabilities
(NJCLD), 1990; National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2009):

Heterogeneous (or diverse) group of disorders

Significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening,

speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical skills

Disorders are intrinsic (or inherent) to the individual,

presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction

Occurs across the life span

Often problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social

perception, and social interaction

May occur concomitantly with other disabilities, (e.g.,

sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional
disturbance) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural
differences, or insufficient or inappropriate instruction).
They are not the result of those conditions or influences.

Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities (ICLD)

The Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities
 (ICLD) is a government committee that was commissioned by the
U.S. Congress to develop a definition of learning disabilities. ICLD
includes representatives of 12 agencies within the Department of
Health and Human Services and the Department of Education.
The ICLD definition includes social skills deficits as a
characteristic of learning disabilities (Interagency Committee on
Learning Disabilities, 1988).

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

(DSM 5) The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM 5), published in May 2013, represents 36,000
individuals in the field of mental health. This includes many
physicians and psychologists. The definition for this organization
in its 5th edition is not learning disabilities. Instead, they use the
terms reading disorders, written expression disorders, and
mathematics disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

1.2c Common Elements in the Definitions of

Learning Disabilities
The various definitions of learning disabilities have several
elements in common:

1. neurological factors,

2. cognitive processing factors,

3. difficulty in academic and learning tasks,

4. discrepancy between potential and achievement, and

5. exclusion of other causes.

The nature of each of these elements and the problematic issues

that surround them are briefly described in the following section.

Neurological Factors Although not always

stated directly, implied in many of the definitions
is the view that learning disabilities are related to
neurological factors. All learning originates within the brain and,
consequently, a disorder in learning can be caused by a
dysfunction in the central nervous system, which is an organic
system comprising the brain and the spinal cord. In many cases,
the neurological condition is difficult to detect by medical
examination or external medical tests. Central nervous system
dysfunction is therefore usually determined through observation
of behavior. Neuroscience and medical research report growing
evidence of the neurological basis for learning disabilities through
functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies (Shaywitz,
2003; Sousa, 2001).

Cognitive Processing Factors Cognitive processing

factors refer to an uneven development of the various components
of mental functioning. Mental ability is not a single capacity;
rather, it is composed of many underlying mental abilities. For the
individual with learning disabilities, these component abilities do
not develop in an even fashion. That is, whereas some of the
components are maturing in an anticipated sequence or rate,
others are lagging in their development, thereby appearing as
symptoms of the learning problem. Students with learning
disabilities manifest strengths and weaknesses in different mental
processes. A key phrase in the federal definition that refers to this
component of the definition is a disorder in one or more of these
basic psychological processes.

Difficulty in Academic and Learning Tasks Individuals

with learning disabilities encounter different types of problems in
learning. One child’s challenge may be in the acquisition of speech
and oral language; another’s may be in reading, arithmetic,
handwriting, motor skills, or writing. As noted earlier, the
operational portion of the federal definition identifies seven
specific academic areas of learning in which learning disabilities
can be detected.
Discrepancy Between a Student’s Potential for
Learning and Academic Achievement The most
controversial component in the definitions of learning disabilities
is the identification of a gap between what the student is
potentially capable of learning and what the student has in fact
learned or achieved. The operational portion of the federal
definition states that the child with learning disabilities has a
severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual
ability in one or more of seven areas.

To determine if a discrepancy exists between potential and

achievement, one must

1. determine the student’s potential for learning,

2. the student’s current achievement level, and

3. the degree of discrepancy between the student’s potential for

learning and the actual achievement level.

This evaluation process entails a number of issues, such as the use

of IQ tests to determine a student’s potential for learning and the
degree of severe discrepancy needed to ascertain a learning
disability. Some states quantify the learning disability discrepancy
using one of several forms of “discrepancy formulas” to determine
if a child is eligible for learning disabilities services. (Visit the
Student website for more information on these eligibility
formulas.)

Exclusion of Other Causes This component of the

definition reflects the notion that learning disabilities are not
primarily the result of other conditions, such as intellectual
disabilities; emotional disturbance; visual or hearing
impairments; or cultural, social, or economic environments.

In practice, however, the exclusion component of the definition of

learning disabilities becomes difficult to implement because
children often exhibit co-occurring (or comorbid) problems.
Teachers who work with children with other disabilities often
 observe that many students appear to have two problems—their
primary disability plus their learning disabilities. There is growing
acceptance that other conditions often co-occur with learning
disabilities (Silver, 2006).

1.2d Gifted and Talented Children With

Learning Disabilities
Some children with learning disabilities also may be gifted and
talented (Vukovic & Siegel, 2006; Lovett & Lewandowski, 2005).
Characteristics of giftedness include spontaneity, inquisitiveness,
imagination, boundless enthusiasm, and emotionality; and these
same traits are often observed in children with learning
disabilities. Often, children with learning disabilities, like gifted
children, seem to require a great deal of activity. They may find
the general education classroom environment uninviting, or they
may have trouble attending to the classroom instruction. If their
learning needs are not being met, they may respond by becoming
fidgety, inattentive, and even disruptive. It is especially important
that difficulty with school for these children does not lead to the
withholding of learning opportunities, which can develop into
frustration, failure, or depression.

Some children with learning disabilities can also be gifted or talented.

 ZUMA Wire Service / Alamy Limited

Gifted and talented individuals with learning disabilities can

become high-achieving adults. Successful adults with learning
disabilities may find the world of work to be quite different from
the world of school. Studies show that many highly successful
people have learning disabilities. In fact, one study shows that
30% to 40% of 300 individuals who had achieved a high level of
financial success had learning difficulties in school (Kantrowitz &
Underwood, 1999; West, 2003). A major business magazine,
Fortune, did a cover story on chief executive officers (CEOs) of
major corporations who have learning disabilities (Morris, 2002).
There appears to be a strong, positive side to learning disabilities
that requires further research (West, 2003).

1.2e Characteristics of Learning Disabilities

Many different characteristics are associated with learning
disabilities. However, each individual is unique and will display
only some of these characteristics. No one individual displays all
of the characteristics and traits. Some students have disabilities in
mathematics, whereas others excel in mathematics. Attention
problems are symptomatic for many students with learning
disabilities, but not for all. Further, certain characteristics are
more likely to be exhibited at certain age levels. For example,
young children are more likely to be hyperactive than adolescents.
In addition, deficits are manifested in different ways at different
age levels. For example, an underlying language disorder may
appear as a delayed speech problem in the preschooler, as a
reading disorder in the elementary pupil, and as a writing disorder
in the secondary student. Moreover, these characteristics are also
found among students with mild disabilities. The implications of
each of these learning and behavioral characteristics are complex,
and they are discussed in detail throughout this book.

Gender Differences Clinics and schools identify four times

more boys than girls who have learning disabilities. However,
gender research shows that there actually may be as many girls
with learning disabilities as boys, but they are not being identified.
Boys and girls with learning disabilities have different
characteristics. Boys tend to exhibit more physical aggression and
loss of control; however, they also exhibit visual-motor abilities,
spelling ability, and written language mechanical aptitude. Girls
with learning disabilities tend to have more cognitive, language,
and social problems and to have severe academic achievement
deficits in reading and math. Girls tend to be more verbal and
display less physical aggression. Girls with learning disabilities
who are not identified are an underserved group that is at
significant risk for long-term academic, social, and emotional
difficulties (Cortiella, 2009; Shaywitz, 2003).

Explanations of why more boys than girls are identified with

learning disabilities include biological causes (males may be more
vulnerable to learning disabilities), cultural factors (more males
may be identified because boys tend to exhibit more disruptive
 behaviors that are troublesome to adults), and expectation
pressures (the expectations for success in school may be greater
for boys than for girls).

1.2f Characteristics at Different Stages of

Life
When the initial small group of concerned parents and
professionals first sought to obtain help for their children and to
promote the field of learning disabilities in the 1960s, their efforts
focused on the pressing needs of the elementary-level child.
Today, we recognize that learning disabilities become evident at
many stages of life and that the problem appears in a different
form at each stage.

Figure 1.2 illustrates the number of children identified with

specific learning disabilities at each age, from ages 6 to 21 (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012). The number of students
gradually increases from age 6 to 9, a majority of students are in
the 9 to 14 age range, and the number decreases sharply from age
16 to 21. This pattern suggests that substantial numbers of
children with learning disabilities are identified in the age range of
9 through 14. Most children are not identified until age 9, and the
decrease during the late teen years may relate to the large school
dropout rate of adolescents with learning disabilities.

Figure 1.2 Age Distribution of Students With Learning

Disabilities
 Source: To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disablities. Twenty-eight
annual report to congress in the Implementation of the individual with Disabilities Education Act, by the
U.S. Department of Education, 2008. Washington, DC: Westat.

Each age group (preschoolers, elementary children, adolescents,

and adults) needs different kinds of skills. Therefore, certain
characteristics of learning disabilities assume greater prominence
at certain age levels.

The Preschool Level Because growth rates are so

unpredictable at young ages, educators are generally reluctant to
identify preschoolers under a categorical label such as learning
disabilities. Very young children (under age 6) who appear to have
learning disabilities are often identified with a noncategorical
label such as developmental delay. Legislation for preschool
children with disabilities includes two different laws.

1. Ages birth to age 3 for infants and toddlers, and

2. ages 3 to age 6 for preschoolers.

Preschool children are further discussed in Chapter 8, “Young
Children With Disabilities.” Experience and research show that
intervention programs for infants and toddlers (ages birth to 3)
and preschool children (ages 3 to 6) are very effective and that
intervention efforts have a high payoff (Lerner, Lowenthal, &
Egan, 2003).

Among the characteristics displayed by preschool children with

developmental delays are poor motor development, language
delays, speech disorders, and slow cognitive and concept
development. Common examples of problems at the preschool
level are the 3-year-old child who cannot catch a ball, hop, jump,
or play with manipulative toys (poor motor development); the 4-
year-old child who does not use language to communicate, has a
limited vocabulary, and cannot be understood (language and
speech disorders); and the 5-year-old child who cannot count to
10, name colors, or work puzzles (poor cognitive development). In
addition, preschoolers often exhibit behaviors of hyperactivity and
poor attention. The problems and treatment of the preschool child
are so unique that a special chapter of this text is devoted to the
topic (see Chapter 8, “Young Children with Disabilities”). Data for
3- to 5-year-old children are not counted by category of disability
(e.g., learning disabilities), but 5.8% of all children receiving
special education services are in the 3 to 5 age group (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012).

The Elementary Level For many children, learning

disabilities first become apparent when they enter school and fail
to acquire academic skills. The failure often occurs in reading, but
it also happens in mathematics, writing, or other school subjects.
Among the behaviors frequently seen in the early elementary years
are inability to attend and concentrate; poor motor skills, as
evidenced in the awkward handling of a pencil and in poor
writing; and difficulty in learning to read.
In the later elementary years, grades 4 through 8, as the
curriculum becomes more difficult, problems may emerge in other
areas, such as social studies or science because more higher-level
thinking skills are required. Emotional problems also become
more of an impediment after several years of repeated failure, and
students become more conscious of their poor achievement. For
some students, social problems and the inability to make and keep
friends increase in importance at this age level. About 40% of all
children with learning disabilities are in the 6 to 11 age group (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012).

The Secondary Level A radical change in schooling occurs

at the secondary level, and adolescents find that learning
disabilities begin to take a greater toll. The tougher demands of
the middle school and high school curricula and teachers, the
turmoil of adolescence, and the continued academic failure
combine to intensify the learning disability. Adolescents are also
concerned about life after completing school. They may need
counseling and guidance for college, career, and vocational
decisions. To worsen the situation, a few adolescents find
themselves drawn into acts of juvenile delinquency or are tempted
to drop out of school.

Because adolescents tend to be overly sensitive, some emotional,

social, and self-concept problems often accompany a learning
disability at this age. Most secondary schools have programs for
adolescents with learning disabilities. Although this age group is
considered throughout this text, some of its unique features and
some special programs for adolescents are discussed in Chapter 9,
“Adolescents and Adults With Learning Disabilities and Related
Mild Disabilities.” About 60% of all students with learning
disabilities are in the 12 to 17 age group (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012).

The Adult Years By the time they finish schooling, some

adults overcome their learning disabilities, are able to reduce
 them, or have learned how to compensate or circumvent their
problems. For many adults, however, the learning problems
continue, and vestiges of their disorder continue to hamper them
in adulthood. Both reading difficulties and nonverbal social
disabilities may limit their career development and may also
hinder their ability to make and keep friends. Many adults
voluntarily seek help in later life to cope with their learning
disabilities.

1.2g Some Eminent People With Learning

Disabilities
The life stories of some individuals who eventually became
eminent, successful contributors to society reflect their travails
with serious learning disabilities. Student Stories 1.1, “Childhood
Memories,” describes the childhood stories of such people with
learning disabilities. These persons of eminence, fortunately, were
somehow able to find appropriate ways of learning, and they
successfully overcame their initial failures.

Student Stories 1.1 Childhood Memories

Charles Schwab, the founder of the successful and innovative stock

brokerage firm, struggled with severe reading problems throughout his life.
Schwab explains that he coped by developing his other abilities, such as the
capacity to envision, to anticipate where things are going, and to conceive a
solution to a business problem (Kantrowitz & Underwood, 1999). Schwab
believes his reading problem forced him to develop these skills at a higher
level than is attained by people for whom reading comes easily: “I’ve always
felt that I have more of an ability to envision, to be able to anticipate where
things are going, to conceive a solution to a business problem than people
who are more sequential thinkers” (West, 1997, p. 349). A website for
Charles Schwab is at http://www.schwablearning.org.
Nelson Rockefeller, who served as vice president of the United States and
governor of the state of New York, suffered from severe dyslexia, a type of
learning disability that involves extreme difficulty in learning to read. His
poor reading ability kept him from achieving good grades in school, and his
learning disability forced him to memorize his speeches during his political
career. In describing his feelings about growing up with a learning disability,
Rockefeller (1976) recalled,

I was dyslexic … and I still have a hard time reading

today. I remember vividly the pain and mortification I
felt as a boy of eight when I was assigned to read a short
passage of scripture at a community vesper service and
did a thoroughly miserable job of it. I know what a
dyslexic child goes through … the frustration of not being
able to do what other children do easily, the humiliation
of being thought not too bright when such is not the case
at all. But, after coping with this problem for more than

60 years, I have a message of hope and encouragement

for children with learning disabilities and their parents

As a child, Thomas Edison, the ingenious American inventor, was called

abnormal, addled, and mentally defective. Writing in his diary that he was
never able to get along at school, he recalled that he was always at the foot of
his class. His father thought of him as stupid, and Edison described himself
as a dunce.

Auguste Rodin, the great French sculptor, was called the worst pupil in his
school. His teachers diagnosed Rodin as uneducable and advised his parents
to put him out to work, although they doubted that he could ever make a
living.

Woodrow Wilson, the scholarly 28th president of the United States, did not
learn his letters until he was 9 years old and did not learn to read until age 11.
Relatives expressed sorrow for his parents because Woodrow was so dull and
backward (Thompson, 1971).

Albert Einstein, the theoretical physicist, did not speak until age 3. His
search for words was described as laborious and, until he was 7, he
 formulated each sentence, no matter how commonplace, silently with his lips
before speaking the words aloud. Schoolwork did not go well for young
Albert. One teacher predicted that “nothing good” would come of him.
Einstein’s language disabilities persisted throughout his adult life. When he
read, he heard words. Writing was difficult for him, and he communicated
badly through writing. In describing his thinking process, he explained that
he rarely thought in words; it was only after a thought came that he tried to
express it in words at a later time (Isaacson, 2007; Patten, 1973).

Reflective Question
1. How did these early years of academic struggle affect the lives of these
individuals?

1.2h The Cross-Cultural Nature of Learning

Disabilities
The condition of learning disabilities is a universal problem that
occurs in all cultures and nations in the world. The problem is not
confined to the United States or to English-speaking countries.
Accumulating research shows that in all cultures and societies
there are children who seem to have normal intelligence but who
also have severe difficulty in learning language, acquiring reading
or writing skills, or doing mathematics. The International
Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities (IARLD), an
organization dedicated to fostering international research on
learning disabilities, publishes a journal called Thalamus and has
a website at http://www.iarld.com.

Clinical reports of the personal travails of children from all

corners of the world are remarkably similar. In the following
excerpt, for example, a Chinese adult remembers his first baffling
failure in a Chinese school; the story parallels the bewildering
 episodes that children with learning disabilities face in U.S.
schools (Lerner & Chen, 1992).

My first recollection of learning problems

occurred at age 7, when I entered the first
grade in school in Taiwan. My teacher wrote
characters on the blackboard and the pupils
were to copy this board work into their
notebooks. I clearly remember that I was
simply unable to perform this task. Observing
how easily my classmates accomplished the
assignment, I was perplexed and troubled by
my inability to copy the characters and words
from the board.

Research reports about learning disabilities come from many

parts of the world: South Korea, (Kim, Rhee, Burns, & Lerner,
2009), the Netherlands (Van der Lief & Morfidi, 2006; Stevens &
Werkhoven, 2001), Great Britain (Wedell, 2001), Scandinavia
(Lundberg & Hoien, 2001), New Zealand (Chapman, 1992),
Germany (Opp, 2001), Italy (Fabbro & Masutto, 1994), Mexico
(Fletcher & DeLopez, 1995), Portugal (da Fonseca, 1996), Canada
(Wong & Hutchinson, 2001), Australia (Elkins, 2001), Russia
(Korkunov et al., 1998), South America (Bravo-Valdivieso &
Miiller, 2001), and Israel (Shalev et al., 1998). The problem
appears in children learning an alphabet-based system of written
language, such as English, and with children learning a
logographic (pictorial) system of written language, such as
Chinese (Hsu, 1988) or Japanese (Tsuge, 2001).

1.2i History of the Field of Learning

Disabilities
This section offers a brief history of the field of learning
disabilities.
The term learning disabilities was first introduced in 1963, when
a small group of concerned parents and educators met in Chicago
to consider linking the isolated parent groups active in a few
communities into a single organization. Each of these parent
groups identified the children of concern under a different name,
including children with perceptual handicaps, brain-injured
children, and neurologically impaired children. To unite these
groups, they needed to agree on a single term to identify the
children of concern. When the term learning disabilities was
suggested at this meeting by Sam Kirk (Kirk, 1963), it met with
immediate approval. The organization today known as the
Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDAA),
http://www.ldaamerica.org, was born at this historic meeting.

During the 50 years since learning disabilities were first

recognized, the field has wrestled with many controversial issues,
and our notion of learning disabilities is different from what it
once was (Hallahan, 2007). Although the term learning
disabilities had immediate appeal and acceptance, the task of
developing a definition of learning disabilities that is acceptable to
all has proved to be a formidable challenge. Indeed, defining this
population is considered so overwhelming that some have likened
learning disabilities to Justice Potter Stewart’s comment on
pornography: impossible to define, “but I know it when I see it.”
The most influential definition of learning disabilities is in the
federal law IDEA-2004.

Learning disabilities was first identified as a category of special

education in federal law in 1975 (PL 94-142). These were heady
days for parents, who finally had a sensible explanation of their
child’s problems and for educators who were passionately
committed to instructing students with learning disabilities and
providing the kind of intensive, relentless, iterative individualized
instruction they needed (Hallahan, 2007).
Prior to the establishment of the field of learning
disabilities (1800–1930), there was a period of
broad scientific research on the functions and
disorders of the brain. Many of the early brain researchers were
physicians who were involved in investigating the brain damage of
adult patients who had suffered a stroke, an accident, or a disease.
These scientists gathered information by studying the behavior of
patients who had lost some brain function, such as the ability to
speak or to read. Through autopsies of many of these patients, the
scientists were able to link the loss of functions to specific
damaged areas of the brain.

This brain research became the foundation of the field of learning

disabilities (1930–1960), when the scientific studies of the brain
were applied to the clinical study of children and were then
translated into ways of teaching. Psychologists and educators
developed instruments for assessment and for methods of
teaching students with learning disabilities. During the transition
phase, terminology changed many times, with various terms being
used to describe the problem—brain-injured children, minimal
brain dysfunction, and, finally, learning disabilities.

The term brain-injured child was first used by Alfred Strauss and
Laura Lehtinen (1947), pioneers who identified brain-injured
children as a new category of exceptional children. Strauss and
Lehtinen hypothesized that a brain injury could occur during one
of three periods in the child’s life: before birth (prenatal stage),
during the birth process, or at some point after birth (postnatal
stage). These scholars believed that as a result of such organic
impairment, the normal learning process was impeded. Many of
these children previously had been classified as mentally retarded,
emotionally disturbed, autistic, aphasic, or behaviorally
maladjusted. A large number of children exhibited such severe
behavioral characteristics that they were excluded from the public
schools.
 One characteristic of the brain-injured child is a perceptual
disorder, which is a disturbance in the ability to perceive objects,
relations, or qualities—a difficulty in the interpretation of sensory
stimulation. For example, one teacher noted that when she wore a
particular dress with polka dots, the children with perceptual
disorders seemed compelled to touch it to verify what they
thought they perceived. Figure 1.3 illustrates the ambiguity in
perception that the normal observer senses, and which can help a
normal observer understand the unstable world of the child with a
perceptual disorder. In this figure, we are asked to determine
whether the picture is the face of an old woman or a young
woman. Do you see a young woman or an old woman in this
picture?

Figure 1.3 Do You See a Young Woman or an Old Woman in

This Picture?

Source: Illustration by W. E. Hill in Puck, 1915.

In Figure 1.4 one is asked to look at the drawing and then to

sketch it from memory. (Even copying this figure while viewing it
may prove to be difficult.) These illustrations produce a perceptual
 confusion, much like that experienced by a child with perceptual
disorders.

Figure 1.4 Examine This Drawing; Try to Copy or Sketch It

From Memory

© Cengage Learning

Strauss’s work with brain-injured children laid the foundation for

the field of learning disabilities by perceiving similar
characteristics in a diverse group of children who had been
misdiagnosed by specialists, misunderstood by parents, and often
discarded by society.

The term minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) is defined as a

mild or minimal neurological abnormality that causes learning
disabilities, and the term MBD was recommended as a way to
identify these children by the U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare (Clements, 1966). MBD was used to
describe children with near-average intelligence and with certain
learning and behavioral disorders associated with deviations or
dysfunctions of the central nervous system. Many medical
professionals employed the term MBD when diagnosing children.

Learning disabilities successfully serves as a recognized way to

refer to individuals with problems that are the concern of this text.

Learning disabilities became an established discipline in schools

throughout the United States. The field grew rapidly as programs
 for learning disabilities were developed, teachers were trained,
and children began to receive services.

One of the first public school programs for learning disabilities

was established in Syracuse, New York (Cruickshank et al., 1961).
By the 1960s and 1970s, public school programs for learning
disabilities were rapidly established throughout the nation.
Several strong forces promoted this development, including
parental pressures, an increase of professional information, the
availability of teacher training programs, and state laws requiring
services for students with learning disabilities. All of this took
place before the passage of the first comprehensive special
education law in 1975, the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act (PL 94-142).

Most of the early programs were for students at the elementary

level. In these early programs, children with learning disabilities
were placed in separate classes, a setting that followed the
traditional instructional programs in special education at that
time. Later in this period, resource room programs were
introduced, and the secondary schools also began to serve
adolescents with learning disabilities. Many new tests and
teaching materials were developed during this period to serve the
growing number of students identified under the category of
learning disabilities.

1.2j The Common Core Standards

Learning Disabilities is the largest category, accounting for 40% of
all disabilities, Intellectual Disabilities accounts for 0.9%, and
Emotional Disturbance accounts for 0.7.% of all disabilities. The
category “Other Health Impaired” (OHI), which includes ADHD,
accounts for 8.5% of all disabilities.
Figure 1.5 Composition of Students With All Learning
Disabilities

© Cengage Learning 2015

The designation “Other Disabilities” refers to Low-incidence

categories and accounts for approximately 1% of children
receiving special education services. Other Disabilities consists of
several categories of exceptionality, and often these students are
included in the group of Mild Disabilities. For a student to be
eligible for special education services, the student must have an
identified category of disability that adversely impacts educational
performance.

Did You Get It?

In terms of a “federal” definition of learning disabilities, which of the

following is not one of the component criteria?

a. The disability has no possible cause other than learning-related.

b. The individual experiences at least one form of emotional and/or

behavioral difficulty in addition to his or her learning disability.

c. A difficult in learning exists.

d. The disorder affects at least one psychological process.

1.3 Neurosciences and Study of the Brain
Informed educators need up-to-date information
about the brain and learning. Scientific
investigations that attempt to unravel the
mysteries of the human brain and learning are fascinating in
themselves. Knowledge about the brain is increasing rapidly and
promises to further our understanding of the enigma of learning
disabilities. Recent neuroscience advances have new technologies
to study the brain and its role in learning (Dehaene, 2009; Sousa,
2001).

The neurosciences are the cluster of disciplines that investigate

the structure and functions of the brain and the central nervous
system. In this section, we briefly examine two facets of the
neurosciences:

1. the structure and functions of the brain and

2. recent brain research.

1.3a The Brain: Its Structure and Functions

All human behavior, including learning, is
mediated by the brain. The process of learning is
one of the most important activities of the brain.
From a neurological perspective, difficulty in academic learning
and reading represents a subtle malfunction in this most complex
organ of the human body (Dehaene, 2009; Sousa, 2001). Figure
1.6 shows the four major lobes of the brain.
Figure 1.6 The Brain

© Cengage Learning

The Cerebral Hemispheres The human brain is composed

of two halves, the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere, which
appear on casual inspection to be almost identical in construction
and metabolism. Each cerebral hemisphere contains

1. a frontal lobe,

2. a temporal lobe,

3. an occipital lobe, and

4. a parietal lobe,

as shown in Figure 1.6. The motor area of each hemisphere

controls the muscular activities of the opposite side of the body.
Thus, the movements of the right hand and foot originate in the
motor area of the left hemisphere. Both eyes and both ears are
represented in each hemisphere (Kibby & Hynd, 2001).

Right Brain, Left Brain: Differences in Function

Although the two halves of the brain appear almost identical in
structure, they differ in function, and these differences appear
very early in life.

The left hemisphere reacts to and controls language-related

activities. For more than 90% of adults, language function
originates in the left hemisphere, regardless of whether the
individual is left-handed, right-handed, or a combination of the
two. Language is located in the left hemisphere in 98% of right-
handed people and in about 71% of left-handed people (Hiscock &
Kinsbourne, 1987).

The right hemisphere deals with nonverbal stimuli. Spatial

perception, mathematics, music, directional orientation, time
sequences, and body awareness are located in the right
hemisphere.

Thus, even though visual and auditory nerve impulses are carried
to both cerebral hemispheres simultaneously, it is the left
hemisphere that reacts to linguistic stimuli, such as words,
symbols, and verbal thought. Consequently, adult stroke patients
with brain injury in the left hemisphere often suffer language loss,
in addition to an impairment in the motor function of the right
half of the body.

This duality of the brain has led to speculation that some people
tend to approach the environment in a “left-brained fashion,”
whereas others use a “right-brained approach.” Left-brained
individuals are strong in language and verbal skills, while right-
brained individuals have strengths in spatial, artistic, and
mechanical skills. These differences in brain function warrant
further discussion because the concept may provide some insight
into differences in the need for differentiated learning.

Cerebral Dominance Samuel Orton, a physician and early

investigator of reading and language difficulties, theorized that the
reversal of letters and words (which he called strephosymbolia, or
twisted symbols) was symptomatic of a failure to establish
cerebral dominance in the left hemisphere, which is the location
of the language area (Orton, 1937). Current findings support
Orton’s early theories, showing that the left hemisphere does
specialize in the language function and the right hemisphere
controls nonverbal functions. However, the two hemispheres of
the brain do not operate independently; there are many
interrelating elements and functions. The learning process
 depends on both hemispheres and their interrelating functions.
Inefficient functioning of either hemisphere reduces the total
effectiveness of individuals and affects their acquisition and use of
language (Dehaene, 2009; Shaywitz, 2003; Shaywitz et al., 2002;
Kibby & Hynd, 2001).

Lateral Preference The issue of lateral preference is the

subject of a related controversial theory, which proposes a
relationship between learning disorders and a tendency to use
either the right or left side of the body or a preference for the right
or left hand, foot, eye, or ear. The term consistent laterality refers
to the tendency to perform all functions with one side of the body.
Mixed laterality is a tendency to mix the right and left preference
in the use of hands, feet, eyes, and ears. A student’s laterality may
be tested through observation of simple behaviors—such as
throwing a ball, kicking a stick, seeing with a tube, and listening to
a watch—or through more sophisticated means used in
neuropsychology. There are mixed research findings about the
relationship between reading ability and lateral preferences
(Biegler, 1987; Obrzut & Boliek, 1991).

1.3b Recent Brain Research

Research on the brain and its relationship to
behavior and learning has accumulated slowly, in
part because some technologies for studying the
structure and function of the brain have only recently become
available. Today, neuroscientists can vastly extend their studies of
the structure and functions of the brain because of technological
advancements that have created opportunities for a better
understanding of the brain and its relationship to learning and
learning problems.
 Many of the brain research investigations involve studies of
individuals with the condition of dyslexia, which is a puzzling
type of learning disability that interferes with learning to read.
(See Chapter 12, “Reading Difficulties,” for more information
about dyslexia.) Individuals with dyslexia encounter severe
difficulty with reading. It is not a matter of intelligence; instead,
dyslexia appears to be related to brain structure and function.
Additional information about dyslexia can be found at the website
for the International Dyslexia Association at
http://www.interdys.org.

The act of reading is an extremely complex human task that

requires an intact and well-functioning brain and central nervous
system. Modern brain imaging methods reveal the brain areas that
activate when a reader deciphers printed words. Moreover, recent
brain imaging studies show that people with dyslexia exhibit
significant differences in brain functioning (Dehaene, 2009).
Student Stories 1.2, “Recollections of Individuals With Dyslexia,”
illustrates the serious challenges for people with dyslexia.

Student Stories 1.2 Recollections of Individuals With

Dyslexia

The following stories told by individuals with dyslexia, a severe reading

problem, reveal the frustration they faced in school and the strengths they
developed as they met the challenges of life.

Tom Cruise, the successful movie actor, recalls, “When I was about 7
years old, I had been labeled dyslexic. I’d try to concentrate on what I
was reading, then I’d get to the end of the page and have very little
memory of anything I’d read….I would go blank, feel anxious, nervous,
bored, frustrated, dumb. I would get angry. My legs would actually hurt
when I was studying. My head ached. All through school, and well into
my career, I felt like I had a secret.”

The Label of Dyslexia. Two students reflect on the effect of having the label
of dyslexia.
 Mary said she was “thrilled” when told that she had dyslexia. She said
that the diagnosis and label brought her relief. She could now better
assess her abilities and recognize why and where she was having
difficulty learning. Also, the label positively affected her parents,
prompting them to realize the struggle she underwent in order to do
well in school.

Jackie said the label of dyslexia gave her a “feeling of peace and
assurance that [she] wasn’t an oddity.” She noted, “The label of LD is a
label, and as [with any] label[,] stereotypes will always surface. But that
label is also part of me. It’s as much a part of me as my middle name, as
my smile, as my love of lilacs.”

Reflective Questions
1. What kinds of memories of school do people with dyslexia have?

2. What reaction do Mary and Jackie have to the label of “dyslexia”?

Source: From “My struggle to read,” by Tom Cruise, People, July 21, 2003, 60–64.
Source: From H. McGrady, J. Lerner, & M. Boscardin, “The Educational Lives of Students With
Learning Disabilities,” in P. Rodis, A. Garrand, & M. Boscardin, Learning disabilities and life
stories pp. 177–193. Copyright 2001 by Pearson Education. Adapted with the permission of the
publisher.

For almost a century, scientists suspected that there was a

neurological basis for dyslexia and that the difficulty in acquiring
reading skills stemmed from neurological differences in brain
function. With the growing knowledge about the brain and its
relationship to reading, there is finally convincing evidence that
people with dyslexia do indeed differ in their brain structure and
function from persons who do not have reading problems
(Dehaene, 2009; Lyon et al., 2001; Shaywitz, 2003; Zeffrino &
Eden, 2000).

A series of research studies to investigate the mystery of dyslexia

occurred in a relatively short period of time. This research
involved

1. postmortem anatomical studies,

2. genetics studies,

3. computed tomography (CT),

 4. positronemission tomography (PET), and

5. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Each of these research studies revealed a piece of the puzzle of the

brain and reading.

Postmortem Anatomical Studies Postmortem

anatomical studies—autopsy studies—of individuals with dyslexia
show strong evidence that the brain structure of dyslexic
individuals is different from that of individuals without dyslexia.
The brain tissue of eight people—six men and two women—was
studied. Some of these individuals were young men who died
suddenly, often in motorcycle accidents. At the time of death, their
brains were donated for study to an ongoing dyslexia research
center at Harvard Medical School’s Department of Neurology at
Beth Israel Hospital in Boston. The postmortem anatomical brain
studies found a remarkable and consistent abnormality in the
structure of the brain in these individuals. This abnormality was
found in an area of the brain known as the planum temporale,
which lies on the superior surface of the temporal lobe. In the left
hemisphere, this area is the center of language control. In the
postmortem studies of dyslexic cases, this area (i.e., the language
area) of the left hemisphere was smaller and had fewer brain cells
than that of nondyslexic individuals. However, this same area in
the right hemisphere was larger and contained more cells than are
found in nondyslexic individuals (Galaburda et al., 2006;
Galaburda, 1990; Powers, 2000).

Genetics Studies Knowledge of the genetics of dyslexia

and its role in the inheritability of dyslexia increased significantly
in the last decade (Fisher & DeFries, 2002; Snowling, Gallagher, &
Frith, 2003; Pennington, 1995). Two types of genetic studies are

1. family studies and

2. twin studies.
 Family studies The family studies began with a study conducted
in Scandinavia, which showed that dyslexia aggregates in families
(Hallgren, 1950). Since then, more extensive family studies
continue to show strong evidence that the tendency for severe
reading disabilities is inherited and appears to have a genetic basis
(Snowling et al., 2003; Pennington, 1995).

Twin studies The twin studies research provides further

evidence that genetics plays a significant role in dyslexia. Research
showed that twins have similar characteristics in terms of reading
disabilities, even when they are raised separately (DeFries et al.,
1997).

Computed Tomography Computed tomography (CT) is a

computerized series of X-rays that build a three-dimensional
image of the brain. Using this technology, researchers were able to
see the structure of the brain for the first time (Shaywitz, 2003).

Positron-Emission Tomography Positron-emission

tomography (PET) was the first technology developed to
measure the brain at work. PET measures blood flow to the brain
regions through the use of a radioactive compound that is injected
into the bloodstream (Hauser et al., 1993). Much has been learned
about the brain through PET technology. However, this
technology is difficult to use because it is an invasive procedure,
and it also requires elaborate equipment.

1.3c Advances With Functional Magnetic

Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
An immense breakthrough in the study of the
brain during the reading process came about in
the 1990s with the development of the technology
of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This
device has several advantages:
 1. it allows neuroscientists to view regions of the human brain
as the person is reading,

2. it is a noninvasive procedure, and

3. it is a relatively easy procedure for use with children.

The fMRI shows which parts of the brain are receiving the most
blood or are the most active at any point in time. The studies
conducted at Yale University with the fMRI provide much
information about the human brain during reading tasks
(Dehaene, 2009; Gorman, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003; Shaywitz et al.,
2004). Figure 1.7 shows three areas of the left hemisphere of the
brain that are used during the act of reading (Gorman, 2003;
Kotulak, 2004; Shaywitz, 2003; Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 1999).
Further information about fMRI can be found at
http://www.fmri.ucsd.edu.

Figure 1.7 An fMRI image shows activation patterns in the

brain while a person is engaged in an activity. This
illustration shows the activation locations of some
reading activities

© Cengage Learning

1. In the frontal lobe (left interior front gyrus) is the phoneme

producer. This region of the brain, called Broca’s area, is
 used to link letters to sounds and is associated with the
ability to say words aloud.

2. In the parietal lobe (left parietotemporal area) is the word

analyzer. This region of the brain, called Wernicke’s area, is
involved with analyzing words.

3. In the occipital lobe (left occipitotemporal area) is the

automatic detector. This region of the brain is involved with
integrating learned words and storing and retrieving words.

All of these areas work simultaneously during reading, much like

“sections of an orchestra playing a symphony” (Shaywitz, 2003).

The fMRI studies show that beginning readers and children with
reading disabilities or dyslexia rely heavily on the front of the
brain, which is the phoneme producer region, as they concentrate
on, and try to say, the sounds of phonemes. They also rely heavily
on the word analyzer region of the brain, as they try to decode
words. As readers became more skilled, they activate the
automatic detector region of the brain, as they automatically
recognize familiar words on sight. The fMRI research also shows
that even after gaining reading skills, individuals with dyslexia
continue to have difficulty accessing the reading areas at the back
of the brain (i.e., the automatic detector region of the brain), and
they rely more heavily on the phoneme producer region and the
front of the brain. Hence, there is a neurological explanation for
why these individuals read more slowly and require extended time
(Shaywitz, 2003).

Neuroscientists are using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to

study the working brain of children as they read.
 John Foxx/Stockbyte/Getty Images

Some fMRI research suggests that physical changes occur as a

result of academic intervention with children who are dyslexic
(Aylward et al., 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). One of the fMRI studies
conducted at Yale University found that the areas of the brain
changed after children were given intensive reading instruction,
using phonologically based reading instruction. This study showed
that the brains of poor readers started off with only the first two
areas of the brain activated; however, after a year of reading
instruction, their reading ability leaped ahead, as did the word
storage area of the brain, which began to activate, just like that of
the good readers (Shaywitz et al., 2004). Another study by Simos
and colleagues (2007) also found changes in brain activity after
intensive reading instruction.

A research study using fMRI was conducted in China on children

as they read using the Chinese writing system. Similar to fMRI
Western studies, the Chinese study also showed differences
between the brain scans of normal and dyslexic readers. However,
the Chinese symbolic writing system puts demands on different
 parts of the brain than Western alphabetic writing systems. The
Western alphabetic writing system requires abilities in
phonological awareness of spoken words. The Chinese writing
system requires abilities with pictorial and visual symbols. The
fMRI study with Chinese dyslexic children showed that they had
difficulty in the left middle frontal gyrus, located in front of the
brain on the left, the area of the brain that maps written symbols
to meaning. The researchers suggest that dyslexic children using
the Chinese writing system need instruction in linking visual
shapes, sound, and meaning of visual characters (McGough,
2004).

The fMRI studies also demonstrate that particular parts of the

brain specialize in particular activities (Carr, 2006). While the
individual is being studied with the fMRI, the scientists are able to
stimulate the visual area, the auditory area, memory systems, and
other areas of the brain. This research using fMRI gives credence
to the psychological processing and cognitive processing theories
of learning and learning disabilities (Dehaene, 2009; Carr, 2006;
Sousa, 2001).

Did You Get It?

Ricardo is able to memorize the dates of inauguration for each of the

Presidents of the United States. However, when he is asked which of
two presidents comes first in chronological order (Polk and Reagan for
example), he is consistently unable to answer accurately. Time-
sequencing is controlled by

a. The left hemisphere.

b. The right hemisphere.

c. Both the left and right hemispheres.

d. The medulla oblongata.

1.4 New Issues and Directions
A number of current issues and directions are occurring in special
education and general education that affect students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities. In the following section,
we briefly review a few of these issues and directions.

1.4a More Inclusive Placements

Today, many students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities receive instruction in general education classes or
inclusive classrooms. There are many benefits of inclusion.
General education classrooms can provide students with
disabilities greater access to their general education peers, raise
expectations for student performance, help general education
students be more accepting of diverse students, and improve
coordination between regular and special educators (Cawley et al.,
2002; Elbaum, 2002). The philosophy and practice of inclusion
are discussed in detail in Chapter 4, “Educational Settings and the
Role of the Family.”

Most students with learning disabilities and related disabilities are

served in general education classes. In addition, students may
have a disability but they have a 504 Plan and receive instruction
in the general education classroom. Success in an inclusive
classroom requires the collaborative effort of the classroom
teacher and the special education teacher (Schwarz, 2006). The
strategies in the feature Including Students in General Education
1.1, “Some Overall Strategies,” are targeted for students with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. However, these
basic strategies will benefit all students in the general education
classroom. Inclusion must be done responsibly to ensure that the
 students receive the services designed to meet his or her needs in
whatever setting the student is placed.

Including Students in General Education 1.1 Some Overall

Strategies

Begin each lesson with a review of what has been learned.

Students often forget what has been accomplished thus far, especially
with an intervening weekend or vacation. A review is helpful to assist
students in remembering what has been learned.

Tell students the goal of the lesson. It is important for students to

understand the purpose for a particular lesson.

Place students with special needs near the teacher. Reorganizing

the seating helps students concentrate on the lesson and not become
distracted. It also helps teachers observe the students’ responses during
the lesson.

Teach all students study skills. All students in the class will benefit
from learning study skills. Explain the procedure for study skills and
model the activities for studying.

Allow sufficient practice of the concepts or skills. Students with

disabilities and related mild disabilities may process slowly, and they
need many examples and opportunities to practice the concepts and
skills they are learning.

Use differentiated instruction. Take into account the learning styles

and learning needs of all students in the class. Students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities often have different styles of
learning. It is important to teach the lesson in several different ways to
respond to different interests, styles of learning, and personal talents.

Summarize what has been learned at the end of each lesson.

After the lesson is completed, help all students pull the different parts of
the lesson together and summarize what they have learned.

Professional Resource Download

1.4b Response-to-lntervention (RTI)

 Response-to-Intervention (RTI) RTI is a procedure for
teaching all students in general education classes. Under the law
(IDEA-2004) and the Regulations for IDEA-2004 (2007) schools
are permitted to use RTI to identify students with learning
disabilities or a comprehensive evaluation. RTI is briefly
mentioned is this section, but it is discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process.”

Briefly, RTI is a prevention model to limit or prevent academic

failure by providing “evidenced-based teaching procedures” for all
students in general education. The RTI procedure provides for
increasing intensity levels of support for those students who do
not respond adequately to the instruction (Renaissance Learning,
2009; O’Conner, 2007; Division for Learning Disabilities, 2007;
Vaughn, 2006; Learning Disabilities Association, 2006,
http://www.ldaamerica.org/news/responsiveness.asp).

The Regulations for IDEA-2006 state that when determining

whether a child has a specific learning disability, schools can use
the RTI procedures. The law also notes that the schools may also
determine a child’s eligibility for learning disabilities services by
using a comprehensive evaluation procedure that may include a
measurement of a severe discrepancy between achievement and
intellectual ability (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hollenbeck, 2007).

1.4c Standards for Teachers

Standards refers to the setting of achievement standards by
individual states for the field of education. The Council for
Exceptional Children (CEC), with the approval of the National
Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE),
developed seven for the initial preparation of special education
teachers. For more information, visit the CEC website at
http://www.cec.sped.org. These initial preparation standards
 refer to all areas of special education. Table 1.6 shows the seven
initial level special educator preparation standards for special
education and where each standard is addressed in this text.
Statewide assessment standards are discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process.”

Table 1.6 Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special

Educatior Preparation Standards as Approved by the
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher
Education

A Correlation Chart with Learning Disabilities and Related Disabilities: Strategies for
Success, 13th Edition.
CEC Initial Description Chapters
Preparation
Standards

Standard 1— Beginning special education 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

Learner professionals understand how 7, 8, 9, 11, 12,
Development and exceptionalities may interact with 13, 14
Individual Learning development and learning and use this
Differences knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for
individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 2— Beginning special education 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9

Learning professionals create safe, inclusive,
Environments culturally responsive learning
environments so that individuals with
exceptionalities become active and
effective learners and develop emotional
well-being, positive social interactions,
and self-determination.

Standard 3— Beginning special education 3, 5, 7, 11, 12,

Curricular Content professionals use knowledge of general 13
Knowledge and specialized curricula To individualize
learning for Individuals with
exceptionalities.

Standard 4— Beginning special education 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9,

Assessment professionals use multiple methods of 11, 12, 13, 14
assessment and data-sources in making
educational decisions.
 CEC Initial Description Chapters
Preparation
Standards

Standard 5— Beginning special education 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

Instructional professionals select, adapt, and use a 8, 9, 11, 12,
Planning and repertoire of evidence-based 13, 14
Strategies Instructional strategies to advance
learning of individuals with
exceptionalities.

Standard 6— Beginning special education 1, 4, 6, 8, 9,

Professional professionals use foundational 10
Learning and Knowledge of the field and their
Ethical Practice Professional Ethical Principles and
Practice Standards to inform Special
education practice, to engage in lifelong
learning, and to advance the profession.

Standard 7— Beginning special education 4, 8, 9

Collaboration professionals collaborate with families,
other educators, related service
providers, individuals with
exceptionalities, and personnel from
community agencies in culturally
responsive ways to address the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities across a
range of learning experiences.

Source: Council for Exceptional Children, Professional Standards (2012). Arlington, VA : Council for
Exceptional Children.

1.4d Assistive and Instructional Technology

Today’s children live in a technological society with an ever-
changing influx of new computer-based technologies. They have
more comprehensive and faster world-wide links to commerce,
communication, and culture. Schools must prepare students to
deal with these dramatic changes so that they can fully participate
and compete in the increasingly complex technological workplace.
 Society readily recognizes the benefits of computer-based
technologies for typically functioning children. However, there are
even greater benefits for students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities. Computer applications can help level the
playing field by allowing them to succeed in the general education
environment. For many students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities, their ease in operating computers is an
area of strength that helps them overcome areas of severe
difficulty, such as their abilities to read and write. Research shows
that often students who have academic problems have a special
facility with computers (Belson, 2003; Hasselbring & Glaser,
2000; Raskind & Higgins, 1998a, 1998b). Specific applications of
computer technology appear within pertinent chapters throughout
this book.

The Assistive Technology Act, passed in 2004, recognizes the

need for persons with disabilities to access and use assistive
technology devices and provided funding to support assistive
technology (PL 108-364). The reauthorization of the Assistive
Technology law was passed in 2010 and was renamed the Twenty-
First Century Communications and Video Accessibility Act of 2010
(PL 111-260) Assistive technology for students with disabilities
is defined as “any item, piece of equipment, or product system,
whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or
customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve
functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities” (Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act, 2004 Regulations, 34 C.F.R. 300).
Table 1.7 lists some ways the students with learning disabilities
and related mild disabilities can use computers.

Table 1.7 Ways Computers Can Be Used by Students With

Learning Disabilities and Related Mild Disabilities

E-mail. E-mail is widely used by students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities. With e-mail, students can send and receive electronic messages, make
friends, communicate with other students, and teachers can communicate with the entire
 class through a listserv. Students can obtain a free Yahoo! e-mail address through
http://www.yahoo.com. Teachers can also communicate with parents through e-mail.
The Internet. Students enjoy using the Internet. They can conduct research or get
background material for writing assignments. Students should receive instruction in
Internet safety.
Social Networking. Examples of popular social networking sites include MySpace,
Facebook, and Twitter. Many students with mild disabilities and learning disabilities are
using such social networking sites to build online communities and to communicate with
friends
Electronic Storybooks. Electronic storybooks on CD-ROM offer high-interest stories,
and words can be highlighted or read aloud by the computer.
Word Processing. Word processing is a boon for students with learning disabilities who
have difficulty in handwriting, spelling, and written composition.
Voice Recognition Devices. A voice recognition device allows the user to dictate
through a microphone. The device then translates the user’s speech into a form that the
computer can say. One specifically used speech recognition tool is Dragon Naturally
Speaking. More information can be found on the website,
http://www.scansoft.com/naturallyspeaking.
Text Readers. Text reader devices are known as text-to-speech applications. Such
devices convert printed text into synthetic or digital speech. An excellent text reader
program is the Kurzweil Reading Program. More information can be found on the
website, http://www.kurzweiledu.com.
Texting. Students are getting more experience with abbreviated written communication
when they text their friends or their families.

© Cengage Learning 2015

Often students who have academic problems have a special facility with
computers.
 JGI/Blend Images/Jupiter Images

In Student Stories 1.3, “Using a Computer,” we learn how

important computers were to one student with learning
disabilities.

Student Stories 1.3 Using a Computer

I didn’t learn how to write until I learned how to use a computer. This sounds
ironic, but in my past, writing was spelling, and because I could not spell, I
could not write. When I discovered a word-processing system with a spell
check, I finally understood that writing involved putting thoughts and ideas
into some kind of written form. Knowing that the computer would catch my
spelling errors, I began to ignore my spelling. Then I began to look at writing
as content.

Reflective Question
1. How did the ability to use a computer change this individual’s view of
writing?

Source: C. Lee & R. Jackson (1992), Faking It: A Look Into the Mind of a Creative Learner.
Portsmouth, NJ: Heinemann
1.4e Universal Design for Learning
A model of technology use was developed by the organization
Universal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL emphasizes the
idea that every curriculum should include alternatives to make
learning accessible and appropriate for individuals with different
backgrounds, learning styles, abilities, and disabilities in widely
varied learning contexts. The website for UDL is
http://www.cast.org.

I Have a Kid Who… TIGER, a Student With a Reading

Problem
Tiger G. is 9 years old and in the third grade at the Lincoln Elementary
School. He moved into the school district this fall and is in Ms. Jackson’s
general education classroom. Tiger seems to try hard, but reading is very
difficult for him. He is not able to copy words from the chalkboard onto
paper. He does not seem to understand the phonics instructions, nor does he
complete his phonics assignments. He has a very limited sight vocabulary.
Overall, Tiger’s reading is at about the first-grade level. His math skills are
good; he enjoys math and can easily keep up with the math work in the class.
Tiger participates with the class in oral activities, but he is very quiet and
cannot keep up with the reading in the class.

Tiger has become very unhappy in school. Ms. Jackson had a conference with
Tiger’s mother, who said he does not want to come to school and that getting
Tiger to school each day is a hassle. Tiger’s mother also told Ms. Jackson that
he was very slow in his language development. Tiger is good in sports, likes
to play baseball, and has made some friends. The major problem that Tiger
has is in the area of reading.

Tiger’s mother said that she is eager to have the school conduct an evaluation
of Tiger, and requested an evaluation. The IEP team reported the following
 scores in their assessment: WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children, 4th ed.): A full-scale IQ was 125. Achievement Tests: Reading
Word Recognition, Grade 1.2; Reading Comprehension, Grade 1.6; Spelling,
Grade 1.5; Arithmetic, Grade 3.6.

The IEP team concluded that Tiger has a learning disability. He has the
potential to achieve much higher in reading but needs intensive reading
intervention in a small group situation.

Note: Adapted from the popular annual session that has been held at the
Learning Disabilities of America Conference for 29 years, moderated by Dr.
Jerry Minskoff. In the session, a member of the audience offers a problem
and a group of experts tries to answer the problem, often with assistance
from the audience.

Questions
1. Why do you think the IEP team decided that Tiger has a learning
disability?

2. What are Tiger’s strengths? What are Tiger’s areas of need?

Did You Get It?

Many strategies can be utilized effectively to facilitate the inclusion of

students with learning disabilities and to pave the road in a manner
that fosters success and positive outcomes. Which of the following is
not one of the recommended strategies?

a. Teaching students how to study.

b. Utilizing the practice of undifferentiated instruction.

c. Reviewing comprehensively what has been learned in past

lessons.

d. Ending each lesson with a summarization of what has been

learned.
 Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
There are many key changes in special education.

Specific learning disabilities is the largest category of

disabilities.

Other disabilities are related to learning disabilities.

The neurosciences and the brain are an important topic.

There are a number of new issues and directions in special

education

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Describe the category of learning disabilities. How do mild disabilities differ
from categorical disabilities?

2. How have the roles of teachers of special education and learning disabilities
changed? Discuss the new responsibilities.

3. All students are tested with tests based on standards. What are some
implications of this testing for students with learning disabilities?

4. Describe some ways that computers can be used by students with disabilities.

5. Describe four distinct historical phases in the development of the field of

learning disabilities.

Chapter Review

Key Terms
adaptive behavior
assistive technology

behavioral disorders

brain-injured children

cerebral hemisphere

current achievement level

dyslexia

emotional disorders

emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD)

genetics of dyslexia

Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities

(ICLD)

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

lateral preference

learning disabilities

intellectual disabilities

mild disabilities

mild/moderate disabilities

minimal brain dysfunction (MBD)

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities

(NJCLD)

neurosciences

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

perceptual disorder

positron emission tomography (PET)

postmortem anatomical studies

Public Law 94-142, Education for All Handicapped

Children Act (1975)

Response-to-intervention (RTI)

severe discrepancy

standards

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

 Chapter

Assessment
and the IEP
2
Process

Chapter Introduction

2.1 Uses of Assessment Information

2.2 Determining Eligibility for Special Education Services

2.3 Response-to-Intervention (RTI)

2.3a Tiers of Instruction in RTI

2.3b Benefits and Concerns About RTI

2.3c The Standard Protocol Model and the Problem-Solving

Model Approaches to RTI

2.3d Progress Monitoring

2.3e Curriculum-Based Measurement

2.4 The Comprehensive Evaluation

2.4a Information Obtained in a Comprehensive Evaluation

2.4b The Discrepancy Between Intellectual Ability and Academic

Achievement

2.5 The Individualized Education Program (IEP) and Stages of the IEP

2.5a Referral Stages

2.5b Assessment Stages

2.5c Instruction Stages

 2.5d Evaluating Students With Learning Disabilities and Related
Disabilities

2.5e Special Factors to Consider in the IEP

2.6 Obtaining Assessment Information

2.6a Case History

2.6b Observation

2.6c Standardized Norm-Referenced Tests

2.6d Informal Assessment Measures

2.7 Testing and Accountability

2.7a Including Students With Disabilities in Testing

2.7b Accommodations for Testing

2.7c Alternate Assessments for Students With Significant

Cognitive Disabilities

2.8 Examples of Tests

2.8a Tests of Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities

2.8b Commonly Used Achievement Tests

2.9 Test-Taking Strategies in the General Education Classroom

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 monkeybusinessimages/ iStockphoto.com

Well, that’s the news from Lake Wobegon,

where all the women are strong, all the men
are good looking, and all the children are
above average.

—Garrison Keillor

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

2.1
Describe uses of assessment information

2.2
 Explain eligibility to special education services

2.3
Describe response-to-intervention (RTI)

2.4
Explain the comprehensive evaluation

2.5
Describe the individualized education program (IEP)

2.6
Describe how to obtain assessment information

2.7
Explain testing and accountability

2.8
List examples of tests

2.9
Describe test-taking strategies in the general
education classroom

Part II, “The Assessment-Teaching Process,” includes the three

chapters that highlight the interrelated elements of the
assessment-teaching process: assessment (Chapter 2), clinical
teaching (Chapter 3), and educational settings (Chapter 4).

When assessment is linked with teaching, it helps teachers

understand and teach a struggling student. If attention is paid to
only one of these components, it splinters the effort and
shortchanges the student. For example, routinely teaching skills or
using methods or materials without considering a student’s
unique problems may be ineffective because such teaching does
not address the student’s unique needs. Similarly, if assessment
only results in selecting a diagnostic label, the procedure does not
provide guidelines for aiding the student’s learning.

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

 Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special
Educator Preparation Standards as Approved by the National Council
for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically

sound formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.

4.2—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of

measurement principles and practices to interpret assessment results
and guide educational decisions for individuals with exceptionalities.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and
provide feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s
abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.
 In Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process,” we examine the
uses of assessment, look at the RTI approach to eligibility, and
review the Comprehensive Evaluation approach to eligibility. We
also investigate the influence of the law on the IEP process, review
ways to obtain assessment information, and provide examples of
assessment measures.

2.1 Uses of Assessment Information

Assessment is the process of collecting information about a
student that will be used to form judgments and make decisions
concerning that student. Assessment procedures are used to
identify the nature of the student’s challenges and to plan
instruction. To be eligible for special education services, a student
must be identified—or classified—within a special education
category within the law. The more important reason for
assessment is to obtain information that can be used to plan ways
to help the student learn. Assessment serves several purposes:

1. Screening. The screening process is a cursory evaluation

that is used to detect pupils who may need a more
comprehensive evaluation.

2. Referral. The referral process seeks additional assistance

from other school personnel. On the basis of observation and
classroom performance, the teacher (or others) requests an
evaluation of a student.

3. Classification. The classification process is used to

determine a student’s eligibility for services. Students are
assessed to judge the need for services and to identify the
category of disability and whether the disability has an
adverse impact on educational performance.

4. Instructional planning. The instructional-planning

process develops an educational program for an individual
student. The assessment information is used to formulate
instructional goals and to develop specific plans for teaching.
 5. Monitoring pupil progress. It is important to review a
student’s progress. Several approaches to monitoring can be
used, including standardized formal tests, informal
measures, and a continuous monitoring procedure.

Did You Get It?

The process of student assessment can be broken up into five parts.

Which part refers to determining a prospective student’s eligibility to
receive disability-related services?

a. classification

b. screening

c. referral

d. planning

2.2 Determining Eligibility for Special

Education Services
IDEA-2004 brought about significant changes in the way students
are identified for special education services (IDEA, 2004, with
regulations of 2006). For identifying students with learning
disabilities, the final regulations for the law indicate that states:

1. must not require a severe discrepancy between intellectual

ability and achievement,

2. must permit the use of a process based on the child’s

response-to-interventions, and

3. may permit the use of other alternative research-based

procedures to determine whether the child has learning
disabilities (Regulations for the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of IDEA-2004, 2006; Division
for Learning Disabilities, 2007).
 Two ways that schools can determine eligibility for special
education services are

1. the response-to-intervention (RTI) approach, or

2. a comprehensive evaluation of the student with suspected

disabilities.

In this chapter, we discuss both approaches.

Did You Get It?

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004

(IDEA 2004) mandates that an individual student demonstrate
a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement.

a. must always

b. must usually

c. need not

d. must conditionally

2.3 Response-to-Intervention (RTI)

Response-to-intervention (RTI) is a procedure that is
intended to identify students who are having academic difficulties
when the problems first become apparent by using response-to-
intervention (RTI) (IDEA-2004; Regulations for IDEA-2004,
2006). RTI is a practice to be used with all students, including
students in general education classes, students who are
considered at-risk for school failure, and students with suspected
disabilities (including students with suspected mild disabilities
and learning disabilities). The goal of RTI is to prevent academic
failure for all of these students (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012; Division
 for Learning Disabilities, 2007; Renaissance Learning 2009;
Fuchs & Deshler, 2007).

Since 2003 when RTI was still an emerging idea, RTI has become
a major force in education reform. It is collated into federal law as
a method for evaluation of students with learning disabilities
(IDEA, 2004, 2006). It is integrated in the laws of all 50 states in
various forms (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012).

2.3a Tiers of Instruction in RTI

Although there are several different versions of RTI, many
descriptions of RTI use three tiers (or levels) of intervention (see
Figure 2.1). Each tier represents a level of intervention or
instruction. Students with differing needs receive more intensive
instruction. RTI is most successful as a screening tool for reading
and mathematics (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012).

Figure 2.1 A Three-tiered Model of RTI

© Cengage Learning

The RTI model proposes that if a student responds well to the

evidence-based interventions, at Tier 1 (first level), the student
does not have a disability. However, students who do not respond
positively to the RTI instruction at Tier 1 are given more intensive
instruction in the next level (Tier 2). If the student still does not
respond or learn after intensive intervention at Tier 2, the student
receives still more intensive intervention in a smaller group at Tier
3. Finally, students who do not respond positively to interventions
at Tier 3 may then be considered for an evaluation for special
education (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012, Renaissance Learning, 2009;
Division of Learning Disabilities, 2007).

To summarize, RTI targets all students. Students in general

education classes, students considered to be at-risk for learning
failure, including students with suspected learning disabilities,
and students with suspected mild disabilities. Students who
respond well to the instruction in the RTI procedure at Tiers 1, 2,
or 3 are not considered eligible for special education services.
Students who are not learning with the RTI interventions are
considered to be “nonresponders” and may be referred for a
special education evaluation (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012; Renaissance
Learning, 2009; Division for Learning Disabilities, 2007). The
three tiers of intervention that are commonly used:

Tier 1. High-quality instruction in general education

and monitoring of student progress. It is anticipated
that about 80% of students will be served in Tier 1. Students
who do not respond adequately to Tier 1 go on to Tier 2.

Tier 2. More intensive evidenced-based instruction

while progress monitoring continues. Often support
teachers, such as reading specialists, instruct students at
Tier 2. It is anticipated that 10–15% of students are in Tier 2.
Students who do not respond adequately to Tier 2 go on to
Tier 3.

Tier 3. Highly intense, evidenced-based

interventions taught in small groups or
individually, while progress monitoring continues.
Tier 3 is meant to include 5–10% of students. Students who
do not respond adequately to Tier 3 may be considered for a
comprehensive evaluation Renaissance Learning, 2009;
Division for Learning Disabilities, 2007; Denton, 2006;
 Bradley, Danielson, & Doolittle, 2005). A decision flow chart
of the three tiers of RTI is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 A Decision Flow Chart for the Three Tiers of

RTI

© Cengage Learning

It must be noted that at any time in this process

when a student has a disability or is suspected of
having a disability, the school district cannot use
RTI to delay or deny an evaluation for eligibility
 under the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act. (Memo to State Directors of Special Education from
Melody Musgrove, Director of Office of Special Education
Programs, United States Department of Education, January
21, 2011.)

2.3b Benefits and Concerns About RTI

Benefits of RTI The benefits of RTI include the following
(Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012; Renaissance Learning, 2009; Division of
Learning Disabilities, 2007).

RTI focuses on earlier identification and prevention of

disabilities, thereby reducing the number of students
referred to special education.

RTI is intended to reduce the over-identification of minority

students.

RTI is part of general education and the responsibility of

general education teachers.

RTI focuses on student outcomes and increased

accountability. It includes all suspected categorical
disabilities.

RTI uses materials that are evidenced based or scientific

research based and offers tiers or levels of increasingly
intensive instruction.

RTI provides services to students without using categorical

labels.

RTI promotes shared responsibility and collaboration.

Concerns About RTI Concerns about RTI include the

following (Denton, 2012; Johns & Kauffman, 2009; Wanzek &
Vaughn, 2009).

There are unknown costs of fully implementing RTI.

RTI might be a way to delay recognizing a child’s problem.

 Questions arise about whether RTI is ready for wide-scale
adoption.

Will the concept of learning disabilities be lost with RTI?

More rigorous research on RTI is still needed.

The neurobiological correlates of learning disabilities and

related mild disabilities should be considered.

More information about older students and other academic

areas of learning besides reading are needed.

Not all children respond well to even the most effective

interventions.

Are rights and protections for students with disabilities

provided with RTI?

2.3c The Standard Protocol Model and the

Problem-Solving Model Approaches to
RTI
Two different approaches for RTI are proposed:

1. the standard protocol model and

2. the problem-solving model.

In the standard protocol model to RTI, specific approaches

and instructional programs are developed and implemented
using prescribed procedures for academic or behavioral
problems at each stage of instruction. At each level of
intervention, instruction is standardized, meaning that
consistent instructional methods are implemented for a
specific length of time. The procedures for teaching and
assessing the performance and growth of the students who
responded poorly to general class instruction are the same
for all students in the small group (Division for Learning
Disabilities, 2007).

In the problem-solving model to RTI, each student’s

failure to respond to intervention is given an individually
tailored plan for the next level of instruction or support. It is
 essentially a case-by-case approach to addressing individual
students’ unique needs. The problem-solving model relies on
teacher assistance teams or instructional support teams
already established in most schools. (Division for Learning
Disabilities, 2007)

An example of the RTI procedure is shown in Student Stories 2.1,

“Lucy and the RTI Process.”

Student Stories 2.1 Lucy and the RTI Process

Lucy is 6 years old and in the first grade at The Pine School. The Pine School
is using the response-to-intervention procedure with students. Lucy received
Tier 1 RTI instruction in her general education class but did not respond well
to this intervention. Her general education first grade teacher said that Lucy
had difficulty recognizing sounds and did poorly with beginning reading
lessons. Progress monitoring also showed that Lucy was not learning through
the Tier 1 intervention. Lucy is now in Tier 2, which provides more intensive
instruction and is taught by the reading specialist at The Pine School. Lucy is
responding positively to Tier 2 instruction and she is not being considered
for a special education evaluation.

Reflective Question
1. How did the RTI procedure indicate that Lucy does not have a
disability?

2.3d Progress Monitoring

Progress monitoring is used to determine whether students
are making appropriate gains in learning in the instructional
program. It is an assessment procedure to measure a student’s
academic performance and to evaluate the effectiveness of
instruction. Progress monitoring is typically done on a regular and
frequent schedule. The teacher measures the student’s academic
 performance on a regular basis (weekly or monthly) and charts the
academic performance (Division of Learning Disabilities, 2007;
Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006; Council for Exceptional Children, 2004).
For more information, visit the website for the National Center on
Student Progress Monitoring at http://www.studentprogress.org.

Many progress-monitoring programs are prepackaged, and many

enable teachers to use computers to produce the graphs and
charts that they need to see how individual students are
progressing. Figure 2.3 shows a progress-monitoring chart for
mathematics for Tony, grade 2. It shows how many math
problems Tony completed correctly during 2-minute mathematics
measurements over a 10-month period.

Figure 2.3 Progress Monitoring

© Cengage Learning

A useful software program for conducting curriculum-based

measurement and progress monitoring in several different
 academic areas is AIMS-web, which measures reading, early
literacy, early numeracy, mathematics, spelling, and written
expression. It also provides for monitoring in the behavioral areas.
The website for AIMSweb is http://www.aimsweb.com.

2.3e Curriculum-Based Measurement

One progress-monitoring procedure is curriculum-based
measurement (CBM). Curriculum-based measurement is a
procedure designed to test what a student actually does in the
student’s school or classroom curriculum. The assessment
requires that the student actively perform some task through
frequent and repeated measures.

Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is described as a

procedure for assessing the growth of basic skills (Deno, 2003).
First, the teacher determines the area of the curriculum or the goal
for the student in the student’s IEP. Then, the student’s progress
is measured through frequent, systematic, and repeated measures
of that learning task. Performance results are graphed or charted
so that the student’s progress is clearly observable to both the
teacher and the student. CBM performance samples are 1 to 3
minutes long, and they are charted to display the student’s
performance changes over successive time periods, such as days or
weeks.

In Figure 2.4, CBM is used to monitor growth in reading through

frequent measurements of the number of words the student reads
aloud during 1-minute reading samples, which are the base-line
period over three successive days, as shown in the left side of the
figure. The right side of Figure 2.4 shows the progress achieved
after a targeting instructional program is used for 14 successive
weeks, with measurements taken weekly. It demonstrates the
improvement in oral reading performance over the 14-week period
 by showing the number of words read correctly in successive 1-
minute reading samples. The dashed line shows the IEP goal,
which is reading 65 words per minute within 14 weeks (Deno,
2003). CBM can be used to measure many academic areas:
spelling, writing, mathematics, and reading (Spinelli, 2006;
Bender, 2004).

Figure 2.4 A Curriculum-based Measurement Chart

Monitoring an Individual Student’s Progress

© Cengage Learning

Did You Get It?

Responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) is an assessment strategy used to

identify students who are experiencing learning-related
difficulties as early as possible.

a. disabled

b. special-needs

c. “lagging”

d. any-and-all
2.4 The Comprehensive Evaluation
The comprehensive evaluation is another way to determine a
student’s eligibility for special education services. A
comprehensive evaluation entails collecting information about an
individual student that can be used to form judgments and make
critical decisions about the student and to plan appropriate
instruction. Comprehensive evaluations are used by the schools in
the process of preparing for an individualized education program
(IEP) for a student (Hallahan & Cohen, 2008; Salvia, Ysseldyke, &
Bolt, 2007). The RTI process cannot be used to delay-deny an
evaluation for eligibility under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (U.S. Department of Education Office of Special
Education and Rehabilitative Services, January 21, 2011).

The comprehensive evaluation of students with suspected

disabilities has been used since the passage of the first special
education law in 1975. Many other professionals use
comprehensive evaluations, as well: psychologists, physicians, and
other health professionals.

The U.S. Supreme Court has upheld the right of students with
suspected disabilities to have a comprehensive evaluation. In the
case Forest Grove School District v.T.A. (08-305), decided on
June 22, 2009, the Supreme Court ruled that under IDEA-2004, a
student has the right to a timely and appropriate evaluation to
make certain that decisions about eligibility to special education
are correct. In this case, the Supreme Court determined that the
parent should receive reimbursement for the tuition at a private
school because, in part, the school district did not provide a
comprehensive evaluation for the student (Cohen, 2009; Wright &
Wright, 2009).
2.4a Information Obtained in a
Comprehensive Evaluation
Several kinds of information would be included in a
comprehensive evaluation for a student with suspected learning
disabilities (Division for Learning Disabilities, 2007):

Observational data that describes the student’s behavior

Educationally relevant medical findings

Data to exclude visual, hearing, or motor disability; mental

retardation, emotional disturbance, cultural factors,
environmental, or economic disadvantage; or limited
English proficiency

Data from standardized measures and qualitative analysis of

the student’s ability to listen think, speak, read, write, spell,
and do mathematics

Summary of the student’s strengths and weaknesses and the

basis for determination of a Specific Learning Disability if
found

Recommendations based on the data that inform

individualized instruction, state necessary accommodations
or modifications, and identify behavioral and learning
supports needed

Review of RTI information, if used

A comparison of a student’s intellectual ability (potential for

learning) and the student’s actual achievement

For students with suspected mild or moderate disabilities, a

comprehensive evaluation provides evaluation data that would
indicate reduced ability levels, significant attention problems,
sensory impairments, or behavior disorders (Division for Learning
Disabilities, 2007).

2.4b The Discrepancy Between Intellectual

Ability and Academic Achievement
One of the most controversial issues in the comprehensive
evaluation of students with suspected learning disabilities is the
evidence of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and
the student’s actual achievement. As noted earlier, the final
Regulations for the Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (2006) permits (but does not require)
schools to use evidence of a severe discrepancy between
intellectual ability and achievement as one criterion for
determining if the child has learning disabilities. Actually, the
discrepancy factor is but one component that is considered in the
comprehensive evaluation of a child.

Discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability has

been a component in the comprehensive evaluation. Briefly it is
based on the concept that the student has the intellectual potential
for learning but is not meeting this potential in his or her
academic performance (Hallahan, 2007; Hallahan & Cohen,
2008).

The discrepancy means that the student’s achievement (what the

student has actually learned) is compared to the student’s
intellectual ability (what the student is potentially capable of
learning). A student’s intellectual ability is often measured with an
IQ score, and IQ tests have been under severe criticism.

It is important to keep in mind that cognitive tests or tests of

intellectual ability provide much more than a single score of
intelligence. It is also necessary for teachers to know the student’s
strengths and affinities, as well as areas that are difficult for the
student, and to recognize that each student has a “different kind of
mind” (Scherer, 2006).

A discrepancy score is a mathematical calculation for

quantifying the discrepancy between achievement and intellectual
ability (or potential for learning). There are several different
formulas for calculating a discrepancy score, and these formulas
 are explained on the Student Website. Discrepancy should be seen
as a critical marker with specific learning disabilities seen as a
category that is based on underachievement; not based solely on
low achievement. Discrepancy is a reliable criterion (Batsche,
Kavale, & Kovaleski, 2009).

Concerns About the Discrepancy Factor The concerns

about the aptitude—achievement discrepancy factor include:

Quantitative and qualitative information should be

combined. Many parents and teachers are concerned about
the use of quantitative discrepancy scores for making
decisions about their child and contend that there is no
substitute for clinical judgment and actual experience
(Chalfant, 1989; Mastropieri, 1987).

Using an IQ score for measuring an individual’s

potential may not be useful. IQ tests do not necessarily
measure intelligence. Moreover, an IQ score can be
adversely affected by the student’s culture or native
language. In addition, the student could have a lower IQ
score because of the nature of the disability itself (Stuebing
et al., 2009; Fletcher et al., 2004).

Children who are poor achievers often have similar

learning characteristics, whether they have high IQ
scores or low IQ scores. Research shows there are many
similarities between two poor readers regardless of their IQ
scores (Stuebing et al., 2009; Fletcher et al., 2004).

Discrepancy formulas vary from state to state. States

and school districts differ in their discrepancy formulas for
identifying learning disabilities. Thus, a child could be
identified as having a learning disability in one state but may
be denied services after moving to another state.

An example of the use of the discrepancy model is shown in

Student Stories 2.2, “Ozzie: Using the Discrepancy Construct.”

Student Stories 2.2 Ozzie: Using the Discrepancy Construct

 Ozzie is 8 years old and in the third grade at The Lincoln School. The Lincoln
School evaluates students suspected of having learning disabilities with
standardized norm-referenced testing, which includes the discrepancy
model. Ozzie is having much difficulty in reading and mathematics, and the
general education classroom teacher called upon the prereferral intervention
team to suggest methods of instruction for Ozzie. The teacher tried using
these methods, but they were not successful with Ozzie. Ozzie’s parents and
his teacher are concerned about Ozzie’s lack of progress, and a referral for a
special education evaluation is made. A multidisciplinary evaluation team
gives several kinds of tests, including a test of cognitive abilities and a test of
reading achievement. As a part of the IEP (individualized education
program), the team finds that Ozzie has a discrepancy between his
intellectual ability and achievement. The IEP team determines that Ozzie has
a learning disability.

Reflective Question
1. How was the discrepancy procedure used in the evaluation of Ozzie?

Did You Get It?

The justices in the Supreme Court case Forest Grove School District v.
T.A. (2009) ruled that under the principles of IDEA-2004, a student
has the right to a comprehensive evaluation to determine eligibility, an
evaluation that is both appropriate and “ .”

a. fair

b. timely

c. objective

d. sensitive
2.5 The Individualized Education Program
(IEP) and Stages of the IEP
IDEA-2004 offers all students with disabilities a free, appropriate
public education (FAPE), This means that special education and
related services are provided at public expense and meet the
standards of the state education agency. The education includes
appropriate preschool, elementary school, or secondary school
instruction and provides conformity with the individualized
education program (IEP).

A major provision of the special education law is the requirement

that each public school child who receives special education and
related services must have an individualized education
program (IEP) (IDEA-2004). The IEP is a written statement for
each child with a disability. Each IEP is designed for one student
and should be a truly individualized document. The IEP creates an
opportunity for teachers, parents, school administrators, related
services personnel, and students (when appropriate) to work
together to improve educational results for children with
disabilities. The IEP is the cornerstone of a quality education for
each child with a disability.

Procedural safeguards are provided in federal law, and they

are designed to protect the rights of children and parents. The
term parents’ rights is used in IDEA-2004 as a procedural
safeguard to protect the rights of parents and families. Parents’
rights have been considerably expanded through the series of
special education laws, and these rights are summarized in Table
2.1.

Table 2.1 Rights and Procedural Safeguards for Parents and

Families

1. Parents must consent in writing to several phases of the IEP process:

 1. to having their child evaluated;
2. to the IEP, including plans and placement as set forth in the written IEP; and
3. to the 3-year reevaluation plan.
2. The assessment must be conducted in the student’s language and form most likely to
yield accurate information on what the child knows or can achieve academically,
developmentally, and functionally. The findings must be reported in the parents’
native language.
3. The school or local education agency (LEA) must ensure that tests are not racially or
culturally discriminatory.
4. Parents have the right to see all information that is collected and used in making
decisions. Parents can request an explanation of all evaluation procedures, tests,
records, and reports.
5. Parents have the right to mediation at no cost. Mediation is voluntary; it is defined
as a process of resolving disputes between the school district and the parents of a
child with a disability in a nonadversarial fashion.
6. An additional dispute resolution process called a “resolution session” can be
convened.
7. Parents and students have the right to an impartial, due process hearing if they
disagree with the IEP decision or if the voluntary mediation is unsatisfactory. There
are certain provisions to have the school pay attorneys’ fees if the parents prevail in a
lawsuit.
8. The confidentiality of the student’s reports and records is protected under the law.
© Cengage Learning

The IEP follows a sequence of stages. As shown in Figure 2.5,

there are three broad stages: referral, assessment, and
instruction. Each of these stages is subdivided, making six stages
in all. These six stages meet the legislative mandates of the IEP.

Figure 2.5 Stages of the IEP Process

 © Cengage Learning

2.5a Referral Stages

The referral stages begin the IEP process and involve two
components: the prereferral activities and the referral activities.

Stage 1: Prereferral Activities An instructional

support team (or a teacherassistance team) develops
prereferral activities for a student who is encountering
difficulties in the general education classroom to be used by the
general education classroom teachers. Before referring a student
for a special education evaluation, teachers use these
interventions with the child. If the interventions are successful,
the student does not need to be referred for an evaluation. Most
school districts now require evidence that a prereferral process
 has occurred before a referral is initiated. (Some have identified
RTI as a prereferral process.)

The instructional support team is a peer group of colleagues to

help the classroom teacher analyze the student’s academic and/or
behavioral problems and recommends interventions and
accommodations for the classroom. The classroom teacher then
initiates the suggested methods to help the student. The
prereferral stage is important because the decision to refer a
student for a multidisciplinary evaluation has serious
consequences. Once a student is referred, the probability is high
that the student will be declared eligible for services (Salvia,
Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2007). The instructional support team responds
to the teacher’s prereferral request, using the general steps listed
in Teaching Tips 2.1, “Tasks of the Prereferral Instructional
Support Team” (Chalfant & Pysh, 1993; Clark, 2000; Spinelli,
2006).

Teaching Tips 2.1 Tasks of the Prereferral Instructional

Support Team

The following steps describe one model of the prereferral process:

1. A general education classroom teacher who notes a child with a problem

in learning requests help from a school collaboration team for a student
of concern.

2. The prereferral instructional support team follows up this request by

exploring with the classroom teacher some possible interventions for the
child.

3. The classroom teacher then tries the suggested interventions in the

general education classroom.

4. If further decisions are needed, a member of the collaboration team

observes the student in the classroom and then consults further with the
classroom teacher.

5. If the student’s problem persists, the teacher makes a formal referral for
a special education evaluation.
 6. A response-to-intervention procedure can be used to provide scientific
researchbased interventions.

Professional Resource Download

Stage 2: Referral and Initial Planning The initial

referral of a student for special education evaluation can come
through several sources: the parent, the teacher, other
professionals who have contact with the student, or a selfreferral
by the student. After a referral is made, school personnel must
follow it up. Parents must be notified of the school’s concern and
must give written permission for an evaluation. In addition,
decisions must be made about the general kinds of evaluation data
needed and the people who will be responsible for gathering this
information.

A collaboration team considers a student’s strengths and weaknesses and

explores possible interventions for that student.

Courtesy of Elizabeth Crews Photography

2.5b Assessment Stages

The assessment stages are the core of the process and involve
the tasks of evaluation and developing and writing the IEP.

Stage 3: Multidisciplinary Evaluation At this stage,

specialists representing various disciplines obtain pertinent
information by assessing academic performance and behavior in
areas related to the suspected disability. For example, specialists
for the multidisciplinary evaluation might include a school
psychologist, school social worker, school nurse, speech and
language pathologist, learning disabilities specialist, or reading
specialist.

The law (IDEA-2004) outlines the procedures for gathering

information for the evaluation. Several features of the law regulate
the evaluation. The tests must be appropriate, validated for the
purpose used, and as free as possible from cultural or racial bias.
Evaluation materials must be administered in the student’s native
language. The evaluation team must represent several disciplines
and must include at least one teacher or specialist in the area of
the suspected disability. The specialists on the multidisciplinary
evaluation team administer tests and obtain other evaluation data.

Stage 4: The IEP Meeting—Writing the IEP After the

multidisciplinary evaluation has been conducted, the information
is gathered, and the parents are contacted for the IEP meeting.
It is at this meeting that the eligibility for special education is
determined and the IEP is written.

The Participants at the IEP Meeting According to

IDEA-2004, the participants on the IEP team must include the
following:

1. The parents of the child with a disability

2. Not less than one regular education teacher of such child (if
the child is, or may be, participating in the regular
education/special education environment)
 3. Not less than one special education teacher, or where
appropriate, not less than one special education provider of
such child

4. A representative of the school or school district who

a. Is qualified to provide, or supervise the provision of,

specially designed instruction to meet the unique
needs of children with disabilities

b. Is knowledgeable about the general education

curriculum

c. Is knowledgeable about the availability of resources of

the school or school district

5. An individual who can interpret the instructional

implications of evaluation results, who may be one of the
other members of the team

6. At the discretion of the parent or the agency, other

individuals who have knowledge or special expertise
regarding the child, including related services personnel as
appropriate

7. Whenever appropriate, the child with a disability

Contents of the Child’s IEP The contents of the IEP must

include these components (IDEA-2004):

1. A statement of the child’s present levels of academic

achievement and functional performance

a. How the disability affects the child’s involvement and

progress in the general education curriculum

b. For preschool children, how the disability affects the

child’s participation in appropriate activities

c. For children with disabilities who take alternate

assessments aligned to alternate achievement
standards, a description of benchmarks or short-term
objectives

2. A statement of measurable annual goals, including academic

and functional goals designed to
 a. Meet the child’s needs that result from the child’s
disability, in order to enable the child to be involved in
and make progress on the general education
curriculum

b. Meet each of the child’s other education needs that

result from the child’s disability

3. A description of how the child’s progress toward meeting the

annual goals will be measured and when the periodic reports
on the progress the child is making toward meeting the
annual goals (such as through the use of quarterly or other
periodic reports, concurrent with the issuance of report
cards) will be provided

4. A statement of the special education and related services and

supplementary aids, based on peer-reviewed research to the
extent practicable, to be provided to the child, and a
statement of the program modifications or supports for
school personnel that will be provided for the child. The
special education outlined must include the delivery of
specialized instruction based on the individualized needs of
the child and be determined by the evaluation information.

5. An explanation of the extent to which the student will not

participate with nondisabled children in the regular class
and in regular class activities

6. A statement of individual appropriate accommodations that

are necessary to measure the academic achievement and
functional performance of the child on state and district-
wide assessments

7. The projected date for the beginning of the services and

modifications, and the anticipated frequency, location, and
duration of those services and modifications

8. Appropriate transition assessments and services, beginning

no later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child is 16,
and updated annually (transition is described in more detail
in Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults With Learning
Disabilities and Related Mild Disabilities”).

Related Services In addition to determining the necessary

special education services, the IEP team also determines the need
 for related services that may be required to enable a child with a
disability to benefit from special education. Related services may
include transportation and developmental, corrective, and other
supportive services. Such assistance may include speech-language
specialists and auditory services, psychological services, physical
and occupational therapy (including therapeutic recreation),
social work services, counseling services (including rehabilitation
counseling), orientation and mobility services, and medical
services for diagnostic and evaluation purposes.

2.5c Instruction Stages

The instruction stages occur after the written document (the
IEP) has been completed, and they involve the teaching and
monitoring of the student’s progress.

Stage 5: Implementing the IEP Teaching Plan This

is the teaching portion of the assessment-teaching process. It
occurs after the IEP document has been written. During this stage,
the student is taught in the agreed upon setting and receives
specialized instruction designed to help the student reach the
goals set forth in the IEP. This stage involves implementing the
IEP plan through teaching (see Chapter 3, “Clinical Teaching,” and
Chapter 4, “Educational Settings and the Role of the Family”).

Stage 6: Review and Reevaluation of the Student’s

Progress This stage calls for the review and reevaluation of the
IEP plan in terms of the student’s progress. The IEP must include
explanations that show how this evaluation will be accomplished,
who will conduct the evaluation, and what assessment
instruments and criteria will be used. IDEA-2004 requires that
the child’s parents be informed of their child’s progress toward
reaching annual goals as frequently as parents of nondisabled
 children are informed. One way to do this is to send the parents a
progress report that accompanies the student’s report card.

2.5d Evaluating Students With Learning

Disabilities and Related Disabilities
Federal law describes a number of dimensions to be considered in
the process of evaluating students with learning disabilities and
related disabilities (IDEA, 2004).

Observing the Student in the Classroom A classroom

observation of the student is required to provide information
about the student’s behavior in school and the ways in which that
behavior affects academic performance.

Recognizing the Student’s Strengths and Clusters of

Characteristics Students with learning disabilities and
related disabilities have many strengths, and it is important to
recognize and encourage these strengths. For example, some
children will do well in math or computer applications, yet they
may have difficulty with reading skills. Some children have strong
social skills and acquire many friends, others do well in artistic
and creative endeavors, and some children excel at physical
activities and sports. It is important to recognize the child’s
strengths and to use those recognized strengths when determining
the child’s teaching plan.

It is also helpful to look for clusters of characteristics in evaluating

a student. For example, a student with a severe handwriting
problem may also have difficulty with other fine-motor skills.
Likewise, a student with a reading problem may also have an
underlying oral language disorder. A student who does poorly in
oral expression may have a history of delayed speech, speech-
motor difficulties that affect articulation, and difficulty with
remembering words.
Considering the Concerns of Parents and Families
IDEA-2004 emphasizes strengthening the role of parents and
ensuring that families have meaningful opportunities to
participate in the education of their child at home and at school.
The law recognizes the key role that parents have in their child’s
education.

Setting Annual Goals The IEP must include a statement of

measurable annual goals in academic and functional areas, if
necessary, the annual goals are general estimates of what the
student will achieve in one year. These goals should represent the
student’s most essential needs and priorities for each subject area
and should address the specific deficit areas of the student. For
example, an annual goal in mathematics could be that the student
learns to multiply and divide at a specific level. Goals should be
based on

1. how the disability impacts learning and

2. deficit areas in the present levels of academic achievement

and functional performance (PLAAFP).

To remember how to write goals and present levels of academic

achievement and functional performance, remember the
mnemonic MOO:

M—Measurable

O—Observable

O—objective

When Writing a Goal, It Is Critical that It Be

Written in Measurable, Observable, and Objective
Terms so that You Are Able to See Whether the
Student Has Gained Meaningful Benefit Here are a few
examples of goals that utilize MOO and are based on present
levels of academic achievement and functional performance that
also utilize MOO:

PLAAFP—Erica currently can execute a one-step direction

with no more than 5 words given by an adult 3 out of 5
times.

Goal—Given a one-step direction with no more than 7

words, Erica will be able to execute the direction 4 out of 5
times.

PLAAFP—Jamar can currently read with comprehension at

the second grade level.

Goal—Jamar will be able to read 3 one-paragraph passages

and answer 3 who, what, or when questions about what was
read at the third grade level with 70% accuracy.

PLAAFP—Rafael currently knows his 2s multiplication

facts and can do 5 one-digit problems involving his 2s
multiplication facts with 95% accuracy.

Goal—Given the 3s multiplication facts, Rafael will be able

to complete 5 one-digit problems involving his 3s
multiplication facts with 95% accuracy.

Once the Goals are Completed, Then the Specialized

Instruction Required to Meet Those Goals Can Be
Planned As an example, Erika may need to be taught to repeat
the direction immediately after she hears it. She may need to be
taught to make herself a note. She may need to be taught how to
zero in on key words in the direction. Erika has an auditory
memory problem so she will need to be taught to follow the
directions taking into account that she has trouble remembering
what she hears.

When Developing Statements of PLAAFP and Goals

Remember That It Is Critical That a Stranger Be
Able To Understand the Specific Needs of the
Student Many of the students with whom we work may be
mobile and may also change teachers. Another teacher should be
able to pick up the IEP of the student and be able to know exactly
where the student is functioning.
 Determining Educational Settings and Services
What specific special education and related services are needed,
including the specialized instruction that is required to
individually meet the student’s needs? How will the special
education teacher provide the specialized instruction? To what
extent will the student attend general education classes? What
accommodations will be made within the general education
classroom? These decisions are related to the educational setting
in which the student receives instruction (see Chapter 4,
“Educational Settings and the Role of the Family”). In addition,
decisions must be made about the extent to which the student will
be placed in the least restrictive environment (i.e., with students
who do not have disabilities). In IDEA-2004, the general
curriculum is presented to be the appropriate beginning point for
planning an IEP for a student, and the general education
curriculum is the preferred course of study for all students.

Monitoring Progress How will the student’s progress be

monitored and measured? It is necessary to determine whether
annual goals are being met. What measurement instruments will
be used? Who will be responsible for administering them? Also,
any accommodations that will be needed for the statewide tests
must be included in the IEP. A sample format for evaluating
annual goals appears in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Sample Format for IEP Annual Goal in Mathematics

Instructional Area: Mathematics

Annual Goal: Student will learn multiplication and division computation skills

Meeting the Annual Goal

Progress Tests, Criteria of Evaluation Educational
Reports Materials, Successful Schedule Accommodations
to Parents and Performance
Evaluation
Procedures
to Be Used

1. Student Student will 85% accuracy End of first Student will

will add compute 20 grading participate in
numbers addition period statewide
involving 2 problems assessment in
renamings requiring 2 mathematics
renamings

2. Student Student will 85% accuracy End of • Allow double time

will compute 20 second for math assessment
subtract subtraction grading • Permit student to
numbers problems period use a calculator
involving 2 requiring 2 during the math test
renamings renamings

3. Student Student will 65% accuracy End of third

will multiply compute a grading
and divide fact sheet period
through containing 20
products of multiplication
81 and division
facts and
products
through 81
within a
specified time

4. Student Appropriate 75% accuracy End of

will multiply mastery test fourth
2-digit will be grading
numbers by included in period
1-digit mathematics
numbers text

5. Student Appropriate 75% accuracy End of fifth

will divide mastery test grading
numbers by will be period
2-digit included in
divisors mathematics
text

© Cengage Learning
 The website of the National Center on Student Progress
Monitoring offers information on progress monitoring:
http://www.studentprogress.org.

2.5e Special Factors to Consider in the IEP

A number of special factors must be considered in the evaluation
of students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities.
Federal law requires a functional behavioral assessment
(FBA) and positive behavioral intervention and support for
children with behavioral challenges. When behavior interferes
with learning, a functional behavioral assessment must be
conducted in order to develop a behavior intervention plan. This
subject is addressed in detail in Chapter 6, “Social, Emotional, and
Behavioral Challenges.” We address two other special factors here:
English-language learners and assistive and instructional
technology.

English-Language Learners Society is

becoming more responsive to the growing needs of
an increasingly diverse population. English-
language learners (ELL) (students with limited English
proficiency) comprise the fastest growing population in our
nation. In the largest school districts in the United States,
Englishlanguage learners make up almost one-half of the children
entering school at the kindergarten level. IDEA requires that if the
child has limited proficiency in English, the IEP team must
consider the child’s language needs as they relate to the child’s
IEP.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 ©Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Assessment in the Middle

Grades: Measurement of Student Learning.” In this video, the math teacher,
Mr. Somers, demonstrates how teaching and assessment are linked.

Questions
1. How does Mr. Somers use individualized teaching and group teaching
to prepare students for the standardized math test?

2. How does Mr. Somers use tests to gauge his own teaching as well as
student learning?

Assistive and Instructional Technology IDEA-2004

requires that the IEP team must consider whether the child needs
assistive technology devices or services. Assistive technology is
defined as any technology that enables an individual with a
disability to compensate for specific deficits. It includes lowand
high-tech equipment. Instructional technology refers to
software and programs used in teaching.

The term assistive technology refers to equipment or

products designed to help the functional capabilities of a
child with a disability. For example, a speech-recognition
system that allows a person to operate a computer by
dictating or speaking into it is such a device.
 The term assistive technology services refers to any service
that directly assists a child with a disability in the selection,
acquisition, or use of an assistive technology device. For
example, teaching a child who has a disability in writing the
needed keyboarding skills for word processing would be an
assistive technology service.

The IEP should describe the nature of the child’s disability and the
required assistive technology devices and services.

Randy Hall

Did You Get It?

The individualized education program (IEP) guaranteed by IDEA-2004

is an individualized plan with what goal for a student who has
demonstrated a disability?

a. Guarantee a successful outcome.

b. Provide the student with the resources needed for success.

c. Provide a multidisciplinary and comprehensive team of staff and

support personnel with the framework to work together to
achieve success.
 d. Create an opportunity for the student to be reintroduced into a
setting that does not specifically cater to students with
disabilities.

2.6 Obtaining Assessment Information

Assessment information can be gathered from several sources:

1. the case history or interview;

2. observation;

3. standardized norm-referenced tests;

4. curriculum-based measurement and progress monitoring;

5. alternate assessment; and

6. informal measures.

Often, several kinds of information are compiled at one time or

one assessment procedure may lead to another. For example,
observation of a student may suggest that a specific test should
also be used. Or the detection of speech misarticulation
accompanied by the student’s frequent misunderstandings of the
examiner’s conversation could suggest an auditory difficulty and
lead to a decision to administer a test of auditory acuity or
auditory discrimination.

2.6a Case History

Information obtained through a case history contributes clues
and insights about the student’s background and development.
During an interview, parents share information about the child’s
prenatal history, birth conditions, neonatal development, the age
 of developmental milestones (sitting, walking, toilet training, and
talking), the child’s health history (including illnesses and
accidents), and learning problems of other members of the family.
The student’s school history can be obtained from parents, school
records, and school personnel (e.g., teachers, nurses, and guidance
counselors).

Interviewers must try to establish a feeling of mutual trust, taking

care not to ask questions that might alarm parents or make them
defensive by indicating disapproval of their actions. Further,
interviewers should convey a spirit of cooperation, acceptance,
and empathy while maintaining a degree of professional
objectivity to guard against excessive emotional involvement and
consequent ineffectiveness.

Skillful interviewers are able to obtain much useful information

during the case history interview, gathering information in a
smooth, conversational manner. Case history information and
impressions are integrated with knowledge obtained through
clinical observation, traditional tests, and alternative assessment
measures. Table 2.3 illustrates the kind of information obtained
through the case history interview.

Table 2.3 Case History Information

Identifying Information

Student: Name, address, telephone, date of birth, school, grade

Parents: Father’s name and occupation, mother’s name and occupation
Family: Siblings’ names and ages, others in the home
Clinic: Date of interview, referral agency, name of examiner
Birth History

Pregnancy: Length, condition of mother, unusual factors

Birth conditions: Mature or premature, duration of labor, weight, unusual circumstances
Conditions following birth: Normal, needing special care
Physical and Developmental Data

Health history: Accidents, high fevers, other illnesses

Present health: Habits of eating and sleeping, energy and activity level
Developmental history: Age of sitting, walking, first words, first sentences, language
difficulties, motor difficulties

Social and Personal Factors

Friends
Sibling relationships
Hobbies, interests, recreational activities
Home and parental attitudes
Acceptance of responsibilities
Attitude toward learning problem
Educational Factors

School experiences: Skipped or repeated grades, moving, change of teachers

Preschool education: Kindergarten, nursery school
Special help previously received
Teachers’ reports
Student’s attitude toward school
© Cengage Learning

Many case-history interview forms are available. Some forms are

quite lengthy and extensive, procuring information in many
domains. Adaptive behavior scales that question the extent to
which individuals adapt themselves to the expectations of nature
and society are often used. An informant (usually the mother)
provides the information during an interview. We list here some
commonly used adaptive behavior scales.

Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. These scales assess

the domains of communication, daily living skills,
socialization, and motor functions for ages birth to 19
 (American Guidance Services,
http://ags.personalassessments.com).

Hawthorne Adaptive Behavior Scales. This inventory

is used to interview an informant, and it yields information
about self-help skills, communication skills, social skills,
academic skills, and occupational skills for ages 6 to 9
(Hawthorne Educational Services, http://www.hes-
inc.com).

2.6b Observation
According to Yogi Berra, “Sometimes you can observe a lot just by
watching.” Observation of the student is a required part of the
assessment of a student, and the information that it produces can
make a valuable contribution. Many attributes of the student may
be inadequately identified through testing or case study
interviews, but the skillful observer can often detect important
characteristics and behaviors of the child in the classroom setting.

Observation of student behavior can corroborate findings of other

assessment measures. For example, a skillful observer can note
whether the student is attending to the lesson or is engaged in
other activities. Observation is also useful for shedding light on a
student’s general personal adjustment. How does the student
react to situations and people? What is the student’s attitude
toward the learning problem? Motor coordination can be
appraised by observing the student’s movements and gait. Can the
student hop, skip, or throw and catch a ball? How does the student
attack a writing task? Is there a contortion of the body while
writing? How does the student hold a pencil? Must the student
expend an inordinate effort in trying to make the handwriting
presentable?

Language is readily assessed through observation. Is there

evidence of articulation problems or infantile speech patterns?
 Does the student have difficulty finding words? Does the student
possess an adequate vocabulary? Does the student speak easily,
haltingly, or perhaps excessively? Does the student use complete
sentences or single words and short, partial phrases? Are there
misarticulations (e.g., aminal or psghetti)? What is the student’s
primary or native language and facility with English?

Games and toys offer activities for making observations of the

student and also serve as a way to build rapport. Can the student
zip a zipper, tie a shoelace, button clothing, or lock a padlock?

Observations of everyday classroom behavior can provide much

information. For example, while reading, how does the student
react to an unknown word? Does the student stop and look to the
teacher for help, look at the initial consonant and then take a wild
guess, attempt to break the word into syllables, or try to infer the
word from the context?

2.6c Standardized Norm-Referenced Tests

Standardized norm-referenced tests are frequently used in our
schools. In developing a norm-referenced test, test publishers give
the test questions to a large number of children of the same age.
This group is called the norm-referenced group because the test
norms are based on their performance. When a student’s
achievement on a standardized test is analyzed, the scores of an
individual student are compared with the scores of students of
comparable age or grade in the norm-referenced group.

Formal standardized tests are statistically designed so that

one-half of the student scores will be below the mean (average),
and one-half will be above the average. Of course, communities
want all of their children to score above average. Standardized
tests require strict procedures in administration, scoring, and
interpretation. Standardized tests
 are usually available in more than one form so that a student
can be tested more than once without being able to obtain a
higher score due to practice.

are accompanied by manuals that

a. give directions for administration, scoring, and

interpretation;

b. provide information about grade norms, age norms,

percentile ranks, or some other form of scaled scores;
and

c. provide information on validity (the degree to which

the test measures what it is supposed to measure).

Manuals also show reliability (consistency or similarity of

performance). A reliability coefficient of 0.90 indicates that
if the test were given to the student again, it is 90% likely
that the student would obtain a score in the same range.

Teachers should know the techniques of using and interpreting

tests. Frequently, the value of a test may not be so much in the
final test score as in the measurement of a particular subtest
performance, the profile of all the subtest scores, or the clinical
observations of the student during the test. The evaluator who has
had extensive experience with a test may find that some parts used
alone yield the necessary information.

The integrity of formal tests is judged on

1. standardization—on what group was the test standardized?

2. reliability—are the test results consistent? and

3. validity—does the test measure what it claims to measure?

Norm-referenced tests can be useful in the assessment process. It

is important to know the limitations of a test and to use its
information in proper perspective. A single score provides only a
small part of the information, so teachers should not
overgeneralize the implications of a specific test. If multiple
sources of data are used in the assessment, test scores can provide
a rich harvest of leads for assessment and teaching.
 Some commonly used standardized tests are described in this
chapter and in Chapter 11, “Spoken Language Difficulties:
Listening and Speaking;” Chapter 12, “Reading Difficulties;”
Chapter 13, “Written Language: Written Expression, Spelling, and
Handwriting;” and Chapter 14, “Mathematics Difficulties.”

Standardized testing is criticized for a number of reasons:

1. It does not provide enough information about the students;

2. the tests may not assess what students are learning in class;

3. the tests may be biased against culturally diverse

populations; and

4. the pressure for students to attain high test scores may sway
teachers to use class time to prepare students for taking the
tests.

2.6d Informal Assessment Measures

Disenchantment with standardized testing led educators to turn to
informal assessment procedures. Interest in informal assessment
is growing because it evaluates the student in the natural setting,
uses the school curriculum, and capitalizes on what the student
actually does in the classroom. Informal assessment approaches
encourage students to produce, construct, demonstrate, or
perform a response.

Informal assessment measures are useful and practical

assessment procedures that measure student achievement on the
ordinary materials and activities they are currently working with
in the classroom. A major advantage of using classroom materials
for informal tests is that the assessment is as close as possible to
the expected behaviors. Informal tests also give teachers freedom
in administration and interpretation. For example, a teacher can
encourage the student during the assessment or give the student
more time to complete the test. Such adjustments put students at
ease and help ensure that they will put forth their best effort.
Informal assessment measures can also be given more frequently
than formal tests, and they can be administered over a period of
time rather than in a single session. In addition, informal
assessment measures can use a variety of materials and
procedures, they can be given during regular instruction periods,
and they are less expensive than formal tests.

In this section, we present several informal measures for teachers

to use:

1. portfolio assessment,

2. informal graded word-recognition tests,

3. informal arithmetic tests, and

4. criterion-referenced tests.

Some informal tests are also provided in other pertinent chapters,

such as the informal reading inventory (see Chapter 12, “Reading
Difficulties”), informal motor tests (where is new location of
motor tests ), and tests of phonological awareness (see Chapter 11,
“Spoken Language Difficulties: Listening and Speaking”).

Portfolio Assessment In portfolio assessment, multiple

samples of a student’s actual classroom work are collected over an
extended period of time. This portfolio is used to evaluate the
student’s current achievement level and progress over time.
Portfolio assessment is often used to measure reading and writing
progress. Samples of student work can be used to determine
achievement and progress in all academic areas.

A portfolio might contain the following kinds of materials:

selected samples of daily work done in the classroom, academic
classroom tests (e.g., in spelling or mathematics), checklists of
behavior, sample stories, writing drafts at various stages of
development, science projects, art samples, a teacher’s
observational notes, or the results of group projects.
 In deciding what samples to collect, the teacher must first
consider the goals of the instructional program, and the samples
should then reflect these goals. For example, the portfolio might
include samples of the objectives in the IEP. Students can be
responsible for organizing their own portfolios. Because portfolios
serve as mirrors of the process of learning in the classroom, they
should be available for student-teacher conferences or for parent
conferences (Salend, 1998).

Informal Graded Word-Recognition Test This type of

test can be used as a quick method to determine the student’s
approximate reading level. It is also useful in detecting the
student’s errors in word analysis. An informal graded word-
recognition test can be constructed by selecting words at random
from graded basal reader glossaries. Table 2.4 illustrates such a
list; the words were selected from several basal reader series and
from graded reading vocabulary lists. The informal graded word-
recognition test can be given as follows:

1. type the list of words selected for each grade on separate

cards;

2. duplicate the entire test on a single sheet;

3. have the pupil read the words from the cards while the
examiner marks the errors on the sheet, noting the pupil’s
method of analyzing and pronouncing difficult words; and

4. have the pupil read from increasingly difficult lists until

three words are missed.

The level at which the student misses only two words suggests the
instructional level at which the pupil is able to read with help. The
level at which one word is missed suggests the pupil’s independent
reading level (i.e., the level at which the pupil can read alone).

Table 2.4 Informal Graded Word—Recognition Test

Preprimer Primer Grade 1 Grade 2

See day about hungry

Run from sang loud

Me all guess stones

dog under catch trick

At little across chair

come house ive hopped

down ready boats himself

You came hard color

said your longer straight

Boy blue hold leading

Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

arrow brilliant career buoyant

wrist credit cultivate determination

bottom examine essential gauntlet

castle grammar grieve incubator

earned jingle jostle ludicrous

washed ruby obscure offensive

safety terrify procession prophesy

yesterday wrench sociable sanctuary

delight mayor triangular tapestry

happiness agent volcano vague

© Cengage Learning

Alternate and informal assessment measures are useful and practical

alternative assessment procedures that test students on the ordinary
materials that they are currently working with in the classroom.
 Pressmaster/ Shutterstock.Com.

The level at which three words are missed suggests a frustration

level, and the material is probably too difficult.

Informal Arithmetic Test An informal arithmetic test can

be easily devised to point out weaknesses in a student’s basic
computational skills. The informal survey test illustrated in Figure
2.6 can be used for sixth-grade students. The difficulty level of the
test could be increased or decreased, depending on the grade level
being tested. The informal arithmetic test should include several
items of each kind so that a simple error will not be mistaken for a
more fundamental difficulty.

Figure 2.6 Informal Arithmetic Survey Test: Sixth-Grade

Level

© Cengage Learning
 Criterion-Referenced Tests Criterion-referenced tests
describe rather than compare performance, measuring mastery
levels rather than grade levels. In contrast, norm-referenced tests
(traditional standardized tests) compare the pupil’s performance
to that of other children of the same age. This difference can be
illustrated in a nonacademic area of learning, such as swimming.
In criterion- referenced terms, a child would be judged as being
able to perform certain tasks, such as putting his or her face in the
water, floating, or doing the crawl stroke. In contrast, in norm-
referenced terms, the child would be tested and judged to swim as
well as an average 9-year-old child.

Criterion-referenced tests are useful because they provide a way to

show growth. It is often difficult to show that a student has
improved in terms of percentiles, stanines, or even grade-level
scores, but the teacher can show that the student has learned
certain specific skills, in terms of mastery, of criterion-referenced
measures.

Did You Get It?

Obtaining information to assess an individual student is a multifaceted

and complex endeavor. Which activity is used to most formally and
objectively obtain comprehensive background information about the
student you are assessing?

a. Process monitoring.

b. An informal question-and-answer session.

c. Grades from all previous institutions.

d. A case history.
2.7 Testing and Accountability
Under the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), each state must
develop and implement a statewide assessment system that is
aligned to the state standards in reading/language arts, math, and
science. Under IDEA-2004, each state must have achievement
goals that are measured by statewide tests for all public schools.

Common core standards have been adopted in most states, and

the states must administer statewide assessments to measure the
progress of students in meeting these standards. Many states have
now adopted the common core standards, and statewide testing is
being updated so that it is based on those standards.

2.7a Including Students With Disabilities in

Testing
IDEA-2004 specifically requires that, as a condition of a state’s
eligibility for educational funding, children with disabilities must
be included in general statewide and districtwide assessment
programs. IDEA-2004 also addresses timelines and reporting
requirements and mandates that states

Provide for the participation of children with disabilities in

general statewide and district-wide assessments, with
appropriate accommodations in administration, if necessary

Provide for the conducting of alternate assessment of

children who cannot participate in the general assessment
programs

Make available and report to the public on results of the

assessment of disabled children with the same frequency
and in the same detail as they report the assessment results
of nondisabled children
 This regulation means that children with disabilities must
participate in the statewide tests and that any accommodations
that are needed for this testing must be included in each student’s
IEP. Further, reports to parents about the child with disabilities
must be made in the same detail and with the same frequency as
reports about other children. Thus, if report cards are issued on a
quarterly basis for all children, then progress reports must be
issued for students with disabilities.

2.7b Accommodations for Testing

IDEA-2004 permits accommodations in statewide testing for
students with disabilities. However, these accommodations for
assessment must be written into the student’s IEP. Teachers
need much support and guidance in planning for and
implementing these accommodations. Accommodations cannot
jeopardize the integrity of the test. Figure 2.7 provides examples of
common assessment accommodations for students with
disabilities.

Figure 2.7 Examples of Common Assessment

Accommodations for Students With Disabilities
 © Cengage Learning

IDEA-2004 requires that states develop guidelines for

accommodations that allow students with disabilities the
opportunity to participate in statelevel assessments. Most states
have developed guidelines for accommodations (Yell, Shriner, &
Katsiyannis, 2006). Accommodations for students with
disabilities serve to level the playing field for these students. A
concern about accommodations is whether they invalidate the
psychometric qualities of the test. For example, does giving
extended time on a test nullify the validity of the test (Johnson,
Kimball, & Brown, 2001)? There are several studies on the effects
of extended time on the test scores of postsecondary students with
learning disabilities. Students with learning disabilities had
significantly better scores after being allowed extended time,
whereas students without learning disabilities did not improve
their scores by using extended time (Weaver, 2000).

2.7c Alternate Assessments for Students

With Significant Cognitive Disabilities
 States must develop guidelines for alternate assessments based on
alternate achievement standards to be used with students with
significant cognitive disabilities who are unable to participate in
the general state assessment. Alternate assessments refer to
another way to measure performance. The alternate assessments
should be included in the student’s IEP. This type of assessment
can be used with 1% of the students with the most significant
intellectual disabilities.

Regulations for Alternate Assessments Based on

Modified Academic Achievement Standards In April
2007, the U.S. Department of Education issued final regulations
concerning the ability of states to create alternate assessments
based on modified achievement standards for up to 2% of students
with disabilities. The responsibility for the determination of
whether the student should take such an assessment is made by
the IEP team and that decision is made when the IEP team is
reasonably certain that the student will not achieve grade-level
proficiency because of the nature of their disability (Regulations,
34 C.F.R. Parts 200 and 300, 2007). The next section describes
the regulations for accommodations and alternate assessments.

Student Stories 2.3 Accommodations for Statewide Testing

The Oregon Statewide Assessment System (OSAS) measured performance in

the area of written-language assessment. These tests did not allow the use of
word processors and spell checkers, even for students with learning
disabilities who were using these accommodations in their classrooms. Many
students with learning disabilities did so poorly on the statewide written-
language test that they did not achieve the certificate of mastery.
Furthermore, Oregon had not developed alternate assessments for students
with learning disabilities, nor was there a fully developed appeals process.

The Oregon legal case involved students with learning disabilities who were
denied the certificate of mastery because they had failed the written-
language test. The parents of these children filed a class-action lawsuit
against the Oregon Department of Education. The settlement of this lawsuit
required that appropriate accommodations for students with learning
disabilities be developed. Students with disabilities in the area of written
language were given the opportunity to use a word processor and a spell
checker for the written-language test.

Reflective Questions
1. Why do you think that the Oregon Department of Education did not
want to allow word processors or spell checkers on the written-
language test?

2. Do you believe that the use of word processors or spell checkers for
students with disabilities would have given students an unfair
advantage over other students without disabilities? Justify your
answer.

Alternate Assessments With Modified Academic

Achievement Standards This type of assessment is
developed by each state and has a less rigorous expectation of
mastery of grade-level academic content standards. Modified
academic achievement standards must be based on a state’s
gradelevel academic content standards for the grade in which the
student with disabilities is enrolled. The state’s academic content
standards are not modified. Such an assessment can be used with
another 2% of the students with disabilities (Regulations, 34
C.F.R. Parts 200 and 300, 2007).

In summary, all students will be assessed in the required subject

areas in one of these ways:

1. Regular assessment without accommodations

2. Regular assessment with accommodations

3. Alternate assessments based on the grade-level academic

achievement standards

4. Alternate assessments based on modified academic

achievement standards
 5. Alternate assessments based on the alternate academic
achievement standards

Did You Get It?

Which piece of legislation mandated that individual states propose,

develop, and implement statewide assessment measures to ensure
adherence to state standards in a broad range of academic subjects,
ranging from reading to science?

a. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

b. No Child Left Behind Act (2001)

c. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

d. Educational Assessment Act of 2010

2.8 Examples of Tests

In this section, we provide examples of some of the assessment
tests.

2.8a Tests of Intelligence and Cognitive

Abilities
Intelligence tests and tests of cognitive abilities provide
information about the student’s aptitude for learning and specific
cognitive attributions. Certain intelligence tests are administered
by psychologists; others may be given by teachers with
appropriate training. Commonly used individual cognitive or
intelligence tests that are typically administered by psychologists
are:
 The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th
edition (WISC-IV) provides four index scores—Verbal
Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory,
Processing Speed—with 16 subtests of mental ability.
Harcourt Brace & Co.

The Stanford-Binet has 15 subtests grouped into four

areas—Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative
Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, Working Memory.
Riverside Publishing

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children II (K-

ABC) offers a nonverbal composite and a mental
processing/fluid-crystallized index, plus individual scale
scores. Western Psychological Services

Table 2.5 lists some tests of cognitive ability that can be given by
teachers with appropriate training.

Table 2.5 Tests of Cognitive Ability That Can Be Given by

Teachers With Training

Tests of Cognitive Ability of the Woodcock-Johnson III. Tests of Cognitive Abilities

Riverside Publications
The Slosson Intelligence Test—Revised is a relatively short screening test. Slosson
Educational Publications
The Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude—4 (DTLA-4) are intended for use with children
ages 6 to 17. Pro-Ed
The Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude—Primary—2 are intended for younger children,
ages 3 to 12. Pro-Ed
The McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities are designed to assess young children, ages
2.5 to 8.5. Harcourt Assessment
The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities—Third Edition (ITPA-3) was one of the first
tests of mental processes designed expressly to analyze subskills of mental function. Pro-
Ed
The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test estimates intellectual maturity through an analysis
of a child’s drawing of a person. Harcourt Assessment

© Cengage Learning

Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery III

The Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery III, Complete
Battery (WJ-III) Normative update provides a conormed set of
tests for measuring general intellectual ability, specific cognitive
 abilities, scholastic aptitude, oral language, and academic
achievement. It can be used on subjects from age 2 to 90+ and for
grade K through graduate school. The WJ-III consists of two
assessment instruments:

1. tests of cognitive abilities and

2. tests of achievement.

The WJ-III can be administered by teachers with appropriate

training. The WJ-III Cognitive Performance Clusters are shown in
Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 The WJ-III Cognitive Performance Clusters

The WJ-III Cognitive Performance Clusters

The WJ-III cognitive tests include certain clusters representing broad categories of cognitive
abilities that are casually related to cognitive performance. The clusters are the result of a
combination of tests. They include the following:

Verbal ability—Standard scale

Verbal ability—Extended scale
Comprehension/knowledge
Long-term retrieval
Visual-spatial thinking
Other Clinically Useful Clusters

Phonemic awareness
Working memory

© Cengage Learning

The Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery III—Tests of

Achievement is a battery consisting of 22 achievement tests that
can be combined to form score clusters. The clusters include

1. oral expression,

2. listening comprehension,

3. basic reading skills,

4. reading comprehension,
 5. phoneme/grapheme knowledge,

6. math calculation,

7. math reasoning, and

8. written expression.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th

edition (WISC-IV) The WISC-IV is probably the most
common intelligence test used to measure intelligence. The WISC-
IV has four factors of intelligence:

1. verbal comprehension,

2. perceptual reasoning,

3. working memory, and

4. processing speed.

1. Verbal comprehension. Ability to use and understand

language

2. Perceptual reasoning. Ability with nonverbal and

perceptual skills

3. Working memory. Ability to hold information in short-

term memory

4. Processing speed. Ability to work quickly

2.8b Commonly Used Achievement Tests

General test batteries measure performance in academic skills in
reading, arithmetic, spelling, and grammar. Table 2.7 lists the
commonly used standardized achievement tests.

Table 2.7 Commonly Used Achievement Tests

Test Areas Tested Type Publisher

 Test Areas Tested Type Publisher

Woodcock- Johnson Oral language, Individual, Riverside

III Tests of reading, writing, norm- Publishing
Achievement math referenced

Peabody Individual General Information, Individual, American

Achievement Test- reading recognition, norm- Guidance
Revised reading referenced Services
comprehension,
written expression,
mathematics,
spelling

Kaufman Test of Reading, math, Individual, American

Individual written language, norm- Guidance
Achievement II oral language referenced Service

Brigance Diagnostic Listening, reading, Individual, Curriculum

Comprehensive writing, math criterion- Associates
Inventory of Basic referenced
Skills

Woodcock Reading Reading Individual, American

Mastery Tests- standardized Guidance
Revised Services

Key Math Math Individual, American

Diagnostic standardized Guidance
Arithmetic Test, Services
Revised

© Cengage Learning

Did You Get It?

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th edition (WISC-IV), is

recognized as the most commonly used test for assessing and
measuring intelligence. Which category of memory is not one of the
four categories of intelligence the test measures?

a. working memory

b. mathematical manipulation

c. verbal comprehension

d. processing speed
2.9 Test-Taking Strategies in the General
Education Classroom
The general education teacher, with the collaboration of the
special education teacher, is responsible for administering the
state’s standard performance tests to all students in the inclusion
class. Including Students in General Education 2.1, “Test-Taking
Strategies in the General Education Classroom,” offers some
strategies to help students to prepare for and take these tests
(Spinelli, 2002). Websites with useful information on test-taking
strategies are http://www.charliefrench.com/test_tips.htm and
http://www.testtakingtips.com.

Including Students in General Education 2.1 Test-Taking

Strategies in the
General Education
Classroom

Prepare students for test taking by suggesting that they get enough rest
and nourishment before taking the test.

Provide students with opportunities to practice working under

standardized conditions in simulated situations.

Give students practice in filling in the appropriate circle with quick, dark
strokes inside the circle or bubble. Most standardized tests require
students to record their responses by filling in circles on separate answer
sheets.

Separate answer sheets from the test. Instruct students to mark answers
on the test booklet and then have the students practice transferring their
marked responses to the answer sheet.

Instruct students to eliminate any answers that they know are incorrect.
Provide students practice in eliminating wrong answers and discuss why
they are wrong.
 Explain to students that guessing at an answer is usually better than
leaving the question blank.

Teach students to use their time efficiently by not wasting time on items
they do not know. Students should have practice in monitoring their
time as they take the test.

Encourage students to request accommodations, as appropriate for their

disabilities, such as extended time, assistive technology, and testing in
smaller groups.

Look for accommodations for testing that are written in the student’s
IEP.

Professional Resource Download

I Have a Kid Who… COURTNEY, a Student in an RTI School

Program
Courtney is 6 years 3 months old and is in first grade at the Washington
Elementary School. She is having much difficulty with phonological
awareness of language sounds, and she does not recognize rhyming words.
Washington School uses the response-to-intervention (RTI) model for
teaching students who are considered to be at risk. Courtney’s scores were
very low on a September screening test on phonemic awareness and she was
identified as a student who was at risk for school failure. She received
instruction in her first-grade general education class in a Tier 1 intervention
program using scientifically based materials. Courtney’s performance was
monitored for eight weeks under Tier 1 instruction, with a curriculum-based
measurement (CBM) assessment given each week. At the end of eight weeks
of intervention in Tier 1, the curriculum- based assessment measures showed
that Courtney’s scores were below the criterion for a positive response.
Courtney was then placed into a Tier 2 intervention program. In Tier 2, she
received more intensive instruction delivered by a reading teacher, using
scientifically based materials. She received intervention in the Tier 2 group
for 30 minutes daily. The reading teacher and the first grade classroom
teacher also worked collaboratively on techniques that were effective for
Courtney. At the end of the Tier 2 instruction, progress monitoring showed
that Courtney’s scores had increased substantially and that she was making
 good progress in her reading skills. Progressmonitoring scores showed that
Courtney was responsive to the Tier 2 instruction. Because Courtney
responded positively to the Tier 2 intervention, she was not identified as a
child with a disability. Courtney’s progress will be monitored closely by the
first-grade classroom teacher and the reading teacher for the remainder of
first grade.

Questions
1. How did Courtney respond to the Tier 1 instruction?

2. How did Courtney response to the Tier 2 instruction?

Did You Get It?

There are many strategies that can help a child to perform as well as
possible and motivate the child’s efforts toward a successful outcome.
Which strategy is not a recognized intervention strategy?

a. providing practice sessions and simulations on test-taking

processes

b. educating the student on the importance of proper rest before the

testing

c. teaching time-management and efficiency-boosting skills

d. counseling the child on the implications and ramifications of

subpar performance

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Describe uses of assessment information

Explain eligibility for special education services

Describe response-to-intervention (RTI)

Compare the comprehensive evaluation

 Describe the Individualized Education Program (IEP)

Explain stages of the IEP

Describe how to obtain assessment information

Explain testing and accountability

Describe test-taking strategies

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Describe the 6 stages of the individualized education program (IEP) process.
What is the purpose of each stage?

2. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA-2004)

requires that important procedural safeguards be used with students with
learning disabilities and students with related mild disabilities. Discuss 4
parents’ rights or procedural safeguards.

3. IDEA-2004 specifies the participants for the IEP meeting. Name and
describe the role of each of the participants.

4. Write 4 goals utilizing MOO.

5. What are the 5 ways to obtain data for an evaluation of a student with
learning disabilities? Give examples of information that might be obtained by
using each method.

6. Compare and contrast standardized normreferenced tests with informal or

alternate assessment measures.

7. Describe several accommodations that can be made for testing students with
disabilities.

8. What is response-to-intervention (RTI)?

Chapter Review

Key Terms
accommodations for assessment
adaptive behavior scales

alternate assessments

annual goals

assessment

assessment stages

assistive technology

case history

criterion-referenced tests

comprehensive evaluation

curriculum-based measurement (CBM)

discrepancy score

English-language learners (ELL)

formal standardized tests

functional behavioral assessment

IEP meeting

individualized education program (IEP)

informal assessment measures

instruction stages

instructional support team

instructional technology

mediation

multidisciplinary evaluation

norm-referenced tests

observation

parents’ rights

portfolio assessment

prereferral activities

problem-solving model to RTI

procedural safeguards

progress monitoring
referral

referral stages

response-to-intervention (RTI)
 Chapter

Specialized
Instruction
3
and
Technology

Chapter Introduction

3.1 Specialized Instruction

3.2 Differentiate Specialized Instruction from Accommodations and

Modifications

3.3 Clinical Teaching

3.3a What Is Clinical Teaching?

3.3b Qualities of Clinical Teaching

3.4 Differentiated Instruction

3.4a Multiple Intelligences

3.4b Differentiated Instruction and Teaching Approaches

3.5 Controlling Instructional Variables

3.5a Difficulty Level

3.5b Space

3.5c Time

3.5d Language

3.6 Building Self-Esteem and Motivation

 3.6a Self-Esteem

3.6b Fostering Motivation

3.6c Building Rapport

3.6d Sharing Responsibility

3.6e Providing Structure

3.6f Conveying Sincerity

3.6g Showing Success

3.6h Capitalizing on Student’s Interests

3.7 Including Students with Learning Disabilities and Related

Disabilities in General Education

3.7a Section 504 Students

3.7b Student Diversity in General Education

3.8 Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities and

Related Disabilities

3.8a Increasing Attention

3.8b Improving the Ability to Listen

3.8c Adapting the Curriculum

3.8d Help Students Manage Time

3.9 Effective Instructional Strategies for General Education

3.9a Peer Tutoring

3.9b Explicit Teaching

3.9c Promoting Active Learning

3.9d Scaffolded Instruction

3.9e Executive Functions

3.9f Learning Strategies Instruction

3.10 Task Analysis

3.11 Technology in the Classroom

3.11a Websites

3.11b Useful Technology for Writing and Creating Documents

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
 Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction

ptaxa/ iStockphoto.com

Tell me and I forget. Show me and I

remember. Involve me and I understand.

—Chinese Proverb
Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

3.1
Explain specialized instruction

3.2
Differentiate specialized instruction from
accommodations and modifications

3.3
Explain clinical teaching

3.4
Define differentiated instruction

3.5
Give examples of controlling instructional variables

3.6
Describe how to build self-esteem and motivation

3.7
Give examples of how to work with students in
general education

3.8
List accommodations for students with learning
disabilities and related disabilities

3.9
Describe effective instructional strategies for general
education

3.10
Explain task analysis

3.11
Give an example of how to provide Technology in the
classroom.
STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special

Educator Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council
for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individuals differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0—Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments so that individuals with
exceptionalities become active and effective learners and develop
emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

2.2—Beginning special education professionals use motivational and

instructional interventions to teach individuals with exceptionalities how
to adapt to different environments.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general
and specialized curricula to individualize learning for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.1—Beginning special education professionals understand the central

concepts, structures of the discipline, and tools of inquiry of the content
areas they teach, and can organize this knowledge, integrate cross-
disciplinary skills, and develop meaningful learning progressions for
individuals with exceptionalities.

3.3—Beginning special education professionals modify general and

specialized curricula to make them accessible to individuals with
 exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with
exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and
provide feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning
of individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

5.2—Beginning special education professionals use technologies to

support instructional assessment, planning, and delivery for individuals
with exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.5—Beginning special education professionals develop and implement a

variety of education and transition plans for individuals with
exceptionalities across a wide range of settings and different learning
experiences in collaboration with individuals, families, and teams.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and

promote generalization of learning.

In Chapter 3, we review the teaching portions of the assessment-

teaching process and discuss the meaning of specialized
instruction. We also look at the important role of Technology in
designing specialized instruction.

3.1 Specialized Instruction

 Instruction based on the individualized needs of the students
constitutes specialized instruction. It is what is special about
special education. It is the instruction that is unique to a particular
child. Provided with a thorough assessment of the student, the
special education teacher plans instruction based on the
individualized needs of the student. One size does not fit all.
Rather we provide the instruction that is needed by the child. One
student may need a specific multisensory approach to teach him
reading because he has poor auditory and visual memory skills;
another may need to be taught a specific learning strategy because
she does not know how to take tests well and has a high degree of
anxiety. One student may need a fading approach to learn his
math facts Another student may be preparing for a job in a
laundromat and needs to be taught how to fold clothes utilizing a
particular folding board. Figure 3.1 reflects the critical
components in designing an appropriate approach to instruction
for the student with special needs.

Figure 3.1 Providing Appropriate Instruction

© Cengage Learning 2015

Did You Get It?

 In the words of the authors of your text, “this is what is special about
special education.” Educational principles that always put the needs of
the student above any other consideration are the hallmark of .

a. person-first language

b. specialized instruction

c. special needs education

d. individualized educational plans

3.2 Differentiate Specialized Instruction

from Accommodations and
Modifications
Oftentimes we hear individuals discussing the accommodations
and modifications a student needs. If the child cannot read, we
may provide them with someone who can read the material to
them. This is not enough and this is not specialized instruction.
The student must also be taught to read in the specialized way in
which he or she can learn. Services for students with disabilities
must include specialized instruction provided by a credentialed
special educator. That special education must include remediation
of the specific disability. In the case of students who cannot read,
students must be taught to read in a way that is appropriate for
them. The student must also be taught compensatory strategies
for his or her reading disability. The student will need to be taught
how to use context clues, how to attack a word he or she does not
know, and what techniques help as they struggle with reading.

This differentiated instruction takes place within the general

education classroom and involves the classroom teacher using
techniques that are designed to meet the range of diversity within
the classroom. Accommodations and modifications are provided
 to students to assist them. Accommodations will be discussed later
in this chapter; they are tools provided to students, such as
extended timelines or large print materials. Accommodations do
not change content. Modifications, on the other hand, change the
content of material being learned.

Accommodation should always be utilized together with

specialized instruction. If a student is provided with extended
timelines, then the student must also be taught time management
skills. If a student is provided with a scribe, the student must also
be taught how to write. Accommodations or modifications are not
specialized instruction; they are tools that are provided to assist in
instruction.

Special education must truly be special. It is different from the

typical instruction and it is something that general education
cannot be. (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005). Good general education
is certainly demanding but special education requires more
precision and more dimensions including pacing or rate, intensity,
relentlessness, structure, reinforcement, low pupil teacher ratio,
monitoring, and assessment. (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005).

Kirk’s diagnostic-prescriptive approach is the pillar of special

education. It is what makes special education special. (Minskoff,
1998). The steps in the approach include the following:

1. Assessment of a child’s special physical, intellectual, social,

emotional, and educational needs.

2. Determination of the focus of the instruction through the

development of the annual goals and short-term objectives
of the IEP.

3. Decisions about how instruction should be delivered through

task analysis and specialized instructional techniques.

4. Measurement of the child’s progress. (Kirk & Chalfant,

1984).

Did You Get It?

 Which of the four following steps of Kirk’s “diagnostic-prescriptive
approach” is neither complete nor accurate in the form in which it is
stated?

a. Step #1: Assessment of a child’s physical and educational needs

b. Step #2: Determination of instructional focus, goals and

objectives via the IEP

c. Step #3: Determination of viable and effective instructional

methods is crystallized

d. Step #4: Ongoing assessment of the child’s progress

3.3 Clinical Teaching

Assessment is only a starting point. The process continues with
teaching—a special kind of teaching that is required to help
students who encounter difficulty in learning, which we call
clinical teaching. Clinical teaching embodies methods and
strategies to reach students with learning disabilities and related
disabilities.

3.3a What Is Clinical Teaching?

Clinical teaching implies a concept and attitude about teaching.
Clinical teachers enjoy teaching, they believe that they can make a
difference in the life and learning of a student, and they are
jubilant when a student shows that he or she “gets it” with the
“aha” moment. Several terms describe this special kind of teacher,
such as effective teachers, specialized instruction, remedial
teachers, educational therapists, or simply good teachers. All of
these concepts describe a teacher who is enthusiastic, sensitive,
optimistic, and serious about student learning. Clinical teaching
does not require any one particular instructional system or
educational setting. Clinical teaching can reflect the teaching of
special education teachers, of general education classroom
teachers, of secondary subject matter teachers, or of collaboration
teams.

The goal of clinical teaching is to tailor learning experiences for

the unique needs of an individual student. By using information
gathered through the evaluation of the student, along with an
analysis of the student’s specific learning characteristics, the
clinical teacher designs a plan of instruction for that student.
Assessment does not stop when teaching begins. In fact, the
essence of clinical teaching is that assessment and instruction are
continuous and interwoven. The clinical teacher modifies the
teaching as new needs become apparent.

Many different intervention strategies can be used in clinical

teaching. A clinical teacher is a “child watcher,” carefully
observing what the student is doing. For example, by observing
the kinds of errors a student makes, the clinical teacher can obtain
information about the student, such as the student’s current level
of development, way of thinking, or underlying language system. A
student’s oral reading errors can provide insight into the student’s
way of thinking.

Clinical teaching can be viewed as a cycle. The student is

evaluated, and then a unit of work based on the evaluation is
taught. After teaching, the student is again evaluated to determine
what has been learned. If the student performs well, the clinical
teacher knows that the teaching has been successful and plans for
the next step of learning. If the student performs poorly, the
teacher must reassess the teaching plan, analyze the errors to try
to determine the cause of the failure to learn, and develop a new
course of action for teaching. This clinical teaching cycle is shown
in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 Stages of the Clinical Teaching Cycle

© Cengage Learning
Professional Resource Download

The five stages of the clinical teaching cycle are:

1. Assessment. This is the process of gathering evidence

about a student’s skills or knowledge. It can be administered
through a test or as an integral part of instruction.

2. Planning of the teaching task. The assessment

information is used to plan the instruction.

3. Implementation of the teaching plan. This stage

involves the actual teaching.

4. Evaluation of student performance. The teacher now

evaluates how well the student has responded to the
teaching.
 5. Modification of the assessment. Now, it may be
necessary to modify the assessment.

Note that the response-to-intervention (RTI) model for teaching

(discussed in Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process”) shifts
the sequence of these stages. With RTI, the first stage is to teach
the student, and then to determine the student’s response to the
instruction.

3.3b Qualities of Clinical Teaching

Many critical decisions must be made about what and how to
teach. In many respects, teaching remains an art. One can never
tell where a teacher’s influence stops. Clinical teaching is unique
in the following ways:

Clinical teaching requires flexibility and continual

decision making. The clinical teacher is a decision-maker.
However, too often, instruction is determined by the
material being used. In many classes, textbooks dominate
the instruction, becoming the de facto curriculum.

Clinical teaching focuses on the needs of a unique

student rather than a large group of students.
Lessons in the general education classroom are usually
designed for the entire class. However, the best method for
teaching a class may not be the best method for teaching
individual students, with the student’s unique behaviors and
learning needs.

Clinical teaching can be accomplished in a variety of

settings. Clinical teaching can occur in a group or in an
individual setting, in a general education classroom, or in a
special education classroom. Clinical teaching reflects an
attitude on the part of the teacher. What is important is the
teacher’s ability to integrate feedback information and be
ready to make decisions, modify the teaching plan, and be
sensitive to the individual student’s interests, preferred way
of learning, level of development, and personal feelings.
 Examples that illustrate clinical teaching are given in
Teaching Tips 3.1, “Examples of Clinical Teaching,” and
Student Stories 3.1, “A Remembrance of a Remarkable
Clinical Teacher.”

Teaching Tips 3.1 Examples of Clinical Teaching

Sammy had difficulty going from the overhead transparency the teacher
was showing to the class to the work he was doing at his desk. His
teacher realized that this difficulty reflected Sammy’s problem with
visual perception. The teacher gave Sammy a printed copy of the
material on the transparency so that he did not have to make the transfer
from the transparency to the work at his desk.

Debby failed the arithmetic word problem on the test. Her teacher
observed that Debby could read the words and perform the arithmetic
calculations, but she could not picture the items to be calculated in the
word problem. The clinical teacher recognized that Debby’s arithmetic
failures were related to her difficulty in visualization and spatial
orientation. The teacher noted that Debby could not remember how to
get to school, to the store, or to her friend’s house, and she constantly
lost her way. Her teacher directed the teaching toward strengthening
Debby’s visualization skills and her ability to visualize the situation in
the word problem.

Saul, a high school student, was failing in most of his subjects. He

appeared to be uninterested and uninvolved in his school courses.
Although his word-recognition skills were good, his reading
comprehension was very poor. When questioned in class, Saul usually
blurted out his first answer, which was typically wrong. His reactions
were the same in his written work. Saul did not have a dependable
system for learning. He did not know how to become actively involved in
the learning task and responded impulsively. Saul’s teacher recognized
that he lacked learning strategies to go about learning. Saul was taught
specific strategies for learning.

Professional Resource Download

Student Stories 3.1 A Remembrance of a Remarkable Clinical

Teacher
A grateful student wrote the following remembrance of Grace Fernald, a
remarkable clinical teacher.

I was the oldest of eight children. Even when very young, my parents talked
with me about the world and the politics of the day—we were in the middle of
World War II. I liked learning about things. With my second-grade teacher,
my otherwise happy world seemed to come to an end. While I was well
behaved in school, everything I did or said, from the teacher’s perspective,
was wrong. While only a second grader, I knew I wanted to be a doctor and a
medical researcher and, in my heart, I believed I would be able to do those
things well. She asked to see my parents. Because of all the young children at
home, my father came alone. It was after school, and I was at one end of the
room sitting quietly. I can remember hearing her tell my father I was
retarded and, of course, would never be a doctor. I can also remember him
patiently, but very firmly, telling her he disagreed about my intelligence and
that I would be whatever I wanted.

My parents revered education. They called UCLA and were given the name of
Grace Fernald, who agreed to see me in her private practice. I remember Dr.
Fernald’s house from the first visit. I thought it was grand. It was, to me, a
very big Spanish home in a very nice area of Westwood (what is now called
Little Holmby Hills). It had a tall, vaulted ceiling of wood and big timbers
with a huge stone fireplace. I was amazed by the furniture, which I thought
must be antique, and enjoyed looking at the oriental carpets. There were
many shelves with books. Everything was very neat and very quiet.

Dr. Fernald was friendly, gray-haired, with a wonderful smile. After talking
to my parents, she took me into her office. It was a small office with a big
desk and many, many books. It seemed quite cozy and comfortable. We
talked. She then told me I would be given an IQ test. It was fun. At a couple
of points we both laughed at some of the questions: “If you fire two bullets at
somebody and the first bullet kills the person, what does the second bullet
do?” She also did some other testing. I did not feel at all nervous. At the end,
she told me that I had done just fine and would be learning to read and spell
very quickly. She and I were going to impress Miss Potter. And, we did!
Dr. Fernald’s kinesthetic approach involved writing in the air as well as
tracing words in large written or scripted format. In those visits, Dr. Fernald
was always cheerful and always smiling. As a child, I felt I had a new friend,
one who I knew was helping me in very important ways. I wanted to do well.

By the summer, Dr. Fernald decided I should enroll in the class being taught
at UCLA for children with my type of problem. My parents taught me to take
the big blue bus from Pico and Robertson in West Los Angeles directly to the
UCLA bus stop and to navigate to the other side of campus across its various
little ravines to the wood school building near Sunset Boulevard that housed
Dr. Fernald’s program. The building was a simple, barracks-style green
structure that smelled very much of wood, cheap drawing paper, and the type
of paint that children used many years ago. In the course of getting back and
forth to her building I, of course, explored many buildings and many ravines!

The class had fewer than 16 pupils. We sat two pupils to a table. For every
two pupils, there was a student teacher who was a UCLA trainee. Dr. Fernald
was in the background circulating among the pupils and the student
teachers.

She did not run the class, but was clearly in charge. The student teachers
rotated being in charge of the class. The method of instruction was quite
interesting. Every day, each pupil had to dictate a story to his or her student
teacher. It could be as long as you wanted—mine were quite long! The
teacher wrote it all down. The next day she (all the student teachers were, as
I remember, young women) would bring the story back, typed up on a special
typewriter that made letters that I recall as being about a half inch in height.
We then read our stories to the student teachers from the neatly typed
manuscript. We then would practice some of the words of the story, which
were written on big cards (in my mind’s eye, the cards were about 2- or 3-
inches high and about 10-inches long). We would trace the words and learn
to spell them. While one of the student teacher’s pupils was reciting his story
(most of the pupils were boys), the other pupil was doing the word practice,
including softly repeating his story and tracing words. There was some work
involving the group as a whole with larger cards.
Dr. Fernald always seemed to be in a good mood and seemed to have an
individual relationship and concern for each of the pupils and student
teachers. Some students had trouble behaving themselves. She was stern
about the class being a place to learn. Students who could not behave in the
class had to leave and go outside. I remember one or two of those students
had to leave the class permanently.

The sessions lasted a half day. They included recess breaks as well as some
time for painting. Much of that was finger painting, dipping our hands into
chalky paints, which had a rather nice smell.

Once I got the notion of reading, I became quite avid. I tried to explain to
Miss Potter what I was learning from Dr. Fernald. But Miss Potter made it
quite clear that she was not interested.

Forty-five years after the experiences in this story, I was again at UCLA.
Having spent 25 years on the Stanford faculty and holding an endowed chair
there, I was invited to become Dean for Neuroscience and Research at the
UCLA Medical School. I spent 4 years there before coming to New York. The
ravines at UCLA had been filled in. There are far more buildings, and Grace
Fernald’s simple wood classrooms were torn down for a new business school.
But UCLA still has a Grace Fernald School, and it is considered one of the
crown jewels of the institution.

I had episodically thought of Grace Fernald—particularly as I made various

professional transitions. In my current positions as Chair of Psychiatry at the
New York Hospital Cornell Medical Center with responsibility for its Payne
Whitney Clinic and editor of one of the major scientific journals of
psychiatry, I have sometimes wondered what Grace Fernald would have
thought. How did life change for some of the other boys as a result of her
help and ministrations? I still use aspects of the Fernald method to this day. I
did not know her as a leader in her field—though I came to recognize that.
Rather, I knew Dr. Fernald as a teacher who clearly loved helping children
who had problems and who—with my two remarkable parents—made
possible for me the future I dreamed of.
 About Grace Fernald: In her book, which was first published in 1943,
Grace Fernald described the multisensory methods she used (Fernald,
1943/1988). Fernald created one of the first reading clinics for students with
reading problems at UCLA, and she also had a private practice.

Reflective Question
1. What impact did this clinical teacher have on Jack?

Source: This remembrance appeared at http://historyliteracy.org/98_spring/Fernald_stu.html.

Reprinted with the permission of Dr. Jack D Barchas. Dr. Barchas wrote this tribute when he
was Chair of Psychiatry at the New York Hospital Cornell Medical Center and editor of Archives
of General Psychiatry

Did You Get It?

The term “clinical teaching” describes a particular method of teaching

that applies to the educational professional. In this regard, inherent
and critical in being an educational “clinician” is a specific and special

a. curriculum

b. lesson-plan

c. training course and framework

d. mindset

3.4 Differentiated Instruction

The term differentiated instruction reflects the philosophy of
teaching that enables teachers to reach the unique needs of each
student, capitalizing on the student’s strengths and weaknesses.
Differentiated instruction embodies the qualities of clinical
teaching by giving students multiple options for taking in
information and making sense of ideas (Hall, Strangman, &
Meryer. 2011; Tomlinson, Brimijoin, & Narvaez, 2008; Tomlison,
2001). One of the biggest mistakes we make in teaching is to treat
 everyone equally when it comes to learning. By recognizing that
not all students are alike, differentiated instruction applies an
approach to teaching and learning that gives students multiple
options for taking in information and making sense of ideas.

Children do not respond well to a one-size-fits-all curriculum.

Children process information differently from one another; some
form images, others form words, and others form sentences.
Differentiated instruction takes their individual needs into
account with teaching by responding to each student’s personal
talents, interests, varying background knowledge, and distinct
experiences. In differentiated instruction, the teacher seeks to find
that special method that will be successful for an individual
student to help that student learn (Bender, 2006). A website for
differentiated instruction through universal design is
http://www.cast.org.

3.4a Multiple Intelligences

The concept of “multiple intelligences” presents another view of
differentiated learning. Many parents and teachers correctly
observe that their children may encounter learning problems in
school, but they have incredible talents that are generally
undervalued or not well represented in school curricula. Multiple
intelligences is a view of learning that reflects the idea that
people possess different kinds of intelligences that are not
represented in the school curriculum. Howard Gardner (1983,
1993, 1999) suggests that there are at least eight different types of
intelligence. Each type of intelligence calls for a distinctive
approach for teaching (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

 Source: Adapted from Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences, by Howard Gardner,
1983, New York: Basic Books.

3.4b Differentiated Instruction and Teaching

Approaches
In this section, we describe some of the teaching approaches to
meet the unique learning needs of students who learn differently.
Teachers should know and have at their disposal many strategies
to meet the needs of an individual student, and teachers should
not be overly dependent on a single teaching approach. Such a
flaw is exemplified in Student Stories 3.2, “A Fable for Teachers.”
The point of the fable is that each student (or animal) is different,
and that one method cannot be relied on as the best way for
 teaching in every case. There is no magic formula for teaching a
child. Teachers need to have a wide range of instructional
approaches at their disposal, and they need to be imaginative and
flexible enough to adapt them to the particular needs of each
child.

Student Stories 3.2 The Animal School: A Fable by George

Reavis

Once upon a time the animals decided they must do something heroic to
meet the problems of a “new world” so they organized a school. They had
adopted an activity curriculum consisting of running, climbing, swimming
and flying. To make it easier to administer the curriculum, all the animals
took all the subjects.

The duck was excellent in swimming. In fact, better than his instructor. But
he made only passing grades in flying and was very poor in running. Since he
was slow in running, he had to stay after school and also drop swimming in
order to practice running. This was kept up until his webbed feet were badly
worn and he was only average in swimming. But average was acceptable in
school so nobody worried about that, except, the duck.

The rabbit started at the top of the class in running but had a nervous
breakdown because of so much makeup work in swimming.

The squirrel was excellent in climbing until he developed frustration in the

flying class where his teacher made him start from the ground up instead of
the treetop down. He also developed a “charlie horse” from overexertion and
then got a C in climbing and D in running.

The eagle was a problem child and was disciplined severely. In the climbing
class, he beat all the others to the top of the tree but insisted on using his
own way to get there.

At the end of the year, an abnormal eel that could swim exceeding well and
also run, climb and fly a little had the highest average and was valedictorian.
The prairie dogs stayed out of school and fought the tax levy because the
administration would not add digging and burrowing to the curriculum.
They apprenticed their children to a badger and later joined the groundhogs
and gophers to start a successful private school.

Does this fable have a moral?

Reflective Question
1. How does this fable illustrate the statement that “one size does not fit
all”?

Source: This story was written when George Reavis was the Assistant Superintendent of the
Cincinnati Public Schools back in the 1940s. This content is in the public domain and free to
copy, duplicate, and distribute.

In the following sections, we look at two distinctive approaches to

teaching students who learn differently:

1. cognitive processing, and

2. direct instruction and mastery learning.

Cognitive Processing The notion of cognitive processing

refers to the different ways that children process information
within the brain as they learn (Sousa, 2001). Federal law permits
states to use of research-based procedures for determining if a
child has a learning disability (IDEA, 2004; Regulations for IDEA,
2006). Many states allow the use of a procedure that determines if
a student exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in areas
of cognitive processes that interfere with learning (Schultz, 2009).

Identifying a student’s cognitive processing approach to learning

has given meaning to the most salient components of the federal
definition of learning disabilities, which is a disorder in one or
more of the basic psychological processes (IDEA, 2004).
Information about a student’s cognitive processing can be linked
to the student’s ability to perform academically (Flannagan, Ortiz,
Alfonso, & Mascolo, 2006; Kavale, Holdnack, & Mostert, 2005).
 Cognitive processes are thinking procedures that learners use in
learning and performing academic tasks. Several different
distinctive cognitive processes are identified by Schultz, 2009;
Mather and Jaffe, 2002; and Flangan, et al., 2006:

Fluid intelligence—mental operations when a person is

presented with a novel task

Crystallized intelligence—a person’s general fund of

knowledge

Short-term memory—ability to apprehend and hold

information for a very short time

Visual processing—ability to think with visual patterns

and stimuli

Auditory processing—ability to notice and discriminate

separate sounds

Long-term storage and retrieval—ability to store new

or previously acquired information and fluently retrieve that
information

Processing speed—ability to fluently and automatically

perform cognitive tasks

Cognitive process occurs within the brain. Figure 3.3 illustrates

how information can be perceived in different ways. What do you
see in this figure? The written word Liar, or a profile of a face?
(Turn the figure sideways.) How do different perceptions affect
the interpretation of this figure? Perception occurs in the brain.

Figure 3.3 Visual Perception—Liar, Liar, Optical Illusion

 © Cengage Learning

Here are two examples of cognitive processing and applications

for teaching:

Jeff ’s teacher is aware of his difficulty with auditory

processing so his teacher understands why Jeff has so much
difficulty in learning phonics. Jeff ’s teacher therefore makes
accommodations in how she teaches phonics that consider
Jeff ’s difficulty in auditory processing.

Susan has difficulty with visual perception and cannot

remember printed words. Her teacher uses strategies to help
her recognize printed words.

Direct Instruction and Mastery Learning Direct

instruction is a method of teaching the academic skills of the
curriculum in a structured and controlled manner. With direct
instruction, the curriculum and the tasks that the student is to
learn are first analyzed. Then the desired academic curriculum
skill is carefully sequenced so that the teacher teaches each step in
sequence. The student practices and repeats each step of the
sequence until the skill is mastered. Research shows that direct
instruction is very effective, and that students do learn the
 academic skills with this procedure (Carnine, Silbert, &
Kame’enui, 1990; Mainzer et al., 2003).

Cognitive strategies are thinking processes that learners use to perform

academic tasks

Rhoda Sidney/The Image Works

Characteristics of direct instruction include:

Teaches academic skills directly

Is teacher directed and controlled

Uses carefully sequenced and structured materials

Provides student mastery of basic skills

Sets goals that are clear to students

Allocates sufficient time for instruction

Uses continuous monitoring of student performance

Provides immediate feedback to students

Teaches a skill until mastery of that skill is achieved

Mastery learning is an outcome of direct instruction. The

student must learn each of a sequence of skills in order to learn a
task. Learning each skill of a task is likened to climbing the rungs
on a ladder. Each rung must be touched in climbing to the top; the
 student who misses some rungs may fall off. The skill of reading,
for example, is analyzed as consisting of many subskills; by
mastering the component subskills, the student should master the
skill of reading.

Did You Get It?

The concept of “differentiated teaching” takes into account that once

information is presented, unique students will intake and “ ” that
information in and by a myriad of unique styles, manners, and
processes.

a. internalize

b. make sense of

c. value

d. store

3.5 Controlling Instructional Variables

The teacher and the school can do relatively little about many
factors linked with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities. The home environment or the genetic or biological
makeup of the student may be key elements contributing to the
learning problem, but such variables cannot be modified by the
teacher. Other factors, however, can be changed by teachers, and
these factors should receive careful consideration. Variables in
learning that can be readjusted by teachers include the difficulty
level, space, time, and language.

3.5a Difficulty Level

 The difficulty level of material is an extremely important
consideration. Difficulty level can be modified to meet a student’s
present performance and tolerance levels. The concept of
readiness, which is defined as the state of maturational
development that is necessary before a skill can be learned,
applies here, as does Lev Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). The zone of proximal
development is a concept that envisions a range of difficulty levels
for a student, with the ZPD at the midpoint of a student’s capacity
and an appropriate level for the student’s learning (Vygotsky,
1962). (See Chapter 5, “Theories of Learning.”) Many students fail
tasks simply because the tasks are too difficult and the required
level of performance is beyond their present skill level. Expecting
a student to perform a task far beyond her or his skill level can
result in a complete breakdown in learning. A synthesis of
intervention research shows that “control of task difficulty” is a
critical feature of effective intervention (Vaughn, Gersten, &
Chard, 2000).

Many skills or responses must be overlearned so that they can

become automatic. Many skills must be internalized or become
automatic before they can be used quickly in new situations or
transferred to new situations. The internalization permits a shift
from the conscious, cognitive level to the automatic response, or
habitual level. For example, in reading, the student initially may
use phonic skills in a conscious, deliberate way to decode words;
but later, the process must become automatic for effective reading.

3.5b Space
Space refers to the physical setting, which should be conducive to
learning. Among the ways to modify space are using partitions,
cubicles, screens, special rooms, quiet corners, and removing
distracting stimuli. Space also involves the student’s work area,
 such as the size of the paper and the desk surface. The school
environment should not be a distraction from learning, but rather
should enhance learning.

The goal of space control is to slowly increase the amount of space

with which the student must contend. Gradually, students must
internalize their own controls so that they can get along in an
unmodified space environment.

3.5c Time
There are a number of ways to control time in the teaching setting.
Lessons for students with a very short attention span can be
limited so that they can be completed in less time. For example,
one row of mathematics problems can be assigned instead of an
entire page. The work page can be cut into squares or strips to
shorten the time required to complete one section. Fewer spelling
words can be given in a spelling assignment. In timed exercises,
the allotted time can be increased. Time can be broken into
shorter units by varying the types of activity so that quiet activities
are followed by livelier ones. Planned activity changes, such as
having the student come to the teacher’s desk or walk to a shelf to
get supplies, can be useful breaks during long lessons. Homework
assignments can be shortened. The goal is to gradually increase
the time that the student works on a task.

3.5d Language
Language can also be modified to enhance student learning. To
ensure that language clarifies rather than confuses, teachers
should examine the wording of their directions. The language
should match the student’s level of understanding. For students
 whose first language is not English, it is especially critical that the
teacher’s language be clear, precise, and unambiguous. Using a
visual support, such as a chart, can be helpful in understanding
the language.

For some students, the language quantity must be reduced to the

simplest statements. Techniques to simplify language include:

1. reducing directions to “telegraphic speech,” or using only

essential words;

2. maintaining visual contact with the learner;

3. avoiding ambiguous words and emphasizing meaning with

gesture;

4. speaking in a slow tempo;

5. touching the student before talking; and

6. avoiding complex sentence structure, particularly negative

constructions.

Did You Get It?

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the of a student’s

abilities being the optimal/most appropriate level to facilitate learning
when he or she is presented with a range of difficulty levels and
variables.

a. apex

b. low-end

c. midpoint

d. 80% mark

3.6 Building Self-Esteem and Motivation

 Robert Louis Stevenson observed that life is not so much a matter
of holding good cards but of playing a poor hand well. This
observation expresses the plight of students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities and the call for teachers to
help students learn how to play their hand well. Clinical teaching
requires an affirming and positive teacher-student relationship.
Although effective teaching requires objectivity and a thorough
knowledge of the curriculum, skills, and methods, it also requires
a subjective understanding of the student as an individual with
feelings, emotions, hopes, and dreams (Brooks & Goldstein, 2002;
Brooks, 2000). Students often feel lost and frightened because
they have suffered years of despair, discouragement, and
frustration. Sometimes they experience feelings of rejection,
failure, and hopelessness about the future that affect every subject
they study in school and every aspect of their lives. The emotional
plight of students who are failing is further explored in Student
Stories 3.3, “The Emotional Plight of Students With Learning
Disabilities and Related Disabilities.”

Student Stories 3.3 The Emotional Plight of Students with

Learning Disabilities and Related
Disabilities

This box describes the emotional feelings of failure.

For 12 long years of school and after, the student with learning disabilities
contends with a situation for which he or she can find no satisfactory
solution. When schoolwork becomes insurmountable, the student has few
alternative resources. Adults who are dissatisfied with their job may seek a
position elsewhere or find solace outside of work or may even choose to
endure these difficulties because of a high salary or other compensations. For
the student, however, there is no escape; he or she is subjected to anything
from degradation to long-suffering tolerance. Proof of inadequacies appears
daily in the classroom. In the end, the student is held in low esteem, not only
by classmates, but also often by his or her family.

Reflective Question
 1. For a student with learning disabilities, what factors can lead to low
self-esteem?

Source: Roswell, R. and Natchez, G. (1977) Reading Disability. New York: Basic Books.

3.6a Self-Esteem
A problem in learning can impinge upon every aspect of the
student’s world. It is important to recognize the emotional impact
of failure on the student. Not only are parents and teachers
displeased with the child, but the parent’s anxiety also often
becomes uncontrollable. The parents wonder whether their child
is unable to learn or is just plain lazy. Even the most loving
parents can become so alarmed at their child’s inability to learn
that they will tend to punish, scold, and threaten, or even reward
with the hope of producing desired results. Teachers also feel
frustrated by their inability to reach the child. A student’s
problems in learning do not begin and end at the classroom door;
they pervade every aspect of the child’s life. They interfere with
everything important to the child—from riding a bicycle to making
friends, from knowing how to behave at recess to being an
effective student (Silver, 2003, 2006).

3.6b Fostering Motivation

An important responsibility for the clinical teacher is to motivate
students who have been failing and to attract them to learning. In
discussing motivation, Rick Lavoie (2007) uses the phrase,
“Batteries Not Included: Motivating the Struggling Learner.”
Lavoie observed that teachers lack training and exposure to the
basic tenets of motivation. Each student responds to a different
form of motivation. If a motivational strategy works, do more of it;
 if it doesn’t, do something else. Lavoie identifies eight different
forces of motivation:

1. the need to have friends,

2. the need for independence,

3. the need to be important,

4. the need to know,

5. the need to assert,

6. the need for control,

7. the need to be recognized, and

8. the need to have affiliations and belong to a group.

Because each student responds to a unique set of motivators,

teachers cannot count on motivating all students by using one
solitary motivational approach (Lavoie, 2007).

When a student experiences success in learning, it has a beneficial

effect on personality, enhances feelings of self-worth, and
rekindles an interest in learning. Such teaching can be considered
therapeutic (Brooks, 2000). (See Chapter 6, “Social, Emotional,
and Behavioral Challenges,” for a further discussion of ways to
build self-esteem.)

3.6c Building Rapport

Success in learning has a beneficial effect on personality, enhances feelings

and self-worth, and rekindles an interest in learning.
 Dmitriy Shironosov / Shutterstock.com.

A good relationship between the teacher and student is an

essential first step in clinical teaching. Much of the success in
clinical teaching depends on the establishment of healthy rapport.
The teacher must accept the student as a human being worthy of
respect in spite of a failure to learn. A healthy relationship implies
compassion without over-involvement, understanding without
indulgence, and a genuine concern for the student’s development.
The clinical teacher’s relationship with a student should provide a
new atmosphere of confidence and acceptance. Because it may be
extremely difficult for a parent or a family member to retain an
accepting, yet objective, attitude, the student becomes very
sensitive to the parent’s disappointment. Parents are often
unaware of their child’s reaction to their efforts. For example, one
well-intentioned father in a public library helping his son pick out
a book and listening to him read, was overheard saying, “I’ll tell
you that word one more time, and then I don’t want you to forget
it for the rest of your life.” This is not an attitude that is conducive
to learning. Children need to see a word dozens of times before
they readily recognize the word.
3.6d Sharing Responsibility
Involvement of both the student and the teacher is another factor
in clinical teaching. Students should participate in both the
analysis of their problems and the evaluation of their
performance. In the same collaborative spirit, the student should
also take an active role in designing lessons and choosing
materials.

3.6e Providing Structure

Providing structure and establishing routines are important
factors for introducing order into the chaotic lives of students with
learning problems. Many students need and welcome such order.
Structure and routine can be provided in many aspects of teaching
—in the physical environment, in knowing the specific schedule
for the day, in the sequence of activities, and in the manner in
which lessons are taught.

3.6f Conveying Sincerity

Students are skillful in detecting insincerity, and they will soon
detect dishonesty if a teacher tells them they are doing well when
they know otherwise. Instead, the teacher might try to minimize
anxiety about errors by saying that many students have similar
difficulties and by conveying confidence that together they will
find ways to overcome the difficulties.

3.6g Showing Success

 Success is similar to a vitamin. If you don’t get enough of it
growing up, you suffer a very severe deficiency that could result in
long-term problems (Levine, 2002). Self-esteem cannot be
injected or taught; it is a result of many success experiences
(Richardson, 2003). Students should become aware of and
appreciate their successes. Students should know what they can
do well, and teachers and families should help them pursue their
areas of strengths. Many students and adults with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities achieve success by
understanding the nature of their learning problems and learning
to use their strengths.

Lessons must be designed and materials selected to permit

students to experience success. For example, the teacher can
obtain books at the reading levels that meet the students’ areas of
interest. In addition to selecting the appropriate level of difficulty
of teaching materials, the teacher can make students conscious of
their success and progress by:

Praising good work

Using extrinsic rewards as reinforcement

Developing visual records of progress through charts and

graphs

3.6h Capitalizing on Student’s Interests

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 ©Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Academic Diversity:

Differentiated Instruction.” In this video, a third-grade teacher instructs her
students in written expression. She differentiates her lesson for academically
diverse students by providing different instruction for three groups: children
who learn the lesson easily, children who need significant support, and
individualized instruction for children who have difficulty in creating the
written document.

Questions
1. Based on watching the video case and reading the chapter, what are
your ideas for differentiating instruction for diverse learners when
teaching written expression?

2. How can differentiated instruction be used in teaching reading?

The chance of successful achievement increases when a teacher

provides materials based on the student’s special interests.
Teachers can find student interests through conversations with
the student or by administering interest inventories. By finding
materials in the student’s area of interest, teachers can give the
student a strong motivation to learn.

Students have a range of reading interests that include sports,

adventure and action, history, science, biography and memoir,
mysteries, and humor. Valuable reading lessons can be developed
from materials that students have an interest in—TV Guide,
newspapers, baseball and football programs, music, popular
magazines, and even computer manuals. The first real interest in
reading shown by some high school students is stimulated by the
need to pass a written test in order to get a driver’s license.
Engaging this interest, some teachers have successfully used the
driver’s manual as material to teach reading. A favorite author or
series books have been the impetus for other youngsters to
become readers. The right book can be a powerful tool to build
interest, provide motivation, and improve academic learning. The
following are some examples of students who made great strides
once an interest had been tapped.

Antonio, an eighth-grade boy with learning disabilities,

found the first book he ever read from cover to cover, The
Incredible Journey, so fascinating that he was completely
oblivious to class changes, ringing bells, and classroom
incidents from the time he started the book until he
completed it.

Maria developed an interest in successful women who had,

in her words, “made it.” Her teacher helped her find many
books and articles that related stories of successful women
in many fields. Her reading improved dramatically after she
read these materials.

Dave had a keen interest in the Chicago Cubs baseball team.

His teacher helped him find newspaper stories about the
games and biographies of the players. His interest led him to
read more, and his reading improved.

Sometimes a television show or a movie based on a book can

spark an interest. After seeing a television show about
Robinson Crusoe, Juan, who had severe reading problems,
was introduced to a simplified version of this book. His
teacher reported that he became so immersed in the story
that he would grab the book as soon as he entered the room.

Once in a while, dramatic changes occur in a student’s attitude

and outlook because of clinical teaching. When such a change
 occurs because of a book the child has read, it is sometimes called
bibliotherapy. Learning about the experiences of others can
foster release and insight as well as hope and encouragement.
Students with personal problems (e.g., children who are short,
overweight, unpopular, or who have physical or academic
disabilities) identify with book characters who suffer similar
problems and are helped by the characters’ resolution of their
problems (Sridhar & Vaughn, 2002). For example, Peter, a
seventh-grade student with learning disabilities, was fascinated by
Houdini, the great escape artist. Peter read all the books he could
find on Houdini in the school library and in the public library.
During this period of extensive reading about Houdini, Peter’s
teachers observed personality and attitude changes, as well as
tremendous improvement in his reading.

Did You Get It?

In recognizing and targeting what makes a student tick, it might be

helpful to remember Lavoie’s eight forces of motivation. Which of the
following four forces is not one of those recognized by the author?

a. A need for recognition

b. A need to control

c. A need to manipulate

d. A need to feel important

3.7 Including Students with Learning

Disabilities and Related Disabilities in
General Education
Most students with learning disabilities receive their instruction in
general education classrooms. About 87% of students with
 learning disabilities spend at least a portion of their school day in
general education classrooms. This includes about 55% (who are
in the regular classroom for 80% or more of the day) and 32%
(who are in the regular class for 40% to 70% of the school day).
Only 12% of students with learning disabilities are in the regular
classroom for less than 40% of the day. (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012).

3.7a Section 504 Students

As noted in Chapter 1, some students with disabilities receive
instruction in the general education classrooms under the law
known as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The law of
Section 504 falls under the purview of a federal agency called
Office of Civil Rights. It is not a law of Department of Education
and IDEA (Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement
Act-2004). Section 504 is a civil rights law that prohibits
discrimination against individuals with disabilities. The provisions
in the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments (ADAA)
(2008) applies to students in Section 504.

Under Section 504, a student may have a disability but the student
may not be eligible for special education services under a state’s
diagnostic criteria for that disability. These students may be
entitled to Section 504 services in the general education
classroom. The Section 504 plan is an accommodation plan that
outlines the specific accommodations that are needed for the
student. Section 504 students will not have an IEP but they may
have a Section 504 plan. The 504 plan may include the following:
specialized instruction, modifications to the curriculum, and
accommodations (Zirkel, 2009;
http://www.wrightslaw.com/info/sec504.index.htm;
http://www.concordspedpac.org/section504.html).
 Students identified as Section 504 students are served in the
general education classrooms, and they are entitled to
“reasonable accommodations in general education
classrooms.” States must have accommodation guidelines for
Section 504 students.

3.7b Student Diversity in General Education

In today’s pluralistic society, most general education classrooms
have students from many different ethnic, language, and cultural
populations. Some culturally and linguistically diverse students
were born in the United States or Canada; others are recent
immigrants from all parts of the world. Some students are
English-language learners (ELL) and have limited English
proficiency. ELL students are discussed in more detail in Chapter
11, “Spoken Language Difficulties: Listening and Speaking.”

Understanding the cultures and language backgrounds of students

is essential for effective teaching, and teachers should appreciate
the unique contributions of each culture. By the time children
enter school, they have already absorbed many of the values and
behaviors of the culture in which they were raised, which has
major ramifications for school success. The child’s language is one
obvious consideration. If the school expects all students to be
fluent in English, students from families that speak another
language will be at a disadvantage. Another consideration is that
many schools expect students to work independently and to
compete for grades and recognition. This expectation may be in
conflict with the attitudes of cultures in which cooperation and
peer orientation are valued more than the qualities of
independence and competitiveness (Hernandez, 2001;
Montgomery, 2001). For students with learning disabilities and
related disabilities, their learning problems are compounded by
 dimensions of the student’s culture and language (Hernandez,
2002).

With the increase in cultural and linguistic diversity in our

schools, teachers must recognize the impact of culture and
language on a student’s behavior and performance in school.
Knowledge and respect for differences among cultural and
language groups will help teachers provide more successful
experiences for all students.

Teachers should create an atmosphere that builds on the cultural

and linguistic diversity of students (Montgomery, 2001). Teaching
Tips 3.2, “Culturally Responsive Teachers,” offers ways to do this.

Teaching Tips 3.2 Culturally Responsive Teachers

Accept and welcome culturally diverse students into their classrooms

and recognize the need for these students to find relevant connections
among their peers and with the subject matter of the tasks teachers ask
them to perform.

Establish a classroom atmosphere that respects individuals and their

cultures by providing current and relevant bulletin boards that display
positive and purposeful activities and events involving various cultures.
Have a book corner with a variety of culturally diverse literature and
have language arts and social studies programs that offer opportunities
to showcase written and oral reports pertaining to student heritage and
cultural traditions.

Use a range of culturally sensitive instruction materials and methods,

including interdisciplinary arts and journal writing.

Foster an interactive classroom environment so that students can engage

in shared inquiry and discovery. One way to do this is to provide
cooperative learning groups that bring students with diverse
backgrounds together. Guided and informal group discussions offer
opportunities for students to learn from one another.

Collaborate and communicate with culturally diverse families and

professionals.

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 Did You Get It?

By law, students are entitled to accommodations within the realm of

the general education classroom. Which of the following terms
precedes the word “accommodations” to fully describe that which a
student has a right to in this context?

a. Comprehensive

b. Reasonable

c. Average

d. Sensible

3.8 Accommodations for Students with

Learning Disabilities and Related
Disabilities
The following accommodations will help students with learning
disabilities and related disabilities in the general education
classroom:

1. increasing attention,

2. improving the ability to listen,

3. adapting the curriculum, and

4. helping students manage time.

Some accommodations for students with disabilities in the

general education classroom are described in Including Students
in General Education 3.1, “Accommodations for the General
Education Classroom.”

Including Students in General Education 3.1 Accommodations

for the General
 Education
Classroom

Change the setting. Give instructions or tests in a separate room, in a

carrel, or in a small group.

Change the scheduling. Extend the time and the breaks for testing and
instruction.

Change the type of presentation. Use large print; give verbal directions
instead of written directions, or tape-record the directions.

Change the expectations for responses. Have students answer questions

orally or point to the answer; students can mark in a booklet instead of
on an answer sheet.

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Source: Council for Exceptional Children, 2001; U.S. Department of Education, 2000b.

3.8a Increasing Attention

A short attention span is a characteristic of many students with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. Students may
initially be attentive, but their attention soon wanders. The
following activities will help students attend and prolong their
concentration.

Shorten the task by breaking a long task into smaller parts;

assign fewer problems—for example, fewer spelling words or
mathematics problems

Shorten homework assignments by giving fewer problems

Use distributed practice; instead of a few long and

concentrated practice sessions, set up more short, spaced,
and frequent practice sessions

Make tasks more interesting to keep students’ interest;

encourage students to work with partners, in small groups,
or in interest centers

Alternate highly interesting tasks and less interesting tasks

 Increase the novelty of the task; tasks that are new or unique
are more appealing and will increase attention

3.8b Improving the Ability to Listen

We erroneously assume that students know how to listen.
Students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
frequently miss important instructions and information because
they are not actively listening. They may even be unaware that a
message is being given. Teachers expect students not just to hear
or recognize the words that are spoken, but also to comprehend
the message. The following strategies can help students acquire
better listening skills.

Make instructions simple by using short, direct sentences;

give one instruction at a time, and repeat it as often as
necessary; make sure that students know all the vocabulary
being used.

Prompt students to repeat instructions after listening to

them; later, have the students repeat to themselves
information they have just heard to build listening and
memory skills.

Alert students by using key phrases—for example, “This is

important,” “Listen carefully,” or “This will be on the exam”;
some teachers use prearranged signals, such as hand signals
or switching the lights on or off before giving directions.

Use visual aids (such as charts, pictures, graphics, and key

points on a chalkboard or overhead transparencies) to
illustrate and support verbal information.

3.8c Adapting the Curriculum

Often the teacher can change, modify, or adapt the curriculum
without sacrificing its basic integrity. Even a small change can be
 beneficial for the student.

Select high-interest materials to reinforce the basic

curriculum; use manipulatives, or hands-on materials,
whenever possible; create activities that require active
participation, such as talking through problems and acting
out steps—many students learn better when they actually do
something in addition to just listening and observing.

Use visual aids to supplement oral and written information;

use learning aids, such as computers, calculators, and tape
recordings to increase motivation.

Accommodate test-taking, allowing students to take tests

orally instead of writing the answers; teach students how to
cross out incorrect answers on multiple-choice tests.

3.8d Help Students Manage Time

Managing time is a common problem area for many students with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. They are pulled
away from the task at hand and become involved with new
challenges. They become procrastinators, a trait they retain into
their adult lives. The following activities are designed to help
students with time management.

Students can develop a sense of time and what must be

accomplished in a given time span by making a spreadsheet,
bar chart, or pie chart with a computer to illustrate time use.

Set up a specific routine and adhere to it; when disruptions

occur, explain the situation to students, as well as
appropriate ways to respond.

During the school day, alternate activities that are done

sitting and those that involve standing and moving about.

Make lists that will help students organize their tasks; have
students check off tasks as they complete them.

Use behavior contracts that specify the amount of time

allotted for specific activities.
 Did You Get It?

Beau is diagnosed with a learning disability and has a secondary

diagnosis of acute anxiety disorder. He simply “decompensates” when
he is in a crowded room where a test is being given. Which of the
following would represent an effective and reasonable accommodation
for him?

a. A slightly easier test

b. A personalized change of venue for taking the test

c. Verbal directions instead of written

d. Dispensing altogether with formalized testing

3.9 Effective Instructional Strategies for

General Education
Effective instructional strategies for students in the general
education classroom include

1. peer tutoring,

2. explicit teaching,

3. promoting active learning,

4. scaffolded instruction,

5. executive functions, and

6. learning strategies instruction.

3.9a Peer Tutoring

Peer tutoring is a strategy for the general education classroom
in which two children work on learning tasks together. One child
 is the tutor and serves as a teacher; the other child is the tutee and
serves as the learner. The children work in pairs, so peer tutoring
supports one-to-one teaching in the general education classroom.
The peer tutor helps the tutee learn, practice, or review an
academic skill that the classroom teacher has planned. Examples
of peer tutoring tasks are saying aloud or writing spelling words,
reading sentences, or solving a mathematics problem. Types of
peer tutoring include same-age peer tutoring (in which one
student in the classroom tutors a classmate) and cross-age peer
tutoring (in which the tutor is several years older than the tutee
(Greenwood, Maheedy, & Delquardi, 2002).

Both the tutor and the tutee benefit from the peer-tutoring
experience. For the tutee, there are gains in academic
achievement. The child is able to learn more effectively from a
classmate whose thinking processes are closer to that of the child
than that of an adult. For the tutor, there are also academic
benefits because the best way to fully learn something is to teach it
to someone else. The experience also offers the tutor a sense of
accomplishment. Other advantages of peer tutoring are that the
tutor serves as a model of appropriate academic and nonacademic
behavior and the relationship between the two children provides
opportunities for establishing additional social relationships
within the classroom.

Active learning capitalizes on students’ interests and encourages active

involvement in learning.
 Michael Newman / PhotoEdit

Research consistently shows that peer tutoring is a successful and

valid strategy (Fischer, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1995; Fuchs &
Fuchs, 1998; Greenwood et al., 2002). It is also relatively easy for
teachers to implement. Peer tutoring is a practical way to provide
support for children with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities in the general education classroom, and more
importantly, children like peer tutoring.

Classwide peer tutoring is a more organized version of peer

tutoring that involves the entire class. For this activity, tutor-tutee
pairs work together on a classwide basis. At the beginning of each
week, all students are paired for tutoring, and these pairs are then
assigned to one of two competing teams. Tutees earn points for
their team by responding to the tasks presented to them by their
tutors. The winning team is determined daily and weekly on the
basis of the team with the highest point total (Greenwood, 1996;
Utley, Mortweet, & Greenwood, 1997).

3.9b Explicit Teaching

 Many students with learning disabilities need explicit teaching.
Like direct instruction, explicit teaching means that the teacher
clearly states what is to be taught and explains what needs to be
done. Students are not left to make inferences from experiences
that are unmediated by such help. In explicit instruction, students
are provided with models of appropriate methods for solving
problems or explaining relationships. They are amply supported
during the stages of the learning process, and they are provided
with adequate practice (Gersten, 1998; U.S. Department of
Education, 1997). Teaching Tips 3.3 provides some principles of
explicit teaching.

Teaching Tips 3.3 Principles of Explicit Teaching

Provide students with an adequate range of examples to exemplify a

concept or problem-solving strategy.

Provide models of proficient performance, including step-by-step

strategies (at times) or broad generic questions and guidelines that focus
attention and prompt deep processing.

Provide experiences where students explain how and why they make
decisions.

Provide frequent feedback on quality of performance and support so that

students persist in performing activities.

Provide adequate practice and activities that are interesting and

engaging.
Source: From “Recent Advances in Instructional Research for Students With Learning Disabilities:
An Overview,” by R. Gerstein, 1998, Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 75(13), pp.162–
170. Reprinted with the permission of Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

3.9c Promoting Active Learning

Learning is not a spectator sport. The importance of instruction
that promotes active learning is advanced by research in
contemporary cognitive psychology. Active learners

1. attend to instruction,
 2. attribute results to their own efforts,

3. relate tasks and materials to their knowledge and

experience, and

4. actively construct meaning during learning.

Instruction for active learning capitalizes on the child’s interests,

stresses the importance of building background knowledge prior
to teaching, and encourages the active involvement of students.
Active learning emphasizes the concept that learning and behavior
emerge from the interaction of three components:

1. the learning environment,

2. the learner, and

3. the teaching material.

Ways to promote active learning are offered in Teaching Tips 3.4,

“Guidelines for Promoting Active Learning.”

Teaching Tips 3.4 Guidelines for Promoting Active Learning

Encourage Learning emerges from the

interactive interaction of three
learning components: the
environment, the learner, and
the teaching material.
Teachers should interrelate
these three components.
Recognize the Integrate the children’s
importance of background knowledge and
prior experience experience into the learning
activities. Learning is
dependent on what children
already know.
Prepare children Preparation for learning leads
for the lesson to improved understanding,
motivation, and storage of
information. Expose children
to key concepts before they
are presented in the lesson.
Encourage active When children are actively
involvement involved in their learning,
they are more successful
 learners than when they take
a passive role in the learning
process.
Structure lessons There is a positive correlation
for success between learning, self-
concept, and positive
attitudes. Teachers should
structure lessons to provide
opportunities for children to
experience success.
Teach “learning Teachers can help children
to learn” become aware of their
strategies learning processes. For
example, asking children how
they found a solution to a
problem will assist them in
understanding the strategies
they use to learn.

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3.9d Scaffolded Instruction

Scaffolding refers to abundant teacher supports at the initial stage
of a student learning a task. An analogy is made to the scaffold
used by builders. A building scaffold is a temporary structure used
to support a building in the early stages of construction that is
removed when it is no longer needed. Similarly, in teaching the
metaphor of a scaffold describes supports that the teacher
provides for the student in the early stages of learning a task.
These supports are removed when they are no longer necessary
(Pea, 2004; Gibbons, 2002).

The concept of scaffolded instruction is often linked to

Vygotsky’s (1962) notion of the zone of proximal development
(ZPD). The term ZPD refers to the difficulty level for effective
learning; it is neither too easy nor too difficult for the child (the
“Goldilocks” approach to instruction; see the section titled
 “Developmental Psychology” in Chapter 5). Also, Vygotsky notes
that learning depends upon the social interaction of an
experienced adult (teacher) and the learner (student). The teacher
provides the support or scaffolding that the student needs during
the initial stage of learning the task (Pea, 2004; Gibbons, 2002;
Rosenshine, 1997).

For scaffolding to be successful, a child must enter an exchange

with some prior understanding of what is to be accomplished
(Pea, 2004). Examples of scaffolds include

1. simplified problems,

2. modeling of the procedures by the teacher,

3. thinking aloud by the teacher, and

4. teacher mediation to guide the student to think through the

problem.

3.9e Executive Functions

The executive functions have been called the brain’s CEO (Sousa,
2001). Executive functions are the ability to control and direct
one’s own learning. They orchestrate resources like memory,
language, and attention to achieve a goal. As a type of traffic
manager that activates, monitors, and controls a person’s actions
and learning, executive functions regulate thinking processes
(Keeley, 2006; Swanson & Sa’ez, 2003; Barkley, 2001). Examples
of executive functions are planning what one will do tomorrow,
deciding things in the environment to pay attention to, and
deciding how to respond to a challenging task. Executive functions
disorders are characterized by the situations described in
Teaching Tips 3.5.

Teaching Tips 3.5 Examples of Executive Functions

Planning and organizing

 Identifying what needs to be done

Determining the sequence of a task

Carrying out steps in an orderly way

Beginning tasks

Evaluating how one is doing

Taking feedback or suggestions

Source: Keely, 2006.

Difficulty in organizing their lives is an executive functioning

problem for many students with disabilities and related mild
disabilities. Their lack of organizational skills results in
incomplete assignments, unfinished homework, and
procrastination. Students need to learn how to plan ahead, how to
gather appropriate materials for school tasks, how to prioritize the
steps to complete an assignment, and how to keep track of their
work.

A news report of a well-organized bank robber was reported in

Kansas. The police obtained a search warrant and searched the
bank robber’s home. The police found a “to-do list” that included
the reminder “ROB A BANK.” The police were able to apprehend
the robber through the evidence in the robber’s to-do list.

Teaching Tips 3.6, “Organization Steps,” offers ways to help

students organize.

Teaching Tips 3.6 Organization Steps

Provide clear routines for placing objects—especially regularly used

objects such as books, assignments, and outdoor clothes—in designated
places so that they can be found easily

Provide students with a list of materials needed for a task; limit the list
to only those materials necessary to complete the task

Provide a schedule so that students know exactly what to do for each

class period. Use picture cues to illustrate the schedule
 Make sure students have all homework assignments before leaving
school; write each assignment on the board and have students copy it, or
write the assignment for a student in a pocket notebook

Provide students with pocket folders to organize materials—for example,

place new work on one side and completed work in chronological order
on the other. Use a different color folder for each subject

Make a to-do list. Making a to-do list is one of the key strategies for
improving executive functioning. Once students learn to depend on to-
do lists, they incorporate them into many of life’s activities. Write down
activities that the student should do, and then have the student check
each item off as it is accomplished. For example, a student could make a
written list of things to do to prepare for an upcoming test and then
check each one off as it is finished: The list might include

1. re-read the chapter to prepare for the test,

2. go over your class notes on the chapter,

3. write down the key vocabulary words often given at the end of the
chapter,

4. make an outline of the chapter using the topic headings used in the
book,

5. make flash cards of the key words, and

6. test yourself on the key words.

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3.9f Learning Strategies Instruction

Instruction in learning strategies is increasingly being used as a
teaching method for students with learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities. These students tend to be inefficient learners
because they lack systematic ways of learning, remembering, or
directing their learning. Learning strategies instruction helps
students learn the secrets of being a successful student, how to
study, how to integrate new materials with what they already
know, how to monitor their learning and problem solving, and
how to remember or to predict what is going to happen. Research
supports learning strategies as an effective way to teach students
with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities (Mainzer et
al., 2003; Swanson, 1999b).

Instruction in learning strategies helps students take charge of

their own learning; thus, they become active learners and acquire
a repertoire of learning strategies (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996).
The model for teaching learning strategies was developed at the
University of Kansas Institute for Research on Learning. There are
eight steps:

1. pretesting,

2. describing the strategy,

3. teaching modeling,

4. verbal practice,

5. controlled practice,

6. advanced practice,

7. post-testing, and

8. generalization.

Applications of learning strategies are presented in several

sections of this textbook—Chapter 5, “Theories of Learning,”
Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults With Learning Disabilities and
Related Disabilities,” and Chapter 12, “Reading Difficulties.”

The procedures for learning strategies instruction include the

following:

1. Provide elaborate explanations

2. Model learning processes

3. Provide prompts to use strategies

4. Engage in teacher-student dialogue

5. Ask process-type questions

 Did You Get It?

In both process and principle of peer-tutoring, it is generally agreed

upon that there is one primary benefactor.

a. Yes — the tutee

b. No — the tutor and tutee benefit mutually

c. Yes — the tutor

d. It depends whether the tutor is part of the school’s regular staff or

not

3.10 Task Analysis

The purpose of task analysis is to plan the sequential steps for
learning a specified skill. Task analysis breaks down the
complexity of an activity into easier steps; these steps are
organized as a sequence, and the student is taught each step of the
sequence. The goal is to move the student to the desired level of
skill achievement. The skill of buttoning, for example, entails a
sequence of component subskills: grasping the button, aligning
the button with the buttonhole, and so forth. The teacher must
consider the following:

1. What are the important, specific educational tasks that the

student must learn?

2. What are the sequential steps in learning this task?, and

3. What specific behaviors does the student need to perform

this task?

The procedures of task analysis are given in Teaching Tips 3.7,

“Steps of Task Analysis.”

Teaching Tips 3.7 Steps of Task Analysis

 Step 1

Clearly state the learning task (the behavioral objective).

Step 2

Break the learning task into the steps necessary to learn the target skill, and
place these steps into a logical teaching sequence.

Step 3

Test informally to determine the steps that the student can already perform.

Step 4

Begin teaching, in sequential order, each step of the task analysis sequence.

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The following list provides examples of the task analysis of

instruction sequences to reach a curriculum goal:

Task analysis of long division includes the steps (or

subskills) of estimating, dividing, multiplying, subtracting,
checking, bringing down the next digit, and then repeating
the process. Each step must be planned for, taught, and
assessed.

Task analysis of writing a report by using the school

library includes the skills of knowing alphabetical order,
using the card catalog (or a computer station), finding books
on a subject, using a book index to find information on a
topic, getting a main idea from reading, and knowing
language usage skills (Slavin, 2000).

Task analysis of recognizing a word might include the

skills of recognizing initial consonants, recognizing short
vowels, and blending.

Did You Get It?

Task analysis is a highly effective means and method for teaching; this
is of primary importance when teaching those students who have
disabilities. The main goal of this analysis has to do what in relation to
the task-at-hand?
 a. Making it more enjoyable

b. Lessening frustration levels of the student who is tackling it

c. Reducing the complex to the achievable

d. Teaching easy ways of doing things

3.11 Technology in the Classroom

Technology should be viewed as a tool for learning and can
supplement the specialized instruction that is being provided by
the special educator. Students enjoy using technology in the
classroom. It offers them an opportunity for active learning.
Students who are technologically savvy are eager to share their
knowledge with others. Using technology in the classroom
increases student motivation and self esteem. Students want to
learn how to use the Internet. Here are some suggested websites.

3.11a Websites
The following websites are designed for children:

http://kids.yahoo.com

http://www.coolmath4kids.com

http://www.kidsknowit.com

A popular video for teaching mathematics is that of Salman

Khan. You can find this website by going to
http://on.ted.com/SalKhan
3.11b Useful Technology for Writing and
Creating Documents
The following provide some samples of websites that
assist students in writing

Co:Writer http://www.donjohnston.com

Kidspiration http://www.kidspiration.com

PowerPoint http://office.microsoft.com/en-
us/publisher/default.aspx

Read Please! http://www.readplease.com

Smilebox for creating slideshows: http://www.smilebox.com

Voki for creating a talking avatar: http://www.voki.com

Free website creation for educators:

http://education.weebly.com

There are multiple ways that technology can be utilized within the
classroom. It can be used to support and enhance the delivery of
instruction, it can be used by students as a tool to complete
assignments, and it can be used as an effective means of
communication.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

©Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Teaching Technology Skills: An
Elementary School Lesson on PowerPoint.” In this video, young children
learn to use the technology of PowerPoint.

Questions
1. How can teachers instruct children to use computer technology?

2. What is PowerPoint?

Technology to Support and Enhance Instruction

Teachers use technology to provide instruction to students. They
may utilize PowerPoint slides or prezi to provide visuals. They
may download information about a given country. They may
utilize the Smartboard for interactive instruction. They may use
survey tools to get their students’ opinion about a given topic.

More teachers are utilizing Skype as a way to feature speakers

from other parts of the country. Some classrooms have a
relationship with a classroom from another country that they are
studying and they use Skype to have a discussion with a classroom
in Japan. Some teachers create podcasts that are short lectures
about a critical topic and the student can listen to the podcast
using her iPod or iPhone.

Voki is an online tool that allows the teacher to create a talking

avatar. The teacher creates a character, tells it what to say, and
then publishes the character with the message. This is an excellent
way to gain student attention (Elliott, 2012).

Many teachers now have webpages as part of their school’s

website and they can utilize the webpage to provide a preview of
the lecture or provide clues to a key vocabulary word that will be
in the lecture. Teachers can also create their own free website
utilizing weebly for education.

Some teachers have utilized Facebook as a way to enhance

instruction. However be advised that some schools will not allow
its use so the teacher must always check the school district’s
policy. Teachers who are allowed to use it create a separate
account and only allow their students to utilize it for specific
educational purposes. They may pose questions about a topic that
they are discussing and the students can respond.

Online discussion boards are an excellent tool for teachers to use

to post a question about what is being studied and all students are
expected to provide one or two responses to the question.

Technology as a Tool for the Student to Complete

Assignments In place of having students complete traditional
assignments such as papers or book reports, students can be
encouraged to do a podcast about a topic or they can put together
a PowerPoint presentation about a given topic. YouTube is now
available for education and students can prepare a YouTube about
a given topic.

Students can also monitor their own progress in mastering

spelling words or math facts by charting their work using a
spreadsheet.

Students can be allowed to research a given topic utilizing

technology.

For writing, students can blog utilizing such programs as

WordPress (http://www.wordpress.com).

When expecting students to complete assignments utilizing

technology, it is critical that the teacher be cognizant of whether
the student has access to technology at home. The family may not
have consistent electricity in the home or may not have consistent
internet access; if that is the case, the student will need to be
provided time to utilize school provided computers.

Technology as a Communication Tool Technology can

be utilized to post homework assignments, to post helpful hints to
students about how to complete an assignment, and to provide
 reminders to students about assignments that are due. For
parents, helpful hints can be provided about the topic that is being
discussed in class. Reminders can also be posted to parents about
important school events.

Some teachers utilize dialogue journals with their students.

Students create an e-mail specifically for school use and their
journal can be sent to the teacher on e-mail. The teacher can then
respond personally to the student.

Some teachers are texting parents or students to provide

reminders about specific activities or assignments.

The rapid changes in technology make it very important for

teachers to stay current with what is available, know what the
technology policies of the school district are, keep any use of
technology appropriate for school use, and supervise students’ use
of technology

I Have a Kid Who… THE CASE OF BECKY C. Describes the

Influence of a Clinical Teacher
Becky C. is in the first semester of third grade. In first grade, she was
completely baffled by the letters and words. Becky continued to struggle with
reading in second grade. Her reading problems are continuing in third grade.
She complains that the third grade teacher yells at her a lot. Becky is in a
general education third-grade classroom. Becky does not want to go to school
and has lost self-esteem. Becky likes art and seems to have a special talent for
drawing, cartooning, and painting.

You are the special education teacher collaborating with Becky’s general
education teacher. You believe that Becky can learn and you take on the job
of being a clinical teacher for Becky. You want to tailor learning experiences
for Becky’s unique needs.

Questions
1. What steps can you take to build Becky’s self-esteem and give her
confidence that she can learn?
 2. How can you use Becky’s talent in art to build her reading skills?

3. How can you help Becky see the progress she is making?

Did You Get It?

Technology is now an integrated and inextricable component of the

educational process. Technology can and should be regarded as all but
which of the following?

a. An adjunct

b. A surrogate

c. Supplementary

d. A partner

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Specialized instruction is at the heart of special education
and is delivered by a special educator based on the
individual needs of the student.

Clinical teaching requires tailoring learning experiences to

the unique needs of a particular student.

Differentiated instruction is required to meet the individual

needs of students with learning disabilities and related
disabilities.

One of the critical options available to teachers is to change

certain variables in the school setting: difficulty level, space,
time, and language. By modifying these elements, the
teacher controls certain variables that affect learning.

It is important to build the student’s self-confidence.

Most students with learning disabilities and related

disabilities are in general education classrooms.
 It is essential to know instructional strategies for general
education.

Task analysis involves analyzing the small sequential steps of

a specific skill.

Technology can be utilized to supplement instruction, allow

students to complete assignments, and as a communication
tool.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. What is meant by the term “specialized instruction”?

2. What is meant by clinical teaching?

3. Teachers can do little about many of the factors related to learning

disabilities. Some variables, however, can be controlled or adjusted by the
teacher. Describe and give an example of three instructional variables that
teachers can change.

4. Why is it important to consider ways to accommodate students with learning

disabilities and related disabilities in the general education classroom? Name
three ways that general education classroom teachers can make
accommodations for students.

5. Other students in the classroom may complain that it is not fair to make
modifications and accommodations for students with disabilities because the
students are not all being treated in the same way. How would you respond
to these comments?

6. Describe task analysis. Give an example of an instructional sequence (or the

steps to learning a specific skill).

Chapter Review

Key Terms
accommodations
active learning

bibliotherapy

clinical teaching

cognitive processing

differentiated instruction

direct instruction

explicit teaching

learning strategies instruction

mastery learning

multiple intelligences

peer tutoring

readiness

reasonable accommodations

scaffolded instruction

specialized instruction

task analysis

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

 Chapter

Educational
Settings and
4
the Role of
the Family

Chapter Introduction

4.1 Important Concepts About Educational Settings

4.2 Least Restrictive Environment

4.2a Inclusion

4.2b The Philosophy of Inclusion

4.2c Mainstreaming

4.2d Guidelines for Effective Inclusion

4.2e Changes in Educational Placements

4.3 Continuum of Alternative Placements

4.3a The Case for the Continuum of Alternative Placements

4.4 Types of Educational Settings

4.4a Environmental Options

4.5 Collaboration: Partnerships Between General Education Teachers

and Special Education Teachers

4.5a Collaboration

4.5b What the General Education Teacher Needs

 4.5c What the Special Education Teacher Needs

4.5d Coteaching

4.5e Strategies to Make Coteaching Work

4.6 Families and Parents

4.6a Sensitivity to the Cultural and Linguistic Diversity of

Families

4.6b Suggestions for Parents

4.6c Parents’ Rights

4.6d The Family System

4.6e Stages of Acceptance

4.6f Parent Support Groups and Family Counseling

4.6g Parent–Teacher Conferences

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit

Don’t walk behind me; I may not lead. Don’t

walk in front of me; I may not follow. Just
walk beside me and be my friend.

—Albert Camus

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

4.1
Describe important concepts about educational
settings

4.2
 Explain the least restrictive environment

4.3
Describe the continuum of alternative placements

4.4
Describe different types of educational settings

4.5
Explain collaboration partnerships between general
education and special education teachers

4.6
Describe how a student’s learning disabilities affect
families and parents.

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

These standards have been approved by the National

Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of
development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 2—Learning Environments

2.0—Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments so that individuals with
exceptionalities become active and effective learners and develop
emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

2.1—Beginning special education professionals through collaboration

with general educators and other colleagues create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments to engage individuals with
exceptionalities in meaningful learning activities and social interactions.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5—Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.5—Beginning special education professionals develop and implement a
variety of education and transition plans for individuals with
 exceptionalities across a wide range of settings and different learning
experiences in collaboration with individuals, families, and teams.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 6—Professional Learning and Ethical

Practice
6.3—Beginning special education professionals understand that diversity
is a part of families, cultures, and schools, and that complex human
issues can interact with the delivery of special education services.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 7—Collaboration

7.0—Beginning special education professionals collaborate with families,
other educators, related service providers, individuals with
exceptionalities, and personnel from community agencies in culturally
responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with exceptionalities
across a range of learning experiences.

7.1—Beginning special education professionals use the theory and

elements of effective collaboration.

7.2—Beginning special education professionals serve as a collaborative

resource to colleagues.

7.3—Beginning special education professionals use collaboration to

promote the well-being of individuals with exceptionalities across a wide
range of settings and collaborators.

The educational setting is a critical element of the assessment-

teaching process. In this chapter, we examine educational settings
for teaching students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities. We focus on the following topics:

1. important concepts about educational settings,

2. types of educational settings,

3. collaboration and promoting partnerships between general

education teachers and special education teachers, and

4. parents and families of students with disabilities.

4.1 Important Concepts About Educational

Settings
 A key decision that is made by the IEP (Individualized Education
Program) team is to determine the setting or educational
environment in which students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities will receive instruction. We discuss two
key concepts in the law that guide decisions about a student’s
educational environment:

1. the least restrictive environment (LRE) and

2. the continuum of alternative placements.

Did You Get It?

Who determines the appropriate setting where a student with learning

disabilities will undergo instruction?

a. teachers and parents together

b. the school board

c. the entire IEP team

d. teachers, parents, and the student

4.2 Least Restrictive Environment

An important provision in special education law pertaining to
educational settings is the least restrictive environment (LRE).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (IDEA-2004) calls for instructing students with disabilities
in the least restrictive environment—that is, with peers who do not
have disabilities—to the greatest extent appropriate. LRE serves as
the cornerstone of the inclusion movement.

Inclusion
4.2a

With increasing frequency, the recommended educational setting

for students with disabilities is the general education classroom,
which is often referred to as inclusion. IDEA-2004 requires that
students with disabilities receive instruction in the least restrictive
environment and that they have access to the general education
curriculum.

For effective instruction for students in general education, it is

essential to provide suitable supports for students with
disabilities.

The inclusion of students with disabilities in general education

settings continues to expand. Figure 4.1 shows that about 54% of
students with disabilities receive instruction inside the regular
class over 80% of the school day, 24% receive instruction in the
regular class for 40% to 70% of the school day, 17% receive
instruction in the regular class for less than 40% of the school day,
and 5% receive instruction in other environments.

Figure 4.1 Educational Environments for Students with

Disabilities

Source: 30th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities
Act. (2012): Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. (based in 2008 data)
4.2b The Philosophy of Inclusion
Inclusion is based on the conviction that all children with
disabilities have a right to participate in environments as close to
normal as possible and to benefit socially and academically from
being in the central school and society. The underlying philosophy
supporting inclusion is that maximum integration with typically
developing children is highly desirable and should be a major goal
(Scanlon, Gargiulo & Metcalf, 2010; Boyle & Scanlon, 2010).

The philosophical contention of inclusion includes the

normalization of children through integrated regular classes and
the elimination of labels for children with disabilities. An
additional hope for inclusion is the underlying belief that a large
part of a child’s problem would disappear by doing away with
labels (Gargiulo & Metcalf, 2010; Boyle & Scanlon, 2010).

An argument for inclusion is that successful adults with

disabilities have learned to function comfortably in society and in
the community—in an unrestricted environment composed of all
people. To promote normalization and experiences in the greater
society, inclusion aims to ensure that, to the extent appropriate,
students with disabilities have experiences in school with students
who do not have disabilities.

4.2c Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming was an early procedure in which students with
disabilities were placed selectively in a general education
classroom for instruction, when teachers believed the students
would benefit from an integrated placement. Students with
learning disabilities and other mild disabilities were carefully
integrated into general classrooms, perhaps for a single subject.
 The goal of mainstreaming was to increase slowly the amount of
time that the students would spend in the general education
classroom. The mainstreaming plan was carefully worked out and
monitored for each student by special and general education
teachers.

With mainstreaming, the starting point for the student was the
special education classroom. The student was then integrated into
a regular or general education classroom. In contrast, with
inclusion, the starting point for a student with special education
needs is the general education classroom with the student
receiving special education services either within or outside that
classroom.

4.2d Guidelines for Effective Inclusion

To make inclusion settings more effective, it is essential to provide
sufficient support through multidisciplinary teams of
professionals who mutually adjust their collective skills and
knowledge to create unique, personal programs for each student.
Ideally, all staff members should be involved in making decisions,
teaching, and evaluating the student’s needs and progress.

Effective inclusion requires that teachers

1. consider the student and the family,

2. be committed to the goals of inclusion,

3. have adequate resources and supports, and

4. engage in ongoing professional development (Salend, 2008;

Friend & Bursuck, 2006; Smith et al., 2002).

Including Students in General Education 4.1 describes some

practical strategies for Inclusion.

Including Students in General Education 4.1 Practical

 Strategies

Use a team approach. The general education classroom teacher

should use a team approach to share responsibility with special
education teachers and related professionals. General education
classroom teachers are sometimes hesitant and even fearful about
providing for the needs of special students in their classrooms and a
team approach alleviates these fears.

Provide supportive services. Students with learning disabilities and

related mild disabilities who are served in the general education
classroom often need supportive services. The special education teacher
can be helpful in obtaining and providing supportive services.

Plan for social acceptance. Many students with learning disabilities

and related mild disabilities experience difficulty in being accepted
socially by their peers in the general education classroom. By itself,
placement in a general education classroom may not lead to greater
social interaction or increased social acceptance. Social planning is
needed.

Teach students appropriate classroom behavior. Students may

have to be taught acceptable classroom behaviors. As predictors of
success in the classroom, acceptable classroom behaviors are even more
important than academic competencies. Essential behaviors for
classroom success include

1. interacting positively with other students,

2. obeying class rules, and

3. displaying proper work habits.

Use coteaching strategies. The general education teacher and the

special education teacher should use collaborative planning and teaching
in the classroom.

Professional Resource Download

4.2e Changes in Educational Placements

 As noted earlier, the inclusion movement is rapidly escalating
within our schools. The steady increase of the placement of
students with all disabilities in general education classes is
striking. In the 21 years between 1987 and 2008, the percentage of
students with learning disabilities who had only general education
class placement increased from 17% to 54% (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012).

Did You Get It?

“Least restrictive environment” is a principle put forth, championed,

and passed by which piece of legislation or governmental body?

a. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004

(IDEA-2004)

b. U.S. Supreme Court in Florence Co. School District Four v.

Shannon Carter, 510 U.S. 7, (1993)

c. No Child Left Behind Act

d. The Education for the Handicapped Children Act

4.3 Continuum of Alternative Placements

Another important concept is the continuum of alternative
placements. This provision in the law specifies that schools
should make available an array of educational settings to meet the
varied needs of students with disabilities. The placement options
include

1. general education classes,

2. resource rooms,

3. separate classes,

4. separate schools, and other types of placements as needed,

such as a
 5. residential facility, or

6. a home-bound or hospital setting.

Table 4.1 contains a brief list, with explanations, of educational

services for students with all categories of disabilities. The options
are ordered from the least restrictive to the most restrictive
environment. As noted earlier, the term least restrictive
environment refers to the concept that as much as possible
students with disabilities are educated in an environment with
students who do not have disabilities.

Table 4.1 Continuum of Alternative Placement Options

© Cengage Learning

The placement of students with disabilities with nondisabled

students in general education classes is considered the least
restrictive option. Placement in a separate class or a separate
school in which only students with disabilities are served is a more
restrictive environment. It is important that teachers not lose sight
of the continuum of placement options and the fact that some
students with learning disabilities need more than an inclusive
 setting can offer (Johns, 2003; Crockett & Kauffman, 2001;
Zigmond, 2003b, 2007).

4.3a The Case for the Continuum of

Alternative Placements
Many scholars believe that the research evidence for one special
education delivery model over another is still inconclusive
(Zigmond, 2003b, 2007). The case for the continuum of
alternative services includes the following:

Students with disabilities need intensive teaching in

small instructional groups. Many students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities need intensive,
systematic, and explicit instruction from teachers who are trained
and highly skilled in delivering such services. Moreover,
instruction for these students is most effective in a small
instructional groups, which is difficult to provide in a general
education class (Vaughn, Elbaum, & Boardsman, 2001; Zigmond,
2003a, 2007).

General and special educators should work together

to provide individualized instruction. The issue of
where students receive instruction is very complex and there are
no simple answers. It is important to recognize that the placement
or the setting is not a treatment. The setting itself is less important
than what goes on in the setting. General education teachers and
special education teachers can work together to provide
individualized instruction within a general education classroom
setting (Holloway, 2001; McLeskey et al., 2004; Murawski &
Dieker, 2004; Zigmond, 2003, 2007; Murawski & Swanson,
2002).

Many parents and professionals worry that many of

the needs of students with learning disabilities and
 related mild disabilities cannot be met in an
inclusion classroom. The reality is that labels are
indispensable in special education and that even if general
education is excellent, special education is still needed (Kauffman,
2007). Does the stigma come from the label or from the child’s
failure to learn? For example, reading disabilities would not exist
in a society that does not value literacy. The reality is, however,
that we live in a society that does value literacy, and a person who
does not know how to read suffers in this society (Kauffman &
Hallahan, 1997).

Many students with learning disabilities and related

disabilities need individualized instruction and
intensive teaching, which is difficult to provide in a
general education classroom setting. As a result,
research shows that students with learning disabilities are often
neglected (Zigmond, 2003a). The concern is that one size does not
fit all, and lumping all students with learning disabilities into the
general education classroom ignores the notion of individualized
instruction (Crockett & Kauffman, 2001; Foorman & Torgesen,
2001; Johns, 2003).

Empirical research does not identify one

educational setting as the “most effective.”
Moreover, no one educational setting is effective for all students.
What is much more important than the setting is the question,
“What kinds of instructional and learning opportunities are (or
can be) made available to students within different educational
settings?” More important than the educational setting is the kind
of instruction students receive. Students with learning disabilities
need instruction that takes into account their individual
differences, and they need explicit instruction to learn (Zigmond,
2003).

Did You Get It?

 The law applying to the continuum of alternative placements stresses
the least restrictive environment, mandating that be made
available to accommodate the needs of students with diagnosed
disabilities.

a. a single resource

b. several resources

c. an array of resources

d. unlimited resources

4.4 Types of Educational Settings

In selecting an educational setting for a particular student, the
IEP team should consider

1. the severity of the disability,

2. the student’s need for related services,

3. the student’s ability to fit into the routine of the selected

setting,

4. the student’s social and academic skills, and

5. the student’s level of schooling (primary, intermediate, or

secondary).

Teams often recommend a placement that combines elements of

several types of educational settings.

Parents must agree to the educational setting in writing. If parents

and school personnel disagree, parents can ask for mediation at no
cost to them, the school can request a “resolution session,” or the
parent may request a due process hearing (Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004).

In what types of settings are students with learning disabilities

and related mild disabilities currently receiving instruction? The
 U.S. Department of Education (2008) reported information on the
educational environments of students with disabilities in terms of
the percentage of time students were outside the general
education class. The classifications for educational environments
are: outside the general education class

1. less than 21% of the time out of the regular class, (or the
general education classroom)

2. 21–60% of the time out of the regular class (or the Resource
Room), and

3. over 60% of the time out of the regular class (or the special
class).

4.4a Environmental Options

As indicated earlier, most students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities are instructed in general education
classrooms. Data from the U.S. Department of Education (2012)
show that 87% of students with learning disabilities are in general
education classes. This number includes both students whose
educational placement is in the general education classroom only
(52%) and those students who are both in a resource room for part
of the day and in a general education classroom for the rest of the
day (35%). About 12% of students with learning disabilities receive
instruction in separate classes. A small percentage (1%) are in
other settings, such as separate schools, residential facilities, or
homebound/hospital settings (U.S. Department of Education,
2012). The various educational settings are described in this
section. Most students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities receive services through general education classrooms,
resource rooms, or special classrooms.

Sometimes a combination placement is a viable alternative for a

particular student. For example, a student could be in a special
 class for a portion of the day or the week and in a general
education classroom for the remainder of the time.

Teacher helping students.

iofoto/ iStockphoto.com

General Education Classroom As shown in Table 4.1,

students in a general education environment are outside of this
class for less than 21% of the day for special education and related
services (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). The general
education classroom is considered the least restrictive
environment in terms of being with students who do not have
disabilities. Effective integration of students with disabilities into
the general education classroom requires careful planning, teacher
preparation, team effort, and a complete support system. Mere
physical placement in a general education classroom is not enough
to ensure academic achievement or social acceptance. Students
with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities have specific
needs that require targeted and specialized instruction and
attention.
 Ideally, general and special educators share responsibility for
teaching. The special educator may collaborate with the general
education classroom teacher, provide materials for the student, or
actually teach the student within the general education classroom.
The general education classroom teacher must also have the skills,
knowledge, and willingness to work with students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities.

The composition of students in today’s general

education classroom is changing dramatically. The
general education classroom is likely to include the
following: most students in the general education classroom do
not have disabilities, some students in general education
classrooms have disabilities that have been identified through an
IEP, some students who do not have an IEP but are eligible to
receive accommodation may have a Section 504 Plan (see the
example of a Section 504 plan in Figure 4.2), some students in the
general education classroom have suspected but undiagnosed
disabilities, and some students in the general education classroom
may be English-language learners (ELL) and have limited English
proficiency. Thus, the general education classroom today has
many different types of students with special needs. The
percentage of students with disabilities in general education
classrooms is increasing, while the percentage in other settings is
decreasing.

Figure 4.2 Section 504 Plan for Students in General Education

 © Cengage Learning

Resource Room Students in a resource room are outside of

the general education environment for 21% to 60% of the day for
special education and related services (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012). A resource room is an educational setting
that provides educational services to students with disabilities on
a regularly scheduled basis for part of the day. Students spend the
remainder of the school day in a general education classroom. The
resource room offers flexibility in terms of the curriculum offered,
the time students spend in the program, the number of students
served, and the teacher’s time. As noted in Figure 4.1, the
percentage of students receiving resource room instruction is
decreasing.

Care must be taken in scheduling students for a resource room

session. For example, if the pupil enjoys physical education, the
teacher should avoid preempting this period for the resource room
session. In addition, the classroom teacher must be consulted
about the optimum time for the student to leave the classroom.
Resource rooms should be pleasant and have an abundant supply
of materials. Because students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities often have short attention spans, it is wise
to provide a change of pace by planning several activities during a
teaching session.

Separate Class Students in a separate class are outside the

general education environment for more than 60% of the day for
special education and related services (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012). The separate class within the school was one of
the first placements used in the public schools to provide
education to students with disabilities. Separate classes are
typically small, containing about 6 to 15 students at a time. The
separate class offers the opportunity for highly individualized and
closely supervised intensive instruction. Even with the growing
inclusion movement, the percentage of students with learning
disabilities placed in special classes is about 12%.

Some separate classes are categorical (consisting only of students

with one category of disability (such as learning disabilities);
others are cross-categorical (consisting of students with various
mild or moderate disabilities). Often schools cluster the categories
of learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, or mental
retardation in special classes.

Separate classes are beneficial for certain students who appear to

have a better self-concept than similar students in general
education classrooms, possibly because regular class competition
sets achievement criteria that these students cannot meet. With its
lower teacher–pupil ratio, separate classes can offer more
intensive individualized instruction in which students spend more
time learning. The separate classroom may provide the most
appropriate setting for the kind of intensive and comprehensive
intervention needed by students with the most serious and severe
learning difficulties.

Separate School Often private (but sometimes publicly

supported) separate schools are special educational facilities
established specifically for students with disabilities. Some
students attend the separate school full time. Other students
attend the separate school only half a day and may spend the
balance of the school day in the public school.

The disadvantages of separate schools include the high expense to

parents, the traveling distance, and the lack of opportunity to be
with students in the general education population. The advantages
of separate schools are that they often serve students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities well, and they sometimes
provide the only feasible option for certain students. Successful
pilot programs are often developed at separate schools, which are
then used in other settings.

Residential Facility Full-time placement for students away

from their homes can be provided by residential facilities. The
students receive education in a public or private residential
facility. Relatively few students have disabilities that are severe
enough to warrant such placement. However, in some cases—if
the community lacks adequate alternative facilities, if the
behavioral manifestations are extremely severe, or if the
emotional reaction among other members of the family is
debilitating—residential placement on a 24-hour basis may be the
best solution for both the student and the family.

The disadvantages of residential facilities are that they remove the

student from home and neighborhood and provide fewer
opportunities for social experiences in the larger community.
However, for certain youngsters, residential placements become
the most appropriate choice, and they have successfully helped
many students learn, adjust to the world, and achieve very
rewarding careers and lives.

Homebound or Hospital Setting Students in homebound

or hospital settings often have a medical condition requiring these
placements. Often the school sends teachers to the home or
hospital settings to provide instruction.
One-to-One Instruction The type of instruction known as
one-to-one instruction occurs when one adult works with one
student. It is not an educational environment identified in IDEA-
2004. The research shows that it can lead to substantial
improvement in student achievement. One-to-one instruction
works because the teaching is highly individualized, and the
student receives intensive instruction over a period of time by a
skilled teacher who can tailor the instruction to the specific
student needs. Sometimes students need one-to-one instruction,
and they tend to do well with this individualized instruction
(Slavin, 2000; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000).

In the real world, of course, the cost for schools to provide a

teacher for each student is impractical, so parents must often turn
to private specialists or clinics to receive this highly individualized
form of instruction. Therefore, it is important for schools to seek
ways to get as close as possible to one-to-one instruction (Slavin,
2009). Methods for providing individualized instruction include
using computer instruction and aides and volunteers as tutors in
the classroom. Aides or volunteers must be supervised by an
appropriately certified teacher.

Computers offer a way to individualize teaching. A good computer

software program is like a tutor because it presents the
information, gives students abundant practice, assesses their level
of understanding, and provides additional information if it is
needed. Computer programs can be quite effective in presenting
ideas and in using pictures or graphics to reinforce concepts.
Because most students are motivated by the computer, they will
work longer and harder than they will with paper-and-pencil
tasks. Students utilizing computer programs must be monitored
closely to ensure that they are actually working on the designated
program and are benefiting from it.

Using aides and volunteers offers another procedure to

approximate one-toone instruction. The volunteer movement is
 alive and growing. Some 60 reading and literacy groups, such as
Literacy Volunteers of America and the Laubach Program,
support one-to-one programs, using volunteer adult tutors.
Moreover, research demonstrates that tutoring works by
increasing a student’s reading achievement, confidence, and
motivation, in addition to providing a sense of control of the
student’s reading ability. Even when a student receives the very
best in-class instruction, some students still require extra time
and assistance to meet the high levels of reading skills needed in
school, in the workplace, and throughout life. Tutors can provide
the explicit instruction that produces positive results (Center for
the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, 1998; Snow,
Burns, & Griffin, 1998a). Tutoring is especially critical during long
school breaks, such as summer vacation. Research shows that
during these vacation periods, students lose many skills they have
learned (Wasik, 1998). Tutoring should be conducted by a well-
trained individual who coordinates efforts with the classroom
teacher and who gears instruction based on the individualized
needs of the student as delineated by the IEP. When teacher aides
or volunteers are used, it is important to remember that the
teacher is the one who is responsible for planning the instruction
for the student. The aide or volunteer must work under the
supervision of a teacher who is knowledgeable about how to
deliver the specialized instruction needed by the student.

Did You Get It?

When a parent or guardian does not agree with the planned-for

educational setting—for any reason whatsoever—he or she can take
steps to resolve an impasse. Which step or right is inaccurate in
relation to this process?

a. A parent or guardian must agree in writing to the proposed

placement

b. A parent or guardian can request a resolution session

c. A parent or guardian can request a no-cost mediation session

 d. The parent or guardian may request a due-process hearing

4.5 Collaboration: Partnerships Between

General Education Teachers and
Special Education Teachers
As a greater number of students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities receive their instruction in general
education classrooms, procedures that promote partnerships
between general education and special education teachers become
especially important. For successful inclusion of students, it is
important to find ways to facilitate a team effort.

4.5a Collaboration
Collaboration is a style of interaction that provides a way for
individuals or groups to work together. Through collaboration,
two or more individuals interact in a supportive manner that
benefits each member, as well as the people they are supporting.
The process of collaboration involves people with diverse areas of
expertise (such as classroom teachers, special education teachers,
and related professions) who work together to find creative
solutions to mutually defined problems. Collaboration is essential
for effective inclusion (Friend & Cook, 2010; Walther-Thomas,
Korinek, & McLaughlin, 2000). Successful collaboration requires
the following ingredients (Friend & Cook, 2010):

Mutual goals

Voluntary participation

Equality among participants

 Shared responsibility for participation and decision making

Shared responsibility for outcomes

Shared resources

Some principles and strategies for effective collaboration are given

in Teaching Tips 4.1, “Effective Collaboration.”

Teaching Tips 4.1 Effective Collaboration

Principles for Collaboration Activities That Work

Establish common goals ✓ Develop a relationship

Successful partners share mutual ✓ Engage in small-scale efforts initially

goals and a common philosophy. ✓ Develop common perceptions

Participation should be ✓ Involve key stakeholders

voluntary

Collaboration cannot be forced by ✓ Invite participation

directives from superiors. Individuals
must take mutual responsibility for a
problem and freely seek solutions.

Recognize equality among ✓ Use names, not titles, when

participants interacting

Each person’s contribution is equally ✓ Rotate and share team roles

valued. Each person has equal
✓ Structure ways to facilitate participation
power in decision making.

Share responsibility for ✓ Share perspectives about the

participation and decision problem
making

Each person should share the ✓ Balance between coordination of tasks

responsibility for participation and and division of labor
decision making. ✓ Brainstorm before decision making

✓ Establish clear delineation of agreed

upon actions as follow-up procedures

Share accountability for ✓ Acknowledge risks and potential

outcomes failure
 Principles for Collaboration Activities That Work

Everyone shares, whether the ✓ Celebrate success together

outcome is successful or not. If the
✓ Learn from the failure together
outcome is successful, they share
the credit. When it is unsuccessful,
they share responsibility for the
failure.

Share resources ✓ Identify respective resources

Each person has resources to ✓ Use joint decision making about

contribute. resource allocation

Professional Resource Download

4.5b What the General Education Teacher

Needs

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Inclusion: Classroom

Implications for the General and Special Educator.” In this video, a general
education teacher in a classroom receives support from special education
specialists. This video shows the work of occupational and speech therapists
with students in the general education classroom.

Questions
1. Based upon what you read in the chapter, do you find the classroom
profiled within this video case to be an effective inclusion classroom?
Give some specific examples of its effectiveness.

2. How can an educational therapist help students with learning

disabilities and related mild disabilities?

The responsibilities of the general education classroom teacher

are increasing as the inclusion movement continues to expand.
Classroom teachers today are accountable for a wider range of
students, including more children with disabilities and other
special needs. What kinds of supports should be provided for
general education teachers who are responsible for inclusion?

Participation in the IEP. The Individuals with

Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 requires
that general education classroom teachers be part of the
individualized education program (IEP) team. Being on the
IEP team helps classroom teachers understand the
problems, strengths, and needs of students with disabilities.

Reduced class size. Having many students with special

needs in a general education classroom makes the teaching
task more difficult. A smaller class size could help teachers
cope with this added responsibility.

Time for planning. Time should be allocated during the

school day for general education classroom teachers to plan
with the special education teacher and other professionals
for meeting the needs of students with disabilities.

Paraprofessionals. Paraprofessional personnel and aides

in the classroom can help general education classroom
teachers meet the needs of each student.

Volunteers. Many schools are successful in attracting

volunteers to help in the classroom. Senior citizens and
 volunteers from business organizations sometimes can be
recruited to assist.

Collaboration with special educators. Special

educators should be available to help general education
classroom teachers solve problems, discuss issues, and
manage the many situations that they confront in the
classroom.

Continuum of alternative placements. Some students

with special needs will require more than the inclusive,
general education classroom can offer. For these students,
other placement options, such as the resource room or
special classes, are needed.

Availability of related professionals. The IEP may

indicate that the services of related professionals, such as
speech-language experts or occupational therapists, are
needed for a student. It is important that such services be
provided.

Opportunities for learning. General education

classroom teachers need to be supported when seeking
additional training by attending conferences, seminars,
workshops, or learning activities.

4.5c What the Special Education Teacher

Needs
The responsibilities of special educators and learning disabilities
teachers are difficult to define because they are changing so
rapidly. Special education teachers are expected to wear many
hats because they are responsible for

1. setting up programs to identify, assess, and instruct

students;

2. participating in the screening, assessment, and evaluation of

students;

3. collaborating with general education classroom teachers to

design and implement instruction;
 4. knowing both formal assessment measures and alternate
assessment methods;

5. participating on IEP teams;

6. implementing the IEP through direct intervention,

coteaching, and collaboration;

7. interviewing and holding conferences with parents; and,

perhaps most important,

8. helping students to develop self-understanding and to gain

the hope and the confidence that is necessary to cope with
and to overcome their learning disabilities.

To accomplish these goals, effective special education teachers

need to have two different kinds of competencies:

1. competencies in professional knowledge and skills (having

the information and proficiencies for testing and teaching)
and

2. competencies in human relationships (the art of working

with people).

4.5d Coteaching
Coteaching occurs when two or more teachers deliver
instruction to a diverse group of students in a general education
classroom. Coteaching between general educators and special
educators has become a common method for delivering
instruction to all students in a general education classroom. The
teaching is shared by all teachers involved. Coteaching can be
mutually satisfying, but the teachers must be willing to share and
accept responsibility. In fact, coteaching has been likened to a
marriage. To be successful, the teachers have to make a 100%
effort (Friend & Cook, 2010; Friend & Bursuck, 2002; Gately &
Gately, 2001). There are several types of coteaching, and they are
described in Table 4.2.
 Table 4.2 Types of Coteaching

Type Description

One teaches, one supports One teacher has primary instructional

responsibility. The other teacher serves in a
One group: One lead teacher, one
supportive teacher
supportive role (e.g., observes, tutors,
manages behavior)

Station supportive teaching Divide the content into two parts; then divide
the groups into two groups (A and B).
Two groups: Each teacher teaches
one group
Teacher 1 teaches half of the content to
Group A, while Teacher 2 teaches the rest of
the content to Group B. Then the groups
switch. Teacher 2 teaches the rest of the
content to Group A, and Teacher 2 teaches
the rest of the content to Group B

Parallel teaching Each teacher instructs half of the class. Both

teachers use the same instructional materials.
Two groups, two teachers: Each
teacher teaches one-half of the class
Teachers may differ in their instructional
styles. Essentially, the class is smaller, so
students have more opportunities to
participate

Alternative teaching The class is divided into two groups—a large

group and a small group. One teacher
Two groups: One small, one large
teaches the large group; one teacher teaches
the small group. More intensive and direct
instruction is usually used in the small group

Team teaching Both teachers are equally engaged in the

instructional activities. For example, Teacher
Both teachers share leadership in
teaching the group
1 may begin the lesson by introducing
vocabulary while Teacher 2 provides
examples to place the words in context

© Cengage Learning

4.5e Strategies to Make Coteaching Work

The following activities can help promote the spirit of coteaching.
 Make time for coteaching activities. Productive work
requires space, time, and the assurance of uninterrupted
sessions. If planning, communicating, and evaluating are not
specifically scheduled, there will be insufficient time in the
busy school day for these purposes.

Recognize that the skills in coteaching and

collaboration are learned through developmental
processes. Coteachers must go through developmental
stages as they learn to understand each other and to work
together.

Use coaching strategies. Coaching is a way to help

students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities. The special education teacher might take on the
role of a coach, giving instructions or demonstrating a
specific skill, while the general education classroom teacher
learns the skill. The coteachers then decide on the skills that
they wish to teach.

Encourage open communication. Communication is

key to coteaching. If problems are allowed to persist without
an opportunity for face-to-face communication,
dissatisfaction increases and misunderstandings develop. To
avert such situations, oral and written communication must
be clear. Effective coteachers are active listeners; they are
sensitive to the contributions and ideas of others and
recognize nonverbal messages. In addition, effective
coteachers give and ask for continuous feedback; they are
willing to say “I don’t know,” and they also give credit to
others, when applicable.

One example of how two teachers share classroom responsibilities

cooperatively is given in the Teaching Tips 4.2, “Strategies for Two
Teachers Working Together.”

Teaching Tips 4.2 Strategies for Two Teachers Working

Together

Activities of Teacher 1 Activities of Teacher 2

✓ Lecturing to the class ✓ Writing notes of key ideas on the

board during the lecture
 Activities of Teacher 1 Activities of Teacher 2

✓ Giving instructions orally ✓ Writing instructions on the board

✓ Giving instructions orally ✓ Checking for understanding with a

small group or individual students

✓ Checking for understanding with ✓ Working with the other half of the
the large group class in preparing for a debate

✓ Working with one half of the class ✓ Providing suggestions for

in preparing for a debate modifications, accommodations, and
diverse learners

✓ Creating basic lesson plans for ✓ Reviewing homework with small

standards, objectives, and content groups
curriculum

✓ Providing large group instruction ✓ Providing modifications

✓ Providing enrichment activities

Source: Adapted from “Tips and strategies for coteaching at the secondary level,” by W.
Murawski & L Dieker, 2004, Teaching Exceptional Children , 36, p. 56. Reprinted with permission
of the Council for Exceptional Children.

Did You Get It?

Linda, a general educator, and Eduardo, a special educator, are

teachers in the same diverse general education class and share equal
time as main instructor to address the needs of students with and
without special needs. Linda and Eduardo are

a. paraprofessionals

b. team teachers

c. parallel teachers

d. dual educators

4.6 Families and Parents

Children with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
claim a tremendous emotional toll on parents. Families and
parents face many of the same problems as teachers do, but in
greatly magnified intensity. The child is in school for a few hours a
day in a limited and controlled situation; but, for families and
parents, their responsibility encompasses 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week, with no vacations, in all types of situations, and with all
types of demands.

It is important for school personnel to consider the strengths of

the family. Involvement of parents and families through family–
school collaboration is encouraged by informal communication,
such as written notes between school and home, parental
involvement in the classroom and in extracurricular activities,
face-to-face conferences, telephone contact, and e-mail messages
(Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank, & Smith, 2004).

Parents can play a crucial role in helping their child. They must

1. be informed consumers, continually working to learn more

about the problem of learning disabilities;

2. be assertive advocates, seeking the right programs for their

child at home, in school, and in the community;

3. work to ensure that their child’s legal rights are being

recognized; and

4. be firm in managing their child’s behavior while remaining

empathetic to their child’s feelings, failures, fears, and
tribulations.

Parents must also give time and attention to other members of the
family and try to make a life for themselves.

Parenting a child with disabilities is challenging, but it can also be

rewarding. Parents need support from the school, the extended
family, and other professionals. With this support,
encouragement, and the sharing of expertise, the child can emerge
 from the school years academically, emotionally, and socially
intact, as well as prepared for the challenges ahead.

There are no easy answers or simple solutions for parents of

children with disabilities. The feature Student Stories 4.1,
“Parents’ Thoughts,” offers several accounts of the parent’s role in
helping their child.

Student Stories 4.1 Parents’ Thoughts

All during the evaluation process, I continued to search for a school for
Allegra. I applied to many schools in the city, and one by one they
rejected her. It was the same each time, a voice on the phone telling
me, “She doesn’t belong here.” With each rejection came a deeper sense
of despair. As the list grew shorter, my despair began to be overcome
by something close to panic.

I was frightened. I didn’t know what to do. What in the world can
anyone do if a child is denied a basic education? Her future was falling
apart before my eyes. I knew the only chance she stood of making it in
this world was to find a school, any school, that would accept her; yet,
with each one I continued to hear, “She doesn’t belong here.”

My son has a learning disability…. I remember his coming home from

first grade and crying over his reader. He could not decode! The only
way he managed to get through first grade was to memorize the readers
he brought home. He accomplished this by going over and over them
with me. I don’t think his teacher was ever aware that he memorized.

Teacher comments were predictable: “He is just immature.” “He could

do it if he would just try.” “He’s just sloppy because he rushes through
his work.” “He’s just lazy.” If only they had been with him as he cried
over his homework.

No one would accuse Kerri … of lacking smarts or motivation. The …

fifth grader has an IQ of 118 and enthusiasm to spare. Un fortunately,
she’s never had an aptitude for linking letters to sounds. She recognizes
many words by their appearance on the page, but at 11, she still can’t
spell or write. Common sense says she’s dyslexic. But, (by the standards
set in her state) Kerri is not entitled to special help. It’s sad. She may
waste her time in school until she fails badly enough to qualify as
learning disabled.
 Reflective Question
1. What are some common themes in the above stories?

Source: From Laughing Allegra (p. 40), by A. Ford, 2003, New York: New Market Press
Source: From “A mother’s thoughts on inclusion,” by M. Carr, 1993, Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 26(9), 590.
Source: From Overcoming dyslexia (p. 29), by S. Shaywitz, 2003, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

4.6a Sensitivity to the Cultural and

Linguistic Diversity of Families
In the process of interacting with families, teachers
should strive to be responsive to cultural views and
attitudes about disabilities. Teachers should realize
that there are cultural differences in attitudes about
communication, personal space, eye contact, wait time, tone of
voice, and touching. Teachers should be sensitive to these issues in
interacting with families (Lerner, Lowenthal, & Egan, 2003).

4.6b Suggestions for Parents

Some useful things parents can do are presented in Teaching Tips
4.3, “Suggestions for Parents and Families.”

Teaching Tips 4.3 Suggestions for Parents and Families

1. Be alert to what your child is good at or likes to do. By

discovering an area of interest or a talent, you can give your child a new
chance for success. Even small tasks, such as folding napkins or helping
with specific kitchen chores, can give your child a sense of achievement.

2. Do not push your child into activities for which the child is not
ready. The child may react by trying halfheartedly to please you;
rebelling, either actively or passively; or just quitting or withdrawing into
a world of daydreams. When a child is forced to meet arbitrary and
 inappropriate standards imposed by the adult world, learning becomes
painful rather than pleasurable.

3. Simplify family routine. For some children, mealtime can be an

extremely complex and stimulating situation. Your child may be unable
to cope with the many sounds, sights, smells, and so on. It may be
necessary at first to have the child eat earlier and then gradually join the
family meal—perhaps starting with dessert. Search for other such
examples in your routines.

4. Try to match tasks to the child’s level of functioning. Think

about the child’s problem and find some way to help. For example, easy-
to-wipe surfaces and break-proof containers can reduce mess and
breakage when the child uses these materials. Drawing an outline of the
child’s shoes on the closet floor can indicate left and right.

5. Be direct and positive in talking to your child. Try to avoid

criticizing; instead, be supportive and provide guidance. For example, if
your child has trouble following directions, ask him or her to look at you
while you speak and then to repeat what you have said.

6. Keep the child’s room simple and in a quiet part of the house.
As much as possible, make the room a place to relax and retreat.

7. Help your child learn how to live in a world with others. When
a child does not play well with other children, parents may have to go out
of their way to plan and guide social experiences. This may mean inviting
a single child to play for a short period of time, arranging with parents of
other children for joint social activities, or volunteering to be a girl scout
leader or boy scout leader.

8. Children need to learn that they are significant. They must be

treated with respect and allowed to do their own work. They should learn
that being a responsible and contributing member of the family is
important—probably more important than learning the academic skills
demanded by the school.

9. Keep your outside interests. Try to relinquish your child’s care to a

competent babysitter periodically. Parents need time off for
independence and morale boosting.

Professional Resource Download

Teachers may also wish to recommend reading materials to

parents to help them become better acquainted with learning
 disabilities and with ways of helping their children. Table 4.3 lists
a selection of appropriate books and websites for parents.

Table 4.3 Books and Websites for Parents and Families

Books

Barkley, R. (1995). Taking charge of ADHD: The complete authoritative

guide for parents. New York: Guilford Press.

Ford, A. (2003). Laughing Allegra. New York: New Market Press.

Goldstein, S., & Mather, N. (1998). Overcoming underachievement: An action

guide to helping your child succeed in school. New York: John Wiley.

Hall, S., & Moats, L. (1999). Straight talk about reading: How parents can
make a difference during the early years. Chicago: Contemporary Press.

Lavoie, R. (2005). It’s so much work to be your friend: helping the child with
learning disabilities find social success. New York: Simon and Schuster, A
Touchstone Book.

Lerner, J., Lowenthal, B., & Lerner, S. (1995). Attention deficit disorders:
Assessment and teaching. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Osman, B. (1997). Learning disability and ADHD: A family guide to learning

and learning together. New York: John Wiley.

Silver, L. (2006). The misunderstood child: A guide for parents of children

with learning disabilities. New York: Three Rivers Press. Crown Publishing.

Smith, S. (1991). Succeeding against the odds: Strategies and insights from
the learning-disabled. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher.
Websites

Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:

http://www.chadd.org

Learning Disabilities Association of America: http://www.ldaamerica.org

Schwab Learning: http://www.schwablearning.org

© Cengage Learning

4.6c Parents’ Rights

 IDEA-2004 strengthens the rights of parents and families in the
educational process of their children. A fundamental provision of
the law is the right of parents to participate in the educational
decision-making process. Parents have the right to:

A free, appropriate public education for their child

Request an evaluation of their child

Notification whenever the school wants to evaluate their

child or change the child’s educational placement

Informed consent (parents understand and agree in writing

to teaching plans and may withdraw their consent at any
time)

Obtain an independent evaluation of their child

Request a reevaluation of their child

Have their child tested in the language that the child knows
best

Review all of their child’s school records

Participate in their child’s individualized education program

(IEP) or individualized family service plan (IFSP) for young
children

Be informed of their child’s progress at least as often as

parents of children who do not have disabilities

4.6d The Family System

A family of five is like five people lying on a waterbed. Whenever
one person moves, everyone feels the ripple (Lavoie, 1995).

It is useful to view the family as a system. The fundamental idea of

the family systems theory is that whatever happens to one part of
a family or system affects all the other parts. In the family system,
all members of the extended family are interdependent, and each
member has an interactive effect on all other members. The family
system involves the child, parents, siblings, grandparents, other
 people living in the home, or those who are part of the child’s
family.

The entire family system is affected by a child with learning

disabilities or with related mild disabilities. Day-to-day living can
be stressful from the start. As infants, these children may be
irritable, demanding, and difficult to soothe, which can make
parents feel incompetent, confused, and helpless. As the child
enters school and begins to face learning failure, the parents may
have feelings of guilt, shame, or embarrassment. As they become
frustrated, they may blame each other for their child’s problems.
One parent may accuse the other of being too strict or too lenient
in raising their child, putting extra strain on the marital
relationship. Siblings and other family members are also affected
when a brother or sister has learning disabilities. The siblings may
be embarrassed or feel angry or jealous if their parents pay more
attention to the sibling with learning disabilities. For these
reasons, it is necessary in some cases to include the entire family
in the treatment process, with counseling for the family system as
an important part.

Parents can play a critical role in helping their child.

 © Jonathan Nourok/Photo Edit

4.6e Stages of Acceptance

When parents are faced with the quandary of a child with a
disability, they are likely to pass through a series of predictable
stages of acceptance (Kübler-Ross, 1969; Lavoie, 1995). These
stages are universal and apply to anyone who experiences a loss.
In this case, the parents have lost their hope for a normal child.

Some parents go through a mourning process when first told that

their child has learning disabilities. The stages in the process are
shock, disbelief, denial, anger, bargaining, and acceptance. For
each parent, the number of stages or the length of time spent in
each stage is different. Often, too, the parent returns to an earlier
stage.

Shock is the numb, distancing feeling that engulfs the

parents when the bad news is being delivered.

Disbelief is the stage in which parents do not believe the

diagnosis.

Denial is a stage in which parents refuse to even consider

that the child has a disability and seeks an alternative
diagnosis. Some examples of statements of denial include
“There’s nothing wrong,” “That’s the way I was as a child—
not to worry,” and “He’ll grow out of it.”

Anger occurs as the denial breaks down and the child’s

condition becomes more real and apparent. Angry feelings
are exhibited when parents say things like “Why did this
happen to me?” or “It isn’t fair,” “The teachers don’t know
anything,” or “I hate the neighborhood, this school, and this
teacher.”

Bargaining is evident when the parent decides that

dedication will somehow alleviate their child’s condition. For
example, they may say, “Maybe the problem will improve if
we move.”

Acceptance is the stage at which the parents can look past

the disability and accept the child as he or she is. A stage
beyond acceptance is to cherish the child for those
differences and for how that child has made the parents’
lives better.

This roller coaster of emotions has a profound impact upon the

parent and upon interactions with the child. Because the two
parents will probably not go through these stages at the same
time, each parent must learn to respect the other’s right to travel
through the stages at a different rate.

The goal is to reach acceptance so that the parent is able to make

decisions that are unclouded by undue emotion. When parents
accept their child along with their child’s disabilities, they are then
able to provide for the child’s special needs while continuing to
 live a normal life and tending to family, home, civic, and social
obligations.

4.6f Parent Support Groups and Family

Counseling
Establishing healthy parental attitudes and ensuring parent–
teacher cooperation are, of course, desirable goals. Parent support
groups and family counseling can help in meeting these goals.

Parent support groups offer parents a way to meet regularly in

small groups to discuss common problems. They can be organized
by the school, family service organizations, professional
counselors, or parent organizations, such as the Learning
Disabilities Association (LDA). The opportunity to meet with
other parents whose children are encountering similar problems
tends to reduce the parents’ sense of isolation. Furthermore, such
parent support groups have been useful in alerting the
community, school personnel, other professionals, and legislative
bodies to the plight of their children. To find local parent groups,
see the LDA website at http://www.ldaamerica.org.

Parent support groups and family counseling offer the following

benefits:

Help parents to understand and to accept their child’s

problem

Reduce anxieties stemming from apprehension about the

psychological and educational development of their child;
parents can discover that they are not alone and that other
parents have similar problems and have found solutions

Help parents realize that they are an integral part of their

child’s learning, development, and behavior; they can learn
to perceive their children differently and to deal with their
problems more effectively
 Help parents learn about discipline, communication skills,
behavioral management, parent advocacy, special education
legislation, social skills development, helping one’s child
make friends, home management, and college and
vocational opportunities

4.6g Parent–Teacher Conferences

Parent–teacher conferences are a bridge between the home and
school. Both parents and teachers tend to shy away from these
private conferences, parents fearing what they will hear and
teachers fearing that parents will react negatively. Yet, these
conferences, at which the student’s progress and problems are
discussed, should be viewed as an opportunity to help the student.
Parents and teachers can work together to enhance progress.

In setting up a conference, teachers should reassure parents that

they are going to communicate with someone who cares about
their child. Teachers must impart a sense of confidence without
being arrogant and should convey a sincere interest in the student
and respect for the parents. Parents also want to know what they
can do at home.

Did You Get It?

Although most parents ostensibly have unconditional love for their

children, you would be irresponsible to minimize the “ ” toll that
children with disabilities can place on their parents.

a. financial

b. emotional

c. devastating

d. abusive
I Have a Kid Who… BERNICE and a Coteaching Team
Bernice, age 9, is in fourth grade in the general education class. Bernice’s IEP
indicates that she has learning disabilities, and her IEP has goals for
improving her reading fluency. Ms. George is her general education teacher,
and Mr. Peters is the special education teacher who works in Bernice’s class.
Ms. George and Mr. Peters have formed a collaborative arrangement to work
with students who have special needs. Whereas Ms. George works with most
of the class in a large group, Mr. Peters works with students who require
special attention in a small group in the class. Several other students in the
fourth grade need help in developing reading fluency. Mr. Peters has a group
of 4 students in the general education class who need help in building skills
in reading fluency.

Mr. Peters plans to use these strategies for building reading fluency with this
small group in the general education class: repeated reading, using
predictable books, choral reading, and the neurological impress method.

Questions
1. How can Mr. Peters use repeated reading with his small group of
students?

2. How can Bernice benefit from the neurological impress method?

3. What read-along technology could Mr. Peters use?

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Important concepts about educational settings

The least restrictive environment

Continuum of alternative placements

Types of educational settings

Collaboration: Partnerships between general and regular

educators
 Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Discuss two key concepts about educational settings that are features of the
special education law. Do you think these two features are compatible or in
conflict? Explain your position.

2. Discuss some of the recent trends in educational settings. How do you think
these trends will affect students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities?

3. Describe the advantages and shortcomings of the inclusion placement model.

4. Compare and contrast the three most common educational settings for
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities.

5. Discuss activities for coteaching between the special education teacher and
the general education teacher.

6. Discuss the various needs of the general education teacher and the special
education teacher.

Chapter Review

Key Terms
collaboration

continuum of alternative placements

coteaching

educational setting

general education classroom

one-to-one instruction
parent support groups

residential facilities

resource room

separate class

separate schools

stages of acceptance
 Chapter

Theories of
Learning
5

Chapter Introduction

5.1 The Role of Theory and Theories of Learning

5.2 Developmental Psychology

5.2a Developmental Variations

5.2b Piaget’s Maturational Stages of Development

5.2c Stages of Learning

5.2d Implications of Developmental Psychology for Learning

Disabilities and Related Disabilities

5.3 Behavioral Psychology

5.3a The Behavioral Unit

5.3b Functional Behavioral Assessment and Positive Behavioral

Support

5.3c Direct Instruction

5.3d Behavioral Analysis

5.3e Implications of Behavioral Psychology for Learning

Disabilities and Related Disabilities

5.4 Cognitive Psychology

5.4a Cognitive Processing

5.4b The Information-Processing Model of Learning

5.5 Cognitive Learning Theories

 5.5a Cognitive Learning Strategies

5.5b Metacognition

5.5c Implications of Cognitive Psychology for Teaching

5.6 Learning Strategies Instruction

5.6a Learning Strategies

5.6b The Social Interactions of Learning

5.6c Interactive Dialogues

5.6d Implications of Learning Strategies Instruction

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Brian Mitchell/Corbis

Theories are working concepts to be modified

in the light of new knowledge. Those who
teach without theories may follow the road
that leads nowhere.

—John Dewey

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

5.1
Explain the role of theory and theories of learning

5.2
 Describe the importance of developmental
psychology

5.3
Describe the importance of behavioral psychology

5.4
Describe the importance of cognitive psychology

5.5
Explain the importance of cognitive learning theories

5.6
Explain learning strategies instruction

Part III examines underlying theories and new directions in the

fields of learning disabilities and related disabilities. The topics in
Part III include key theories of learning (Chapter 5); social,
emotional, and behavioral challenges (Chapter 6); autism
spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) (Chapter 7); young children with disabilities (Chapter 8);
adolescents and adults with learning disabilities and related
disabilities (Chapter 9); and special education law (Chapter 10).

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

CEC Initial Level Special Educator Preparation

Standards as approved by the National Council for the Accreditation
of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.
 1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of
development and individuals differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.1—Beginning special education professionals understand the central
concepts, structures of the discipline, and tools of inquiry of the content
areas they teach and can organize this knowledge, integrate cross-
disciplinary skills, and develop meaningful learning progressions for
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s
abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.5—Beginning special education professionals develop and implement a

variety of education and transition plans for individuals with
exceptionalities across a wide range of settings and different learning
experiences in collaboration with individuals, families, and teams.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and

promote generalization of learning.

Chapter 5 discusses the underlying theories and new directions in

learning disabilities and related areas of special education.

5.1 The Role of Theory and Theories of

Learning
“If you don’t know where you are going, any road will take you
there.” This advice is as applicable to teaching as it is to other
facets of life. Theories help us understand the complexities of
learning. By shedding light on the nature of the learning problems
students encounter, theories guide and act as a basis for
instruction. Those who teach without a theory may follow the road
that leads nowhere.

Theories are meant to be working statements; they are not meant

to be ideas “frozen into absolute standards masquerading as
eternal truths” or “programs rigidly adhered to” (Dewey, 1946, p.
202. 1998). A theory is a working concept to be modified in the
light of new knowledge. John Dewey considered theory the most
practical of all things because it provides a guide for action,
clarifies and structures thought, and creates a catalyst for further
research.

Theory is constantly evolving and serves as a guide to systematize

knowledge. The purpose of theory is to bring form, coherence, and
meaning to what we observe in the real world (Dewey, 1998).
Theory building is a process. It builds on the shoulders of the
giants who have come before. Every discipline is built on the
concepts and ideas contributed by earlier scholars. The current
theory is challenged, modified, and strengthened as researchers
and practitioners test the theory’s relevance and usefulness. The
modified theory in turn leads to new forms of assessment and
instructional practices. The theories generated in studying
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities have produced
significant applications to many areas of both special education
and general education.

In this chapter, we examine the contributions of three major

theories in psychology and their implications for learning
disabilities and related disabilities:

1. developmental psychology,

2. behavioral psychology, and

3. cognitive psychology
 Did You Get It?

Which of the following does not represent an adequate

conceptualization of what an effective and contributory theory is or
must be in actuality?

a. A working statement

b. A regarded theory that leaves room for future modification

c. A rigid standard demanding strict adherence

d. A guide for action

5.2 Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology offers an important perspective for
understanding difficulties in learning. A key notion in
developmental psychology is that the maturation of cognitive
skills (or thinking) follows a sequential progression. A child’s
ability to learn depends on the child’s current maturational status.
Further, this maturational view implies that attempts to speed up
or bypass the developmental process may actually create
problems. Jean Piaget, the celebrated Swiss developmental
psychologist, remarked, “Every time I describe a maturational
sequence in the United States, an American asks ‘How can you
speed it up?’ ” In this section, we discuss:

1. developmental variations,

2. Piaget’s maturational stages of development,

3. stages of learning, and

4. the implications of developmental psychology for learning

disabilities and related disabilities.
5.2a Developmental Variations
The term developmental variations refers to differences in the
rates of specific components of development. Further, each
individual has a preset rate of growth for various human
functions, including cognitive abilities. Discrepancies among the
various abilities indicate that various abilities are maturing at
different rates, with some abilities lagging in their development.
Bender (1957) called these variations “maturational lags.” This
maturational perspective implies that many children with learning
problems are not so different from other children; rather, their
developmental differences are more a matter of timing.

The developmental perspective suggests that society may actually

create many learning problems. For example, if the school
curriculum sets expectations for student performance in terms of
age, learning problems can occur when children are pushed into
performing academic tasks before they are able to do so. In this
way, the demands of schooling can cause failure by requiring
students to perform beyond their readiness, or ability, at a given
stage of maturation.

Vygotsky (1978), the influential Russian developmental

psychologist, recognized the importance of teaching at the
appropriate difficulty level for the student. He reasoned that
children can learn when instruction is directed toward what
Vygotsky called their zone of proximal development (ZPD),
Vygotsky envisioned a range of difficulty levels of tasks for a
student:

1. a level that is very easy for a student to do independently,

2. a middle level that a student can accomplish with assistance,

and

3. a level that is much too difficult for successful student

learning, or a frustration level.
 Vygotsky recommends that instruction should be geared to the
middle level, which he called the ZPD (zone of proximate
development). Some liken this to the “Goldilocks” level because it
is neither too easy nor too hard; rather, it is just right. If a child’s
abilities do not mesh with the instructional level, learning cannot
occur.

Many studies demonstrate that, often, young children manifest

variations in development that lead to academic problems
(Koppitz, 1973; Silver & Hagin, 1966, 1990; De Hirsch, Jansky, &
Langford, 1966; Vellutino, Scanlon, & Lyon, 2000). Molfese and
Molfese (2002) found developmental variations in learning in the
areas of social executive functions, language, and reading skills.
More information can be found at the website:
http://www.nichd.nih.gov.

5.2b Piaget’s Maturational Stages of

Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, is recognized as a pioneer in
developmental psychology and spent his life studying the
intellectual development of children. Piaget’s observations of the
maturational stages of thinking in children showed that cognitive
growth occurs in a series of invariant and interdependent stages.
At each stage, the child is capable of learning only certain
cognitive tasks. As the child goes through a series of maturational
or developmental stages, the child’s ability to think and learn
changes with age. The quantity, quality, depth, and breadth of
learning that occurs depend upon the stage during which the
learning takes place (Piaget, 1970; Brainerd, 2003; Meece, 2002).
Additional information about Piaget can be found at the website:
http://www.piaget.org.
Piaget provided a schematic description of the typical child’s
stages of development:

Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2 The first two years

of life are called the sensorimotor stage. During this stage,
children learn through their senses and movements and by
interacting with the physical environment. By moving, touching,
hitting, biting, and so on, as well as by physically manipulating
objects, children learn about the properties of space, time,
location, permanence, and causality. Some children with learning
disabilities need more opportunities for motor exploration. (Motor
learning is discussed in Chapter 8, “Young Children With
Disabilities.”)

Preoperational Stage: Ages 2–7 Piaget called the next

five years of life, ages 2 to 7, the preoperational stage. During
this stage, children make intuitive judgments about relationships,
and they also begin to think with symbols. Language now becomes
increasingly important, and children learn to use symbols to
represent the concrete world. They begin to learn about the
properties and attributes of the world about them. Their thinking
is dominated largely by the world of perception. (Perception is
discussed in Chapter 8, “Young Children with Disabilities;”
language is discussed in Chapter 11, “Spoken Language
Difficulties: Listening and Speaking.”)

One characteristic of the preoperational stage is that young

children can attach only one attribute or function to an object. For
example, 3-year-old Josephine was confused when her mother
was the emergency substitute teacher in her nursery school class.
Josephine was visibly baffled and upset as she exploded, “You
can’t be a teacher; you’re a mother!”

Concrete Operations Stage: Ages 7–11 The period

between ages 7 and 11 is called the concrete operations stage.
Children are now able to think through relationships, to perceive
 consequences of acts, and to group entities in a logical fashion.
They are better able to systematize and organize their thoughts.
However, their thoughts are shaped in large measure by previous
experiences, and they are linked to the concrete objects that they
have manipulated or understood through the senses. For example,
at this stage, a child can recognize a set of 4 objects without
physically touching and counting them.

Formal Operations Stage: Age 11 The fourth stage, the

formal operations stage, commences at about age 11 and
reflects a major transition in the thinking process. At this stage,
instead of observations directing thought, thought now directs
observations. Children now have the capacity to work with
abstractions, theories, and logical relationships without having to
refer to the concrete. The formal operations period provides a
generalized orientation toward problem-solving activity.

The social environment significantly influences learning.

Mark Boulton/Alamy
 The transition from one level to the next depends on maturation,
and the stages are sequential and hierarchical. An implication for
teaching is that students need many opportunities and
experiences to stabilize behavior and thought at each stage of
development. Yet, the school curriculum frequently requires
students to develop abstract and logical conceptualizations in a
given area without providing sufficient opportunity for students to
go through the preliminary levels of understanding. Attempts to
teach abstract, logical concepts divorced from any real experiential
understanding on the part of the students may lead to inadequate
and insecure learning. The teacher may think students are
learning the concepts, but they may be giving only surface verbal
responses. Some examples of surface learning without
understanding are given in Student Stories 5.1, “Developmental
Theory and Maturation.”

Student Stories 5.1 Developmental Theory and Maturation

Illustrations of young children who have surface verbal skills without an in-
depth understanding of concepts are frequently amusing.

One kindergarten child explained with seemingly verbal proficiency the

scientific technicalities of a spaceship being shot into orbit. His
apparently precocious explanation ended with “and now for the blastoff
… 10-3-8-5-6-11”

The maturation of the cognitive ability to categorize objects was

apparent when each of three children, ages 7, 9, and 11, was asked to
pack clothes for a trip in two suitcases. Sue, the 11-year-old, was adult
like in her thinking, packing day clothes in one suitcase and night
clothes in another. Dean, the 7-year-old, had no organizational
arrangement and randomly proceeded to stuff one suitcase with as
much as it would hold and then to stuff the second with the remainder.
Laura, the 9-year-old, made an organizational plan that called for
clothes above the waist to go in one suitcase and clothes below the
waist to go in the second. The top parts of pajamas and a two-piece
bathing suit were placed in one suitcase and the bottoms in the other.
Each child had categorized in a manner appropriate to the individual
child’s maturational stage.
 Children must understand early learning concepts before moving to
more difficult abstract concepts and logical thinking in the primary
grades. For example, one-to-one correspondence is an essential
concept for learning mathematics—understanding that one object in a
set is the same number as one object in a different set. In working with
6-year-old Jennine, the teacher placed 5 small buttons in a glass, one at
a time, and then placed 5 large buttons in another glass, one at a time.
Jennine said the glass with the large buttons contained more buttons.
She had not grasped the concept of one-to-one-correspondence.

Piaget used the following experiments to illustrate that children’s

concepts about conservation develop according to their maturational
stage of thinking. In one of Piaget’s conservation experiments, 2 balls
of clay of equal size were placed on a scale to demonstrate to the child
that they were equal. When one ball of clay was then flattened, 8-year-
olds were likely to predict that they were still the same weight. Four-
year-olds, however, said that the flattened ball weighed more. In
another experiment, an equal amount of liquid was poured in each of 2
identical glasses. When the liquid from one glass was then emptied into
a tall, thin container, 5-year-olds were convinced that the tall, thin
glass contained more liquid, but 7-year-olds knew there was no
difference in volume. From experiments such as these, Piaget
concluded that the child’s ability to understand the principles of
conservation develops naturally through the maturational process.

Reflective Question
1. How do these cases illustrate the importance of maturation in
learning?

5.2c Stages of Learning

Students need a period of time to fully know a concept that is
being taught. In general, learners do not fully comprehend, or
know, a concept the first time that they are exposed to the
concept. Rather, they go through developmental stages of learning
before they fully understand the concept. As indicated in Figure
5.1, the developmental stages of learning include
 1. exposure,

2. grasping the knowledge,

3. independence, and

4. application.

Teachers need to provide appropriate instruction to help students

who encounter difficulty in learning to move from one learning
stage to the next. These students need abundant support at each
stage, and they may move from one stage to the next at a slower
rate than other students. The types of practice that are most
effective also vary with the stage of learning. In the early stages of
acquisition, students need frequent feedback that elaborates and
explains the intricacies of the new skill or information. In the later
stages of learning, where students are building facility with the
new skill or consolidating the new knowledge, massed practice is
the most effective. Students often need support to generalize or
apply a new skill. Simple acquisition does not assure that a person
can use the skills flexibly in a variety of contexts.

Figure 5.1 Stages of Learning

© Cengage Learning
5.2d Implications of Developmental
Psychology for Learning Disabilities
and Related Disabilities
What are the implications of developmental psychology for
students with learning disabilities and related disabilities? A
major cause of these students’ school difficulties is immaturity. All
individuals have a natural development time for the maturation of
various skills. What is sometimes thought to be a learning
problem may be merely a lag in a student’s maturation of a certain
process.

1. Research shows that younger children in the early grades

tend to have more learning problems than older children
placed in those grades, which is a phenomenon called the
birth-date effect. When each student’s month of birth was
compared with the percentage of children referred for
learning disabilities services, the younger children (those
born near the cutoff date for school entrance) were much
more likely to be referred for learning disabilities services
(Nichell, Pederson, & Rossow, 2003; Diamond, 1983; Di
Pasquale, Moule, & Flewelling, 1980).

2. The educational environment may actually hinder rather

than assist the child’s learning by making intellectual
demands that require cognitive abilities that the child may
not have yet developed. Cognitive abilities are qualitatively
different in children from those of adults. Cognitive abilities
develop sequentially; as children mature, their ways of
thinking continually change. Schools must design learning
experiences to enhance children’s natural developmental
growth.

3. The concept of readiness refers to the state of maturational

development and prior experiences that are needed before a
target skill can be learned. For example, readiness for
walking requires a certain level of development of the
neurological system, adequate muscle strength, and the
development of certain prerequisite motor functions. Until a
toddler has these abilities, attempts to teach the skill of
 walking are futile. To illustrate readiness in a different area
of learning, learning multiplication requires knowledge
about addition.

Readiness skills are picked up in an incidental fashion by some

learners. However, for young students with learning disabilities
and related mild disabilities, explicit instruction is needed to help
strengthen the precursor or readiness abilities they need for their
next step of learning. Sensitive teachers can help students acquire
these abilities by being aware of the young students’ stage of
maturation and any developmental delays.

Ironically, with all our attempts to be scientific about decisions

made in education, one of the most important decisions—when to
teach a child to read—is based on astrology. The star under which
the child is born, or the birth date, is the key determining factor of
this crucial decision because it determines when the child enters
school and begins formal school learning.

We now turn to another major theory in psychology, behavioral

psychology, and its implication for learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities.

Did You Get It?

The Piagetan stage in which a child sheds his or her entirely concrete
view of the world and begins to think in symbolic terms is referred to as
the stage of development.

a. preoperational

b. concrete operations

c. sensorimotor

d. formal operations
5.3 Behavioral Psychology
Behavioral psychology helps us understand how behavior is
learned, and this branch of psychology significantly influences the
way we teach. For over 60 years, since the seminal work of B. F.
Skinner, who is considered to be the father of behavioral
psychology, the concepts of behavioral psychology have
flourished, creating major and productive applications for
promoting learning. In special education, the individual education
program (IEP) is an application of the behavioral approach. The
IEP requires the use of observable and measurable behavior. In
the IEP, the student’s current levels of performance are measured
and documented goals are determined, and plans for measuring
the achievement of these goals and objectives are formulated.
Behavioral theories thus provide a systematic foundation for
research, assessment, and instruction (Tuckman & Monetti, 2013;
Slavin, 2009). Behavioral theories of learning and instruction are
based on the following concepts:

1. Human behavior is shaped by behavioral principles, such as

positive reinforcement, and is a function of consequences.

2. Modifying behavior requires direct focus on the behavior of

concern ( for example, talking, reading, paying attention,
subtraction).

3. The objective of the teaching should be clearly specified.

4. The target behavior is observable and measurable.

5. The effectiveness of the intervention requires frequent

measurement.

In the following section, we discuss

1. the behavioral unit,

2. functional behavioral assessment and positive behavioral

support,

3. direct instruction,
 4. behavioral analysis, and

5. implications of behavioral psychology for learning

disabilities and related mild disabilities.

5.3a The Behavioral Unit

Behavioral psychology is based on the behavioral unit, which
has three key events called A, B, and C. The ABC model is
illustrated in Figure 5.2. A is the antecedent event (or
stimulus), B is the target behavior (or behavior response), and
C is the consequent event (or reinforcement).

Figure 5.2 Components of the Behavioral Unit

© Cengage Learning

To illustrate the relationship among the three behavioral events,

the teacher’s goal, in this example, is to have Bonnie lengthen the
time she engages in silent reading. The antecedent event (or
stimulus) is the teacher’s action, which is assigning a silent
reading period. The target behavior (or behavior response) occurs
when Bonnie reads for 2 min. The consequent event (or
reinforcement) occurs when the teacher reinforces Bonnie’s
reading behavior by praising her or giving her a reward.

There are critics of reinforcement theory. In his popular book,

Punished by Rewards: The Trouble With Gold Stars, Incentive
Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes, Alfie Kohn (1995) derides
rewards as bribes that do not lead to longterm changes in
behavior.
5.3b Functional Behavioral Assessment and
Positive Behavioral Support
A feature of the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-2004) is the requirement that
the IEP for a student with a disability who has challenging
behaviors must include a functional behavioral assessment and
positive behavioral supports. Briefly, functional behavioral
assessment is the evaluation of the child’s behavior; positive
behavioral support is the intervention to change that behavior
(Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Polloway, Patton, & Serna, 2001; U.S.
Department of Education, 2000a; Yell, Rozalski, & Drasgrow,
2001).

Functional Behavioral Assessment When a student

displays a challenging behavior, it is serving a purpose or function
for the student. In the three events of the behavioral unit (refer to
Figure 5.2), this is the antecedent event that triggers the student’s
observable behavior. Through the functional behavioral
assessment, the child’s antecedent behavior is described and
analyzed to discover what needs this challenging behavior is
fulfilling for the student. For example, Joshua makes jokes and
loud noises whenever he is asked to read aloud. His functional
behavioral assessment reveals that Joshua acts this way to avoid
reading aloud because his poor reading ability embarrasses him.

Positive Behavioral Support Once the teacher

understands the reason for the student’s antecedent behavior, the
teacher looks for a substitute activity for reading aloud—a positive
behavioral support. For example, the teacher could privately
inform Joshua ahead of time about the passage that he will be
asked to read, and then have him practice reading the passage
with a peer. A functional behavioral support would prepare
Joshua for being called upon to read aloud. This support would
eliminate the need for Joshua’s interruptive behavior.
 Detailed information about functional behavioral assessment and
positive behavioral supports is presented in Chapter 6, “Social,
Emotional, and Behavioral Challenges.”

5.3c Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is an instructional practice stemming from
behavioral theory. The approach called Direct Instruction was a
teaching program initially developed for disadvantaged students
and has been used in the Reading Mastery Series (Englemann &
Bruner, 1974). The Direct Instruction program has been shown to
be effective with children who are considered at risk because of
poverty (Carnine et al., 2004). Critical features of the Direct
Instruction include lessons based on carefully sequenced skills,
much repetition and practice, and fully scripted lessons. The web
address for the Direct Instruction programs is http://www.sra-
4kids.com.

The concepts of direct instruction have come to be used as a more

general term to refer to the structured teaching of academic skills.
(Note that the general term of direct instruction is not
capitalized.) Direct instruction systematically centers on the task
to be learned. By focusing on the academic skills that the student
needs to learn, direct instruction structures the environment to
ensure that the student learns these skills (Algozzine, 1991). Direct
instruction has these qualities (Carnine et al., 2004; Algozzine,
1991; Rosenshine, 1986; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1997):

Teaches academic skills directly

Is teacher directed and controlled

Uses carefully sequenced and structured materials

Provides student mastery of basic skills

Sets goals that are clear to students

 Allocates sufficient time for instruction

Uses continuous monitoring of student performance

Provides immediate feedback to students

Teaches a skill until mastery of that skill is achieved

Explicit teaching is similar to direct instruction and is also

based on a behavioral orientation. In explicit teaching, teachers
are clear about the specific skills to be taught and they precisely
teach each step or skill rather than leave it up to the student to
make inferences from the student’s own experiences in order to
learn (Gersten, 1998).

5.3d Behavioral Analysis

Behavioral analysis is another application of behavioral
psychology to teaching. Behavioral analysis requires that teachers
analyze a specific task that students are to learn to determine the
subskills needed to accomplish that task. These subskills are then
placed in an ordered and logical sequence. Teaching involves
helping the students accomplish the specific task by learning each
skill they have not yet mastered. Students are taught each of the
subskills that they do not know. By learning all of the subskills, the
students accomplish the desired complex behavior.

For example, the steps involved in teaching a child to swim

illustrate the behavioral analysis approach. First, analyze the steps
involved in swimming (e.g., floating, treading water, holding one’s
breath under water, and kicking). Next, teach the child each skill
in its sequence, help the child combine the skills, and finally,
observe the child swimming across the pool. Although this
example does not demonstrate an academic task, the same
behavioral procedures would apply to teaching reading,
mathematics, or writing. Teaching Tips 5.1 describes the steps that
are involved in behavioral analysis. For more information on
 managing student behavior, visit the website “Dr. Mac’s Behavior
management Site” at http://www.behavioradvisor.com.

Teaching Tips 5.1 Steps In Behavioral Analysis

1. State the objective to be achieved or the task to be learned in terms of

student performance

2. Analyze the subskills needed to perform that task

3. List the subskills to be learned in their sequential order

4. Determine which of these subskills the student does not know

5. Teach one subskill at a time; when one subskill has been learned, teach
the next subskill

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction in terms of whether the

student has achieved the objective or learned the task

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5.3e Implications of Behavioral Psychology

for Learning Disabilities and Related
Disabilities
Behavioral theories have far-reaching implications for teaching
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities:

1. Direct instruction and explicit teaching are effective

methodologies. It is important for students to receive direct
instruction in academic tasks. Teachers should understand
how to analyze the components of a curriculum and how to
structure sequential behaviors.

2. Direct instruction can be combined with many other

approaches to teaching. When the teacher is sensitive to a
student’s unique style of learning and particular learning
difficulties, direct instruction can be even more effective. For
example, for the student who lacks phonological awareness
the sensitive teacher can anticipate difficulties in learning
phonics during a direct instruction lesson. To learn the skill,
 this student will need more time, practice, review, and
alternative presentations of the concepts. The sensitive
clinical teacher will use knowledge of the curriculum and of
the individual student in planning instruction.

3. Functional behavioral assessment and positive behavioral

support can help a student with behavioral challenges. These
methods provide a valuable means to understand
undesirable behavior and a way to meet a student’s needs.

Including Students in General Education 5.1, “Behavioral

Strategies,” offers strategies based on behavioral psychology for
the general education classroom.

Including Students in General Education 5.1 Behavioral

Strategies

Methods for using behavioral strategies in the general education classroom:

Set goals and objectives

Structure learning tasks as clear academic goals

Use task analysis to break goals into manageable steps

Provide rapidly paced lessons and carefully sequenced materials

Sequence and structure materials and lessons to help students master

one step at a time

Use a fast pace so that learning becomes automatic through overlearning

Offer a detailed explanation and many examples

Make sure the student understands the task

Provide detailed and redundant instructions and explanations

Use many examples

Ask many questions

Provide many opportunities to practice the new skill

Offer many practice activities

Help students develop automaticity so that they can do the activity with
ease
 Give students feedback and correction

Help students learn new material through teacher feedback

Give immediate, academically focused feedback and correction

Monitor student progress

Actively monitor student progress to check on learning

Make adjustments in teaching as necessary

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Did You Get It?

A fundamental principle of behavioral theory is that any target

behavior—that which we focus on and attempt to modify under certain
conditions—must be both observable and

a. changeable.

b. objective.

c. measurable.

d. detrimental.

5.4 Cognitive Psychology

We now discuss the third major theory of psychology, cognitive
psychology, and review its implications for learning. The field of
cognitive psychology studies the human processes of learning,
thinking, and knowing. Cognitive abilities are clusters of
mental skills that are essential to human functions. They enable
one to know, be aware, think, conceptualize, use abstractions,
reason, criticize, and be creative. Theories about the nature of
cognitive and mental processes lead to a better understanding of
 how human beings learn and how the cognitive characteristics
affect learning. Cognitive theory also offers a guide for teaching
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities.

Concepts in cognitive psychology have been broadly elaborated

over the years, and changes in the field of learning disabilities
reflect these elaborations. We explore a progression of ideas from
cognitive psychology that have influenced the teaching of students
with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities:

1. cognitive processing refers to the mental activities that

an individual uses in learning;

2. the information-processing model is a model of learning

that emphasizes the flow of information within a person’s
mind and the memory systems;

3. cognitive learning theories offer a contemporary view of

how people learn, think, and acquire knowledge; and

4. automaticity, in cognitive learning theory, the condition in

which learning has become almost subconscious and
therefore requires little processing effort.

5.4a Cognitive Processing

As noted earlier, a critical element of the federal definition of
learning disabilities in the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-2004) is that students with
learning disabilities have disorders in one or more of the basic
psychological processes that are needed for school learning. The
term psychological processing disorders refers to the difficulties
that students with learning disabilities encounter in cognitive
processing. Many students with learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities have difficulties in underlying cognitive processes
including such areas as visual perception, auditory perception,
and tactile-kinesthetic perception, in language skills, and in
memory functions. These students need special teaching or
 differentiated instruction to meet the challenges of differences in
cognitive processing.

The term psychological processing disorders has been used to

describe students with learning disabilities since the first special
education law in 1975 (P.L. 94-142). For educators, psychologists,
parents, and other professionals, the fresh notion of
psychological processing disorders offered a refreshing and
hopeful new way to view students who were failing to learn, as
well as suggesting new ways to teach these students. For parents,
it offered an encouraging and logical means for understanding a
child’s difficulty in learning, without blaming the child for not
trying, the teachers for not teaching, or parents for poor parenting
(Smith, 2001; Vail, 1992; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000).

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Using Information Processing

Strategies: A Middle School Science Lesson.” In this video, a middle school
science teacher uses information-processing strategies in teaching a
chemistry lesson. She uses various ways to present the information: visual,
writing, auditory, reading. She says she tries to cover the various “habits of
mind” that students have.
 Questions
1. How can a teacher use information-processing strategies to teach a
lesson?

2. Based upon what you read in the chapter, do you find the science
lesson profiled within this video case to be an effective way to teach
science? Why or why not?

3. Give some specific examples of its effectiveness, or questions you might

have about the information- processing lesson.

Teachers can determine a student’s cognitive processing strengths

and weaknesses through observations, samples of their work, or
tests. Knowledge about the student’s cognitive processing
strengths and weaknesses can help teachers plan appropriate
instruction for that student. For example, students who have
difficulty in auditory processing often have difficulty with
instructional approaches that are primarily auditory, such as
phonics. Student with difficulty in visual processing might
experience obstacles in learning by methods that are primarily
visual. An example of a school curriculum that considers a
student’s cognitive processes is given in Student Stories 5.2, “A
School That Considers Cognitive Processes.”

Student Stories 5.2 A School That Considers Cognitive

Processes

An example of a school curriculum that makes good use of information about

the student’s cognitive processes is the Lab School of Washington, DC, which
is a school for students with learning disabilities (Smith, 2005). Sally Smith,
the founder and director of the Lab School, recognized that many of the
children attending the school displayed much difficulty with auditory and
linguistic learning, yet they excelled in the visual arts. Therefore, she used
the arts and experiential, hands-on learning to teach these students. Instead
of learning through typically structured, text-based lessons in social studies
and history, these children are taught through academic clubs for grades one
through six. These clubs include the Cave Club, the God’s Club, the Knights
 and Ladies Club, the Renaissance Club, the Museum Club, and the
Industrialists Club. The children participate in a single club for an entire year
during one-half of the school day. The clubs teach content, vocabulary,
history, and geography through the visual arts. For example, in the
Renaissance Club, the children build scaffolding and actually paint a replica
of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

Reflective Question
1. What is the role of the visual arts in this curriculum?

5.4b The Information-Processing Model of

Learning
The information-processing model of
learning traces the flow of information during the
learning process, from the initial reception of
information, through a processing function, and then to an action.
There are inputs, such as auditory stimuli; processing functions,
which are cognitive processes such as associations, thinking,
memory, and decision making; and outputs, which are actions and
behaviors. Using the analogy of a computer, the human brain
takes in the information (input), stores and locates the
information (memory systems), organizes the information and
facilitates operations and decisions (central processing system—
executive functions), and generates responses to the information
(output). Research in the neurosciences on the brain and learning
are supportive of the information-processing model (Pugh et al.,
2005; Sousa, 2001; Shaywitz et al., 2004).

Figure 5.3 is a pictorial diagram of the information-processing

system. The information-processing model provides a useful way
to conceptualize the processes of learning by depicting the
components of input, output, memory, and an executive control
 function (Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996; Lyon & Krasnegor,
1996; Swanson, 1996). To illustrate this flow of information, a
student is shown a word (input stimulus). The student searches
his or her memory to recognize the word and to determine its
sound and its meaning (processing and executive function), and,
finally, the student says the word (output performance). If the
memory of the word has decayed or is lost, the student will be
unable to recognize or say the word.

Figure 5.3 An Informational Processing Model of Learning

© Cengage Learning

Central to the information-processing model is the multistore

memory system. The multistore memory system conceptualizes
a flow of information among three types of memory:

1. sensory register,
 2. short-term memory (and working memory), and

3. long-term memory (Swanson & O’Conner, 2009; Atkinson &

Shiffrin, 1968; Broadbent, 1958).

For more information about information processing, visit

http://www.intime.uni.edu/model/information/proc.html. The
three memory types are shown in Figure 5.3 within the dotted
frame. The components and the flows of information of the
information-processing model of learning are discussed next.

Sensory Register Information is first received through the

senses—vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Stimuli can be
from internal sources or from external sources. Most of the stimuli
that bombard one’s input receptors are unimportant, are not
attended to, and do not reach the sensory register. However, once
the mind attends to selected input stimuli, that information flows
into the first memory system, the sensory register. The sensory
register system serves as an input buffer, which helps to interpret
and maintain the information from the input receptor long
enough for it to be perceived and analyzed. Perception is
important at this stage because it gives meaning to the stimuli.
Perception depends upon the individual’s past experiences and
ability to organize and attach meaning to the stimulus event. To
illustrate how past experiences shape perception, a 3-year-old
child was asked to identify a square shape printed on a page. His
personal and unique perception of the shape was clear when he
responded, “That’s a TV.”

Along with perception, attention is critical at this stage.

Subconscious decisions about what stimuli should receive
attention are constantly being made. Attention and associated
disorders are covered in more depth in Chapter 8, “Young
Children With Disabilities,” and in Chapter 7, “Autism Spectrum
Disorders and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).”

Sensation, attention, and perception take place when the stimulus

is present; they are ongoing activities. Memory pertains to
sensations and data already received and perceived. Memory
(imagery or “the mind’s eye”) is our ability to store and retrieve
previously experienced sensations and perceptions when the
stimulus that originally evoked them is no longer present.
Examples of sensations and perceptions that occur only in the
mind are a musician listening to music played at an earlier time, a
cook tasting the sourness of a lemon to be used, a carpenter
feeling the roughness of sandpaper used yesterday in a job, and a
gardener smelling the sweetness of lilacs while looking only at the
buds on the tree. A 3-year-old child was helped to understand the
nature of memory. Her mother asked the child to close her eyes
and think about a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. Yes, the child
said she could “see” the jelly dripping down the sides of the bread,
she could “smell” the peanut butter, and she could even “taste” the
first bite. The sandwich that had become so vivid existed in her
memory.

Implications for Teaching Information-processing theory

suggests that a copy of an experience is stored very briefly,
perhaps for a few seconds, in the sensory register. Unless there is
an effort to pay attention to it, the information is immediately lost
from the sensory register. The significance for teaching is that the
student must be attending; the lesson must be planned to initially
spark the attention of the student. Teachers use a number of
verbal and nonverbal cues to get students’ attention, such as
flicking the lights, ringing a bell, or saying, “This information is
important,” or even, “This will be on the test.” Other more subtle
cues, such as pointing, placing the index finger to the lips, or even
where the teacher stands can also be used to direct or redirect
students’ attention. Children are always attending to something.
The teacher’s challenge is to focus the attention on the material
being taught.

Short-Term Memory (STM) Short-term memory is also

a temporary storage facility. With the first system, the sensory
register, the individual is not consciously aware of information. In
short-term memory, however, the individual becomes very
consciously aware of information, but short-term memory is
considered a relatively passive temporary system. When a person
thinks of a new problem, the new information replaces the old
information in short-term memory. The old information either
decays and is lost or is placed into longterm storage (Swanson &
O’Connor, 2009; Swanson, Zheng, & Jerman, 2009; Swanson,
1996). Short-term memory is similar to the material you work
with on the computer screen. To return to the computer analogy,
the information is temporary, and it will be lost when the power is
turned off unless the information has been saved.

Working Memory (WM) Working memory is also a

temporary memory system, but it is differentiated from short-
term memory in that working memory is an active system and is
used in complex cognitive tasks. The individual actively uses
information and transforms it into a cognitive or thinking activity.
It is in working memory that the individual not only receives the
current pertinent information through the person’s conscious
attention, but the person can act on it, solve a problem, or develop
a cognitive plan. It is in working memory that a person can build,
take apart, or rework ideas for eventual storage in long-term
memory. When something is in working memory, it generally
captures our focus and demands our attention (Swanson &
O’Conner, 2009; Hambrick & Engle, 2003; Hutton & Towse,
2001; Sousa, 2001).

Implications for Teaching In terms of teaching, we should

recognize that information remains in short-term memory for a
short period of time. Unless it is acted on in some way,
information in short-term memory will be lost. Working memory
is also a temporary memory system, but it is more active than
shortterm memory. A common characteristic of students with
disabilities is they have difficulty remembering verbal information
 (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Students can extend the time that
information stays in short-term memory by actively thinking
about it in working memory, which can help to move it to long-
term memory. Teaching Tips 5.2, “Strategies for Improving
Memory,” offers some strategies for improving memory.

Teaching Tips 5.2 Strategies for Improving Memory

Rehearsal or repeating the information. Rehearsal slows the

forgetting process and helps in transferring the information to long-term
memory. For example, when you look up a telephone number, repeating
the number may help you to remember it long enough to dial it.

“Chunking” or grouping the information. It is easier to remember

grouped information than isolated bits of information. For example, a
social security number can be grouped into three chunks: a chunk of
three numbers, a chunk of two numbers, and a group of four numbers,
as in 123-44-1830.

Organizing the information. The organization of information makes

the information less complicated and relates the parts to one another.
For example, food can be organized in four basic food groups—dairy,
grains, fruits and vegetables, and meats.

Key words. This is a mnemonic technique in which a word is linked to

another word that is familiar (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). The linkage
is that part of the word (e.g., the initial sound or rhyming element) that
is similar to the key word. The key-word method is useful when pairs of
items, such as foreign language words, technical words, or names, have
to be learned. For example, when you are introduced to someone, you
will more easily recall the person’s name if you link the name with a
characteristic, such as “tall Tony” or “blue-eyed Bonnie.”

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Long-Term Memory and Retrieval Long-term

memory is the permanent memory storage. To learn and retain
information for long periods of time, information must be
transferred from short-term and working memory to long-term
memory. It is thought that information placed into long-term
memory remains there permanently. It is evident from
neurological research and clinical experiences that memories
remain in long-term storage for a very long time (Semb & Ellis,
1994). The problem people face in long-term memory is not
storage, but retrieval; that is, how to recall (or remember)
information stored in long-term memory. As was shown in Figure
5.3, information from short-term memory is lost unless it is saved
in long-term memory. Before one can think about a problem, the
stored information must be retrieved from long-term memory and
placed into short-term or working memory (or consciousness).
Using the computer analogy again, when one wishes to work on a
saved file, the saved file must be loaded into the desktop (short-
term or working memory).

Two types of long-term memory are episodic and semantic.

Episodic memories are images—visual and other sensory images
of events in one’s life. The episodic memory of one’s first carnival,
for example, might be triggered by the sound of a merry-go-round.
Semantic memories consist of the storage of general knowledge,
language, concepts, and generalizations. The retrieval of odd bits
of long-term memory is sometimes triggered by strange events.
One such event occurred at a recent national education conference
when a participant noted a vaguely familiar woman in the lobby.
After observing her for several minutes, he walked up to her and
blurted out “Hilltop 5-4260.” Indeed, that had been her telephone
number some 25 years earlier. Although the conference
participant recalled the telephone number, he could not
remember her name.

Implications for Teaching The way information is stored

in long-term memory helps with the process of retrieval. Through
instruction in learning strategies, teachers can help students with
the retrieval process (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Chapter 9,
“Adolescents and Adults with Learning Disabilities and Related
Mild Disabilities,” discusses learning strategies and Chapter 12,
“Reading Difficulties,” discusses some of the strategies used in
reading to improve vocabulary or semantic memory. The following
strategies help with the storage and retrieval of information in
long-term memory:

1. Organizing schemes. Many of the recommended study

techniques are methods of organizing information to make it
easier to recall from longterm memory. For example, in
studying a country in social studies, use a word web to link
key information about the country, such as the weather,
crops, rivers, and so on.

2. Using prior knowledge. New information that is linked to

something the student already knows is much easier to
retrieve. To know something is not only to have received
information, but also to have interpreted the information
and related it to other knowledge. Teachers must recognize
that learning depends on what the student already knows,
and that the student must build links between old and new
knowledge. For example, Abe already knows quite a lot
about dinosaurs. A new type of dinosaur has just been
discovered, so Abe links this new dinosaur information with
the old information that he already knows.

3. Making the information meaningful. Students can

strengthen their longterm memory if they make the
information meaningful by linking it to something they
already know. Learning depends on what one already knows
(or prior knowledge). Teachers can help students by
providing background knowledge and linkages to what is
already in the long-term memory. For example, Betty has
come across the concept of the Electoral College in the news.
That term becomes more meaningful when she links it with
information she already knows about elections. Betty has
developed a spreadsheet of Electoral College votes for each
state and the total number of electoral votes for each
presidential candidate. She can illustrate this spreadsheet
with a bar graph.

Executive Control Executive control is the component of

the informationprocessing model that refers to the ability to
control and direct one’s own learning, thinking, and mental
activity. The term metacognition is often used in conjunction with
 executive control. Metacognition is discussed in more detail later
in this chapter. Executive control

1. directs the flow of thinking,

2. manages the cognitive processes during learning, and

3. keeps track of what information is being processed.

It involves the planning, evaluating, and regulating of the

information-processing routines. Executive control determines
which mental activities occur and which processing components
receive system attention resources, or one’s concentration. One’s
motivation and goals are important factors in directing the
priorities and the problems that will receive attention (Lavoie,
2007; Lyon & Krasnegor, 1996; Swanson, 1996).

Executive control is similar to the operating system of a computer.

The operating system intervenes and controls the allocation and
interface between the program and the resources of the system. It
keeps track of what each program is doing and when the program
needs to use some system resources, such as a disk drive or print
instructions.

Implications for Teaching It is not enough to memorize

information; students must also have the executive control to
decide to use the information. Research shows that students must
learn to activate and select the strategies to use the information
they have (Deshler, Schumaker, Lenz, & Bulgren, 2001; Deshler et
al., 1996; Lenz, Ellis, & Scanlon, 1996). Learning strategies
instruction for controlling one’s thinking are discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults With Learning
Disabilities and Related Disabilities.”

Did You Get It?

In an instructional situation, and against the backdrop of

informationprocessing theory, a teacher must be cognizant of the fact
that unless is provided to a particular stimulus, experience,
 principle, or fact, it is at risk of being lost from availability and can
become irretrievable.

a. memorization

b. consciousness

c. attention

d. reward

5.5 Cognitive Learning Theories

Cognitive psychologists study the mind and
thinking processes of individuals who have
difficulty learning. Contemporary cognitive
psychology has broadened and elaborated the study of cognitive
processes by studying the thinking processes involved in executive
functioning, social perception, working memory, self-monitoring,
and metacognition (Puch et al., 2005; Sousa, 2001; Swanson,
Harris, & Graham, 2003). Recent neurological research of the
learning brain using the device of functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) shows the location within the brain of these
processes.

To succeed in the general education classroom, students must

learn complex concepts, have good problem-solving skills, and
know how to organize information on their own. They often have
limited background knowledge for many academic activities and
need sufficient feedback and practice to retain abstract
information (Swanson, Harris, & Graham, 2003; Gersten, 1998;
Vaughn et al., 2000).

A number of instructional strategies stem from cognitive theories

of learning, which help students with learning disabilities grasp
 the concepts and subject matter of the general education
curriculum. Some of the effective and validated instructional
approaches are discussed in Chapter 3, such as scaffolded
instruction, learning strategies instruction, and peer tutoring. In
this section, we will discuss several additional effective cognitive
learning strategies:

1. apprentice-ships,

2. graphic organizers,

3. concept maps, and

4. mind mapping.

5.5a Cognitive Learning Strategies

Apprenticeships Apprenticeships refer to the kind of
teaching that occurs in a setting in which a knowledgeable adult
and a learner work jointly on a reallife problem. Learning in such
a setting is geared to solving a genuine problem rather than just
reading about the problem. Apprenticeships are motivating for
learners, and apprentices increase generalization because student
apprentices learn through experience how the knowledge they
have acquired applies to the real world (Gersten, 1998). In some
European countries, apprenticeships become an alternative to
postsecondary education. For example, a young adult might work
with a carpenter as an apprentice to learn the skills of
carpentering.

Graphic Organizers Graphic organizers are visual

representations of concepts, knowledge, or information that
incorporate both text and pictures. They make it easier for a
person to understand the information by allowing the mind to see
complex relationships. Research shows that graphic organizers
have proven to be very useful for students with learning
 disabilities (Baxendell, 2003; Sabbatino, 2004). Graphic
organizers commonly used include

Venn diagrams

Hierarchical (top-down) organizers

Word webs

Concept maps

Mind mapping

In the following sections, we discuss concept maps and mind

mapping, which also are effective cognitive learning strategies.

Concept Map With a concept map, a student or a teacher can

cluster ideas and words that go together. The activity serves to
activate the student’s construction of a concept. Figure 5.4 shows
part of a concept map that a 13-year-old student created on the
topic of team sports to prepare for a writing project. For more
information on concept maps, see http://www.thinkingmaps.com.

Figure 5.4 Concept Map of Team Sports

© Cengage Learning
 Mind Mapping Mind mapping is a technique that employs a
pictorial method to transfer ideas from a student or from a group
of students onto a large piece of paper, a transparency, or a large
class chart. Ideas are produced randomly, and certain words or
ideas will trigger other ideas, which will lead to other suggestions
or pictures. It is much easier to mind map than to create an
outline because the ideas do not have to be organized or
sequenced. Figure 5.5 shows a mind map that a group of students
constructed on the topic of homework.

Figure 5.5 Mind Mapping on Homework

© Cengage Learning

5.5b Metacognition
Metacognition refers to the awareness of one’s systematic
thinking about learning. It is the ability to facilitate learning by
taking control and directing one’s own thinking processes. People
exhibit metacognitive awareness when they do something to help
themselves learn and remember, such as compiling shopping lists
to remember what to buy, outlining difficult technical chapters to
help themselves understand and recall the material, or rehearsing
and repeating what they have just learned to help stabilize and
 strengthen their learning. These behaviors indicate an awareness
of one’s own limitations and the ability to plan for one’s own
learning and problem solving (Swanson, 1996). Student Stories
5.3, “Metacognitive Shopping Behavior,” offers other examples of
metacognition.

Student Stories 5.3 Metacognitive Shopping Behavior

A common example of metacognitive behavior that is familiar to most people

is the activity of planning for grocery shopping. Most people must engage in
this activity, and they have developed plans that work for them. The
following grocery-shopping plans are metacognitive behaviors that are based
on prior knowledge and experience. They include ways to enhance memory
(e.g., through writing, visualization, or review) and to organize and prepare
for future activities (e.g., making meals, eating, and entertaining). When
groups of people were asked how they plan for their grocery shopping, their
answers differed widely, revealing a correspondingly wide range of
metacognitive styles. Some of their answers follow.

I keep a pad of paper in a convenient spot; as I discover needs during

the week, I jot them down on the notepad. I take this list with me to the
store, and it becomes my guide for shopping.

I think about what I need, and I write a list just before going shopping.
I take this list with me and then check each item on the list as I take it
off the grocery shelf.

I open my kitchen cabinets just before going shopping, and the

visualization of missing items gives me enough information to
complete my grocery shopping.

I walk up and down the aisles, and items that I need just pop up.

I buy only items that are on sale, and I stock up on these items.

I carefully plan my shopping to use the coupons I have acquired.

I go to the store and just buy food that looks as though it would be good
to eat. When I get home, I usually find that I forgot to buy the
necessary items, so I have to go back to the store again. I guess I do not
plan well for shopping.
 To avoid impulsive buying, I always eat something before I go
shopping.

I plan on how much money I will spend, use a calculator, and stop
when that amount is reached.

Reflective Question
1. What are your metacognitive shopping behaviors?

Efficient learners use metacognitive strategies, but students with

learning disabilities and related disabilities tend to lack the skills
to direct their own learning. However, once they learn the
metacognitive strategies that efficient learners use, students can
apply them in many situations. The metacognitive strategies
needed for school learning include

1. classification,

2. checking,

3. evaluation, and

4. prediction (Creel, Fore, Boon, & Bender, 2006; Gersten,

1998; Kluwe, 1987).

Classification Classification is a technique for determining

the type, status, or mode of a learning activity. Individuals ask
themselves “What am I doing here?” or “Is this activity important
to me?” For example, Jose, while comparing words in Spanish
with words in English, says to himself, “Knowing this will help me
learn English.”

Checking Checking involves taking steps during the process of

problem solving to determine one’s progress, success, and results.
For example, a person may say, “I remember most of the lesson,”
“My planning is pretty detailed and careful,” “I still have a long
way to go before I get there,” or “There is something I do not
understand here.”
 Evaluation Evaluation goes beyond checking and provides
information about quality. For example, an individual may think,
“My plan is not good enough to rule out any risks” or “I have done
a good job.”

Prediction Prediction provides information about the possible

alternative options for problem solving and possible outcomes.
The person may think, “If I decide to work on this problem, the
technical details will be hard to accomplish. I will have to get
someone to help me with them” or “I should be able to finish the
paper in four days.”

5.5c Implications of Cognitive Psychology

for Teaching
Cognitive psychology analyzes how people learn and, therefore, it
offers strategies for teaching. Teaching strategies based on
cognitive psychology can help students learn to attend, to
remember, to understand, to think, and to enjoy learning.

Did You Get It?

Ms. Arturo-Fernandez, science teacher and knowledgeable botanist,

works side by side with one of her students, Matt, on a long-term
project: devising an irrigation system to water plants in the school
garden. This relationship represents a(n)

a. apprenticeship.

b. concept-map.

c. tutelage.

d. formal educational collaboration.

5.6 Learning Strategies Instruction
In this section, we discuss some instructional applications of
cognitive theories:

1. learning strategies,

2. the social interactions of learning, and

3. interactive dialogues.

We also review the implications of learning strategies instruction

for students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities.

5.6a Learning Strategies

The learning strategies approach to instruction is a series of
methods that focuses on how students learn rather than on what
they learn. Efficient learners can count on a number of learning
strategies to help them learn and remember. Students with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities lack such a
repertoire of learning strategies. When teachers help students
acquire learning strategies, students learn how to learn. What
strategies are employed by people who learn in an efficient and
well-functioning manner? Successful learners control and direct
their thinking processes to facilitate learning. They are active
learners. They ask themselves questions, and they organize their
thoughts. They connect and integrate the new materials that they
are trying to learn with prior experience and with knowledge that
they already possess. They also try to predict what will come next,
and they try to monitor the relevance of the new information. In
other words, good learners have discovered how to go about the
business of learning, and they have at their disposal a repertoire of
cognitive strategies that work for them (Deshler et al., 2001;
Swanson & Deshler, 2003; Lenz & Deshler, 2001; Deshler et al.,
1996; Lenz et al., 1996).
Students who do not possess these functional learning strategies
become passive learners. They do not know how to control and
direct their thinking in order to learn, how to gain more
knowledge, or how to remember what they have learned. They
may lack interest in learning because past learning experiences
were dismal exercises in failure and frustration. Not believing that
they can learn, these students do not know how to go about the
task of learning. As a consequence, they become passive and
dependent learners, exhibiting a style that is called learned
helplessness.

Students must first become aware of and acquire learning

strategies to facilitate their learning and remembering.
Fortunately, research shows that once they have received learning
strategies instruction, they become privy to the best-kept secrets
about how to achieve academic success, and they consequently use
these strategies in many contexts (Deshler, 2003; Lenz & Deshler,
2001; Gersten, 1998; Mainzer et al., 2003).

The strategies intervention model (SIM) is an instructional

method for teaching learning strategies to adolescents (Deshler,
2003; Lenz & Deshler, 2001; Deshler et al., 1996). The SIM
learning strategies were developed over many years at the
University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning (Deshler et
al.,2001; Lenz & Deshler, 2001; Swanson & Deshler, 2003;
Deshler et al., 1996; Lenz et al., 1996). (See Chapter 9,
“Adolescents and Adults With Learning Disabilities and Related
Disabilities,” for a more complete discussion of the strategies
intervention model.)

Learning strategies can be used in every area of the curriculum—in

the teaching of reading, writing, mathematics, social studies, and
science. In addition, learning strategies for specific academic areas
are woven throughout various parts of this textbook.
5.6b The Social Interactions of Learning
The social environment significantly influences learning. The
learning process is more than an individualistic, student-centered
activity. The social interactions between the teacher and the
student, as well as social interactions among students, are critical
ingredients in the learning process. Theories that emphasize the
social context of learning include Vygotsky’s (1978) social
influences of learning and interactive dialogues. These theories are
reviewed in this section. (See also Chapter 6, “Social, Emotional,
and Behavioral Challenges,” for more information on social
interactions.)

Vygotsky: The Social Influences of Learning The

social nature of cognitive development and the role that
interpersonal relationships plays in this development were
observed more than 70 years ago by Lev Vygotsky, a Russian
psychologist. Vygotsky (1978) observed that social influences are
crucial in the learning processes. Learning is an interpersonal,
dynamic social event that depends on at least two people, with one
person better informed or more skilled than the other. Human
learning occurs as a transfer of responsibility, be it learning to play
the violin, doing arithmetic, learning Spanish, reading, writing, or
repairing an automobile. All of these learning abilities pass along
the interpersonal plane. While much learning and development
occurs naturally, students who are not learning well require a
more careful analysis of the task relative to the student’s current
ability. Learning and cognitive development are enhanced when
the student works collaboratively with a slightly more skilled
learner.

5.6c Interactive Dialogues

 Interactive dialogues are conversations between students and
a teacher. Research shows that the use of interactive dialogues is
an effective intervention strategy, particularly in teaching reading
comprehension and writing. The research shows that interactive
dialogues are most effective when used with small, interactive
groups of six or fewer students. The role of the teacher and the
students is to explore ideas and to think critically about the topics
under discussion (Vaughn et al., 2000; Wong, 1999). Interactive
dialogues are often used as a strategy to improve reading
comprehension. The students discuss a story they have read. The
teacher listens to what the students say and guides the discussion.

An application of the interactive dialogue, called reciprocal

teaching, has been used to teach reading comprehension
strategies (Palinscar, Brown, & Campione, 1991). Palinscar and
colleagues successfully taught the following reading
comprehension strategies through reciprocal teaching:

1. The teacher and the students read the material silently.

2. The teacher explains and models summarizing, questioning,

clarifying, and predicting by saying aloud the thoughts that
are used.

3. The students read another passage and take the

responsibility of modeling and saying their thoughts aloud.

4. Each student demonstrates abilities in summarizing,

questioning, clarifying, and predicting.

Social interactions between the students and their teacher are central
ingredients in the learning process.
 Arthur Tilley/Stone/Getty Images

5.6d Implications of Learning Strategies

Instruction
The approaches of learning strategies instruction have practical
teaching implications. Once students are taught effective learning
strategies, they can use them in many learning situations. They
can become active, involved learners who accept responsibility for
their own learning. Effective learning occurs in a social context
where the interrelationship between a student and a teacher is
critical.

I Have a Kid Who… SPECIAL STUDENTS Learn Strategies for

Social Studies
Ben, Cory, Jennifer, Sally, John, Bob, Mary, and Luisa were all seventh-grade
students in Ms. Weiss’s resource room. They were also in Mr. Keene’s
general education social studies class. Mr. Keene was a new teacher at the
school, and these students liked Mr. Keene very much. When Mr. Keene
announced that there would be a test in two weeks on the social studies
chapter in their textbook, this group of students wanted to do well on the
 test. They asked Ms. Weiss if she would help them prepare for the social
studies test. Ms. Weiss agreed to spend the next two weeks in the resource
room preparing for the social studies test. The social studies text had key
vocabulary words at the end of the chapter. So Ms. Weiss had the students
analyze each word—the root words, prefixes, and suffixes—and discuss the
meaning of each word. They took the topic headings in the chapter and made
an outline of the chapter. They explained each chart, picture, and graphic
feature to Ms. Weiss. They acted out parts of the text. They developed
questions to ask each other. When the test results came out, this group of
students in the resource room scored much better than the rest of the class.
Some of the general education students complained to the principal that it
wasn’t fair because the students in the resource room had help studying the
chapter.

Questions
1. If you were the principal, how would you answer the charge that is was
not fair?

2. What role do you think motivation played in doing well in the test?

3. What strategies from this chapter did Ms. Weiss use in her teaching?

Did You Get It?

A scenario in which a learner becomes passive, dependent on others,

loses faith in him or herself, and “learns” to become unable to extricate
him or herself from given situations, is referred to as learned

a. inability.

b. hopelessness.

c. helplessness.

d. vulnerability.

Chapter Review
Chapter Summary
Theory has an important role in serving as a guide to
learning.

Developmental psychology stresses the natural progression

of the child’s growth and the sequential development of
cognitive abilities. A state of readiness is needed for the child
to acquire certain abilities. Forcing a child into trying to
learn before that state of readiness has been reached can
lead to academic failure.

Behavioral psychology provides an approach to learning

disabilities that emphasizes

1. explicit teaching and

2. direct instruction.

The behavioral unit consists of

1. the antecedent event,

2. the target behavior, and

3. the consequent event.

Explicit teaching means that teachers are clear about what

needs to be accomplished. Direct instruction focuses on the
teaching of needed academic skills.

Cognitive psychology deals with the human processes of

1. learning,

2. thinking, and

3. knowing.

A group of theories about learning disabilities stem from

cognitive psychology:

1. differences in cognitive processing,

2. the information-processing model of learning, and

3. cognitive learning theories

The learning strategies approach focuses on how students

learn rather than on what they learn. Students learn to use
strategies that enable them to control their own learning.
 Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Why is theory important in the study of learning disabilities and disabilities?

2. Discuss developmental psychology as it applies to learning. How can

developmental delays lead to learning disabilities?

3. How do the principles of behavioral psychology apply to teaching students

with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities?

4. What are the basic concepts of cognitive psychology?

5. What are the three memory systems of the information-processing model?

How are these systems related? How can the informationprocessing model of
learning be applied to teaching students?

6. What is meant by the term metacognition? Discuss the learning problems of

students with regard to metacognitive strategies.

7. What are interactive dialogues? How can they be used to teach students?

Chapter Review

Key Terms
active learners

antecedent event

automaticity

behavioral analysis

behavioral unit

cognitive abilities

cognitive processing

concrete operations stage

consequent event

developmental variations

direct instruction
executive control

explicit teaching

formal operations stage

graphic organizers

information-processing model

interactive dialogues

learned helplessness

learning strategies approach

long-term memory

metacognition

mind mapping

multistore memory system

passive learners

perception

preoperational stage

psychological processing disorders

reciprocal teaching

retrieval

sensorimotor stage

sensory register

short-term memory

stages of learning

strategies intervention model

target behavior

theories

working memory
 Chapter

Social,
Emotional,
6
and
Behavioral
Challenges

Chapter Introduction

6.1 Overview of Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Challenges

6.2 Social Challenges

6.3 Emotional Challenges

6.3a Relationship Between Learning Difficulties and Emotional

Challenges

6.3b Characteristics of Emotional Challenges

6.4 Behavioral Challenges

6.4a Suspensions of Students

6.4b Functional Behavioral Assessment and Positive Behavioral

Supports

6.4c Specific Functions of Behavior

6.5 Strategies to Improve Social Competencies

6.5a Improving the Student’s Self-Perception

6.5b Improving Nonverbal Communication

 6.5c Cognitive Learning Strategies for Social Skills

6.6 Strategies for Students With Emotional Challenges

6.7 Strategies for Students With Behavioral Challenges

6.7a Developing an Effective Behavioral Intervention Plan

6.7b Creating a Positive Classroom Environment

6.7c Restructuring Academic Work to Make It User Friendly

6.7d Self-Management Strategies

6.7e Positive Strategies for Passive-Aggressive Behaviors

6.8 Behavior Management Strategies

6.8a Contingency Contracting

6.8b Time-Out

6.8c Cognitive Behavior Modification

6.8d Using Reinforcements

6.8e Home-School Coordination

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Ellen B. Senisi/The Image Works

The teacher’s primary task is to structure or

order the environment for the pupil in such a
way that work is accomplished, play is
learned, love is felt, and fun is enjoyed—by the
student and the teacher.

—James Kauffman and Timothy Landrum (2009)

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

6.1
Articulate social, emotional, and behavioral
challenges and discuss how they are observed and are
 related.

6.2
Articulate social challenges faced by students and
provide examples of why social skills are important in
today’s society.

6.3
Explain how emotional challenges interfere with
academic learning.

6.4
Explain the behavioral challenges that result in
school suspension and the need for positive
behavioral supports to keep students in school.

6.5
List and explain at least five strategies to improve
social competencies.

6.6
Explain at least three strategies for students with
emotional challenges, including strategies for self
esteem.

6.7
Explain five strategies for students with behavioral
challenges, including the importance of the behavior
intervention plan.

6.8
List and explain five behavior management
strategies, including contracting, reinforcement,
cognitive behavior modification, and time out.

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

As approved by the National Council for the

Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0—Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments so that individuals with
exceptionalities become active and effective learners and develop
emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

2.1—Beginning special education professionals through collaboration

with general educators and other colleagues create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments to engage individuals with
exceptionalities in meaningful learning activities and social interactions.

2.2—Beginning special education professionals use motivational and

instructional interventions to teach individuals with exceptionalities how
to adapt to different environments.

2.3—Beginning special education professionals know how to intervene

safely and appropriately with individuals with exceptionalities in crisis.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with
colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning
of individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.
 CEC Initial Preparation Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical
Practice
6.0—Beginning special education professionals use foundational
knowledge of the field and their professional ethical principles and
practice standards to inform special education practice, to engage in
lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.

6.1—Beginning special education professionals use professional ethical

principles and professional practice standards to guide their practice.

6.2—Beginning special education professionals understand how

foundational knowledge and current issues influence professional
practice.

6.3—Beginning special education professionals understand that diversity

is a part of families, cultures, and schools, and that complex human
issues can interact with the delivery of special education services.

In this chapter, we discuss social, emotional, and behavior

challenges. These challenges can interfere with a student’s
learning and the quality of his or her entire life. We also describe
strategies and interventions to help students with social,
emotional, and behavioral challenges.

6.1 Overview of Social, Emotional, and

Behavioral Challenges
Many students with mild disabilities and students with learning
disabilities have social, emotional, or behavioral challenges that
are apart from their academic difficulties. These challenges may
involve:

Social challenges, which are difficulties in interrelating

with others, in making and keeping friends, and in meeting
the social demands of everyday life

Emotional challenges, which involve feelings about

oneself. For example, the student may feel so chronically sad
or depressed or have such a low self-concept that these
 feelings interfere with the individual’s outlook on life and the
ability to learn.

Behavioral challenges, which are problems manifested

by aggressive, antisocial, and similar behavior

Social, emotional, and behavioral challenges occur in children in

all populations, and they are found in students from diverse
economic, racial, cultural, and language groups. Often the social,
emotional, and behavioral challenges are interdependent; they
overlap with each other, or they are interrelated problems. For
example, students who feel poorly about themselves may engage
in specific behaviors that can lead to social isolation. A student
who is very depressed may engage in withdrawal behavior, which
leads to poor peer relationships and social isolation. Some
examples of students with social, emotional, or behavioral
challenges are described below:

Marty struggled in school in acquiring academic skills. In

fact, Marty and his family spent so much of their time and
energy in improving his academic skills that Marty had no
time available for making friends or building a social life.
Marty’s concentration on academics was successful in that
he graduated from high school and went on to technical
school to become a successful computer programmer.
However, with no time given for Marty to make friends and
learn how to interact with peers, Marty now finds that he
still has no friends as an adult.

Katie had emotional challenges throughout her elementary

school years. Katie is now in college, but she still struggles
with depression, a poor self-concept, and a high degree of
test anxiety.

Jerod takes a very long time to complete an assignment. A

comprehensive evaluation indicates that Jerod has an
obsessive-compulsive disorder. He wants to make sure that
his work is “perfect” before he turns it in. Jerod’s need for
perfection is part of his obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Imagine going to work every day and being faced with tasks that
are too difficult for you. Even the most resilient person would
 eventually give up and start looking for another job. Yet students
do not have this option. They are supposed to stay in school and
face tasks every day that are too difficult for them to accomplish.
No wonder many students become extremely frustrated and give
up. They know they have many strengths and things they can do
well. Yet they are struggling with hard academic tasks, and they do
not understand why they are struggling so much. Investigations of
the relationship between academic underachievement and
externalizing behavior show that students may act out to avoid
aversive academic tasks (Farley et al., 2012, Lane and Beebe-
Frankenberger, 2004). Students with behavioral problems present
a major challenge to school personnel because they often present
both academic and behavioral deficits (Farley et al., 2012; Nelson,
Benner, & Moody, 2008). Teachers should explore the “cause” of
negative behaviors in school and then plan interventions that
consider those causes. Teachers must be sensitive to the stresses
that many students with learning problems face—they are
expected to try to do academic tasks that are extremely difficult for
them. They may respond by giving up, acting out, or putting their
head down on their desk and trying to rest. They are tired—doing
work that is difficult is tiring and what may appear as work refusal
may be exhaustion from demanding tasks.

It is also important to find strengths that students have while

assisting them in the areas in which they struggle. Two examples
of such students are described in Student Stories 6.1, “Students
with Challenges.”

Student Stories 6.1 Students With Challenges

Mark. Mark has a learning disability that affects his reading. His
classroom teacher expects pupils to read aloud in a round-robin type of
reading exercise. During reading class, Mark clowns around and
engages in numerous attention-seeking behaviors until the teacher gets
tired of his behavior and sends Mark to the office. The consequence of
the teacher’s action is that Mark does not have to read.
 Wendy. Wendy displays behavioral challenges. During her seventh-
grade math lessons, she tears up her math papers and throws them in
the trash. Her classroom teacher is sure Wendy can do the work but she
just will not do it. In reviewing her records, Wendy’s teacher notes that
her latest individual achievement test scores show that her math skills
are at a third-grade level.

Reflective Questions
1. What could Mark’s teacher do in place of expecting him to read aloud
in a round-robin type of reading?

2. What should Wendy’s math teacher do now that she has the
information about Wendy’s achievement test scores?

Did You Get It?

When Solomon, a child with a learning disability and a secondary

behavioral disorder, refuses to work, cooperate, and interact at the end
of the day, what is the last thought his teacher should consider?

a. He is probably exhausted from the challenges he has faced.

b. It’s not easy for him.

c. He’s got a lot to carry on his young shoulders.

d. He’s acting out and pushing buttons.

6.2 Social Challenges

Social skills consist of skills that are necessary to meet the basic
social demands of everyday life. Deficits in social skills are among
the most crippling types of problem that a student can have. In
terms of total life functioning, a social disorder may be far more
intimidating than an academic dysfunction. A social disorder
affects almost every aspect of life—at school, at home, and at play
(Silver, 2006). Social challenges involve the student’s ability to
interact with others. When students are not aware of the nuances
of social situations, they are unsure of how to act or how to make
friends. It is estimated that one third of students with learning
disabilities also have problems with social skills (Elksnin &
Elksnin, 2004; Bryan, 1997; Voeller, 1994). Some individuals with
learning disabilities are less socially skilled than their same-aged
peers (Gresham et al., 2006). If they are asked to use cognitive
social behaviors, they are less able to do so than their peers. If they
are asked to solve a social problem, they may jump to a solution
quickly rather than use problem-solving strategies to arrive at the
best answer to the problem. If pressured, they tend to engage in
antisocial behaviors (Schumaker & Deshler, 1995). Students with
learning disabilities accounted for 52% of all students with
disabilities who experienced disciplinary actions during the 2007–
2008 school year. Learning disabilities is the second most
common disability found among incarcerated juveniles (Cortiella,
2011).

Some students who have social difficulties do quite well in

academic domains, while other students have both social and
academic difficulties. Also, it is important to recognize that not all
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
encounter difficulties with social skills (Gresham et al., 2006). In
fact, for many, the social sphere is an area of strength. These
students are socially competent at making and maintaining
friends, and they work at pleasing teachers and parents (Haager &
Vaughn, 1997).

Difficulties in the social arena are also characteristic of students

with autism, and nonverbal disabilities (see Chapter 7, “Autism
Spectrum Disorders and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder”).

Students who have problems with social relationships may lack

sensitivity to others, have a poor perception of social situations,
 and suffer social rejection. They may exhibit a wide range of poor
social traits, such as impulsiveness, low tolerance for frustration,
and problems in handling day-to-day social interactions and
situations (Sridhar & Vaughn, 2001; Wong & Donahue, 2002;
Bryan, 1997).

Having a social challenge puts a child at a great disadvantage. In

school and in other environments, students need well-developed
social and interactive skills in dealing with peers and adults.
Although these students want to be accepted socially, they often
do not know how to engage in appropriate social behaviors. Our
job as educators is to help students learn how to improve their
ability to respond appropriately in social situations. A story of a
student with social difficulties is described in the feature Student
Stories 6.2, “Bill: A Student With Social Challenges.”

Student Stories 6.2 Bill: A Student With Social Challenges

Bill feels isolated—he doesn’t feel like he belongs to any social group at
school. One day, a group of students is huddled together planning
something. They ask Bill if he wants to join them. Bill is pleased that he has
been asked to join a group. It seems that the group is plotting a bomb threat
at the school. They ask Bill if he would call in the bomb threat the next day.
They assure Bill that he won’t get caught and they will allow him into their
group permanently if he will do just this one thing for them. The next
morning Bill calls in the bomb threat. A police investigation occurs and Bill is
arrested, has to appear in court, and is suspended. When Bill tries to tell the
police officers what happened, the police question the other students who
obviously don’t admit that they had anything to do with the event.

Reflective Question
1. What interventions other than suspension could have been provided
for Bill?
 Children need well-developed social and interactive skills in dealing positively
with peers and adults.

Myrleen Pearson/Alamy

Did You Get It?

Of the 23 students in your class, 15 have a learning disability.

According to statistics, if your class is demographically representative,
you have approximately how many children in your class with both a
learning disability and some deficit in social skills?

a. 1

b. 3

c. 5

d. 7–8

6.3 Emotional Challenges

 Emotional challenges often interfere with academic learning.
When students are troubled by emotional challenges, it is arduous
for them to focus on academic tasks. Students may be preoccupied
with other problems that prevent them from successfully
completing the academic tasks.

6.3a Relationship Between Learning

Difficulties and Emotional Challenges
The emotional development of typically developing students can
be very different from the emotional development of students with
learning problems. Successful achievers have a multitude of
gratifying experiences to develop important basic feelings of self-
worth, and they have hundreds of opportunities for self-
satisfaction, as well as the enjoyment of pleasing others. When
students are achieving, the parent-child relationship is mutually
satisfying because normal accomplishments stimulate parental
responses of approval and encouragement. As a result of students’
own feelings of accomplishment and their awareness of the
approval of those around them, achieving students develop a
sense of self-worth and a prideful identity. Successful achievers
establish healthy identifications with their mothers, fathers, and
other key figures in their lives, building feelings of self-worth, a
tolerance for frustration, and a consideration for others (Lavoie,
2007; Silver, 2006).

In contrast, the emotional development of students who

encounter learning problems follows a very different pattern. If
the central nervous system is not intact and is not maturing in a
normal manner, disturbances in motor and perceptual
development lead to dissatisfaction with one’s self. Failed
attempts at mastering tasks induce feelings of frustration, rather
than feelings of accomplishment. Instead of building self-esteem,
the thwarted attempts produce an attitude of self-derision and, at
 the same time, these thwarted attempts fail to stimulate the
parents’ normal responses of pride. Parents, therefore, may
become anxious and disheartened, reactions that can result in
either rejection or overprotection.

With such a developmental scenario, it is not surprising that many

students with mild disabilities and students with learning
disabilities develop emotional challenges. These students may
react by either internalizing or by externalizing their
emotional problems. An internalizing reaction may take the form
of a conscious refusal to learn, a resistance to pressure, clinging to
dependency, quick discouragement, a fear of success, sadness, and
withdrawal into a private world. An externalizing reaction can take
the form of overt hostility, acting-out behaviors, excessive anger,
fighting with other children, and defiance toward teachers.

The environment should be a place in which the student can be

successful. It is important to restructure tasks to assure success.
These students do have many strengths and interests, and
teachers and families must find those areas of strengths and
capitalize on them. By recognizing students for their
accomplishments, teachers reduce feelings of inadequacy,
decrease anxiety, and increase student beliefs in themselves.

It is not unusual for students with serious emotional or behavioral

problems to also have a coexisting learning disability (Kauffman &
Landrum, 2009). If the problems are so severe that they interfere
with further learning and life activities, the student may be
referred for psychological or psychiatric counseling (Silver, 2006).

6.3b Characteristics of Emotional Challenges

In this section, we describe several characteristics of emotional
challenges.
Depression Many students with emotional challenges suffer
from depression and a general pervasive mood of unhappiness.
Depression may be a reaction to the stress and frustration of
school demands, to the lack of friendships and social interactions,
or may stem from a biochemical predisposition. Signs of
depression include

1. loss of energy,

2. loss of interest in friends,

3. difficulty in concentration, and

4. feelings of helplessness,

which occasionally are expressed through suicidal talk (Silver,

2006; Rutter, 2003; Gorman, 1999).

Lack of Resiliency Although a person’s feelings of self-worth

may be threatened by continual failure, it is interesting to note
that not all individuals who face difficulties in life develop low self-
esteem. Some have remarkable resiliency and are able to preserve
self-confidence and self-worth (Goldstein & Brooks, 2005; Brooks
& Goldstein, 2002; Freiberg, 1993; Keogh, 2000). Their resilience
seems to come from a mix of internal and external factors
(Sorensen et al., 2003). Resilience has been described as “a
buffering process”—it doesn’t eliminate risks or the adverse
conditions that one might face but it helps individuals deal with
those conditions effectively (Brooks & Goldstein, 2004). What are
the factors that enable individuals to keep on trying, and how can
the school help build resilience? Self-worth is gained through
mastery of a skill or task, through perceived respect from peers,
and through feelings of competence. Students who believe that
they have competencies in areas other than academic work are
less likely to be devastated by school failure. To maintain their
sense of self-worth, students need a support system from teachers,
from parents and families, and from peers who acknowledge that
these students possess specific competencies. The support system
preserves student self-worth by keeping failure to a minimum;
increasing the visibility of nonacademic talents, skills, and
competencies; and emphasizing learning goals over performance
goals. For example, the student can be given credit for performing
a task in the correct manner (a learning goal) even though the
final answer may not be accurate (the performance goal).

It is fascinating to observe individuals who have achieved

greatness and maintained a sense of belief in their self-worth and
in what they were doing despite having faced years of rejection
and ridicule. Examples include Gertrude Stein, the famous poet,
who submitted poems to editors for about 20 years before one was
finally accepted for publication; Vincent van Gogh, who sold only
one painting during his lifetime; and Frank Lloyd Wright, who
was rejected as an architect during much of his life. So, too, many
individuals with learning disabilities have overcome failure and
rejection because they strongly believed in themselves. The stories
of adults with learning disabilities who have succeeded against the
odds are inspiring, and their resilience is evident in their success
(Hart, 2009; Gerber & Brown, 1997; Gerber & Reiff, 1991; Smith,
1991).

Anxiety Students with learning disabilities and related mild

disabilities display more symptoms of anxiety than their peers.
The demands and pressures of school and high-stakes testing
provoke increased anxiety and even panic. These students feel that
events beyond their control are happening to them. When they
encounter these situations, they feel hopeless and become frozen
and panicked during these periods of intense pressure. Anxiety
may cause students to miss class, to tune out, and to become
disorganized. Feelings of anxiety are real and must be understood
by teachers and families (Gorman, 1999). One student had such
high anxiety when she took a highstakes assessment test that she
spelled her last name incorrectly. Some test-taking tips are
provided in Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults With Learning
Disabilities and Related Mild Disabilities.”
 It is important to accent students’ strengths to build their belief in their self-
worth.

Steve Skjold/Alamy

Did You Get It?

Loss of interest in what was previously valued; in friends and

acquaintances; and possible suicidal thoughts, talk, and ideation can
and should all be considered signs of

a. depression.

b. learning disabilities.

c. behavioral disorders.

d. panic disorder.

6.4 Behavioral Challenges

 Students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
sometimes exhibit co-occurring behavioral challenges. These
behavioral challenges must be considered in planning instruction
(Farley et al., 2012; Burns et al., 2009; Haydon et al., 2009; Buck
et al., 2000; Scott, 2003). When students struggle with learning,
they may become so frustrated that they act out or refuse to work.
Because they cannot get attention for strong academic skills, they
may seek to get attention for inappropriate behaviors.

6.4a Suspensions of Students

Some students engage in behaviors in an attempt to be accepted
by peers, or they impulsively engage in a behavior, not realizing
the consequences of their behavior. Thus, they get into trouble.
Students with disabilities have higher rates of suspension than
youth without disabilities. An analysis of data from the U.S.
Department of Education based on the 2009–2010 school year
showed that 13% of students with disabilities in kindergarten
through grade 12 were suspended compared to 7% of students
without disabilities in urban middle schools (Losen & Skiba,
2012). Studies of students with learning disabilities and students
with attention deficit disorders show that these students have a
higher risk of being suspended. When academic tasks become very
difficult, these students may respond with disruptive behaviors
that result in suspensions (Johns & Carr, 2012; Krezmien, Leone,
& Achilles, 2006).

If the student is suspended or expelled, the IEP (Individualized

Education Team) team must make a manifestation
determination. This means that the IEP team must decide
whether the presenting problem behavior is a result of the
student’s disability and whether the current IEP is being
implemented. If the behavior is a result of the disability or if the
services on the IEP were not being met, services must continue for
 students with disabilities who have been suspended or expelled
because of their behavior.

Of concern is the number of students reported to either be

suspended from school for more than 10 school days or to be
removed to an interim alternative educational setting for drugs or
weapons. According to the Civil Rights Data Collection’s 2009–
2010 statistics based on data from 72,000 schools in 7,000
districts that serve approximately 85% of American students, it
was reported that 1 in 5 black males and 1 in 10 black females
received an out-of-school suspension (Lewin, 2012). In 10 states
in urban middle schools more than 25% of black students with
disabilities were suspended in 2009–2010 (Losen & Skiba, 2012).
In a Texas study reported in 2011, almost 60% of the students in
grades 7 through 12 had received an in-school suspension, an out-
of-school suspension, or had been expelled. Out of all of the
students who were suspended, students who qualified for special
education constituted 75%. About 76% of the students identified
as having a learning disability had at least one disciplinary action
(Fabelo et al., 2011; Johns & Carr, 2012).

Student Stories 6.3 Alex: A Student with Manifestation

Determination

Alex, a seventh grade student with autism, was going to be expelled because
he was spending too much time in the bathroom. The IEP team convened
and determined that spending too much time in the bathroom was not
related to Alex’s disability of autism. As a result of a complaint by the parent,
a more thorough investigation of the situation occurred. Alex loved to watch
water spinning and going down the drain. When Alex would go into the
restroom, he would repeatedly flush the toilet so he could watch the water
spin. This behavior was specifically noted in elementary school reports and
evaluations. Further exploration also found that Alex was to receive social
work services for 60 minutes weekly. Alex was receiving no social work
services because the previous social worker had left and was not replaced this
 year. In this case, Alex could not be expelled and had to be provided
appropriate services.

Reflective Questions
1. What should the IEP team have done prior to convening the
manifestation determination?

2. Develop a plan to reduce the amount of time that Alex spends in the
bathroom.

One-third of youth with learning disabilities are suspended or

expelled from school at some point (Cortiela, 2011). In certain
school districts, students who have disabilities are 2 to 3 times
more likely to be subjected to discipline than those students
without disabilities (Cortiela, 2011).

Unfortunately, a result of suspension is that students fall further

behind academically. Suspension disengages them from the school
system and increases the likelihood that they will drop out of
school. Suspension also allows the student to escape the situation
and does nothing to teach the student appropriate behavioral
skills. It is our responsibility as educators to work to keep our
students in school.

6.4b Functional Behavioral Assessment and

Positive Behavioral Supports
The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (IDEA-2004) requires that if the child’s behavior interferes
with his or her learning or the learning of others, the IEP team will
consider strategies and supports to address the child’s behavior.
Moreover, if a child with disabilities displays behavior that
impedes his or her learning or that of others, the IEP team must
be able to evaluate the child’s behavior through a functional
 behavioral assessment and to design positive behavioral supports
to change the student’s troublesome behavior (Institute of
Education Sciences of the U.S. Department of Education, 2008,
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998; Smith,
2000; Sugai & Homer, 1999; U.S. Department of Education,
2000a). (See the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
website at http://cecp.air.org, the Positive Behavioral Intervention
and Supports website at http://www.pbis.org, the Families and
Advocates Partnership for Education website at
http://www.fape.org, and Dr. Mac’s Amazing Behavior
Management Advice Site at http://www.behavioradvisor.com.)

Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) A

functional behavioral assessment (FBA) involves
determining the cause, or antecedent event, that triggers the
child’s behavior. The concept of functional behavior assessment is
not new. It is based on the applied behavior analysis procedure
called ABC: antecedent, behavior, consequence (see Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1 Functional Assessment: ABC Behaviors

© Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 6.2 illustrates these three behavioral events.

Figure 6.2 Example of ABC: Antecedent Event, Behavior, and

Consequent Event
 © Cengage Learning

Functional behavioral assessment requires a thorough look at

factors that may be contributing to behavioral concerns. Some
examples of behavioral concerns are

When the teacher asks Charlie to read (antecedent event), he

begins to disturb others in the classroom by hitting them.

Jerry swears and uses inappropriate language when asked to

do an independent math task.

Sylvia refuses to copy from the chalkboard in the classroom.

Upon further investigation, it is learned that Sylvia has a
vision problem and cannot see the board. Rather than
admitting that she cannot see, Sylvia refused to copy from
the board.

Cultural factors also must be considered as part of a

thorough functional assessment. For example, the teacher,
Mr. Jones, demands that the student look at him and give
him eye contact when he speaks to the student. Yet in that
student’s culture, eye contact is a sign of disrespect.

Five important outcomes gained from the functional assessment

process are (O’Neill et al., 1997; Fox & Gable, 2004):

1. A clear description of the problem behavior

2. Identification of the events, times, and situations that

predict when a problem behavior will and will not occur

3. Identification of the consequences that result in the

maintenance of the behavior
 4. Development of summary statements or hypotheses that
describe the problem behavior, in what situations it occurs,
and what maintains the behavior

5. Collection of direct observation data that support the

summary statements

Positive Behavioral Supports (PBS) Positive

behavioral supports are strategies to change a student’s
troublesome behavior and to increase positive behavior or to
replace an undesirable behavior. For example, Charlie is only
asked to read aloud after he has practiced and prepared to do this
task. Charlie’s response can be modified by rewarding him when
he responds in a more suitable fashion. Jerry signs a contract to
respond using appropriate language. These positive behavioral
supports are based on strategies of behavior management.

Questions that should be asked to develop positive behavioral

supports include

1. What happened?

2. What happened before?

3. What happened after?

4. How can the student’s response be changed?

What can the adult do to assure that the adult is encouraging the
student to engage in appropriate behavior? The steps for
developing positive behavioral supports include

1. collecting and reviewing the student’s background

information and data,

2. functional behavioral assessment, and

3. writing a plan to change the student’s behavior (Buck et al.,

2000).

A website for positive behavioral supports can be found at

http://www.pbis.org/main.htm.
IDEA-2004 stipulates that if a child’s behavior impedes the child’s
learning or the learning of others, the IEP shall consider
strategies, including positive behavioral interventions and
supports, to address the behavior. Positive behavioral support as a
general term refers to the culturally appropriate applications of
positive behavioral interventions and systems to achieve socially
important behavior change (Center for Effective Collaboration and
Practice, 1998; U.S. Department of Education, 2002).

Strategies to implement positive behavioral interventions include

A desirable replacement behavior should be taught to the

student. For example, if the student throws a math book, an
alternative math assignment could be given so that the
student is successful in completing a math assignment.

Modify the environment to increase the effectiveness of the

replacement behavior. For example, the student would
receive a consequence for throwing the book such as being
removed from the math class but the student would still be
expected to complete the math assignment in a different
setting.

Throughout the process, the student must be taught the

appropriate behaviors and must be recognized positively for
engaging in those behaviors.

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a

nationwide project funded by the U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Special Education Center to establish school-wide
systems that are based on positive recognition of appropriate
behavior. Current updates on that project can be found on the
website at http://www.pbis.org/main.htm.

School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS)

Throughout the country, schools are being encouraged to promote
positive learning climates for their students. School-wide
positive behavior support (SWPBS) is a proactive school-
wide approach that addresses the entire school as well as
individual students. It focuses on prevention of behavioral
 problems and recognition for positive actions of students. In this
approach, school-wide data is collected and used to make
decisions and plan an effective school wide program, students are
taught the behavioral expectations within the school and are
recognized for meeting those expectations, and a continuum of
supports are established to meet the needs of students (Flannery,
Sugai, & Anderson, 2009). In PBIS schools, universally designed
interventions are designed for all students within the school. Clear
expectations are set and students are recognized for performing
those expectations. Students are taught the expectations. They
may get special tickets that are good for a drawing or can be
cashed in for special prizes. For those students who need more
than the universally designed interventions, secondary
interventions are put into place. The student may need more
individual attention, may need additional interventions, or may
need a closer look at the reasons for the behavior. There will be
those students who fail to respond to either universal or secondary
interventions and those students will need tertiary interventions.
They may need to be referred for a comprehensive case study
evaluation that includes a thorough functional assessment. They
may need additional support services such as those offered by a
school social worker or a school psychologist.

6.4c Specific Functions of Behavior

Behavior is communication, and our job as educators is to
ascertain what the student is telling us. By recognizing the
function of the student’s behavior, the educator can change either
the antecedents or the consequences in order to meet the need of
that student. Function-based interventions can make meaningful
and lasting change (Gage, Lewis, & Stichter, 2012; Lane et al.,
2006; Liaupsin et al., 2006). In order to assess the function of the
behavior, it is important for the general educator and the special
educator to work collaboratively. Oftentimes it is difficult for a
teacher to see the function of the behavior because he or she may
be too close to the situation and can’t always see what is driving
the behavior. However, another individual may be able to see the
function of the behavior more clearly.

The general educator may not have the time to collect the
necessary data on how many times a student engages in a specific
behavior and at what times of day and during what specific
academic activities a behavior is occurring. If the special educator
can take the time to observe in the classroom and collect the data,
it assists the team in determining appropriate behavioral
interventions.

The major purposes of behavior are described below.

Purpose of Behavior 1: Access Some examples of

engaging in a specific behavior to gain attention, power, and
control are:

Example 1: Jerry likes to get attention from the teacher and has
learned that he can get attention by getting out of his seat without
permission. Each time Jerry gets out of his seat, the teacher tells
him to sit down (thus giving Jerry attention for inappropriate
behavior). A teacher can meet this need for attention by changing
the consequence. If the teacher gives Jerry attention when he is
sitting in his seat, the teacher is meeting his need for attention.

Example 2: Sammy wants access to power and control, and he

gets that power and control by bullying other students. With the
increase in bullying in the schools, it is critical that educators look
at the function of bullying behavior and recognize that students
may be engaging in such behaviors in order to gain power and
control. In this example, the teacher can change antecedents that
result in Sammy getting power and control for appropriate
behavior rather than the inappropriate behavior of bullying. The
teacher can build in choices in assignments. Sammy can do his
assignment with a blue pen or a red pen, or Sammy can choose
any 10 math problems, or Sammy can be provided opportunities
to do assistive work with another student.

Purpose of Behavior 2: Escape/Avoidance Engaging

in a specific behavior to avoid doing a task because the student
fears embarrassment or failure. Students may engage in specific
behaviors because they think that the task is too difficult for them
or there is too much of the task. Questions that teachers should
ask when they suspect that the student is trying to escape a task
are

Is the task at the appropriate level for the student? Is the

student embarrassed in front of his or her peers? Most students do
not want their peers to know that they cannot complete a task so
rather than embarrass themselves, they may engage in
inappropriate behaviors that allow them to escape the task.

Can the student read the assignment? Does the student

understand the vocabulary used in the assignment? The teacher
should look at a task in advance to review the vocabulary and see
if the student understands those vocabulary words.

Is there too much to do at one time? Often students are

overwhelmed at the sight of a task, such as when there are too
many words on a page or too many math problems on the page.

Does the student have emotional feelings about the task?

The student may have had a negative experience in a history class
previously and therefore wants to avoid doing any task related to
history.

Is the physical appearance of the worksheet

overwhelming to the student? Is the worksheet crowded with
too many different directions or difficult-to-read type?

Does the student understand the directions for the task?

Does an assignment take into account the way the student learns
 best? If the student has an excellent visual memory but is weak in
processing auditory information and remembering what he or she
hears, the student probably will be frustrated if the student is in a
classroom where the teacher uses straight lecture.

In the case of escape/avoidance, the teacher can change

the antecedent, specifically the type of assignment, so
that the student is able to complete the task. For example,
Maria has difficulty with written expression and refuses to write in
her journal because written work is difficult for her. The teacher
could allow Maria to record her thoughts for the journal into a
tape recorder and they could later transcribe the information.

Purpose of Behavior 3: Sensory Stimulation Some

students engage in behaviors as a result of sensory
overstimulation or not enough sensory stimulation.

Examples: There is too much noise, or the child needs

movement, or the child has an oral need to suck on something, or
the child is overly sensitive to the feel or texture of certain clothes.
Difficulties with touch processing might contribute to clumsiness
and awkwardness (Myles et al., 2004). The student might be
overstimulated by bright lights or too many details on a sheet of
paper (Myles, Adreon, & Gitlitz, 2006). For a description of how
FBA drives the behavior intervention plan, see the sample
behavioral intervention plan for Jerod in Student Stories 6.4.

Student Stories 6.4 A Behavioral Intervention Plan for Jerod

Jerod is a fifth-grade student with learning disabilities who is very resistant

to completing math assignments. When the teacher presents him with a
worksheet to complete in math (antecedent), he rips the paper up and throws
it on the floor each time (behavior); the teacher then sends Jerod to the office
(consequence). The function of the behavior is escape—Jerod actually has
done a good job of communicating that he doesn’t like to do math
worksheets, and he has learned that if he rips the paper up he will be sent to
the office. The functional assessment showed that Jerod does have the skills
to do fifth-grade level math work but worksheets are difficult for him because
of visual-motor perception difficulties. He is easily overwhelmed by a paper
with many math problems. However, Jerod has strong computer skills and
loves to read books about Superman.

The Behavior Intervention Plan for Jerod

A behavioral intervention plan is created. The replacement behavior desired
is the completion of written math assignments at the fifth-grade level. The
goal is for him to complete 20 math computation problems with 95%
accuracy. The goal is then broken down into benchmarks.

1. Jerod will complete 5 math computation problems with 95% accuracy.

2. Jerod will complete 10 math problems with 95% accuracy.

3. Jerod will complete 15 math problems with 95% accuracy.

4. Jerod will complete 20 math problems with 95% accuracy.

As part of the plan, the teacher agrees to give Jerod only 5 math problems at
one time. Each of the math problems will be enlarged so they are easy to
read. Jerod is told that when he completes the 5 math problems he will be
able to spend 5 minutes reading his book on Superman. A self-management
system is also developed in which Jerod is allowed to graph on the computer
using the Excel program to show how many math problems he completes
each day. When Jerod does 5 math problems successfully, the teacher will
add a new problem, gradually working up to Jerod doing 10 math problems.

In this behavioral intervention plan, the Premack principle (first you do this
and then you can do that—the process of doing a non-preferred activity
followed by a preferred activity) for reinforcement is used, and Jerod’s work
is rewarded when he successfully completes the math problems. Self-
management is built into the system by using Jerod’s strength in computers
as Jerod graphs his own progress.

In the event that Jerod refuses to do the assignment and throws the
assignment on the floor, Jerod will lose the privilege of reading his
Superman book, but he will not be sent to the office.
 Reflective Questions
1. Why is it important that a self-management system be built into any
behavioral intervention plan?

2. If this plan was not making a positive difference for Jerod after three
weeks, what might you do?

Did You Get It?

Suspension or expulsion from school of a child with a disability results

in a process known as “manifestation determination.” This action is
and must be initiated by

a. parents or guardians.

b. school administrators.

c. the IEP team.

d. Child Protective Services (CPS).

6.5 Strategies to Improve Social

Competencies
Students who are socially competent learn social skills effortlessly
through daily living and observation. Students with social
challenges need conscious effort and specific teaching to learn
about the social world, its nuances, and its silent language. Just as
we teach students to perform academic work (to read, write, spell,
do arithmetic, and pass tests), we should teach students with
social challenges how to live with and relate to other people.
6.5a Improving the Student’s Self-
Perception
Scrapbooks can help the students put together information about
themselves. The students should include pictures of themselves at
different stages of growth, pictures of their families and pets, a list
of their likes and dislikes, anecdotes about their past, accounts of
trips, awards they have won, and so on. One group of secondary
students with social challenges enjoyed making a PowerPoint
presentation entitled “About Me.”

6.5b Improving Nonverbal Communication

Spoken language is only one means of communication. People also
communicate by means of a “silent language” that relies on
gestures, stance, or facial expressions. Students with social
challenges need help interpreting communication messages
conveyed by this silent language. We list here some ways of
providing this help.

1. Pictures of faces. Collect pictures of faces and have the

students ascertain whether the faces convey the emotion of
happiness or sadness. Other emotions to be shown include
anger, surprise, pain, and love.

2. Gestures. Discuss the meanings of various gestures with

the students, such as waving good-bye, shaking a finger,
shrugging a shoulder, turning away, tapping a finger or foot,
and stretching out arms.

3. DVDs, CDs, and story situations. Find pictures, short

DVDs, or story situations in which the social implications of
gesture, space, and time are presented, and help the
students to identify the emotional content of
communication.
 4. What the voice tells. Help students learn to recognize
implications in the human voice, beyond the words
themselves, by having the students listen to a voice on a tape
to determine the mood of the speaker. Is the speaker happy,
sad, or angry? Role playing with different emotions is also
effective.

6.5c Cognitive Learning Strategies for Social

Skills
Often students with social challenges respond impulsively in social
situations. They act without considering what is required, without
thinking through the possible solutions, or without thinking about
the consequences of various courses of action. Through
instruction in the strategies of self-verbalization and self-
monitoring, students can be taught self-control to keep from
giving immediate, nonreflective responses. Students can learn to
ask themselves questions such as “What am I supposed to be
doing?” In other words, they are taught to stop and think before
responding. Teachers can model social learning strategies by
talking out loud with such thoughts as “Does this problem have
similarities to other problems I have encountered?” or “What are
three possible solutions?” The students then practice these skills
of self-verbalization, or thinking aloud.

Cognitive learning strategies instruction is effective for helping

students acquire social skills (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; Lenz &
Deshler, 2003). Social strategies instruction can change patterns
of responses in social situations. When students learn to develop
new cognitive responses to social problems, they begin to think
about the consequences of social actions. Cognitive learning
strategies can teach students:

1. to stop and think before responding,

2. to verbalize and rehearse social responses,

 3. to visualize and imagine the effect of their behavior, and

4. to preplan social actions.

Including Students in General Education 6.1, “Social Skills,”

presents several social skills strategies.

Including Students in General Education 6.1 Social Skills

Judging behavior in stories. Read or tell an incomplete story that

involves social judgment. Have the students anticipate the ending or
complete the story. A short video of a social situation provides an
opportunity to discuss critically the activities of the people in the video.
For example, discuss the consequences of a student’s rudeness when an
acquaintance tries to begin a conversation, or the consequences of a
student making a face when asked by her mother’s friend if she likes her
new dress, or the consequences of a student hitting someone at a party.

Grasping social situations through pictures. A series of pictures

can be arranged to tell a story that involves a social situation. Have the
students arrange the pictures and explain the story. Comics, readiness
books, beginning readers, and magazine advertisements are all good
source materials for such activities. The series can also include pictures
that are on transparencies.

Learning to generalize newly acquired social behaviors. After

students learn socially appropriate behaviors, they must learn to
generalize these behaviors to many settings, such as an inclusive
classroom, the home environment, playgrounds, and other social
situations. Students need many opportunities to practice and maintain
newly acquired skills. Collaboration between special education teachers
and general education teachers is needed to make plans for generalizing
in inclusive classrooms.

Learning conversation skills. Students must learn how to converse

with others. They must learn how to extend greetings, introduce
themselves, find a topic to talk about, listen actively, ask and answer
questions, and say good-bye.

Friendship skills. Students must learn how to make friends, give a

compliment, join group activities, and accept thanks.

Game-playing skills. Social skills can be taught to students through

the activity of playing games with others. The instruction involves social
 modeling, behavioral rehearsal, and behavior transfer while playing
games.

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

After Annabelle is taught appropriate, positive, and constructive

behaviors and she begins to acquire them, the next, critical step is

a. learning situational specificity of these new behaviors.

b. challenging the validity of these new behaviors.

c. generalization of the behaviors across situations and settings.

d. discussing these behaviors in-depth and formally contracting to

display them regularly

6.6 Strategies for Students With Emotional

Challenges
Student accomplishments can increase the ability to learn and
strengthen emotional outlook. Successful experiences build
feelings of self-worth, self-confidence, and self-respect. Teachers
should help students accomplish an educational task so that their
feelings of self-worth and self-esteem are enhanced. The
beginning of a mutual reinforcement cycle is also the beginning of
effective treatment (Silver, 2006). Teaching Tips 6.1, “Strategies
for Improving Self- Esteem,” offers ways to build self-esteem.

Teaching Tips 6.1 Strategies for Improving Self-Esteem

Build a rapport with the student. Teachers can provide a type of therapy
through skilled and sensitive clinical teaching. Try to gain the student’s
confidence and show sincere interest in the student.
 Provide students with tasks at which the students will be successful.

Provide positive feedback and rewards for student successes.

Find the student’s areas of interest or hobbies and try to build lessons on
these interests.

Show enthusiasm with the student’s successes.

Make learning fun and enjoyable.

Find ways to visually show that the student is learning by using charts or
graphs.

Use an approach such as bibliotherapy, a technique to help students

understand themselves and their problems through books with
characters that are learning to cope with problems similar to those faced
by the students. By identifying with a character and working out the
problem with the character, students are helped with their own
problems. Books designed to explain the learning problem to the
students are also useful.

Engage the students in circle time activity in which participants are

seated in a circle and are encouraged to share their feelings, learn to
listen, and observe others. The program seeks to promote active
listening, focus on feelings, give recognition to each individual, and
promote greater understanding. Sample magic circle topics include “It
made me feel good when I …,” “Something I do very well is …,” and
“What can I do for you …?”

Use art, dance, music, and other creative media as therapy techniques
for promoting emotional involvement.

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

“ ” utilizes characters and situations from literature, characters

who are dealing with the same issues as your student, and situations
commonly encountered by your student to increase self-esteem and
self-awareness.

a. Characterization awareness

b. Literatherapy

c. Literary infusion
 d. Bibliotherapy

6.7 Strategies for Students With Behavioral

Challenges
Many students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities display disruptive or antisocial coping behaviors when
they are faced with challenging and frustrating work. In this
section, we discuss a variety of instructional strategies for students
with behavioral challenges. Including Students in General
Education 6.2, “Behavioral Challenges,” offers some strategies for
helping students with behavioral challenges in general education
classes.

Including Students in General Education 6.2 Behavioral

Challenges

Seating placement. Seat the student in a place with minimal extraneous

distraction and where you can readily ascertain if the student is
attentive. Place the student away from windows and doors.

Plan varied activities. Modify the classroom routine to enable the

student to get up and move around the classroom periodically. Have the
student pass out papers or put books away.

Provide structure and routine. Establish a routine and follow it each day.
If something unusual occurs, prepare the students by explaining what
event will happen and when the event will occur.

Require a daily assignment notebook. The assignment notebook helps

the students to organize time, know what is to be done, and designate
when it has been accomplished.

Make sure you have the student’s attention before you begin. Use an
attention signal, such as a hand sign or eye contact to gain the student’s
attention.
 Make directions clear and concise. Directions should be consistent with
daily instructions. Simplify complex directions and avoid multiple
commands. State directions in a positive way. “I need you to start your
math” is an example of a positive, short direction.

Break assignments into workable chunks. If workbook or assignment

sheets are cluttered and confusing, adapt them by breaking them into
smaller parts. Less material will be on the page, and the material will be
better organized. Give extra time as needed. Some students may work at
a slower pace and may require extra time to complete the task. Teach
students how to manage the time that is provided.

Provide feedback on completed work as soon as possible.

Encourage parents and families to set up appropriate study space at

home.

Make use of learning aids. Many students enjoy using computers,

calculators, and other learning aids.

Find something that the child does well and encourage that interest.

Professional Resource Download

6.7a Developing an Effective Behavioral

Intervention Plan
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed conducting a functional
behavioral assessment to determine a behavioral intervention
plan. Sometimes school personnel do a thorough job of functional
assessment, but then create a “one size fits all” behavioral
intervention plan. The behavioral intervention plan should be
based on the individual needs of the student. Student Stories 6.4,
“A Behavioral Intervention Plan for Jerod,” gives an example of
how a behavioral assessment can be used to develop a behavioral
intervention plan.
6.7b Creating a Positive Classroom
Environment
Children may feel threatened, or even defeated, by the demands
placed on them in school. Students crave a sense of competence
and achievement, which can be theirs when educators provide the
right structure for success (Johns, 2004). A positive classroom
environment is important in the process of conducting a positive
behavioral intervention plan. Teaching Tips 6.2, “Strategies for
Creating a Positive Environment,” offers methods for achieving
this goal.

Teaching Tips 6.2 Strategies for Meeting the Social and

Emotional Needs of Students

1. Model positive and peaceful behavior. The teacher is a positive

role model for the students—do as I say and as I do. At least 70% of
comments that the teacher makes to students must be positive
comments (Johns & Carr, 2009). Work to ensure that the student is
treated respectfully because reprimanding a student in front of his or her
peers is not respectful. Praise should be specific to the behavior desired.
For example: “Thank you for raising your hand”; “I like the way you
waited in line quietly”; “Thanks for walking in the halls.” If the student
gets something wrong, the teacher should utilize the opportunity to
reteach the skill rather than reprimand the student.

2. Provide routine, structure, and organization within the

classroom. Students need routine and structure so that they know
what will happen and when it will happen. The teacher should provide a
written or picture schedule that is posted in a highly visible place so
students know what will happen and when. If the schedule is going to be
changed during the day, the teachers should prepare students for that
change and reward them for making the adjustment. For students with
problems with organizational skills, teachers should help them become
better organized. A good motto is “A place for everything and everything
in its place.” The more we can provide labels for where items go, the
better it is for the student. At the same time, we are teaching the student
a useful life long skill.
 3. Establish clear expectations in the classroom. Teach expectations
for classroom behavior, and be firm, fair, and consistent in fulfilling the
expectations. Rules or expectations should be kept short and simple, and
they should be based on observable behaviors. For example: “Raise your
hand before speaking”; “Keep your hands to yourself”; “Walk quietly in
the hall.” Post rules as a reminder for students. Picture cues are effective
for students who have difficulty reading; post written hallway rules with
simple pictures alongside them as a visual reminder. Spend time
teaching the students the meaning of the rules and providing examples.
Provide reinforcement to those students who do follow the rules.
Expectations are meaningless if they are not backed up with
reinforcement for compliance and consequences for noncompliance
(Johns & Carr, 2009; Barbetta, Norona, & Bicard, 2005).

4. Create an environment of caring and success. Set the students up

for success by utilizing errorless learning techniques (discussed in the
next section). Our job as educators is to show students that we genuinely
care about them and that we are their cheerleaders for success. Establish
high expectations and show them that they have many strengths on
which they can capitalize. It is critical that we provide supports to our
students, learn about their lives, and reflect frequently on our role in
developing a caring relationship with our students. The way that the
teacher interacts with students during the initial stages of relationship
building is a determining factor in promoting either a positive or a
negative relationship (Mihalas et al., 2009).

5. Understand and respect the diverse cultures and backgrounds

of students in the class. Help students foster pride in their cultural
backgrounds. Create lessons in diversity based upon the students’
backgrounds, neighborhoods, and life experiences (Johns, Crowley, &
Guetzloe, 2002).

6. Make the classroom as physically appealing and beautiful as

possible. The classroom should be an inviting place where the students
want to be. Little things such as real or silk plants can give the classroom
a beautiful look. Rocking chairs offer the students an opportunity to
move while they read. A reading corner with comfortable chairs may be
more inviting for a student to go to read. Lamps will give the room a
softer light.

Professional Resource Download

Errorless Learning Techniques Errorless learning
techniques offer students the chance to succeed by accentuating
what the students do well. Two strategies that result in errorless
learning are fading and backward chaining. These
instructional strategies require conducting a task analysis on the
activities that are expected.

In the strategy called fading, the teacher gives the student

maximum cues to begin with and then fades those cues away until
the student is able to do the task on his or her own (Johns, 2004).
For example, if the student is learning cursive writing, the teacher
can provide a model of the letter to be written and the student
merely traces over the letter. The teacher then reinforces the
student for writing the letter. When the student is able to do this,
the teacher can then prepare a model with dotted lines and the
student traces over the dotted lines. The teacher then reinforces
the student with praise. The last step is for the student to write the
letter on his or her own. Let’s look at an example of fading used to
increase middle school and high school students’ compliance with
classroom rules. When students switch from class to class, it is
sometimes difficult for them to comply with different teachers’
rules. Perhaps one teacher expects students to raise their hand
before speaking; another teacher is not concerned with that
behavior. Middle school and high school teachers should have
their rules posted in an obvious spot in the classroom. This is an
excellent visual prompt for students. During the first two weeks of
school, each teacher reviews the rules of his or her classroom.
When students comply with the rules, the teacher remembers to
thank them for doing so. After the first two weeks, the teacher
fades his or her verbal prompt and simply points to the rules and
reminds the students of the importance of following the posted
rules. The teacher again thanks students for following the rules
and may write a short personal note to students who have
followed the rules. After the first month of school, the teacher
leaves the rules posted but no longer provides a verbal reminder.
However, the teacher continues to positively reinforce students
who follow the rules but does not do so as often as he or she did
the first month of school.

On Student Stories 6.4, you will find an explanation of the

importance of a behavior intervention plan and reference to the
plan that has been created for Jerod.

In backward chaining, the teacher gradually constructs a

backward chain, which is a chain in a reverse order from that in
which the chain is performed. The last step is established first;
then the next to the last step is taught and linked to the last step
(Martin & Pear, 2003; Johns, 2004). An example of backward
chaining occurs in teaching a student to tie shoes. The teacher
does all of the steps except pull the bow. The student does that and
is praised for doing so. The student then does the last two steps,
and so forth.

Let’s look at another example. The teacher is concerned that two

young children are not able to play cooperatively together. The
teacher wants them to be able to throw a ball back and forth. The
teacher decides that she will engage in the game with the two
students. She throws the ball back and forth to the students, never
expecting the students to throw to each other. She then praises
them for playing ball together. She has done all but the last part of
the chain. After the students have become accustomed to doing
that, she then throws the ball to each student and they throw it
back to her. She then throws the ball to one of the students and
expects one of the students to throw the ball to the other student
and the other student is to catch it. She then praises both students.
In the next step, she throws the ball to one of the students—he
catches it and throws it to the next student and then throws the
ball to the teacher. In the next step, the teacher begins the game
by throwing the ball to one student who throws it to the other
student and they throw it back and forth—teacher is praising the
students for playing together. In the last, the teacher removes
 herself completely from the game and the students throw it back
and forth.

6.7c Restructuring Academic Work to Make

It User Friendly
The following ideas are designed to restructure academic tasks to
make them less intimidating and more fun for the student.

Build choice into assignments to give students

power and control. For example, allow students to choose
where they work on the assignment or what color pen is used.
Structure two or more different assignments and allow students to
choose which assignment they want to do. Allow students to
choose the order in which they perform the assignment. Research
shows that building in choices about curricula results in higher
rates of on-task behavior and work completion (Strout, 2005;
Jolivette et al., 2002). Further, when a preferred task is assigned
rather than a non-preferred task, students have a higher level of
engagement (Cole et al., 1997). In a study of students’ academic
choices and their impact on academic performance, it was found
that students who had significant cognitive or behavioral
problems benefited more under conditions of student choice than
experiments with general education students. For general
education students, factors that may moderate the impact of
student choice include the nature of the task, the background of
the students, and feedback during the performance of the task
(Von Mizener & Williams, 2009).

Use response cards. Response cards serve to increase

student opportunity to respond and provide a high degree of
academic engagement. For example, teachers often ask questions
when instructing a group. Students who know the answers raise
their hands, whereas students who don’t know the answers look
 down and hope the teacher does not call on them. Instead, the
teacher can utilize a variety of response-card strategies. For
example, the teacher can give each student a small white board, an
index card, or a small blackboard. When the teacher asks the
question, all of the students write down what they believe is the
answer. After sufficient wait time, the teacher asks the students to
hold up their answer. When instructing with new material, elicit
four to six responses a minute from students who should then be
able to respond with 80% accuracy. Increasing opportunities to
respond has a positive effect on academic outcomes and classroom
behavior (George, 2010; Blood, 2010; Haydon et al., 2009;
Lambert et al., 2006; Council for Exceptional Children, 1987;
Sutherland, Alder, & Gunter, 2003).

Use traveling assignments for worksheets. Instead of

giving a student a worksheet with 100 math problems, cut the
worksheet into strips and tape the strips up around the room.
Students take a clipboard around the room and answer the
questions. This activity has the advantage of breaking the task
down into small steps and allowing students to move as they
complete the assignment.

6.7d Self-Management Strategies

Teach students to manage their own behaviors at any early age.
Self-monitoring during independent seatwork can improve
student accuracy in computation of basic math skills (Hodge et
al.,2006). Learning self-management fosters independence for
students and discourages the sense of helplessness. The following
steps can help students with self-management (Little, 2000).

Identify the behavior(s) that the student will monitor or

evaluate. Make sure that the behavior description is written
in Measurable, Observable, and Objective terms (MOO).
 Clearly state the expectations by which students will judge
their own performance.

Use a contract for self-monitoring, in which students define

positive behavior, how it will be monitored, and how it will
be rewarded.

Make random checks to gauge the accuracy of student-

completed forms.

Provide specific praise and corrective feedback.

Another effective self-management strategy is goal setting.

Following are steps for teaching this strategy.

1. First, teachers model the strategy by writing a goal for

themselves for a short period. Depending on the level of the
student, the teacher may want to set a goal for a half day.

2. Then the teacher assists the student in writing a goal for a

half day. At the end of the designated time period, the
teacher and the student evaluate if each has met the
established goal. As the student gets accustomed to the
process of goal setting, the teacher can then have the student
write a goal for the entire day.

3. Eventually students should write a goal for the week and

monitor their progress each day.

6.7e Positive Strategies for Passive-

Aggressive Behaviors
Some students may exhibit passive-aggressive behavior. For
example, aggression is exhibited through their refusal to do
something. They can make adults angry because they just do not
do what is expected of them. What is passive-aggressive behavior?

Simultaneous, combined passive and aggressive behavior

that is both conforming and irritating to others

Behavior that is more destructive to interpersonal

relationships than aggression
 Acts of passive aggression that are covert, insidious, and
could last a lifetime

Anger that is expressed indirectly (Long & Long, 2002)

When a student thinks the specific academic tasks are too difficult,
or the student just decides that he or she is not going to do the
task, the teacher may react by becoming very angry. Even though
the student has not acted out overtly, the student’s behavior has
brought out overt aggression on the part of the adult. The
following strategies can help teachers proactively deal with
passive-aggressive behavior:

Recognize that the student is engaging in passive-

aggressive behavior. For example, Randy pretends that he
does not understand what is to be done or that he did not hear the
directions. Teachers should be very clear in giving directions so
that the student understands what to do. It helps to provide visual
cues along with directions.

Avoid engaging in “begging” behavior. For example,

the student sits and will not do the task. The teacher knows that
the student is able to do the task. The teacher asks the student to
get the task done multiple times. The student further avoids doing
the task, seeing that the teacher is getting upset. Provide clear
directions no more than two times. When the student does what
the teacher wants the student to do, the teacher should praise the
student for the effort.

Acknowledge normal feelings of anger. Long & Long

(2002) suggest these steps:

1. Recognize that you are feeling angry toward the student but
do not express your anger through aggressive and passive-
aggressive behavior to the student;

2. Talk to yourself reminding yourself that you will not allow

the student to get to you and that you should stop and count
to 15 to yourself to calm yourself down. It is important to
 remember that if the student is not going to do a task, you
cannot make him or her do it; and

3. establish some specific routines that increase the likelihood

that the student will perform the task.

The following interventions help deal with feelings of anger.

Use an “I” message. For example, the teacher might say “I

am having difficulty dealing with your behavior right now. I
need to wait a few minutes. We need to discuss this situation
but not right now.”

Request that the student start a task. If a student

engages in passive-aggressive behavior when the teacher
tells the student to get the entire task done, the student may
become overwhelmed and, in all probability, will not
complete the task. Instead, just ask the student to start the
task.

Provide power and control by giving assignments

that incorporate choices. Give two assignments and ask
the students to choose one. Or the students can choose when
or where they do a certain task.

Utilize behavioral momentum. Prior to giving a difficult

task, the teacher can give the student an easy task to do (one
that the teacher knows the student will be able to do
successfully). When the student completes the task, the
teacher reinforces the student for completing the task. The
teacher then gives another task to the student that is easy for
the student to do. When the student completes the task, the
teacher provides a reinforcement. The teacher then gives a
more difficult task. Students will be more confident that they
can do the task because they have gained momentum by
successfully doing the simpler tasks. This technique is called
behavioral momentum.

Did You Get It?

A teaching technique in which a teacher initially provides frequent

cues, only to diminish those cues incrementally as the student becomes
more task aware and adept is

a. attenuation.
 b. fading.

c. prompting regression.

d. hint mitigation.

6.8 Behavior Management Strategies

Students with behavioral challenges can benefit from behavior
management strategies. Many teachers intuitively use many
behavior management procedures, but precise application of
behavior management requires that the procedures are systematic
and that the behaviors to be changed are observable and
measurable. In the following sections, we describe several
behavioral management activities.

6.8a Contingency Contracting

The contingency contract is a written agreement between the
student and the teacher. An example of a contingency contract is
shown in Figure 6.3. The idea that something desirable can be
used to reinforce something the student does not wish to do is the
essence of contingency contracting. This method is also called
“Grandma’s Rule” because grandmothers are alleged to promise,
“If you finish your vegetables, you can have your dessert.” For
example, Dave, who likes to play ball, is allowed to play after he
finishes his spelling work. Another name for this procedure is the
Premack principle, which is based on the premise that a
nonpreferred activity is reinforced with a preferred activity. As an
example, the student does not like doing math problems but loves
to color in a coloring book. If the student completes 5 math
 problems, he can color for 1–2 minutes. For an older student who
likes to draw or listen to his iPod, the student can do a set number
of math problems and then can have 5 minutes to draw or listen to
music.

Figure 6.3 Contingency Contract

© Cengage Learning

6.8b Time-Out
Time-out is a procedure in which a disruptive student is removed
from the instructional activities and placed in a designated
isolated area for a short period of time. Isolation does not have to
 be complete to be effective, but it does need to remove the student
from the group. Timeout can be a powerful technique to manage
disruptive behaviors in children, but it should be used cautiously.
If implemented properly, time-out offers an effective means of
managing behavior. Several conditions will increase the likelihood
of success with this method (Johns & Carr, 2009; Alberto &
Troutman, 2003):

Time-out should be brief, from 1 to 5 minutes, with young

children requiring the least amount of time. A common rule
of thumb is no more than 1 minute for every year of the
child’s age.

During a time-out, the teacher and the other children should

ignore the student.

Actively assist the student’s return from timeout by directly

engaging the child in ongoing activities (Groteluschen,
Borkowski, & Hale, 1990; McGrady, Lerner, & Boscardin,
2001).

Time-out is only effective if the teacher also reinforces the

child when the child is engaging in the appropriate behavior.
As an example, the teacher may have decided to use time-out
because the student is engaging in an inappropriate behavior
with a peer—the student has taken an item away from a peer
or the student has made a negative comment to a peer.
Timeout will not work unless the teacher also reinforces the
student when the student shares an item with a peer or
engages in appropriate and respectful conversation with a
peer (Johns & Carr, 2009).

Seclusionary time-out—time out where the student is

removed to a separate room—should be used very cautiously
and only as a last resort when other means of time out have
been exhausted. An increasing number of states have laws
and regulations that govern its use and those must be
followed. Be sure to research those laws and regulations as
well as your school board’s policy before implementing any
type of seclusionary time out.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 © Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Classroom Management:

Handling Students With Behavior Problems.” In this video case, a team of
school professionals is trying to better understand Peter’s behavior.

Questions
1. What do you think were the antecedents of Peter’s behaviors in both of
the classrooms?

2. Because behavior is communication, what do you think Peter was

trying to communicate with his behavior?

3. What were some of the positive interventions that were utilized with
Peter?

6.8c Cognitive Behavior Modification

Cognitive behavior modification is a self-instructional
approach to learning. It requires that individuals learn to motivate
themselves through

1. talking to themselves aloud,

2. giving themselves instruction on what they should be doing,

and
 3. rewarding themselves verbally for accomplishments
(Meichenbaum, 1977).

Cognitive behavior modification stresses techniques that give

students the tools to control their own behavior (Robinson, 2007;
Fitzpatrick & Knowlton, 2009).

The self-instructional cognitive behavior modification program

involves the following steps:

1. First, the teacher models or performs a task while talking to

himself or herself aloud as the students observe.

2. The students then perform the same task while talking to

themselves, under the teacher’s guidance.

3. The students quietly whisper the instructions to themselves

while going through the task.

4. The students use inner (or private) speech while performing

the task.

5. Finally, the students self-monitor their performance by

telling themselves how they did. For example, “I did well” or
“Next time I should slow down.”

Cognitive behavior modification has often been used with adults

in such settings as weight-loss programs. Students with learning
problems can use the procedure for all kinds of learning,
schoolwork, and homework. The goal of cognitive behavior
modification is not only to change the person’s behavior, but also
to increase the person’s awareness of his or her behavior and the
thinking associated with the behavior.

6.8d Using Reinforcements

Reinforcement theory offers a major tool for behavior
management. The use of reinforcements provides an important
strategy for teaching students appropriate behavior and for
managing behavior. Reinforcements are used to increase or to
 change behavior. By identifying reinforcements that a student
wants, teachers can construct a reward system that will promote
the desired behavior. Positive and immediate reinforcements are
the most effective in fostering the desired behavior. Stars, stickers,
raisins, tokens, points, praise, flashing lights, or simply the
satisfaction of knowing that the answer is correct are common
reinforcers. Examples of reinforcements:

After Annette reads five pages, she receives two tokens that
are exchangeable for a small toy.

In teaching reading to Serena, the desired behavior is having

her say the sound equivalent of the letter a every time a
stimulus card with the letter a is shown. For each correct
response, Serena immediately receives a positive
reinforcement, such as a piece of low-sugar cereal, stars,
points, praise, or attention.

To use reinforcements successfully, the teacher must

1. Identify potential reinforcers that will motivate the student

and accelerate performance on a specific task.

2. Identify the student’s responses or behaviors that should

trigger the reinforcer. Responses and behaviors must be
observable and clearly defined.

3. Arrange the environment so that the student receives

reinforcement for the desired behavior. A reward system
should be devised so that reinforcements are offered on a
predetermined schedule for the desired behaviors.

4. Eventually, have the student make independent

instructional decisions, such as making corrections and
establishing reinforcement values. Including the student in
the modification of the reward system is helpful as the
student is moved to a system of naturally occurring
reinforcers.

Teaching Tips 6.3, “Finding Reinforcers,” offers ideas on finding

appropriate reinforcers.

Teaching Tips 6.3 Finding Reinforcers

The success of behavior management depends upon finding the appropriate
reinforcer to increase the target behavior. What is viewed as desirable by one
student may hold little interest for another. To find a successful reinforcer,
observe the students to see what they choose to do in their free time or request
such information from the students and their parents. Reinforcers can be
extrinsic, which is something external, such as food or toys, for older students
it might be time to listen to music on the iPod, time to look at an appropriate
teen magazine, or time to talk with a friend; or reinforcers can be intrinsic,
which is something internal, such as the satisfaction of mastering a task. The
reinforcement can be social, such as praise or approval from a teacher or
parent. A personal note from the teacher can be very reinforcing to an older
student and can assist in establishing a positive relationship. It can be a token
to be exchanged for a later reinforcement or it can take the form of a privilege.
A good reinforcement for any individual is simply the one that works for that
individual. Several suggested reinforcements are

Foods: edible seeds, low-sugar cereal, popcorn, raisins, and fruit or fruit
roll-ups. If food is used as a reinforcer, the amount should be kept to a
minimum. Before considering the use of food, it is imperative that we
work with the family to determine whether the child may have specific
food allergies to different products. The use of food should always be
paired with positive verbal reinforcement—praise—so that the use of
food can be faded as soon as possible. Low-calorie and healthy foods are
always preferred if they are reinforcing to the student.

Play materials: Baseball cards, toy animals, toy cars, marbles, jump
ropes, gliders, crayons, coloring books, clay, dolls, kits, balls, puzzles,
comic books, balloons, games, and yo-yos may be appropriate for
younger students. Older students may like stress balls, fidgets that twist,
pencils or pens that have a particular smell, or baseball or basketball
cards.

Tokens: Marks on the blackboard or on the student’s paper, gold or

silver stars, marbles in a jar, plastic chips on a ring, poker chips, tickets,
and washers on a string. Older students like to earn raffle tickets for a
drawing at a specific time.

Activities or privileges: Having computer time, presenting at show and

tell, going first, running errands, having free time, helping with cleanup,
taking the class pet home for the weekend, leading the songs, seeing a
video, listening to music, and doing artwork. Older students like getting
 to leave for lunch a few minutes early or getting to leave for home a few
minutes early. Arrangements must be made ahead of time for such
privileges. If the school allows cell phones, they may want to earn the
privilege of getting to text message for five minutes.

Professional Resource Download

6.8e Home-School Coordination

Programs of home-school coordination are intended to
improve the behavior of students by combining school and home
efforts. Behavioral goals are established for the student, and each
day the teacher indicates the goals the student has met. These
behavior-management sheets are sent home, signed by the parent
to acknowledge the teacher’s comments, and then returned to the
school. The student is reinforced at home for the positive
behaviors displayed at school. As educators work to establish a
positive relationship with the parents, it is important that they
recognize the efforts of the parents—when the parent helps with
homework, when the parent gets the student to school on time
each day, when the parent answers notes from the teacher.
Parents need to be reinforced for their efforts and appreciate a
“Thank you, I really appreciate your support.” Below find a true
example of an experience one of the authors had:

Michael, a freshman in high school, had come to an alternative

school for students with significant behavioral disorders. His
mother, a single parent, was working two jobs to support the
family of four. Through recognition of Michael’s appropriate
behavior and many opportunities for his success, Michael became
a model student—he had perfect attendance, he thrived
academically and emotionally. The author, the principal of the
school, would often call his mother to brag about how Michael was
doing. The author stressed how much she appreciated all of the
 cooperation she received from the mother. When Michael’s
mother would come in for conferences, the author would talk
about how she admired the mother for managing to do all that she
did. The author established a positive relationship with the
mother.

Michael did so well that he was systematically integrated back to

his home high school. The time came for the IEP where Michael
was returned to his school full-time with consultation services by a
resource special education teacher. Michael did well for a few
weeks and then started acting up and exhibiting increasing
behavior problems; the home school called for a new IEP because
they wanted to return him to the alternative school. Further
investigation showed that the school was giving positive
recognition to Michael but no one had established a positive
relationship with Michael’s mother. No one was calling her when
Michael was doing well. Because her need for positive support was
not being met, she began to sabotage his new placement, wanting
him to go back to the alternative school. It was critical for the
school’s guidance counselor and the resource special education
teacher to frequently contact the mother to support her. That was
all that was needed to resolve the issue.

A sample home-school behavior-management sheet is shown in

Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4 Home-School Behavior Management Sheet

 © Cengage Learning

I Have a Kid Who… MARIO, a Student With Behavioral

Challenges
Mario recently moved to Jefferson School and he is in the fifth-grade
classroom of Mrs. Holden. There is no record that he has received any special
education services before. During the first week of class, Mario urinated on
another student in the classroom. He also had an incident where he soiled
his pants while outside after lunch. He complained to the teacher that the
lights were too bright in the classroom. Mrs. Holden went to the principal to
see if the principal could get any background information from Mario’s
previous school. When the call is made, the principal learns that a case study
evaluation was in progress but had not been completed because Mario
moved. His previous school reported that Mario would become very upset
when anyone would get close to him or when he would get dirty. The
 previous school had received a psychiatric report that Mario has Asperger’s
syndrome and ADHD.

The school personnel at his new school decide to initiate a case study
evaluation. During the parent interview, Mario’s mother reports that he is
one of two children in the home and his father is unknown to him. Mario’s
mother is very concerned about how Mario is doing both at home and at
school. Mario will not comply with his mother’s requests, and he is obsessed
with the notion that if he gets dirty, his arms will fall off. He has a special
interest in Superman and likes to watch those videos most of the time, if
allowed to do so.

While waiting for the case study evaluation, Mrs. Holden continued to work
with Mario. On at least five occasions, when a fellow student touched him
accidentally, he screamed for three minutes. Mario completes little work in
the classroom—only about 20% of all assignments across all subject areas
except for math. Mario does like to read but does not like math and refuses to
do any math work. His achievement test scores from his previous school
show that he is able to do fifth-grade work in reading recognition and
comprehension. His math skills are at a third-grade level.

Within the next three weeks, Mario soils his pants 5 more times. Each time
he becomes upset, goes into the bathroom, and won’t come out until the
principal calls his mother to come and get him. Mrs. Holden is frustrated and
puzzled. She awaits the IEP eligibility meeting, hoping she will get some help
with Mario.

Questions
1. If you were Mrs. Holden, what would you do to help Mario until the
case study evaluation is done?

2. What might Mario’s behavior be communicating to Mrs. Holden?

3. How could Mrs. Holden accentuate Mario’s strengths within the

classroom?

Did You Get It?

 “Tommy, if you are able to go each week without becoming verbally
abusive to your peers, I will allow you to have extra time to use the
binoculars on Friday, something I know you like to do. If you agree,
let’s draw up a contract.” The technique used by the teacher talking to
Tommy is contracting.

a. opportunistic

b. exigency

c. contingency

d. circumstantial

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
An increasing number of students come into today’s
classrooms with social, emotional, and behavioral
challenges. These challenges may be related to each other
and behaviors exhibited by students may either be
internalizing problems or externalizing problems.

It is critical that we teach students appropriate social skills

in order for them to function in today’s society.

There is a relationship between learning difficulties and

emotional challenges.

Behavioral challenges often result in suspensions that

disengage students from schools and to prevent such
disengagement, schools must utilize functional behavioral
assessments and positive behavior supports.

There are a number of effective strategies to improve social

competencies.

Strategies for students with emotional challenges include

strategies for building positive self-esteem.

Strategies for students with behavioral challenges include

the development of behavior intervention plans.
 Effective behavior management strategies include
reinforcement, contracting, cognitive behavior modification,
and appropriate use of time out.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Why do you think challenges in social skills are called “the most crippling
type of problem that a student can have”? What are common indicators of
social challenges?

2. Describe functional behavioral assessment and positive behavioral supports.

3. What is reinforcement? How can effective reinforcers be identified? What

types of reinforcers might be appropriate for adolescents?

4. What academic strategies can be utilized to reduce behavioral problems?

5. Discuss “resiliency.” Why is the quality of resiliency important to individuals

who have difficulty in learning?

Chapter Review

Key Terms
backward chaining

behavior management

behavior momentum

cognitive behavior modification

contingency contracting

externalizing

fading

functional behavioral assessment (FBA)

goal setting

home-school coordination
internalizing

manifestation determination

passive-aggressive behavior

positive behavioral supports

premack principle

reinforcement

reinforcement theory

school-wide positive behavior support

self-management

social skills

time-out
 Chapter

Related
Disabilities:
7
Autism
Spectrum
Disorders
(ASD) and
Attention
Deficit
Hyperactivity
Disorder
(ADHD)

Chapter Introduction

7.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder

7.1a Types of Autism Spectrum Disorders

7.1b Nonverbal Learning Disorders: A Related Condition

7.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

 7.3 Characteristics of ADHD

7.3a Symptoms of ADHD

7.3b Symptoms of ADHD at Different Ages

7.3c Assessment

7.3d Types of ADHD

7.3e Rating Scales

7.3f Eligibility of Children With ADHD for Special Services

7.3g Implications of the Law for Children With ADHD

7.3h Increase in the Number of Children Identified With ADHD

7.3i Educational Settings for Students With ADHD

7.3j Response-to-lntervention and Eligibility of Students With

ADHD

7.4 Treatments for ADHD

7.4a American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines for Treatment

7.4b Multimodal Treatment

7.4c Medication

7.4d Neurochemistry of Psychostimulant Medications

7.5 Methods for Teaching Students With ADHD

7.5a Increasing Attention

7.5b Managing Impulsivity

7.5c Reducing Hyperactivity

7.5d Accommodations for the General Education Classroom

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 BestPhotoPlus/ Shutterstock.com

They are able who think they are able.

—Virgil

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

7.1
Discuss Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

7.2
Discuss Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
 7.3
List the characteristics of ADHD

7.4
List treatments for ADHD

7.5
Demonstrate methods of teaching for students with
ADHD

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

CEC Initial Level Special Educator Preparation

Standards as approved by the National Council for the Accreditation
of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.2—Beginning special education professionals use motivational and
instructional interventions to teach individuals with exceptionalities how
to adapt to different environments.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.3—Beginning special education professionals modify general and
specialized curricula to make them accessible to individuals with
exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
 making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and
provide feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning
of individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.5—Beginning special education professionals develop and implement a

variety of education and transition plans for individuals with
exceptionalities across a wide range of settings and different learning
experiences in collaboration with individuals, families, and teams.

We devote this chapter to two related disabilities: Autism

Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD).

7.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) consist of a group of
developmental disabilities that are caused by problems with the
brain. Scientists do not know yet exactly what causes this
disability (Hunt & Marshall, 2012). The term autism spectrum
disorder (ASD) includes several types of conditions with a wide
range of symptoms, differences in when symptoms start, and
different levels of severity, from very mild to severe. However,
they share some similar symptoms, such as problems in social
interaction. In its milder forms, only a few of the characteristics of
autism are present or they are in a very mild form. In 2007, the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated a
prevalence rate of 1 in 150. In 2009, the CDC found a significantly
higher prevalence of autism spectrum disorders—1 in 110 children.
In 2012, the CDC reported that 1 in 88 children in the United
States is being diagnosed with autism—nearly a doubling of the
prevalence since the CDC began tracking these numbers. Autism
can now officially be declared an epidemic in the United States
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). In 2013, The
CDC reported that 1 in 50 children is being diagnosed with autism
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013).

Autism was first identified as a separate category of disability in

the federal legislation, IDEA, in 1990. Before 1990, autism was
included in the category of other health impaired (OHI) and prior
to that in the category of emotional disturbance.

The American Psychiatric Association publishes a reference

manual entitled the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), which provides criteria for the
diagnosis of all mental disorders (2013). The DSM-5 is widely
used by medical specialists, psychologists, and others. Autism was
identified in the DSM-IV-TR, but the category was changed in
DSM-5 (2013) to autism spectrum disorder. That is, the original
multicategorical diagnosis has been changed to a single diagnostic
category (Stetka & Volkmar, 2012). (DSM-5 published in May
2013 by the American Psychiatric Association).

Diagnosing ASD can be difficult because there is no physical

medical test, such as a blood test. ASD is typically diagnosed
through the child’s behavior and development. In addition, there
is no medication that can cure autism spectrum disorders. Four
times as many boys as girls are identified with ASD. It is
recommended that treatment begin as early as possible, by age 3
 (Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development, 2008; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2009).

7.1a Types of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorders has been defined in the DSM-5
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013) as the following:

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social

interaction across multiple contexts, as manifested b the
following, currently or by history:

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for

example from abnormal social approach and failure of
normal back-and-fort conversation; to reduced sharing
of interests, emotional, or affect; to failure to initiate or
respond to social interaction.

2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used

for social interaction, ranging, for example, from
poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal
communication; to abnormalities in eye contact and
body language or deficits in understand and use of
gestures; to a total lack of facial expressions and non-
verbal communication.

3. Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding

relationships, ranging, for example, from difficulties
adjusting behavior to suit various social contexts; to
difficulties in sharing imaginative play or in making
friends; to absence of interest in peers.

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or

activities as manifested by at least two of the following,
currently or by history (these examples are illustrative, not
exhaustive).

A. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of

objects, or speech.
 B. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to
routines, or ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal
behavior.

C. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in

intensity or focus.

D. Hyper- or hypoactivity to sensory input or unusual

interest in sensory aspects of the environment.

C. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental

period but they may not become fully manifested until social
demands exceed limited capacities, or may be masked by
learned strategies in later life.

D. Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social,

occupational, or other important areas of current
functioning.

E. The disturbances are not better explained by intellectual

disability or global developmental delay. An intellectual
disability and autism spectrum disorder frequently co-occur.

Previously the DSM-IV provided for different diagnosis of autistic

disorder, Asperger’s disorder, or pervasive developmental
disorder not otherwise specified. Now children who were
previously diagnosed with those disorders are to be given the
diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

This is a significant change in the diagnosis.

Asperger’s Syndrome Virtually unknown as a specific

condition until the 1990s, Asperger’s syndrome is now
recognized as a relatively common disability. Asperger’s syndrome
was first brought to the attention of the psychiatric community in
1944 by Hans Asperger (1944), a Viennese physician, who
published an article describing the unusual social isolation of a
group of children with whom he was working. However,
Asperger’s syndrome did not gain wide recognition until the
disorder was included in the American Psychiatric Association’s
DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
It is important to note that three previous autism diagnoses—
autism, Asperger’s, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders—have
been replaced with the single diagnosis of autism spectrum
disorders as per the DSM-5 released in May, 2013 (Moran, 2012
and American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome often have severe difficulty

in social interactions. Asperger’s syndrome is characterized by a
reluctance to accept change; an inflexibility of thought; and an all-
absorbing, narrow area of interest. Children with Asperger’s
syndrome are usually extremely good at rote memory skills (e.g.,
repeating facts, figures, dates, times) and many excel in
mathematics and science. There is a range of severity of symptoms
within the syndrome; the very mildly affected child often goes
undiagnosed, and many others may just appear odd or eccentric
(Baker & Welkowitz, 2005). Children with Asperger’s syndrome
lack an understanding of the rules of social behavior, such as eye
contact, proximity to others, gesture, and posture. They often
display emotional vulnerability and stress, and, as a result,
problems of poor self-esteem, poor self-concept, and depression
are common. In individuals with Asperger’s syndrome,
characteristics of difficulty with social competence can include
(Baker & Welkowitz, 2005):

Frequent misunderstanding of the social communication of

others

Lack of empathy or seeing the perspective of others

Poor play skills

Frequent conflicts with others

The target of teasing or bullying

Usually, children with Asperger’s syndrome receive instruction in

the general education classroom, but they often have academic
difficulties because of their poor organizational skills, poor
problem-solving skills, and poor motor skills that interfere with
their academic achievement. To succeed in the general education
 classroom, children with Asperger’s syndrome need the support of
special educators and related services personnel familiar with this
diagnosis. They need help in developing social skills, in academic
planning and programming and in support for their sensory
issues. Direct instruction of social skills is critical. With suitable
support and instruction, most children with AS can be successful
in school. Many students with AS are able to attend college and
enjoy a variety of successful careers (Goldstein, Naglieri, &
Ozonoff, 2008; Baker & Welkowitz, 2005; Myles, Cook, Miller,
Rinner, & Robins, 2000).

Student Stories 7.1 relates the story of Temple Grandin, a very

successful person with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Student Stories 7.1 Temple Grandin

Temple Grandin, Ph.D., is one of the most accomplished and well-known

adults with autism, possibly with Asperger’s syndrome. She has written
widely about living with autism and the many challenges and hardships she
has faced. She also describes how she learned to live with her problems and
succeed in the “neurotypical” world. Temple Grandin became an associate
professor at Colorado State College in animal husbandry and in livestock
handling. Her book Animals in Translation (2005) is a best seller. She
speaks around the world on both autism and cattle handling.

Temple Grandin describes in detail the difficulty she has with sound
sensitivity and with overstimulating sound sensations. She relies on visual
thinking and images. She explains that her reaction to being touched was like
a wild horse, flinching and pulling away. She believes that the reaction of an
autistic child and a wild horse are similar. According to Grandin, the process
of taming a wild animal has many similarities to an autistic child’s reaction
to touch (Grandin, 2008). For more information about Temple Grandin, go
to the website at http://www.autism.org/temple/visual.html.

Reflective Question
1. Why does Temple Grandin think that children with autism spectrum
disorder and wild horses are similar?
 Often students with ASD have an intense interest in a specific
topic and they acquire a broad knowledge about that subject. For
example, one student with ASD had acquired a broad knowledge
of Chicago restaurants. If given a location in the city or suburbs,
he could tell you the name of a restaurant, its location, type of
cuisine, and the price range for that restaurant. He used his
knowledge to make a Microsoft Access directory of Chicago
restaurants. Another student’s expertise was in geography.
Classmates could count on him knowing the capital of any country
or the major rivers in the states.

Every student with ASD is different and no one intervention will

be effective with every student (Goldstein, et al., 2008; Safran,
2002; Baker & Welkowitz, 2005). Teaching Tips 7.1, “Supporting
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” offers some ways to
work with students with ASD in the school environment. Figure
7.1 gives an example of the Social Story.

Teaching Tips 7.1 Supporting Students With Asperger’s

Syndrome

Use Social Stories. A strategy for increasing social knowledge is the

use of social stories. (See the website of The Gray Center for Social
Learning and Understanding at http://www.thegraycenter.org.) These
stories are often about problematic social situations, and they offer a way
for students to discuss the “how and what” of social situations. A
companion strategy is “comic strip situations.” Students discuss a comic
strip that implies a social situation. See Figure 7.1 for an example of a
social story comic strip, entitled Jitters, used with a young child with
Asperger’s.

Provide Direct Instruction in the “What” and “How” of Social

Relationships. Direct instruction can be used to teach specific
reactions to social situations. For example, Barbara can be taught three
polite refusals when she does not want help, such as “No thank you,” or
“I am fine right now, thanks.”

Circle of Friends. In the “Circle of Friends” strategy, an adult

facilitates interactions between the child with Asperger’s syndrome and
 classmates. The teacher might talk about the characteristics of
Asperger’s syndrome (with parental permission). The peers then
participate in ways to include the child in a social group of children.

Sensory Integration. Sensory integration refers to the processes that

the nervous system uses to integrate sensory information. In schools, the
occupational therapist is the related professional who can work with
classroom teachers to help students with sensory integration
dysfunction. (For additional information about sensory integration, see
Chapter 8, “Young Children With Disabilities.”)

Professional Resource Download

Figure 7.1 “Jitters” A Social Story Comic Strip

© Cengage Learning

A helpful website for Asperger’s syndrome is OASIS, Online

Asperger Syndrome Information and Support, at
http://www.AspergersSyndrome.org.

Helpful websites for Asperger’s syndrome include

 Online Asperger’s Syndrome Information and Support
(OASIS), http://aspergersyndrome.org. This website has
general information about Asperger’s syndrome.

Asperger’s Syndrome Coalition of the United States,

http://www.asperger.org.

The Online Resource and Community for Those With

Asperger’s Syndrome, http://www.wrongplanet.net. This
website is for young adults with Asperger’s syndrome, who
often refer to themselves as “Aspies.”

7.1b Nonverbal Learning Disorders: A

Related Condition
The condition of nonverbal learning disorders (NVLD) is
capturing the attention of many psychologists, physicians, and
researchers. Children with NVLD may function well in academic
areas but have problems in the social sphere. The condition of
NVLD is not identified within the special education law (IDEA-
2004); however, NVLD is recognized as a disorder in the field of
neuropsychology. NLVD is believed to have a neurodevelopmental
basis that involves a dysfunction in the brain’s right hemisphere.

Children with NVLD have difficulty understanding the subtle cues

that are inherent in nonverbal communication and that play such
an important role in social interaction. For example, these
children cannot read facial expressions to discern if a person is
sad, happy, or angry. They may not know how to initiate
friendships or recognize the idea of personal space. These social
cues are normally grasped intuitively through observation and
living, but children with NVLD need to be taught these social skills
through direct and explicit instruction (Rourke, 1995; Thompson,
1997; Boyle and Scanlon, 2010).

One mother described her daughter’s NVLD as a serious difficulty

in visual-spatial imagery, noting that her daughter could not find
 her way to a friend’s house nor was she able to visualize where her
classroom was at school. She had to remember words and verbal
labels to keep from getting lost (Martin, 2004).

Students with NVLD often have a high verbal intelligence, they

tend to be early talkers, and they are highly verbal. Because they
do well in reading and decoding in the primary years, their
nonverbal learning problems are frequently missed. Children with
NVLD often have poor visual-spatial abilities, poor nonverbal
problem-solving abilities, and low arithmetic skills. Problems with
NVLD become more evident in the later elementary school years,
during adolescence, and in the adult years (Dimitrovsky et al.,
1998; Rourke, 1995; Thompson, 1997).

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Including Students With High-
Incidence Disabilities: Strategies for Success.” The teacher, Martha
Cleveland, discusses the needs of students with high-incidence disabilities,
such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, nonverbal learning disorders,
and Asperger’s syndrome. She points out that special strategies are required
to accommodate the learning needs of these students in the elementary
classroom. Discuss these questions after you view the video.

Questions
 1. How can graphic organizers help students to organize their thoughts?

2. How can computer technology be used to help children develop graphic

organizers?

3. The video mentions that these children have problems with executive
functions. What are executive functions?

People with NVLD often have difficulty adapting to new

situations. Despite their high verbal intelligence and high scores
on receptive and expressive language measures, they inaccurately
read nonverbal signals and cues, and they lack the social ability to
comprehend nonverbal communication cues. If they do not
perceive subtle cues in the environment, they do not know when
something has gone far enough, and they cannot interpret the
facial expressions of others. Normally, these social cues are
intuitively grasped through observation; however, individuals with
NVLD need to be taught these social skills through direct and
explicit instruction (Dimitrovsky et al., 1998; Thompson, 1997;
Tsatsanis, Furst, & Rourke, 1997).

Adults with NVLD often have serious difficulty in the workplace.

Their problems include poor self-concept, mental health
problems, difficulty in social relationships, and terse or curt
response styles. Transitions are difficult because these individuals
like routine and find it difficult to take on new responsibilities and
assignments. Unable to reflect on the nature and seriousness of
their own problems, they tend to attribute their failures, as well as
their successes, to others, instead of to themselves. Their coping
mechanisms are often misinterpreted as emotional or
motivational problems (Price, 1997; Rourke, 1995; Thompson,
1997; Tsatsanis et al., 1997). A useful website for NVLD is LD
Online, http://www.nldline.com.

Did You Get It?

 Autism spectrum disorder diagnosis rates have been increasing sharply
in the U.S. in recent years to the most current prevalence rate of 1 case
per every 50 children. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) now considers these disorders

a. epidemic.

b. pandemic.

c. widespread.

d. catastrophic.

7.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
is a common cooccurring condition for children
with learning disabilities. (The terms
cooccurring, coexisting, and comorbidity are used to indicate that
a condition occurs along with another condition.) Research
indicates that between 25% and 40% of the children with learning
disabilities have cooccurring ADHD and that between 30% and
65% of the children with ADHD have cooccurring learning
disabilities (Goldstein, 2007; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2005; Silver, 2006; Fletcher et al., 2000). (See the
website of Children and Adults With Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder at http://www.chadd.org.)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a

condition of the brain that makes it difficult for children to control
their behavior in school and social settings. It is one of the most
common chronic conditions of childhood and affects between 4%
and 12% of all school-age children. About three times more boys
 than girls are diagnosed with ADHD (American Academy of
Pediatrics, 2001).

Two different terms are used to refer to this condition:

1. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the

terminology in the DSM-5, which is used by physicians and
psychologists (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and

2. attention deficit disorder (ADD), which is used by the

U.S. Department of Education and many schools. Both
terms refer to the same disorder.

We will use the term ADHD because it is being used more

frequently in the literature. With increasing frequency, physicians
and psychologists are identifying children with ADHD.

There are several active support groups that can provide

additional information to parents of children with ADHD and to
the professionals who work with them:

CHADD, Children and Adults With Attention Deficit

Disorder: http://www.chadd.org

National Resource Center on ADHD, A Program of CHADD:

http://www.help4adhd.org

ADDA, Attention Deficit Disorder Association:

http://www.add.org

AD-IN, Attention Deficit Information Network, Inc.:

http://www.addinfonetwork.com

Did You Get It?

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is rooted in ,

which makes it difficult or impossible for children to concentrate in
various settings and situations.

a. the brain

b. the entire central nervous system

c. unknown cause

d. the circulatory system

7.3 Characteristics of ADHD
ADHD is a chronic neurological condition characterized by

1. inattention,

2. impulsiveness, and

3. hyperactivity.

Inattention refers to the child’s inability to concentrate on a

task. Impulsiveness is the tendency to respond quickly without
thinking through the consequences of an action. Hyperactivity
refers to behavior that is described as a constant, driving motor
activity in which a child races from one endeavor or interest to
another. Many individuals with ADHD show problems in each of
these areas, but some will have only one or two of these behaviors
(Silver, 2006; Elison, 2006).

Children with ADHD have difficulty staying on task, focusing

attention, and completing their work. Roughly one-half of all
children with ADHD have a cooccurring learning disability. They
are easily distracted, rushing from one idea or interest to another,
and they may produce work that is sloppy and carelessly executed.
They give the impression that they are not listening or have not
heard what they have been told. Children with ADHD have
attention problems, impulsive behavior, and problems with
hyperactivity. They often display symptoms of age-inappropriate
behavior (Barkley, 2005; Accardo et al., 2000; Haber, 2000;
Lerner, Lowenthal, & Lerner, 1995; Rappley, 2004; Silver, 2004,
2006). Children with ADHD are known to turn off some peers
during their first contact because of their difficulty in joining other
children in a social interaction (Hund and Landau, 2012). In
addition, students with ADHD often have deficits in academic
 achievement (Scheffler, et al., 2009). An example of a young child
with ADHD is presented in Student Stories 7.2.

Student Stories 7.2 Ryan, a Child With ADHD

Ryan’s parents have come to dread the phone calls from his teacher. He is
only 6 years old, but he is already viewed as a discipline problem. When
Ryan was 3, his nursery school teacher informed his parents that Ryan’s
pushy behavior interfered with the play of his classmates. The nursery school
teacher described him as an undisciplined child. At age 4, his preschool
teacher said that the other children complained about Ryan’s aggressive
behavior. At age 5, his kindergarten teacher described him as a wild boy who
ran about the room knocking toys off the shelf and interrupting other
children. His classmates did not want to play with him because he was so
aggressive.

Now Ryan’s first-grade teacher compares him to a tornado. When Ryan

enters a room, he changes the tone from a peaceful and quiet class to total
pandemonium. Ryan’s distraught parents are reluctant to take him anywhere
because of his sudden tantrums. He has never been invited to a birthday
party and has no playmates. Ryan’s parents finally sought help from a
pediatric neurologist, who diagnosed Ryan as having ADHD.

Reflective Question
1. What were some of the characteristics of Ryan’s behavior?

7.3a Symptoms of ADHD

For a diagnosis of ADHD, symptoms must meet the following
three criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 2013):

1. Severity. The symptoms must be more frequent and severe

than are typical of other children at similar developmental
levels.
 2. Early onset. At least some of the symptoms must have
appeared before the child reaches age 12.

3. Duration. The child’s symptoms must have persisted for at

least 6 months prior to the diagnosis.

7.3b Symptoms of ADHD at Different Ages

Symptoms of ADHD change at different stages of life. Young
children, elementaryage children, adolescents, and adults tend to
exhibit different sets of behaviors.

Young children with ADHD exhibit excessive gross-motor

activity, such as running or climbing. They are described as
being “on the go,” “running like a motor,” and “having
difficulty sitting still.” They may be unable to sit still for
more than a few minutes at a time before beginning to
wriggle excessively. It is the quality of the motor behavior
that distinguishes this disorder from ordinary over-activity
because hyperactivity tends to be haphazard and poorly
organized. For example, 4-year-old Jerry, who has ADHD,
grabs a toy from another child, and he hits the child if the
toy is not given to him.

Elementary-age children with ADHD may be extremely

restless and fidgety. They are likely to talk too much in class
and may constantly fight with friends, siblings, and
classmates. For example, 8-year-old Sarah always blurts out
the answer without raising her hand or waiting to be
recognized.

For adolescents with ADHD, hyperactivity may diminish,

but other symptoms may appear, such as behavioral
problems, low self-esteem, in-attentiveness, or even
depression. For example, 13-year-old Lorraine has such low
self-esteem that she believes even her imaginary friend is too
busy to talk to her.

Adults with ADHD often have organizational problems,

social relationship difficulties, and job problems. For
 example, 27-year-old Joshua cannot keep a job because he
does not follow through in completing job assignments.

ADHD affects children in all environments and in all ethnic and

language groups, disrupting the child’s home life, education,
behavior, and social life. At home, children with ADHD have
difficulty accommodating home routines and parental
expectations. They may resist going to bed, refuse to eat, or break
toys during play. At school, they have trouble completing their
class work, often missing valuable information because of their
attention problems. They speak aloud out of turn and find
themselves in trouble for their behavior. Their social interactions
may be undermined by their impulsivity, hyperactivity, and
inattention, which hamper their ability to make and keep friends
(Lavoie, 2006). In terms of gender, more boys than girls are
diagnosed with ADHD. However, research suggests that the
prevalence rate is equal for boys and girls, but boys are more likely
to be identified. This gender difference may due to the fact that
boys are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior (Shaywitz,
Fletcher, & Shaywitz, 1995).

7.3c Assessment
An assessment is a necessary step before decisions can be made
about eligibility for services and treatment. The diagnosis of
ADHD is usually based on the observation of behaviors. The
criteria for these behaviors are described in the DSM-5 (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). Mayes and colleagues (2012) found
that core ADHD symptoms are part of autism spectrum disorder
and a thorough evaluation is critical to determine the nature of the
student’s disability. Those authors recommend that children who
are being evaluated for ADHD should be screened for autism
spectrum disorders (Mayes et al., 2012).
7.3d Types of ADHD
The American Psychiatric Association’s DSM-5 uses the term
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and defines it as follows:

A. Persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-

impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development,
as characterized by

1. Inattention and/or

2. Hyperactivity and impulsivity.

For inattention, six (or more) of the following symptoms have

persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is not consistent
with developmental level and negatively impacts directly on social
and academic/occupational activities. For individuals 17 and older
at least five symptoms are required:

a. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless

mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities.

b. Often as difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play

activities.

c. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.

d. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to

finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace.

e. Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities.

f. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that

require sustained mental effort.

g. Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities.

h. Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli.

i. Is often forgetful in daily activities.

For Hyperactivity and impulsivity, there are six or more of the

following symptoms that have persisted for at least 6 months and
are inconsistent with developmental level and negatively impact
social and academic/occupational activities. For those 17 and
older at least five symptoms are required:

a. Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet or squirms in seat.

b. Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is

expected.

c. Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is

inappropriate. In adolescents or adults, may be limited to
feeling restless.

d. Often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly.

e. Is often “on the go” acting as if “driven by a motor.”

f. Often talks excessively.

g. Often blurts out an answer before a question that has been

completed.

h. Often has difficulty waiting his or her turn.

i. Often interrupts or intrudes on others.

Additional criteria specify that several inattentive or hyperactive-

impulsive symptoms were present prior to age 12 years, are
present in two or more settings, and there is clear evidence that
the symptoms interfere with, or duce the quality of, social,
academic or occupational functioning. The symptoms also do not
occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia or another
psychotic disorder and are not explained by another mental
disorder.

Also included in the diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder is

A. Other Specified Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

which applies to the presentation in which symptoms
characteristic of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that
cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational or other important areas of functioning
predominate but do not meet the full criteria for attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder or any of the disorders in the
neurodevelopmental disorders diagnostic class.
 B. Unspecified Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder which
applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that cause clinically
significant distress or impairment in social/occupational, or
other important areas of functioning predominate but do not
meet the full criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder or any of the disorders in the neurodevelopmental
disorders diagnostic class. This category is used in situations
in which the clinician chooses not to specify the reason that
the criteria are not met. Table 7.1 explains the criteria for
ADHD in DSM-5.

Table 7.1 Criteria for Subtypes of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder as per the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).

Inattention

a. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork,
at work, or during other activities.
b. Often as difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities.
c. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.
d. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores,
or duties in the workplace.
e. Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities.
f. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental
effort.
g. Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities.
h. Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli.
i. Is often forgetful in daily activities.
Hyperactivity and impulsivity

a. Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet or squirms in seat.

b. Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.
c. Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate. In adolescents or
adults, may be limited to feeling restless.
d. Often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly.
e. Is often “on the go” acting as if “driven by a motor.”
f. Often talks excessively.
g. Often has difficulty waiting his or her turn.
h. Is often “on the go” acting as if “driven by a motor.”
i. Often interrupts or intrudes on others.
Also included in the diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is
 a. Other Specified Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.
b. Unspecified Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Source: American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5. Washington, D.C.
American Psychiatric Publishing.

7.3e Rating Scales

Rating scales are frequently used assessment measures for
students with ADHD and are based on reports of behavior
observed by teachers and parents (Barkley, 2005). Table 7.2 shows
the most frequently used rating scales.

Table 7.2 Rating Scales for Assessing ADHD

Rating Scale Publisher

Attention Deficit Disorder Evaluation Hawthorne Educational Services

Scale

Behavior Assessment System for American Guidance Services

Children (BASC)

Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 2–3 University of Vermont, Department of

Psychiatry

Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 4–16 University of Vermont, Department of

Conners Rating Scales Psychiatry Multi-Health Services

© Cengage Learning

We provide one rating scale that can be used by teachers in Figure

7.2. It is a 24-point rating scale designed to help teachers identify
pupils with learning disabilities in their classes. Teachers rate the
24 behaviors, from auditory comprehension to motor skills, on a
5-point scale (with 1 indicating poor behavior; 5, good behavior;
and 3, average behavior). The highest possible score is 120 (5 ×
24). In one study, the mean score of the children classified as
 normal was 81, and the score of the children identified as having
learning disabilities was 61 (Myklebust & Boshes, 1969).

Figure 7.2 Rating Scale of Student Behavior

© Cengage Learning

7.3f Eligibility of Children With ADHD for

Special Services
The condition of ADHD is not identified as a separate category of
disability in the Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-2004). However, Table 7.3 lists
several significant laws that were passed by the U.S. Department
of Education allowing children with ADHD to be eligible for
 special education services under the existing categories of
disabilities.

Table 7.3 Laws Clarifying Policies for the Eligibility of Children

with ADHD for Special Education Services

1991 Clarification of Policy to Address the Needs of Children

With Attention Deficit Disorders Within General and/or
Special Education

1999 The Regulations for Individuals With Disabilities

Education Act of 1997 (IDEA-1997)

2004 The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement

Act of 2004

7.3g Implications of the Law for Children

With ADHD
The following laws provide legal protections for students with
ADHD:

Special Education Services Children with ADHD may be

eligible for special education services under the category of “other
health impaired” in IDEA- 2004. The law describes “other health
impaired,” when applied to children with ADHD, as heightened
alertness to environmental stimuli that results in limited alertness
with respect to the educational environment (U.S. Department of
Education, 1999).

A child with ADHD may also be eligible for special education

services under other existing categories of special education, in
addition to other health impaired, such as the categories of
learning disabilities or emotional disturbance.

Section 504 Services A child with ADHD may be eligible for

services under the legislation of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
 Act of 1973, even if that child is not eligible for special education
services. Section 504 mandates that any agency receiving federal
funds provide reasonable accommodations for people with
disabilities.

According to Section 504, if the child is found to have “a physical

or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life
activity,” such as learning, the school must make an individualized
determination of the child’s educational needs, and reasonable
accommodations must be provided within the general education
classroom (Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act).

7.3h Increase in the Number of Children

Identified With ADHD
ADHD is estimated to affect 9.5% of the school-age population
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). In IDEA
(2004), the condition of ADHD is included in the category of other
health impaired (OHI). The number of children identified under
the category of other health impaired has increased substantially
since ADHD was included in this category. Since the issuance of
the 1991 Clarification of Policy to address the needs of children
with ADHD and the clarification within the Regulations for
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 1997, more children
with ADHD are being identified. The number of students
identified in the category of other health impaired increased from
53,165 in 1991 to 489,806 in the year 2008, as shown in Figure
7.3. The increase in children in the other health impaired category
is mostly due to the inclusion of children with ADHD.

Figure 7.3 Increase in “Other Health Impaired” Category

 Source: From the United States Department of Education. 1991–2008. To assure the free, appropriate
public education of all Children with Disabilities. Annual Reports to Congress on the Implementation of
the Individuals with Disabilities Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

7.3i Educational Settings for Students With

ADHD
Most students with ADHD are in general education classes as
indicated in Table 7.4 About 83% of students in the category of
other health impairments (OHI) are in general education classes
at least part of the time. Students in the category OHI are served
in the following educational settings (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012) as indicated in Table 7.4.

Table 7.4 Educational Environments for Students With Other

Health Impairments, Ages 6–21

General Education Class (outside 54%

regular class less than 21%)
 Resource Room (outside regular class 29%
21–60%)

Separate Class (outside regular class 14%

more than 60%)

Other Environments 3%

Source: U.S. Department of Education. (2012). To assure the free appropriate public education of all
children with disabilities. Thirtieth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

7.3j Response-to-lntervention and Eligibility

of Students With ADHD
In Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process,” we describe the
new procedure called response-to-intervention (RTI). Under
IDEA-2004 and the Regulations for IDEA-2004 (2006) schools
may use the procedure of RTI to determine the eligibility of
students with ADHD for special education. RTI is a procedure for
providing interventions to all students who are at-risk for school
failure (Hallahan et al., 2007; Zirkel, 2007; Learning Disabilities
Association of America, 2006).

Schools may use the RTI procedure with students whose behavior
suggests ADHD in the process of determining eligibility for special
education. In the RTI procedure, a child with suspected ADHD
would receive intervention within general education in various
tiers of intervention. Students who do not respond positively
would be eligible for an evaluation. (See Chapter 2, “Assessment
and the IEP Process,” for additional information about RTI.)

Did You Get It?

You can use the acronym SED to remember the diagnostic criteria for
ADHD/ADD. “S” refers to severity, “E” to early onset, and “D” to

a. duration.

b. disruptiveness.
 c. deficit.

d. direction.

7.4 Treatments for ADHD

7.4a American Academy of Pediatrics
Guidelines for Treatment
The American Academy of Pediatrics (2001) established the
following guidelines for pediatricians for the treatment of children
with ADHD.

Primary care clinicians should establish a treatment

program that recognizes ADHD as a chronic condition.

The treating clinician, parents, and child, in collaboration

with school personnel, should specify appropriate target
outcomes to guide management.

The clinician should recommend stimulant medication

and/or behavior therapy as appropriate to improve target
outcomes for children with ADHD.

When the selected management for a child with ADHD has

not met target outcomes, clinicians should evaluate the
original diagnosis, use all appropriate treatments, and
adhere to the treatment plan and presence of coexisting
conditions.

The clinician should provide a systematic follow-up for the

child with ADHD. Monitoring should be directed to target
outcomes and adverse effects, with information gathered
from parents, teachers, and the child.

Several different kinds of treatments are prescribed for children

with ADHD.
7.4b Multimodal Treatment
A multimodal treatment plan combines several approaches
for treating children with ADHD. Multimodal instruction includes

1. effective educational instruction,

2. behavior management strategies,

3. family and child counseling,

4. home management, and

5. medication.

A student’s improvement is greatest when all components of the

treatment are present and are working in conjunction with each
other (Silver, 2006; Accardo et al., 2002).

7.4c Medication
Medication is prescribed for many children with ADHD to
improve their attention and to control their hyperactive behavior.
In fact, medication is prescribed in 56% of all cases of ADHD
(Scheffler et al., 2009). The ideal medication should control
hyperactivity, increase attention span, and reduce impulsive and
aggressive behavior without inducing side effects, such as
insomnia, loss of appetite, drowsiness, or other serious toxic
effects. Finding the ideal medication for a child is not an easy task,
and it requires close cooperation among physicians, school
personnel, and family members (Silver, 2006; Accardo & Blondis,
2000; Powers, 2000).

Psychostimulant Medications Psychostimulant

medications are the most widely used type of medication
prescribed for ADHD and are very effective for most children.
About 75% to 85% of individuals with ADHD improve with the use
of psychostimulants. Psychostimulant medications include
 Ritalin, Dexedrine, Adderall, Concerta, and Vyvanse (Silver, 2006;
Accardo & Blondis, 2000; Rappley, 2004). Table 7.5 provides
more details about these psychostimulant medications.

Table 7.5 Psychostimulant Medications Used for Treatment of

ADHD

Brand Name Generic Name Duration of Action

Ritalin Methylphenidate short (3–5 hours)

Dexedrine Dextroamphetamine short (3–5 hours)

Adderall Combination of long (8 hours)

dextroamphetamine and
amphetamine

Concerta Contains a type of Ritalin long (8 hours)

Focalin Generic short (4 hours)

Vyvanse Lisdexamfetamine long (8 hours)

© Cengage Learning

The usefulness of psychostimulants in reducing hyperactivity was

first reported more than 50 years ago when children taking the
psychostimulant Benzedrine showed longer attention spans and
an improved ability to concentrate, with a corresponding decrease
in hyperactivity and oppositional behavior (Bradley, 1937).

Research on ADHD suggests that psychostimulant medications

affect the brain of children with ADHD by increasing the arousal
or alertness of the central nervous system (Hervey et al., 2006;
Accardo & Blondis, 2000; Barkley, 2005). It is thought that these
individuals do not produce sufficient neurotransmitters—
chemicals within the brain that transmit messages from one cell to
another across a gap, or synapse—and that the psychostimulants
work by stimulating the production of the chemical
neurotransmitters needed to send information from the brain
stem to the parts of the brain that deal with attention. The
psychostimulant medications appear to lengthen the children’s
attention spans, control impulsivity, decrease distractibility and
motor activity, and improve visual-motor integration (Barkley,
2005; Powers, 2000; Rappley, 2004). The psychostimulant
medications most frequently prescribed for ADHD are Ritalin,
Dexedrine, Concerta, Adderall, and Vyvanse. The duration of
effect for Ritalin, Dexedrine, and Focalin is short, 3 to 5 hours.
Consequently, unless a second dose is taken during the school day,
the effects of a morning dose of either of these medications will
wear off during the course of the day. The psychostimulants
Adderall, Concerta, and Vyvanse are taken in one daily dosage,
and the effects are long lasting, 8 or more hours.

The side effects of stimulant medications include insomnia and

loss of appetite, but these effects are usually transient and
diminish as tolerance develops (Barkley, 2005). For a few
children, a more serious side effect of Ritalin is that it can trigger
tics or Tourette’s syndrome. If one of these side effects occurs, the
medication must be changed.

A rebound effect sometimes occurs with children on

psychostimulants. The child’s behavior can significantly
deteriorate in the late afternoon or evening after a daytime dose of
the stimulant. This wearing off of the medication can cause the
child to temporarily exhibit more impulsivity, distractibility, and
hyperactivity than was previously observed (Barkley, 2005). If this
occurs, additional low doses may be needed in the late afternoon.

Strattera A medication that is not a psychostimulant for the

treatment of ADHD is Strattera. Because Strattera is not a
psychostimulant medication, it is not subject to the same
restrictions as other medications used for most other treatment of
ADHD. Strattera only needs to be given once daily (Silver, 2006;
Kratochvil et al., 2002; Rosenthal, 2003).

Other Medications As noted, about 75% to 85% of children

with ADHD show general improvement with psychostimulant
 medications. For those who do not improve, other medications are
used. These include Wellbutrin, Catapres, Tenex, and Strattera
(Silver, 2006).

The use of psychostimulants for ADHD is associated with rapid

improvement in attentiveness, hyperactivity, impulsivity,
scholastic performance, handwriting skills, family life, and
socialization based on objective tests and subjective evaluations by
parents, teachers, and clinicians. In addition, psychostimulant
medication appears to help children with ADHD improve their
self-esteem and self-image, and it enables children with ADHD to
express feelings of greater control over themselves and their lives
(Silver, 2006; Powers, 2000).

7.4d Neurochemistry of Psychostimulant

Medications
In this section, we look at the neurochemistry of psychostimulant
medications, which are often prescribed for children with ADHD.
Individuals with ADHD do not release enough of the needed
chemicals to send information from the brain stem to other parts
of the brain. A deficiency in the production of the
neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine results in
decreased stimulation and a consequent dysfunction of the neural
circuits underlying attention.

The brain is a complex information network made up of millions

of nerve cells called neurons. Information moves through the
brain as nerve impulses that are transmitted from cell to cell by
neurotransmitters. An impulse travels along the cell body from a
sending neuron to a receiving neuron. A small space, called a
synapse, is between the sending neuron and the receiving neuron.
The impulse causes the sending cell to release chemicals—or
neurotransmitters—from tiny sacs located at the synapse between
 the sending cell and the receiving cell. A diagram of the
neurotransmitter system is shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 The Neurotransmitter System

Source: Adapted from The Dana sourcebook of brain science: Resources for secondary and
postsecondary teachers and students, 2003. New York: Dana Press, p. 138.

Individuals with ADHD have an insufficiency in the

neurotransmitter activity within the brain stem. The
psychostimulant medications increase the production of the
chemicals, leading to a decrease in the behaviors associated with
ADHD, such as inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Thus,
medication, through its action on the neurotransmitters, improves
the child’s attention, motivation, motor responses, activity level,
 restlessness, and responsibility (Silver, 2006; Lerner et al., 1995;
Powers, 2000; Rappley, 2004).

Did You Get It?

Which treatment is not usually included in multimodal plans for the

effective treatment of ADHD?

a. medication

b. individual and family counseling

c. psychotherapy

d. behavior management skills and techniques

7.5 Methods for Teaching Students With

ADHD
To accommodate students with ADHD, it is necessary to consider
the three primary traits of ADHD:

1. inattention,

2. impulsivity, and

3. hyperactivity.

Because most students with ADHD are in a general education

classroom setting, it is important for both the special education
teacher and the general education classroom teacher to be familiar
with these methods (Silver, 2006; Barkley, 2005; Lerner,
Lowenthal, & Lerner, 1995).

7.5a Increasing Attention

 Inattention is a major symptom of individuals with ADHD. The
student may be attending, but attending to the wrong stimuli. For
example, the student may be attending to what is going on
outside, to noises in the classroom, or even to his or her own
thoughts. There are several distinct but interrelated phases of
attention.

1. Coming to attention. The first phase, coming to attention,

requires students to be alert, steady, and motivated for the
lesson.

2. Focusing attention. The next phase, focusing attention,

requires vigilance and the energy to examine problems
carefully and to develop an interest in the problems to be
solved. Students with ADHD must learn to focus their
attention, to slow down, to become more deliberate and
reflective, and to monitor their responses before answering.

3. Sustaining attention. The third phase, sustaining

attention, requires that students concentrate for an extended
period of time. The ability to focus and attend to a task for a
prolonged period is essential for the students to receive the
necessary information and to complete certain academic
activities. To learn many academic skills, such as reading,
students must work hard and keep attending over many
days, weeks, or even months. Teaching Tips 7.2, “Increasing
Attention,” describes some methods for helping students
increase attention.

Teaching Tips 7.2 Increasing Attention

Place the student near the front of the room.

Place the student away from noisy or distracting locations, such as

windows and hallways.

Place the student away from students with behavior problems. Place the
student with well-behaved students.

Keep the routines simple and direct.

Alert the student by using key words and phrases, such as “this is
important.”

Use visual aids; write out key points.

 Increase the novelty of the task.

Professional Resource Download

7.5b Managing Impulsivity

Impulsive students act out physically and/or verbally. Often, they
will shout out answers without raising their hands or waiting for
recognition. Particularly challenging for impulsive students are
transition times, when class activities shift from unstructured
activities to structured activities. After a stimulating activity, such
as recess or a physical education period, impulsive students have
difficulty settling down. Teaching Tips 7.3, “Managing
Impulsivity,” offers suggestions for managing impulsivity.

Teaching Tips 7.3 Managing Impulsivity

Adapt the curriculum. Small changes in the curriculum can be

helpful. Students with ADHD need a stimulating, active curriculum that
will hold their attention and motivate them to complete the activity at
hand.

Help students learn to wait. Give the student some substitute verbal
or motor responses to use while waiting. Instruct the student about how
to continue on easier parts of tasks, or how to do a substitute task, while
awaiting the teacher’s help.

Help students manage time. Give short assignments and tasks and
reduce the amount of work involved. Alternate activities that are done
while sitting with those that involve standing and moving about.

Professional Resource Download

Young boy reading Chess Book.

 Florian Franke / Alamy

7.5c Reducing Hyperactivity

Students who are hyperactive present challenges for classroom
teachers. These students cannot sit in their seats for prolonged
periods; they may get up to sharpen their pencils 12 times during
each class. They need to move frequently within the classroom and
be active. They will probably respond to an increase in hands-on
activities and opportunities for movement while engaging in a
nonactive activity such as a lecture. As an example, they may
increase their attention by being able to doodle on a piece of paper
or being able to squeeze a fidget toy. Such students may simply
pace back and forth because they cannot sit quietly. One student
with ADHD reported that she retained information that she
needed to memorize much better when she was able to write her
notes on small index cards, and that she would go home and pace
 back and forth as she read and reread the information on the
index cards. Teaching Tips 7.3, “Managing Hyperactivity,”
provides methods for managing hyperactivity in the classroom.

I Have a Kid Who… TONY, a Student With ADHD

Tony is a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with
impulsivity and hyperactivity. He currently attends a fifth-grade general
education class. Tony is trying to work on a computer program that does not
seem to be working. Tony tells his teacher that the computer program was
installed incorrectly, but his teacher tells him that it is working and he
should get back to work. Tony feels himself getting extremely frustrated and
agitated, and his foot is tapping louder and faster. He feels that he must get
out of the classroom before he explodes. He asks his teacher, “Can I go to the
bathroom?” His teacher says, “No, Tony. Get back to work.” Tony gets out of
his seat and starts pacing around the classroom, muttering to himself. The
voice of the teacher and the laughter of the other students in the class is
deafening. He feels he must block it out. Tony starts banging his head against
the wall. The teacher asks someone to go get the principal, quickly.

Questions
1. Should the teacher anticipate this kind of problem in a student with
ADHD with hyperactivity and impulsivity?

2. Should the teacher have allowed Tony to leave the classroom?

3. Do you think this was the best educational setting for Tony?

7.5d Accommodations for the General

Education Classroom
Teachers must make accommodations in the general education
classroom to adjust for the behaviors of students with ADHD.
Including Students in General Education 7.1, “Students With
 ADHD,” lists some of the target behaviors, along with
accommodations that can be made to achieve those behaviors for
students with ADHD.

Including Students in General Education 7.1 Students With

ADHD

Limit Distractions

Seat student near the teacher

Seat student away from noisy places

Seat student with well-behaved students and away from students with
problem behaviors

Keep routines simple and direct

Increase Attention

Shorten the task—break it into smaller parts

Shorten homework assignments

Use distributed practice (i.e., many shorter sessions)

Make tasks more interesting (e.g., work with partners, interest centers,
groups)

Increase the novelty of the task

Improve Organization

Provide clear classroom rules and teacher expectations

Establish routines for placing objects in the room

Provide a list of materials for each task

Check that student has homework before leaving school; use assignment
books

Use a different colored folder for each subject

Improve Listening Skills

Keep instructions simple and short

Have students repeat instructions aloud, then to themselves

Alert students by using key phrases, such as “this is important” or “listen

carefully”
 Use visual aids, charts, pictures, graphics, transparencies; write key
points on chalkboard

Help Students Manage Time

Set up a specific routine and adhere to it

Make lists to help students organize tasks

Use behavior contracts that specify the time allotted for activities

Provide Opportunities for Moving

Permit students to move in class (e.g., sharpen pencils, get papers, get
materials)

Alternate activities (e.g., standing, sitting, moving)

Allow students to work while standing or while leaning on their desks

Have work centers in the classroom

Use computers (e.g., allow children to go to computers during work

time)

Professional Resource Download

Many of the characteristics of Asperger’s syndrome appear to be

similar to NVLD. However, Roman (1998) claims they are
different disorders. AS is part of the autism spectrum, but NVLD
is not recognized in IDEA-2004 or in the DSM-IV-TR. NVLD is
recognized in the field of neuropsychology. Some parents report
that their child has had both diagnostic labels, and diagnosis
appears to some extent to reflect the orientation of the examiner.

Did You Get It?

Verbal prompts in the form of are effectively used to inform the

child with ADHD/ADD that a particular fact, concept, or subject is of
primary importance.

a. key words and phrases

b. raising ones voice several decibels

c. mnemonics
 d. animation of verbal pitch and tone

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Autism spectrum disorders include a group of conditions,
including classic autism disorder, pervasive developmental
disorder-not otherwise specified, and Asperger’s syndrome.
The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders is increasing.

Children with NVLD often have poor visualspatial abilities,

poor nonverbal problemsolving abilities, and low arithmetic
skills.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning

disabilities are common cooccurring conditions.

The term attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is

defined by the American Psychiatric Association and used by
physicians and psychologists.

The characteristics of ADHD change with age. Young

children, elementary-age children, adolescents, and adults
all display different characteristics of ADHD.

For a diagnosis of ADHD, symptoms must meet the criteria

of

1. severity,

2. early onset, and

3. duration.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,

Fifth Edition, Revised (DSM-5) describes three types of
ADHD:

1. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,

2. Other Specified Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder, and

3. Unspecified Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

 Laws that make children with ADHD eligible for special
education services are

1. the 1991 Clarification of Policy to Address the Needs of

Children With Attention Deficit Disorders Within
General and/or Special Education,

2. 1999 Regulations for IDEA-1997, and

3. the Individuals With Disabilities Education

Improvement Act of 2004.

The number of children identified with ADHD is increasing.

Medication is an important part of the treatment of children

with ADHD. Psychostimulant medications are widely used
and are effective medications for ADHD. There are also
other medications and alternative therapies used for
children with ADHD.

Teaching methods for students with ADHD are used by

special education teachers and general education teachers.
These teaching methods include strategies of

1. increasing attention,

2. managing impulsivity, and

3. reducing hyperactivity.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Many children today are diagnosed with ADHD. Describe the characteristics
of children with ADHD at different developmental stages.

2. What are some of the settings for serving children with ADHD in the
schools? What is the educational setting for most students with ADHD?

3. Many children with ADHD receive medication as part of their treatment.

Discuss the kinds of medication that children with ADHD receive.

4. Describe two related neurodevelopmental conditions.

 Chapter Review

Key Terms
Asperger’s syndrome (AS)

attention deficit disorder (ADD)

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

hyperactivity

impulsiveness

inattention

multimodal treatment plan

neurons

neurotransmitters

nonverbal learning disorders (NVLD)

psychostimulant medications

rating scales
 Chapter

Young
Children With
8
Disabilities

Chapter Introduction

8.1 The Importance of the Early Years

8.1a Benefits of Early Intervention

8.1b Considerations of Cultural Diversity for Young Children

8.1c Young Children At Risk

8.2 Strategies for Young Children in General Education

8.3 The Law and Young Children With Disabilities

8.3a Preschool Children: Ages 3 Through 5

8.3b Infants and Toddlers: Birth Through Age 2

8.3c Number of Preschool Children Receiving Special Education

Services

8.3d Educational Environments

8.4 Head Start: Laws and Programs

8.4a Head Start Studies

8.4b Early Head start

8.5 Developmental Indicators of Problems in Young Children

8.5a Common Developmental Indicators

8.6 Motor Development and Learning

 8.6a The Importance of Motor Development

8.6b Key Concepts of Motor Development

8.6c Perceptual Motor Development

8.6d Sensory Integration

8.7 Perceptual Development

8.7a Perceptual Processing Concept

8.7b Overloading the Perceptual Systems

8.7c Auditory Perception

8.7d Visual Perception

8.7e Tactile and Kinesthetic Perception

8.8 Assessing Young Children

8.8a Phases of Early Identification and Assessment

8.8b Areas of Assessment

8.9 Early Childhood Programs and Practices

8.9a Recommended Practices: The Division of Early Childhood

8.9b Using Computer Technology

8.10 Early Intervention Strategies

8.10a Motor Development Activities

8.10b Auditory Processing

8.10c Visual Processing

8.10d Tactile and Kinesthetic Processing

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Inara Prusakova/ Shutterstock.com

All children can learn, if we can learn how to

teach them.

—Sister Joanne Marie Kliebhan

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

8.1
Discuss the importance of the early years

8.2
List strategies for working with young children in
general education
 8.3
Outline the importance of the law and young children
with disabilities

8.4
Explain the laws and programs related to Head Start

8.5
List the developmental indicators of problems in
young children

8.6
Discuss the impact of motor on development and
learning

8.7
Explain perceptual development in young children

8.8
Outline the steps in assessing young children

8.9
Discuss early childhood programs and practices

8.10
List early intervention strategies

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

CEC Initial Level Special Educator Preparation

Standards as approved by the National Council for the Accreditation
of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
 individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.2—Beginning special education professionals use motivational and
instructional interventions to teach individuals with exceptionalities how
to adapt to different environments.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically

sound formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning
of individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.5—Beginning special education professionals develop and implement a

variety of education and transition plans for individuals with
exceptionalities across a wide range of settings and different learning
experiences in collaboration with individuals, families, and teams.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical

Practice
6.2—Beginning special education professionals understand how
foundational knowledge and current issues influence professional
practice.
 CEC Initial Preparation Standard 7: Collaboration
7.0—Beginning special education professionals collaborate with families,
other educators, related service providers, individuals with
exceptionalities, and personnel from community agencies in culturally
responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with exceptionalities
across a range of learning experiences.

7.1—Beginning special education professionals use the theory and

elements of effective collaboration.

7.2—Beginning special education professionals serve as a collaborative

resource to colleagues.

7.3—Beginning special education professionals use collaboration to

promote the well-being of individuals with exceptionalities across a wide
range of settings and collaboration.

In this chapter, we review programs and intervention for young

children with special needs. Services for young children are
available today because of national and state policies that support
early intervention services for young children with disabilities.
Schools and agencies are expanding their early intervention
programs for young children. It is important for elementary and
secondary teachers to know about the nature of a child’s early
development and school experiences, and to be aware of the links
between early intervention and later learning (Gargiulo & Kilgo,
2005).

8.1 The Importance of the Early Years

The early childhood years are crucial for all children, but for the
child with special needs these years are especially critical.
Research from several disciplines confirms what early childhood
educators have long observed—that the early years of life are
crucial for establishing a lifelong foundation for learning. If the
opportunities are missed for children to develop intellectually and
 emotionally during these critical years, precious learning time is
lost forever.

Children do not begin to learn when they enter formal schooling at

age 6. During the first 6 years of their lives, young children learn
at a rapid pace. In fact, from the moment of birth, they are
engaged in continuous and intense learning. By the time they
reach school age, they should have mastered many skills. Parents
and families need to actively promote learning during the
preschool years. Otherwise, their child’s intellectual abilities will
not grow optimally during these vital years. When children start
school already behind their peers, they may never be able to catch
up, to keep up, or to take advantage of all the efforts schools make
to help them. With early identification of young children who
show signs of learning difficulties, children can receive valuable
early intervention services (Gargiulo and Kilgo, 2005; Allen,
Cowdery, 2009; Bowe, 2007; Lerner, Lowenthal, & Egan, 2003).

8.1a Benefits of Early Intervention

Perhaps the most promising success stories in education today are
the reports of special programs for young children who have
disabilities or who are at risk for disabilities because of
environmental and other conditions that make them likely to
develop disabilities. The formative stages in child development
and family life occur during the early years. These early years
make a significant difference in a child’s growth and development.
When problems are recognized early, the likelihood that child will
experience failure in school can, to a large extent, be prevented or
reduced (Wolery & Bailey, 2004).

Early childhood special education programs are designed to

1. identify young children, birth through age 5, who have

special needs and are likely to encounter difficulty in school
 and

2. provide early intervention for these children.

Research demonstrates that early intervention is beneficial for

children with disabilities, for their families, and for society
(Guralnick, 2005; Wolery & Bailey, 2004).

Early Intervention Helps Children With Disabilities

Early intervention accelerates cognitive and social development
and reduces behavioral problems. Many conditions can be
alleviated, other difficulties can be overcome to a large extent, and
some problems can be managed so that the child can live a better
life. Early intervention can avert the occurrence of secondary
problems that compound the original difficulty.

Early Intervention Benefits the Families of Young

Children With Special Needs In the family-centered
intervention approach, the child is viewed as part of a family
system. When parents and family members are empowered to be
an integral part of the intervention process, the family becomes an
essential element in the process of teaching the child and
improving child–adult interactions.

Early Intervention Benefits Society Early intervention

programs offer a substantial financial savings for the community
by reducing the number of children who need special education
services. It also empowers families to work positively with their
young children and can strengthen family capacity.

In summary, early intervention accomplishes the following

(Wolery & Bailey, 2004; Guralnick, 2005; Lerner et al., 2003;
Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993):

Promotes substantial gains in all developmental areas

(intellectual, physical, cognitive, language, psychosocial, and
self-help)

Inhibits or prevents secondary disabilities

Reduces family stress

 Reduces dependency and institutionalization

Reduces the need for special education services at school age

Saves the nation and society substantial health care costs

and education costs

8.1b Considerations of Cultural Diversity for

Young Children
Many children and families who participate in programs for young
children with special needs have diverse linguistic and cultural
backgrounds. Cultural differences may occur in parent–child
interactions, values of the family, the family’s perceptions of
disabilities, and attitudes toward seeking help. Families in the
majority culture usually value qualities such as independence,
self-help, and individual achievement. For example, the majority
culture encourages early self-feeding skills, but in some cultures,
children are fed by caregivers until they are 3 years old. Some
cultures, such as that of Native Americans, value the qualities of
contributing to the group and community more than competitive
individual achievement. In certain cultures, the family may be
ashamed that they have a child with a disability and may neglect
their child with special needs. In some cultures, children are
expected to be quiet and not initiate language and
communication. Children whose first language is not English may
have difficulty recognizing words or the sounds (phonemes) of the
English language.

Sensitivity to cultural diversity is extremely important for teachers

who work with young children and their families. Teachers should
communicate with family members in a way that is respectful and
clear. Teachers should understand that some families may be
reluctant to accept suggestions from the school. Children from
diverse cultures and languages should be encouraged to
 demonstrate their knowledge through drawing, collaboration, or
performance in small group discussions (Lerner et al., 2003).

Children at risk dramatically improve when early intervention and work with
families are provided.

creo77/ Shutterstock.com

The U.S. Department of Education (2012) provides data on the

race/ethnicity of young children with disabilities. Table 8.1 shows
the percentage of young children with disabilities receiving special
services. The percentages of young children with disabilities in all
racial/ethnic groups are similar to the percentages in the general
population.

Table 8.1 Percent of Preschool Children With Disabilities

Receiving Services by Race/Ethnicity

American Indian/Alaskan Native 3.0%

Asian/Pacific Islander 5.1%

Black (not Hispanic) 5.1%

Hispanic 4.5%

White (Not Hispanic) 4.9%

 Source: U.S. Department of Education (2012) Thirtieth Annual report to Congress on the
Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2008. Office of Special Education
Services. U.S. Department of Education.

8.1c Young Children At Risk

Young children who are considered at risk have factors that lead to
poor general development and learning failure. Although children
who are at risk may not be eligible under the law for special
services, they are at high risk for becoming children with
disabilities unless early intervention services are provided. States
have the option to serve children who are at risk; however, they
are not required to provide services for this group under the law.

Among the factors that affect young children at risk are poverty,
disrupted families, or abusive parents. Other risk factors are
prenatal substance exposure; exposure to alcohol, tobacco, and
nicotine; and illegal drug use (Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2005; Keogh,
2000). Research shows that when early intervention and work
with families are made available, children who are at risk
dramatically improve. For example, low-birth-weight infants show
significant gains in cognitive and behavioral function when they
receive comprehensive early intervention consisting of home
visits, parent training, parent group meetings, attendance at a
child development center, pediatric surveillance, and community
referral services (Lambie, 2006; Gopnick, Meltzoff, & Kuhl, 1999;
Keogh, 2000). See http://www.childrenatrisk.org.

The critical effect of the infant’s environment on

the early development of the brain is
demonstrated through scientific evidence
(Dehanene, 2009; Gopnick et al., 1999; Huttenlocher, 1991).
During the early months and first years of life, the synapses, or
interconnecting links between the neurons in the brain, grow at a
phenomenal rate. The brain rapidly increases in size and becomes
 more efficient. The environmental influences and the child’s
experiences during the earliest years of life play a major role in
brain development and affect intelligence and the ability to learn.
Research on early brain development shows that

Environment affects the number of brain cells, the

connections among the brain cells, and the way the brain
cells are wired. Brain development is much more vulnerable
to environmental influences than was previously suspected.

Brain development before age 1 is more rapid and extensive

than previously realized.

The influence of the early environment on brain

development is long lasting.

Early stress has a negative impact on brain function.

Did You Get It?

Missed learning opportunities for intellectual and emotional

development during the vital, early years of childhood are a serious
concern. Such a period of missed development can take

a. months to make up for.

b. a few years to make up for.

c. a decade or more to make up for.

d. can never be made up for.

8.2 Strategies for Young Children in

General Education
The most frequent educational placement for young children with
special needs is in a general education preschool classroom (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012). This means that general early
childhood teachers must plan for teaching both typically
 developing young children and young children with disabilities
and special needs. Including Students In General Education 8.1,
“Young Children With Special Needs,” offers some suggestions for
meeting the needs of both populations, while Figure 8.1 shows the
percentage of infants and toddlers, birth through age 2, in each of
the primary intervention settings.

Including Students in General Education 8.1 Young Children

With Special
Needs

Early childhood general education teachers and special education

teachers should collaborate in planning the curriculum for all children in
the preschool class.

Young children with special needs and young children without special
needs should share a common curriculum.

Adaptations are needed for young children with diverse learning styles
and abilities.

Both child-initiated activities and teacher-initiated activities should be

used.

Play experiences should foster active engagement and interaction of all

children.

Activities should be appropriate for each child’s stage of development.

Activities should nourish social relationships for all children.

Activities should promote communication among children.

Cultural and linguistic diversity of all children should be considered.

Professional Resource Download

Figure 8.1 Percentagea of infants and toddlers birth through

age 2 served under IDEA, Part C, by primary early
b
intervention setting : Fall 2006
 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System
(DANS), OMB #1820-0557: “Report of Program Settings Where Early Intervention Services Are
Provided to Children with Disabilities and Their Families in Accordance with Part C,” 2006. Data were
updated as of July 15, 2007. For actual data used, go to
https://www.ideadata.org/Archive/ARCArchive.asp. These data are for the 50 states, the District of
Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the four outlying areas.

Did You Get It?

In a general educational setting, young children without disabilities

and their peers with disabilities should share curriculum.

a. minimally

b. partially

c. mostly

d. completely

8.3 The Law and Young Children With

Disabilities
The special education law, Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEA-2004), requires that services be provided
for two different age groups of young children with disabilities:
 1. preschoolers, ages 3 through 5, and

2. infants and toddlers, birth to age 3.

The provisions in the law are different for each of these two age
groups in terms of eligibility and the state agency that is
responsible for the services. For infants and toddlers, a
predominant focus is on serving families. For preschoolers, the
focus is on intervention practices for the child Table 8.2 shows the
percentage of children identified for ages birth to age 2 and for age
3 through age 5 that are receiving services through special
education.

Table 8.2 Percentage of Children Receiving Services Through

Early Intervention or Special Education

Percentage of Birth to Age 2 and Age 3 Through Age 5

Birth to age 2 3.9%

Age 3 through Age 5 5.8%

© Cengage Learning

8.3a Preschool Children: Ages 3 Through 5

Preschool children with disabilities, ages 3 through 5, are eligible
to receive the same full rights under the law that older children
have. These provisions are specified in Part B of IDEA-2004.
Table 8.3 shows the disabilities classification for children ages 3–
5.

Table 8.3 Disability Classifications for Children Ages 3 Through 5

Served Under IDEA

b
Disability classification Percent

Autism 89.4
 b
Disability classification Percent

Developmental delay 64.1

Emotional disturbance 60.4

Intellectual disabilities 71.4

Specific learning disabilities 69.7

Orthopedic impairments 66.7

Other health impairments 57.2

Speech or language impairments 88.3

c
Low-incidence disabilities 61.6

Total 77.4

Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Special
Education Research (NCSER), 2008.

The following list summarizes the provisions in the law for

preschoolers with disabilities:

Each state must provide a free, appropriate public

education, along with related services, to all eligible children
with disabilities, ages 3 through 5.

States may select to identify preschool children either

noncategorically, such as by developmental delay, or by the
category of disability, such as learning disability. Any state
that adopts the term developmental delay has the option to
apply it to children ranging from age 3 to age 9.

For children ages 3 through 5, the child study team may use
either the IEP or the individualized family service plan
(IFSP). The IFSP is a plan for young children that includes
the family as well as the child. The plan used must ensure
due process, confidentiality, and the child’s placement in the
least restrictive environment.

The lead agency for preschool children ages 3 through 5 is

the state education agency. The law gives each state’s
education agency the responsibility of implementing Part B
of IDEA-2004 for preschool children by working with local
education agencies or other contracted service agencies.
8.3b Infants and Toddlers: Birth Through
Age 2
The policies for infants and toddlers, birth to age 3 with
disabilities are contained in Part C of IDEA-2004. Services for
infants and toddlers with disabilities are not mandated, but Part C
authorizes financial assistance to the states through state grants.
The family system is recognized as critical in the child’s
development. The teams must use an IFSP (individual family
service plan), which includes services for the family as well as for
the child.

The number of infants and toddlers with disabilities is increasing,

with 3.9% of the general population of infants and toddlers (birth
to age 3) and their families receiving services (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012). With recent advances in medical technology,
neonates with very low birth weights and substantial health
problems survive and may be children at risk. Newborns may also
have other kinds of problems. For example, there are 375,000
drug-exposed babies and 2,000 HIV-infected babies born each
year. These fragile infants usually need highly specialized medical
attention, and they and their families also require services that
medical professionals cannot provide. Infant specialists and
infant/toddler service coordinators (or case managers) are key
members of the interdisciplinary team in neonatal intensive care
units and in child-care centers (Lerner, Lowenthal, & Egan, 2003;
U.S. Department of Education, 2012).

8.3c Number of Preschool Children

Receiving Special Education Services
The number of preschool children receiving special education
services has been increasing. About 5.8% of all preschool children
 (ages 3 through 5) with disabilities receive special education
services through the schools (U.S. Department of Education,
2012).

8.3d Educational Environments

The term educational environments refers to the educational
setting for young children with disabilities. As shown in Figure
8.2, the U.S. Department of Education (2012) reports that
preschool children with disabilities are served through many
different educational environments.

Figure 8.2 Percentagea of children ages 3 through 5 served

b
under IDEA, Part B, by educational environment :
Fall 2006

Source: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System
(DANS), OMB #1820-0517: “Part B, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
, Implementation of FAPE
Requirements,” 2006. Data were updated as of July 15, 2007. For actual data used, go to
https://www.ideadata.org/Archive/ARCArchive.asp. These data are for the 50 states, the District of
Columbia, Bureau of Indian Education schools, Puerto Rico, and the four outlying areas.
 Did You Get It?

For young children (from 3- to 5 years-old) who are eligible for

disability-related services, the multidisciplinary team is presented with
a choice of using the individualized educational plan (IEP) or the
individualized plan.

a. childhood education (ICEP)

b. infant and toddler (IITP)

c. family services (IFSP)

d. youth in education (IYEP)

8.4 Head Start: Laws and Programs

Head Start was first launched in 1964 under the administration of
President Lyndon Johnson, within the Office of Economic
Opportunity, and it is now administered by the Administration for
Children and Families. Head start was intended to provide
preschool education to the nation’s low-income children ages 4
and 5 and to offer early educational experiences to low-income
children who might otherwise come to school unprepared and
unmotivated to learn. Head Start has become one of the most
influential and massive federal social experiments in the history of
early childhood education. In 1972, Head Start legislation was
amended to include children with disabilities, reserving 10% of its
total enrollment for children with disabilities who also met the
economic requirements for being served by Head Start. The 10%
of disabilities in Head Start include the following (Allen &
Cowdery, 2009):

Intellectual disabilities

Deafness or serious hearing impairments

 Serious special impairments

Crippling orthopedic impairments

Chronic health disabilities

Learning disabilities

In 2007, the Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of

2007 was passed. The goal of this legislation is to help more
children arrive a kindergarten ready to succeed. This law aligns
Head Start performance standard with State early learning
standards.

Head Start created a fortuitous opportunity to investigate the

impact of early intervention. Several heartening longitudinal
studies showed impressive long-term effects of early intervention
for environmentally at-risk children. Individuals who had
participated in Head Start were evaluated some 15 years later
(Lazar & Darlington, 1982). The study followed up on 820 Head
Start participants, comparing them with a group of children who
did not have the Head Start experience. The results demonstrated
that the Head Start program was extremely successful. Head Start
participants were less likely to be placed in special education
classes, were less likely to be retained and to repeat a grade,
consistently scored higher on intelligence tests, and were more
likely to finish high school by the age of 18. The research showed
that early intervention prevents school failure and reduces the
need for remedial programs (Head Start Bureau, 1993). In
addition to education, Head Start offers services for health,
parental involvement, and social services (Administration for
Children and Families, 2001).

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 © Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Home-School Communications:

The Parent-Teacher Conference.” In this video, a kindergarten teacher is
holding a conference with a mother. The teacher uses actual samples of the
child’s work to illustrate how the child is progressing over the year. The
teacher explains to the mother that all children in the class are different and
have different strengths.

Questions
1. How does the kindergarten teacher use the child’s work in the parent-
teacher conference?

2. How does the teacher respond to the mother’s concerns?

3. How does the teacher put a positive note in the parent-teacher

conference?

8.4a Head Start Studies

Along with other early intervention research, Head Start studies
demonstrate the benefits of early intervention. In terms of cost-
benefit analysis, society has received its money back with interest.
On the completion of schooling, students who receive early
intervention are more likely to be gainfully employed—to be
taxpayers rather than tax receivers—and to be citizens who
 contribute to society. “Every dollar invested in quality early
childhood education can save society $4 to $17 in remedial and
correction costs. That’s a pretty good return on investment”
(Bolton, P., 2007, p. 2).

8.4b Early Head start

The purpose of Early Head Start is to serve lowincome women and
their very young children. The first programs opened in 1995. The
program provides services for pregnant women, infants, and
toddlers that focus on prevention and promotion of healthy habits
and positive parent–child interactions. Early Head Start programs
work closely with the schools to provide a smooth transition for
children and families (Allen & Cowdery, 2009).

Did You Get It?

A major change was implemented to the Head Start Program in 1972.

The program would now allocate of the placement space within
its services to children with disabilities whose families otherwise met
enrollment criteria.

a. 5%

b. 10%

c. 25%

d. 50%

8.5 Developmental Indicators of Problems

in Young Children
Developmental indicators are early signs of problems in
young children. Signs of problems can be observed in the child’s
motor development, auditory processing, visual processing,
speech and language development, or attention abilities. Often,
the child will excel in some areas of development, while displaying
significant lags or difficulty in others. Learning does not suddenly
begin when a child reaches age 5 or 6 and enters school. During
the preschool years, children are earnestly and actively engaged in
learning. During these early years, children master many
preacademic skills and acquire a vast amount of knowledge,
information, and abilities that are needed later for learning of
academic subjects (Kirk, 1987). In the preschool years, children
acquire skills in visual and auditory perception, extend their
facility to attend, expand memory and thinking skills, and learn to
understand and use language. The levels to which children acquire
these skills can act as developmental indicators, which are
predictive of later difficulty in academic achievement. However,
early intervention can help preschool children reduce or overcome
these potential problems (Lerner et al., 2003). Some early
warning signs in preschool children are:

Late talking, compared with other children

Delayed gross and/or fine motor problems

Pronunciation problems

Slow vocabulary growth, often unable to find the right word

Difficulty rhyming words

Trouble learning numbers, the alphabet, days of the week

Extremely restless and easily distracted

Trouble interacting with peers

Poor ability to follow directions

Some useful early childhood websites are:

First Signs: http://www.firstsigns.org

Division for Early Childhood: http://www.dec-sped.org

 National Dissemination Center for Children With
Disabilities: http://www.nichcy.org

LD Online: http://www.ldonline.org

8.5a Common Developmental Indicators

Developmental indicators of disabilities may appear as difficulties
with grossmotor skills, fine-motor skills, auditory processing,
visual processing, communication and language skills, or
attention.

Gross-Motor Skills A common precursor for some children

with learning disabilities is an awkwardness in gross-motor skills,
which require children to use large muscles when moving their
arms, legs, torso, hands, and feet. Young children with gross-
motor problems appear clumsy in walking, jumping, hopping,
running, skipping, throwing, and catching skills.

Fine-Motor Skills Fine-motor activities involve the small

muscles used to move fingers and wrists, as well as eye-hand
coordination and coordination of the two hands. Children with
problems in fine-motor skills tend to be slow in learning to dress
themselves, in learning eating skills, in using buttons and zippers,
and in using pencils and crayons. Problems in fine-motor
development are evident when children have difficulty doing
puzzles, playing building games, accomplishing art projects, and
using scissors in cutting activities. In the later elementary years,
fine-motor difficulties are evident in slow and laborious
handwriting.

Auditory Processing An important precursor of learning

disabilities involves auditory processing. The ability to interpret
what is heard provides an important pathway for learning.
Children who have difficulty learning to read show early signs of
difficulties with auditory processing abilities. These children can
hear, but their difficulty lies in processing what they hear.

Visual Processing Visual processing abilities play a

significant role in school learning, particularly in reading.
Children with visual processing difficulties can see, but they
encounter problems in visual discrimination of letters and words,
visual memory, or visual closure.

Communication and Language Skills Difficulty in

acquiring speech and understanding and using language are
among the most common symptoms of difficulty. The ability to
use language to communicate one’s thoughts is central to learning.
Children with communication or language disorders have
difficulty understanding the language of others (listening),
responding to instructions, initiating communications, explaining,
engaging in conversations, and communicating with others.
Delays in speech and language acquisition are discussed in
Chapter 11, “Spoken Language Difficulties: Listening and
Speaking.”

Problems with Attention Some young children have

behaviors related to attentional problems and display behaviors of
hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. These preschoolers
cannot regulate or manage their activity levels to meet the
demands of schooling. They act as if they were driven by a motor,
running and climbing about excessively, being in constant motion,
fidgeting and squirming when sitting, and making loud noises.
Young children with inattention problems have difficulty
concentrating on a task, are easily distracted, shift from one
activity to another, and do not finish what they start. Parents and
teachers complain that these children do not listen. They may be
impulsive, unable to inhibit their responses to immediate events,
and do not consider the consequences of their behavior before
acting. They tend to blurt out answers before their teachers have
finished the question. These youngsters also find it difficult to
 share and take turns with their classmates (Warner-Rogers et al.,
2000). (See Chapter 7, “Autism Spectrum Disorders and Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders.)

Did You Get It?

Developmental indicators, in the context of early special education,

refer to what criteria?

a. progress made

b. signs of problems

c. established developmental goals and objectives

d. age-appropriate levels of development

8.6 Motor Development and Learning

Parents, teachers, physicians, and other professionals often
describe the young child as awkward or as lacking manual
dexterity. Parents frequently report that their child was slow in
acquiring motor skills, such as using eating utensils, putting on
clothes, buttoning a coat, catching a ball, or riding a bicycle.

Throughout history, philosophers and educators have written

about the close relationship between motor development and
learning. Plato placed gymnastics at the first level of education in
the training of the philosopher-king. Aristotle wrote that a
person’s soul is characterized by both body and mind. Spinoza
advised, “Teach the body to do many things; this will help you to
perfect the mind and to come to the intellectual level of thought.”
Piaget (1952) emphasized that early sensorimotor learning
establishes the foundation for later, more complex perceptual and
cognitive development. Indeed, a recurring theme throughout the
 history of special education is the concern for motor development
(Francks et al., 2003; Itard, 1962; Montessori, 1912; Sequin,
1970).

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

(DSM-5) American Psychiatric Association 2013. The criteria is
the DSM-5 is:

A. The acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills is

substantially below that expected given the individuals’s
chronological age and opportunity for skill learning and use.
Difficulties are manifested as clumsiness, as well as slowness
and inaccuracy of performance of motor skills.

B. The motor skills deficit in Criterion A significantly and

persistently interferes with activities of daily living
appropriate to chronological age and impacts
academic/school productivity, prevocational and vocational
activities, leisure, and play.

C. Onset of symptoms is in the early developmental period.

D. The motor skills deficits are not better explained by

intellectual disability or visual impairment and are not
attributable to a neurological condition affecting movement.
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The special
education law (IDEA-2004) recognizes the need for physical
education for all exceptional children. The child’s IEP can
designate the use of related services, such as adapted
physical education or occupational therapy (OT).

Occupational therapists (OTs) are health professionals who

provide therapy for a variety of motor disorders. Motor activities
are typically part of the curriculum in early childhood special
education programs. Student Stories 8.1, “Motor Coordination
Problems,” describes a student with motor coordination
difficulties.

Student Stories 8.1 Motor Coordination Problems

Tony, age 6, is failing in math, and he also shows signs of immature motor
development and poor awareness of his own body.
 Tony was evaluated because he was doing poorly in school, particularly in
reading and arithmetic. An individual intelligence test indicated that his
cognitive skills were above average and a screening test for vision and
hearing show no abnormalities. His oral language skills were good for his
age. At first, Tony’s posture gave the impression of being unusually straight,
almost military in bearing. During the motor testing, however, it was evident
that this seemingly straight posture was actually rigidity. When a required
movement was made, he was unable to make a correction within his body
position, and lost his balance. He was unable to walk a straight line and lost
his balance and fell. He was unable to catch a large ball, and lost his balance
trying. Although he had been given swimming lessons several times, he was
still unable to swim. He could not ride a bicycle, and Tony could not
participate in any ball games. Evidence of poor motor skills appeared in
many academic activities. For example, his handwriting was almost illegible.
Tony’s father, who had excelled in athletics and had won several sports
championships in high school and college, had little patience for playing with
a son who did not learn motor skills easily. In fact, because of Tony’s abysmal
failure in sports, his father told the evaluator that his son was not “a real
boy.”

Reflective Question
1. What do you think was Tony’s major problem?

8.6a The Importance of Motor Development

Early childhood general educators view motor growth as a
cornerstone of child development. Motor activities are typically
included in the general education curriculum for preschool
children. For preschoolers with disabilities who have deficits in
motor coordination, balance, rhythm, or body image, the
intervention strategies include methods for building motor skills,
 spatial awareness, and motor planning (Cook, Klein, & Tessier,
2008; Lerner et al., 2003).

Providing motor activities can bring about many unanticipated

and probably immeasurable improvements for the young child. It
can help a child become happier, more confident, and more
available for learning; it can also foster social interactions. When
the motor curriculum requires the child to go through, under,
over, between, and around obstacles, the child is also learning
important cognitive and language skills.

8.6b Key Concepts of Motor Development

Movement and motor experiences are crucial for human
development. Difficulty in motor coordination is a serious
problem for many children with disabilities. Some children exhibit
motor behaviors that are typical of a much younger child.
Examples of such motor behaviors are overflow movements (when
the child performs a movement with the right arm, the left arm
involuntarily performs a shadow movement), poor coordination in
gross-motor activities, difficulty in fine-motor coordination, poor
body image, and lack of directionality. These children perform so
poorly in the physical education activities for their age that they
are easily spotted in gym class. They frequently disturb others in
the classroom by bumping into objects, falling off chairs, dropping
pencils and books, and appearing generally clumsy.

Through the normal activities of play, children have many opportunities for
motor learning.
 kate_sept2004/ iStockphoto.com

Gross-motor skills involve the large muscles of the neck, trunk,

arms, and legs. Gross-motor development involves postural
control, walking, running, catching, and jumping. To provide
stimulation for gross-motor development, children need safe
environments that are free from obstacles, and they need much
encouragement from parents and teachers.

Fine-motor skills involve the small muscles. Fine-motor

coordination includes coordination of the hands and fingers and
dexterity with the tongue and speech muscles. Children develop
fine-motor skills as they learn to pick up small objects, such as
beads or chunks of food, cut with a scissors, grasp and use crayons
and pencils, and use a fork and spoon. They need ample
opportunities for building with blocks, manipulating small toys,
stringing beads, buttoning, and rolling and pounding (Cook et al.,
2008).

The normal activities of play offer children many opportunities for

motor activity. On the playground, children’s muscles move as
they reach, grasp, run, stoop, or stretch. In the typical play
environment, the child develops motor skills by playing with toys,
using clay, or painting. Playing games can also help build self-
 concept, social relationships, and acceptance by peers. Motor
activities—such as riding bicycles, playing games, and dancing—
signal the emergence of various developmental levels. The
inability to accomplish these activities with reasonable proficiency
may precipitate a chain of failure (Squire & Bricker, 2007).

Sometimes children receive instruction in motor skills through an

adapted physical education program, which is a special physical
education program that has been modified to meet the needs of
children with disabilities. Helping children with disabilities take
advantage of the same physical, emotional, and social benefits of
exercise, recreation, and leisure activities that other children enjoy
is important in inclusive environments. Movement games can help
young children adjust to general classroom environments. For
example, the child’s attention span can be lengthened through
games and physical activities that require increasing the ability to
pay attention. Learning letters can become a physical activity if
large letters made of rope are placed on a playground and games
are devised in which the student runs or walks over the shapes of
letters. Activities that involve the total body may also serve to
focus the attention of the hyperactive child (Cratty, 1988, 2004).

8.6c Perceptual Motor Development

The relationship between perceptual motor learning and
learning disabilities was formulated by one of the pioneers in the
field of learning disabilities, Newell Kephart (1963, 1967, 1971).
Through perceptual motor learning, the child integrates motor
behaviors and perception (visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic
perception). Children who have normal perceptual motor
development establish a solid and reliable concept of the world, a
stable perceptual motor world, by the time they encounter
academic tasks at age 6.
 In contrast, children with difficulty with perceptual motor
development must contend with a perceptual motor world that is
unstable and unreliable. In order to deal with symbolic materials,
these children must make some rather precise observations about
objects and events. Children with perceptual motor problems are
confused when confronted with symbolic materials because they
have not established a stable perceptual motor world. For
example, one child could not understand or perceive a square
because he lacked sufficient motor experiences with squares.
Another child could not rely on her visual observations, so she had
to touch things to assure herself that what she was seeing was real.

8.6d Sensory Integration

Sensory integration (SI) provides another approach to motor
development. The theory of sensory integration comes from the
field of occupational therapy and is based on the relationship
between the neurological processes and motor behavior (Ayres,
1994; Kranowitz, 2006; Goldey, 1998; Williamson & Anzalone,
1997).

Occupational therapists are trained in the relationship between

brain physiology and function. Specific physical therapies and
exercises are designed to modify the motor and sensory
integration functions of patients. Occupational therapists use
sensory integration therapy with children who have disorders in
several sensory integration functions, which interfere with the
awareness of their body and body movements. Sensory integration
methods are often used in early childhood special education
programs.

Three systems are involved in sensory integration:

1. the tactile system,

2. the vestibular system, and

 3. the proprioceptive system

(Kranowitz, 2006; Silver, 2006; Clark, Mailloux, & Parham, 1989).

Tactile System The tactile system involves the sense of touch

and the stimulation of skin surfaces. Some children have problems
in tactile defensiveness; they experience discomfort when touched
by another person. Infants with tactile defensiveness do not like to
be held or touched. Older children may complain about being
bothered by a tag on the back of a shirt, by a seam on a sock, or by
clothes that are uncomfortable. These children may lash out and
fight when they are brushed against while they are lining up.
These children need to learn to tolerate more tactile contact.

Methods of sensory integration used by occupational therapists

for tactile defensiveness include touching and rubbing skin
surfaces, using lotions, and brushing skin surfaces.

Vestibular System The vestibular system involves the inner

ear and enables individuals to detect motion. The vestibular
system allows children to know where their head is in space and
how to handle gravity. Children with vestibular disorders fall
easily and do not know how to adjust their bodies for the position
of their heads or for other body movements.

Therapy for vestibular disorders used by occupational therapists

consists of exercises in body planning and balance. It includes
activities such as spinning in chairs, swinging, and rolling on a
large ball to stimulate the vestibular system.

Proprioceptive System The proprioceptive system involves

stimulation from the muscles or within the body itself. Disorders
in this system may involve apraxia, which is a difficulty in
intentional performance of certain body movements. Children
with an apraxia problem cannot plan how to move their bodies
without bumping into walls, and they cannot direct movements,
such as buttoning, tying, skipping, or writing. Therapies for
proprioceptive stimulation used by occupational therapists
 include having the child use scooter boards and engage in other
planned motor behaviors.

Did You Get It?

A young child is given intervention to increase her integration of visual,

auditory, and tactile skills into her physical movement skills. This
intervention aims to develop/improve learning.

a. compensatory-motor

b. fine-motor

c. kinesthetic-motor

d. perceptual-motor

8.7 Perceptual Development

Perception is the process of recognizing and interpreting sensory
information. It is the intellect’s ability to give meaning to sensory
stimulation. For example, a square must be perceived as a whole
configuration, not as four separate lines. Because perception is a
learned skill, the teaching process can have a direct impact on the
child’s perceptual facility.

Several dimensions of perception have implications for

understanding learning disabilities:

1. the perceptual processing concept,

2. overloading the perceptual systems,

3. auditory perception,

4. visual perception, and

5. tactile and kinesthetic perception.

8.7a Perceptual Processing Concept
The perceptual processing concept is based on the premise
that children learn in different ways. Some learn best by listening
(auditory), some by looking (visual), some by touching (tactile),
and some by performing an action (kinesthetic). Adults, too, have
individual learning styles. Some learn best by listening to an
explanation; others know that to learn something they must read
about it or watch it being done. Still others learn best by writing
something down or by going through the action themselves. Some
students with learning disabilities appear to have a much greater
facility in using one perceptual or learning style over another.
Student Stories 8.2, “Auditory and Visual Perception Difficulties,”
describes contrasting perceptual difficulties of two children.

Student Stories 8.2 Auditory and Visual Perception

Difficulties

Sandra: Auditory Perception Difficulties

Eight-year-old Sandra failed many tasks that involved auditory learning. She
could not learn nursery rhymes, was unable to take messages over the
telephone, forgot spoken instructions, and could not discriminate between
pairs of spoken words with minimal contrast or a single phoneme difference
(cat-cap). She could not tap out the number of sounds in words and found
phonics instruction baffling. Sandra was failing in reading, yet she had
passed the reading readiness test with ease because it tested performance
skills that required visual learning. At first, Sandra could not remember the
arithmetic facts, but there was a sudden spurt in her arithmetic achievement
during the second half of first grade. She explained that she solved her
arithmetic problems by putting the classroom clock in her head. By looking
at the minute marks on the clock to perform arithmetic tasks, Sandra did
well with visual tasks, but poorly in auditory processing, particularly in
recognizing sounds in words.

John: Visual Perception Difficulties

 In contrast, John, at age 8, performed several years above his age level on
tasks that required auditory processing. He had easily learned to say the
alphabet in sequence. He also learned poems and nursery rhymes;
remembered series of digits, phone numbers, and verbal instructions; and
quickly learned to detect phonemes or sounds in words. Visual tasks,
however, were difficult. John had much trouble putting puzzles together,
seeing and remembering forms in designs, doing block arrangements,
remembering the sequence and order of things he saw, and recalling what
words looked like in print.

Reflective Question
1. How would you compare the strengths and weaknesses of Sandra and
John?

Research on brain function, using brain-imaging

technologies (such as fMRI), shows that different
perceptual systems do exist in different areas
within the brain. Sensitive teachers use information about a
child’s style of learning and perceptual strengths and weaknesses
in teaching academic skills. For example, the child who has great
difficulty with the auditory perception of the sounds in words (or a
deficit in awareness of phonemes) is likely to have difficulty
learning phonics. Of course, the child will have to learn to decode
words to acquire reading fluency. However, recognizing the child’s
auditory difficulties alerts the teacher to the child’s area of
difficulty and helps in teaching the child. The child may need
additional practice in recognizing sounds in words.

8.7b Overloading the Perceptual Systems

For a few children, the reception of information from one input
system interferes with information coming from another. These
children have a lower tolerance for receiving and integrating
 information from several input systems at the same time. An
analogy might be made to an overloaded circuit that blows out
when it cannot handle any more electrical energy. Unable to
accept and process an excess of data, the perceptual system
becomes overloaded. Symptoms include confusion, poor recall,
refusal to do the task, temper tantrums, or catastrophic responses.

If a child presents such symptoms, teachers should be cautious

about using multisensory techniques and should change the
method of instruction. One teacher reported that a second-grade
girl with learning disabilities was not making progress when
taught through simultaneous auditory and visual instruction. The
teacher reduced the auditory input by not talking and instead
taught reading and arithmetic through visual pictures and
examples. The girl now could understand and made great strides
in both reading and arithmetic.

Sometimes children learn by themselves to adapt their own

behavior to avoid overloading. One boy avoided looking at an
individual’s face when he engaged in conversation. When asked
about this behavior, the boy explained that he found he could not
understand what was being said if he watched the speaker’s face
while listening. The visual stimuli, in effect, interfered with the
boy’s ability to comprehend auditory information.

8.7c Auditory Perception

Auditory perception, which is the ability to recognize or interpret
what is heard, provides an important pathway for learning.
Accumulating research shows that many poor readers have
auditory, linguistic, and phonological difficulties (Lyon, 1998;
Stahl & Murray, 1994). These children do not have a problem in
hearing or in auditory acuity. Rather, they have difficulty with
auditory perception. Because abilities in auditory perception
normally develop during the early years, many academic teachers
mistakenly presume that all students have acquired these skills.
Auditory subskills include

1. phonological awareness,

2. auditory discrimination,

3. auditory memory,

4. auditory sequencing, and

5. auditory blending.

(See LD Online, Visual and Auditory Processing Disorders,

http://www.ldonline.org/article/6390.)

Phonological Awareness A necessary ability for learning to

read is the ability to recognize that the words we hear are
composed of individual sounds within the word. This ability is
called phonological awareness. For example, when an
individual hears the word cat, the ear hears it as one pulse of
sound. But the individual who has acquired phonological
awareness knows that the word cat is made up of three sounds (or
phonemes): /c/a/t/. The child who lacks phonological awareness
does not recognize that cat has three separate sounds.

Children who have trouble learning to read are often completely

unaware of how language is put together. They are unable to
recognize or isolate the sounds of words or the number of sounds
in a word. For example, when hearing the word kite, they cannot
tap out three sounds. These children also cannot recognize
similarities in words. They have difficulty recognizing words that
rhyme (e.g., right, fight, and night) and alliteration in words (e.g.,
cat and cap). As a result, these children cannot understand or use
the alphabetic principle needed for learning phonics and decoding
words.

Skills in phonological awareness abilities are formed during the

preschool years. It is very important to assess these abilities before
 children are taught to read and to provide training for children
who have not acquired phonological abilities. Fortunately,
research shows that young children can develop phonological
awareness through specific instruction and that such teaching has
a positive effect on reading achievement (Jennings, Caldwell, &
Lerner, 2010; Ball & Blachman, 1991; Lerner, 1990; Liberman &
Liberman, 1990; Stahl & Murray, 1994). Phonological awareness
as it relates to reading is also discussed in the chapters on oral
language and reading. An informal test of phonological awareness
is shown in Chapter 11, “Spoken Language Difficulties: Listening
and Speaking.” Table 8.4 lists some formal tests of auditory
perception.

Table 8.4 Tests for Assessing Motor and Perceptual

Development

Tests for Assessing Motor Development

Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2: http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2: http://www.wpspublish.com

Tests for Assessing Perceptual Development

Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-Primary-2: http://www.proedinc.com

Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4 (reversed letters, word sequences):

http://www.proedinc.com

Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA –3); auditory sequential memory,

sound blending, and auditory closure: http://www.proedinc.com

Bender-Gestalt Visual Motor Test: http://www.wpspublish.com

Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration: http://www.wpspublish.com

Developmental Test of Visual Perception: http://www.wpspublish.com

© Cengage Learning

8.7d Visual Perception

 Visual perception is the identification, organization, and
interpretation of sensory data received by the individual through
the eye, and it plays a significant role in school learning, especially
in reading. Students have difficulty in tasks requiring the visual
discrimination of letters and words, as well as of numbers,
geometric designs, and pictures. Figure 8.3 shows several
examples of visual perception tasks.

Figure 8.3 Examples of Visual Perception Tasks

© Cengage Learning

Visual Perception and Reversals There is an important

difference between the perceptual world of objects and the
perceptual world of letters and words. During the prereading
stage of development, children make a perceptual generalization
 that an object retains the same name or meaning regardless of the
position it happens to be in, the direction it faces, or the
modification of slight additions or subtractions. A chair, for
example, is a chair regardless of whether it faces left or right, back
or front, upside down or right side up. Whether it is upholstered,
has additional cushions, or even has a leg missing, it is still called
a chair. The child makes similar generalizations about dogs; no
matter what its position, size, color, or quantity of hair, a dog is
still called a dog.

When beginning to deal with letters and words, however, the child
finds that this perceptual generalization no longer holds true. The
placement of a circle on a stick from left to right or top to bottom
changes the name of the letter from b to d or to p or q. The
addition of a small line changes c to e. The direction the word is
facing changes it from was to saw, from no to on, and from top to
pot.

Some students fail to make the necessary amendments to earlier

perceptual generalizations they have formulated. One incident of
such confusion happened during a teachers’ strike. A boy with this
type of difficulty looked at the picket signs and asked why the
teachers were picketing if the strike had been called off. The sign
was lettered ON STRIKE, but the boy read it as NO STRIKE. In
another such example, a student reversed the letters when making
a Christmas card. He printed IEON instead of NOEI.

8.7e Tactile and Kinesthetic Perception

Learning activities and materials should be concrete, real, and relevant to the
lives of young children.
 Frances Roberts/Alamy

The tactile and kinesthetic systems are two perceptual systems for
receiving information. The term haptic is sometimes used to refer
to both systems.

Tactile Perception Tactile perception is obtained through

the sense of touch via the fingers and skin surfaces. The ability to
recognize an object by touching it, to identify a numeral that is
drawn on one’s back or arm, to discriminate between smooth and
rough surfaces, and to identify which finger is being touched are
all examples of tactile perception.

Kinesthetic Perception Kinesthetic perception is

obtained through body movements and muscle feeling. The
awareness of positions taken by different parts of the body and
bodily feelings of muscular contraction, tension, and relaxation
are examples of kinesthetic perception.

The tactile and kinesthetic systems are important sources of

information about object qualities, body movement, and their
interrelationships. Most school tasks, as well as most acts in
everyday life, require both touch and body movement. Tactile and
kinesthetic perceptions play important roles in learning.
 Did You Get It?

Randall learns most effectively by hearing, Malcolm learns most

effectively by seeing, and Juan is a “hands-on” learner. Understanding
how children take in and utilize information, and thus learn from it, is
inherent to a model referred to as the perceptual concept.

a. integration

b. processing

c. implementation

d. operation

8.8 Assessing Young Children

A major trend in assessment practices today is to use informal,
functional assessment measures instead of relying solely on
formal standardized tests and testing procedures. There is more
authentic assessment and observation of the child in a natural
environment (Lerner et al., 2003).

8.8a Phases of Early Identification and

Assessment
Four separate but related phases of identification and assessment
of preschoolers with disabilities are

1. child-find,

2. screening,

3. diagnosing, and

4. evaluating,
 as shown in Figure 8.4. Many different tests and assessment
procedures can be used.

Figure 8.4 Stages of the Assessment Process for Young

Children With Disabilities

© Cengage Learning

Figure 8.4 explains the process of determining whether a young

child may have a disability from child find through individualized
evaluation.

Child-Find This first phase, child-find, refers to ways of

finding young children with disabilities in the community.
Emphasis is on making initial contact and increasing the public’s
awareness of services. Preschool children are not usually in the
public school system, and communities must therefore make a
concerted effort to seek them out. Communities develop methods,
such as radio announcements, posters, signs in daycare centers
and libraries, and local newspaper articles to alert families of
young children.

Screening This second phase, screening, attempts to identify

children who need further study. Screening involves surveying
many children to identify those who may need special services.
School districts often encourage families to bring all 3- through 5-
year-old children in for free evaluation services, even if the family
 does not suspect a disability. The screening is a short, low-cost
assessment of children’s vision and hearing, speech and language,
motor skills, self-help skills, social-emotional maturity, and
cognitive development.

Many school systems use screening interviews or questionnaires

with the parents of all incoming kindergarten children. Questions
are designed to detect those children who are likely to have
learning difficulty. Table 2.5 in Chapter 2, “Assessment and the
IEP Process,” provides some questions that might be used in such
a screening interview.

Diagnosing The third phase, diagnosing, consists of

determining the extent of developmental delay and devising an
intervention program. In this phase, the child receives a
comprehensive evaluation through formal and authentic measures
to determine if the child needs special education services. A
multidisciplinary team determines the nature of the problem, its
severity, and the intervention and educational setting that the
child needs.

Evaluating The fourth phase, evaluating, concentrates on

measuring progress, judging whether a child should remain in a
special education program, and planning for transition. This stage
of the assessment helps determine whether the child still needs
special education services, what skills the child has learned and
still lacks, and what new placement will be needed.

8.8b Areas of Assessment

To evaluate a child’s developmental delay, the assessment
typically includes an evaluation of cognitive, motor,
communication, perceptual, social, and adaptive development
(Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2005; Lerner et al., 2003).
Cognitive Development This evaluation includes the
assessment of the child’s abilities in thinking, planning, and
concept development. Examples of cognitive tasks are identifying
colors; naming parts of the body; rote counting (up to 10 or so);
showing an understanding of one-to-one correspondence (“Show
me 3 blocks”); demonstrating place concepts (on, under, corner,
between, middle); identifying given concepts (round, bigger);
naming letters; or sorting chips by color, size, and shape.

Motor Development The assessment of motor development

includes the child’s overall physical development, gross-motor
skills, and fine-motor development. Examples of tasks the child is
asked to perform include catching a ball or bean bag, jumping,
hopping, skipping, building a 4-block design, touching fingers
(copying the tester’s demonstration by consecutively touching
each finger on one hand to the thumb of the same hand and then
repeating the task on the other hand), cutting various patterns
with scissors, matching and copying shapes and letter formations,
and writing one’s own name. The child’s visual and auditory acuity
are also often assessed. Table 8.4 lists tests for assessing motor
and perceptual development.

Communication Development This evaluation includes

speech and language skills and the abilities to understand and use
language. Evaluators might assess articulation by having children
say certain words. They can be asked to repeat numbers and
sentences spoken by the evaluator; to describe pictures; to answer
problem-solving questions; or to state their first and last names,
gender, age, address, and phone number. An auditory test—for
example, that has children copy a series of clapping patterns—may
also be included.

Social and Emotional Development The child’s social

and affective interactions are recorded through observational
notes made by the evaluators. Typical observations include how
well the child relates to adults and to other children.
 Adaptive Development This category refers to the child’s
self-help skills. It includes such areas as independent toileting
skills, dressing skills, eating skills, and the ability to separate from
parents.

Did You Get It?

Child-find, the earliest stage of planned intervention in a four-pronged

system of childhood assessment for students with disabilities, involves
which activity?

a. formalized testing for eligibility

b. development of the IEP or IFSP

c. finding children in need of services

d. an initial interview with the IEP team

8.9 Early Childhood Programs and

Practices
8.9a Recommended Practices: The Division
of Early Childhood
A leading professional organization for early childhood special
education is The Division for Early Childhood (DEC), which is a
component of the Council of Exceptional Children. The website is
http://www.dec-sped.org. DEC has proposed the following
recommended practices for early childhood special education:

The right of all children to be included in natural

settings. This means that teaching should occur within the
context of daily routines in natural environments.

The importance of individualization. The teaching

should meet the individual needs of each child.
 The assessment procedures should be informal and
in natural environments. The use of standardized
assessment tests should be de-emphasized.

The assessment and curriculum should be

integrated. Testing and teaching should not be isolated;
they should be combined.

Encourage child-initiated activities. A child-centered

approach to teaching young children with special needs is
encouraged.

Use active engagement to learn independent

functioning. In activitybased instruction, the teacher
follows the child’s lead to discover the child’s interests,
motivation, and choice of activities.

8.9b Using Computer Technology

For young children with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities, computers offer many opportunities to explore, play,
and learn. Their computer experiences become an integral part of
their overall development. Computers bestow a unique magic on
children who have special needs by empowering them with a sense
of independence and control. The value of the computer may be
greater for exceptional youngsters than for others in the
population. It is widely acknowledged that computers enable
ordinary people to do extraordinary things, but for the child who
has special needs, the computer does even more. It enables
extraordinary people to do ordinary things.

Computers can help young children develop independence, self-

help skills, motor control, visual and auditory concepts, language
skills, and cognitive skills. Young children with disabilities who
use computers are able to control their environment and to make
decisions. Even social skills can be encouraged through
cooperative computer activities. Computer activities can help
families and teachers meet IEP and IFSP goals (Bowe, 2007;
 Lewis, Church, & Tsantis, 2006). Computers can creatively
present colors; distinguish differences, such as larger and smaller;
illustrate concepts, such as above and below; and help with shape
and letter recognition, counting, matching, and sequencing.

Adaptive peripherals are particularly useful with young children.

Speech synthesizers allow the computer to talk to the child.
Switches can be plugged into the computer, allowing the child to
use the computer without the keyboard. Interactive White Boards
are very useful (Whitby, Leininger, & Grillo, 2012). With the
TouchWindow, the child can directly touch the screen to control
the computer. Most important, young children with disabilities
like using the computer. It is an enjoyable, motivating way of
learning.

Did You Get It?

The Division for Early Childhood (DEC) stresses which approach in its
charter document of recommended practices for early special
educational?

a. curriculum centered

b. community centered

c. child centered

d. teacher centered

8.10 Early Intervention Strategies

In this section, we describe representative activities for teaching
young children with disabilities. The activities include

1. motor development activities,

2. auditory processing,
 3. visual processing, and

4. tactile and kinesthetic processing.

8.10a Motor Development Activities

Motor development activities are a particularly useful part of the
early childhood curriculum. The teaching strategies for motor
development targets three areas:

1. gross-motor activities,

2. fine-motor activities, and

3. body awareness activities.

Motor activities help young children develop motor skills. The balance beam is
commonly used in the early childhood program.
 Courtesy of Elizabeth Crews Photography

Gross-Motor Activities Gross-motor activities involve the

ability to move various parts of the body. The purpose of these
activities is to develop smoother, more effective body movements
and to increase the child’s sense of spatial orientation and body
consciousness. Gross-motor activities are grouped as

1. walking activities,

2. throwing and catching activities, and

3. other grossmotor activities.

Teaching Tips 8.1, “Activities for Gross-Motor Development,” lists

suggested activities for building gross-motor skills.

Teaching Tips 8.1 Activities for Gross-Motor Development

Walking Activities

1. Forward, backward, and sideways walk. Children walk to a target

goal on a straight or curved path marked on the floor. The path may be
wide or narrow, but the narrower the path, the more difficult the task. A
single line requiring tandem walking (heel-to-toe) is more difficult than
a widely spaced walk. A slow pace is more difficult than a running pace.
Walking without shoes and socks is more difficult than walking with
shoes. Students walk through the same course backward and sideways.
In variations, children walk with arms in different positions, carrying
objects, dropping objects such as balls into containers along the way, or
focusing eyes on various parts of the room.

2. Stepping-stones. Put objects on the floor for stepping- stones,

identifying placements for right foot and left foot by colors or by the
letters K and L. The student is to follow the course by placing the correct
foot on each stepping-stone.

3. Line walks. Draw lines in colors on the floor. Lines can be curved,
angular, or spiral. Place a rope on the floor and have the students walk
along the side of the rope. A variation is to place a ladder flat on the
ground. Students walk between the rungs, forward and backward, and
then hop through the rungs.

Throwing and Catching Activities

 1. Throwing. Balloons, wet sponges, beanbags, yarn balls, and rubber
balls of various sizes can be used to throw objects at targets, to the
teacher, or to one another.

2. Catching. Catching is a more difficult skill than throwing. Students can

practice catching the previously mentioned objects thrown by the
teacher or by other students.

3. Ball games. Various types of ball games help develop motor

coordination. Examples include balloon volleyball or rolling-ball games,
bouncing balls on the ground, and throwing balls against the wall. If
children find that throwing and catching a rubber ball is too difficult, a
rag ball can be used. Rag balls are made by covering rags or discarded
nylon hosiery with cloth.

Professional Resource Download

Fine-Motor Activities Fine motor activities involve the small

muscles, for example, the coordination of the hands and fingers.
Teaching Tips 8.2, “Activities for Fine-Motor Development,” lists
suggested activities for building fine-motor skills.

Teaching Tips 8.2 Activities for Fine-Motor Development

Fine-Motor Activities

1. Tracing. Students trace lines, pictures, designs, letters, or numbers on

tracing paper, plastic, or stencils. Use directional arrows, color cues, and
numbers to help children trace the figures.

2. Water control. Children carry and pour water into measured buckets
from pitchers to specified levels. Smaller amounts and finer
measurements make the task more difficult. Coloring the water makes
the activity more interesting.

3. Cutting with scissors. Choose cutting activities that are appropriate

for the child’s developmental level. The easiest activity is cutting straight
lines marked near the edge of the paper. A more difficult activity is
cutting a straight line across the center of the paper. A piece of
cardboard attached to the paper helps guide the scissors.

4. Stencils or templates. Children draw outlines of geometric shapes.

Templates can be made from cardboard, wood, plastic, or foam
containers. Two styles of templates are
 1. a solid shape and

2. frames with the shape cut out.

5. Lacing. A piece of cardboard punched with holes or a pegboard can be

used for this activity. A design or picture is made on the board, and then
the student follows the pattern by weaving or sewing through the holes
with a heavy shoelace, yarn, or cord.

6. Paper-and-pencil activities. Coloring books, readiness books, dot-to-

dot books, and kindergarten books frequently provide good paper-and-
pencil activities to practice fine-motor and eye-hand development.

7. Clipping clothespins. Clothespins can be clipped to a line or to a box.

The child can be timed in this activity by counting the number of
clothespins clipped in a specified time.

8. Copying designs. The child looks at a geometric design and copies it

on paper.

Body Awareness Activities

The purpose of these activities is to help children develop accurate images of

the location and function of the parts of the body.

1. Pointing to body parts. Children point to the various parts of the

body: nose, right elbow, left ankle, and so forth. This activity is more
difficult with the eyes closed. The child can also lie on the floor and be
asked to touch various parts of the body. This activity is more difficult if
performed to a rhythmic pattern—using a metronome, for example. As a
variation, make a robot from cardboard that is held together at the joints
with fasteners and can be moved into various positions. The child can
move the limbs of the robot on command and match the positions with
his or her own body movements,

2. “Simon says.” This game can be played with the eyes open or closed,

3. Life-size drawing. Children lie on a large sheet of paper, and the

teacher traces an outline around them. Next, the children fill in and color
the clothes and the details of the face and body,

4. Games. Games such as “Looby Loo,” “Hokey-Pokey,” and “Did You

Ever See a Lassie?” help develop concepts of left, right, and body image,

5. Following instructions. Instruct the child to put the left hand on the
right ear and the right hand on the left shoulder. Other instructions
might be to put the right hand in front of the left hand or to turn right,
walk two steps, and turn left,
 6. Twister. Make rows of colored circles on the floor, an oilcloth, or a
plastic sheet, or use the commercial game. Make cards instructing the
student to put the left foot on the green circle, the right foot on the red
circle, and so on.

Professional Resource Download

8.10b Auditory Processing

Many young children with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities need specific practice to acquire auditory processing
skills. In Teaching Tips 8.3, “Auditory Processing Activities,” we
suggest strategies for phonological awareness, listening to sounds,
auditory discrimination, and auditory memory.

Teaching Tips 8.3 Auditory Processing Activities Listening to

Sounds
1. Listening for sounds. Children close their eyes and listen to
environmental sounds—for example, sounds of cars, airplanes, animals,
and other outside sounds; and sounds in the next room. Recorded
sounds of planes, trains, animals, and bells can be played back to the
students, who are then asked to identify them,

2. Sounds made by the teacher. Children close their eyes and identify
sounds that the teacher makes. Examples of such sounds include
dropping a pencil, tearing a piece of paper, using a stapler, bouncing a
ball, sharpening a pencil, tapping on a glass, opening a window,
snapping the lights, leafing through a book, cutting with scissors,
opening a drawer, jingling money, or writing on a blackboard,

3. Shaking sounds. Place small, hard items, such as stones, beans, chalk,
salt, sand, or rice, into containers with covers. Have the children identify
the contents by shaking the containers and listening,

4. Listening for sound patterns. Have children close their eyes or sit
facing away from the teacher. Clap hands, play a drum, or bounce a ball,
Rhythmic patterns can be made—for example, slow, fast, fast. Ask
students how many counts there were, or ask them to repeat the
 patterns. As a variation on the previous suggestion, use a cup and a
book, for example, to tap out sound patterns.

Auditory Discrimination

1. Near or far. With eyes closed, the students judge from what part of the
room a sound is coming and whether it is near or far,

2. Loud or soft. The students learn to judge and to discriminate between

loud and soft sounds that the teacher produces,

3. Find the sound. One student hides a music box or a ticking clock, and
the other students try to find it by locating the sound.

Auditory Memory

1. Do this. Place five or six objects in front of the student and give the
student a series of directions to follow. For example, “Put the green block
in Jean’s lap, place the yellow flower under John’s chair, and put the
orange ball into Joe’s desk.” The list can be increased as the student
improves in auditory memory.

2. Following directions. Give the student several simple tasks to

perform. For example, “Draw a big red square on your paper, put a small
green circle underneath the square, and draw a black line from the
middle of the circle to the upper right-hand corner of the square.” Such
activities can be tape recorded for use with earphones at a listening
center.

3. Nursery rhymes. Have children learn nursery rhymes and poems and
play finger games.

4. Going to the moon. Update the game of “Grandmother’s Trunk” or

“Going to New York.” Say, “I took a trip to the moon and took my
spacesuit.” The student repeats the statement, but adds one item, such
as “helmet.” Pictures may be used to help with auditory memory.

Professional Resource Download

8.10c Visual Processing

Abilities in visual perception are necessary for academic learning.
Children who can read letters and numbers, copy geometric
 patterns, and match printed words tend to do well in first-grade
reading. In Teaching Tips 8.4, “Visual Processing Activities,” we
suggest some visual processing activities.

Teaching Tips 8.4 Visual Processing Activities Visual

Perception

1. Pegboard designs. Using colored pegs, students reproduce colored

visual geometric patterns on a pegboard from a visual model made by
the teacher or shown on a printed page.

2. Blocks. Children reproduce models using parquetry blocks. Have

children use wood or plastic blocks that are all one color or have faces of
different colors to match geometric shapes and have them build copies of
models.

3. Puzzles. Students assemble puzzles. Subjects such as people, animals,

forms, numbers, or letters can be cut into large pieces for the child to
assemble.

4. Classification. Students group or classify objects by shapes, sizes, and

colors. The objects can be placed in a box or bowl. They can be chips,
coins, buttons, beans, and so on.

5. Matching geometric shapes. Place shapes on cards and have the

students play games requiring the matching of these shapes. Collect jars
of different sizes with lids, mix the lids, and have students match the lids
with the jars. Make a domino-type game by making sets of cards
decorated with sandpaper, felt, self-adhesive covering, or painted dots;
have students match the cards with one another.

6. Playing cards. A deck of playing cards provides excellent teaching

material to match suits, pictures, numbers, and sets.

7. Letters and numbers. Visual perception and discrimination of letters

are important reading readiness skills. Games that provide opportunities
to match, sort, or name shapes can be adapted to letters and numbers.
Bingo cards can be made with letters. As letters are called, the student
recognizes and covers up the letters.

Visual Memory

1. Identifying missing objects. Expose a collection of objects. Cover

and remove one of the objects. Show the collection again, asking the
student to identify the missing object.
 2. Ordering from memory. Expose a short series of shapes, designs, or
objects. Have the student place another set of these designs in the
identical order from memory. Playing cards, colored blocks, blocks with
designs, or mahjongg tiles are among the materials that might be used
for such an activity. Show a toy, number, letter, or word for a brief time
and then have the child recall it.

3. Stories from pictures. On a flannel board, place pictures of activities

that tell a story. Remove the pictures and have the pupil tell the story by
depending on visual memory of the pictures.

Professional Resource Download

8.10d Tactile and Kinesthetic Processing

Teaching Tips 8.5, “Tactile and Kinesthetic Processing Activities,”
provides activities that enhance tactile and kinesthetic processing
abilities.

Teaching Tips 8.5 Tactile and Kinesthetic Processing

Activities

1. Feeling various textures. Children feel various textures, such as

smooth wood, metal, sandpaper, felt, flocking, sponge, wet surfaces, and
foods. Attach different materials to small pieces of wood. The student
touches the boards without looking and learns to discriminate and
match the various surfaces.

2. Feeling shapes. Place various textures that are cut into geometric
patterns or letters on boards. Children can touch them and discriminate,
match, and identify the shapes. The shapes can also be made of plastic,
wood, cardboard, clay, or the like.

3. Feeling weights. Fill small cardboard spice containers to different

levels with beans, rice, and so on. Have the child match weights through
shaking and sensing the weights.

Professional Resource Download

I Have a Kid Who… LORINDA: A Preschooler With Developme
Lorinda was identified during the local school district’s preschool screening
program as a high-risk child who needed further assessment and
intervention. She performed poorly on tests requiring expressive language
skills and on social measures. At the time of the preschool screening,
Lorinda’s age was 3 years 9 months.

During the interview with Lorinda’s mother, the school obtained additional
information. Linda was born 6 weeks prematurely, and she weighed a little
more than 4 pounds at birth and had trouble breathing. She frequently
suffered from colds during her first 2 years, and between the ages of 2 and 3,
she had at least eight serious ear infections. Motor development seemed to
be normal; she sat up, walked, and crawled at the same ages that her siblings
had performed these activities. Her language development, however, was
slower than the other children in her family. Although she seemed to
understand language when spoken to, she could not use it to make her wants
known. She did not use any words until she was 2 years old and even now
uses only very short sentences, such as “Me want pizza” or “Him break cup.”
She often uses the wrong word or simply points to what she wants. She still
has temper tantrums, which seem to be triggered by her inability to
communicate her needs.

Her mother described her as an “overactive” child compared with the other
children. She would “tear the house apart,” break the crib, and take all her
toys apart. She never sat down, except to watch television, and that activity
usually lasted for only a few minutes. When Lorinda turned 3, her mother
tried to enroll her in a small play at school, but after a few days the director
said she could not stay because of her extreme hyperactivity. Without
provocation, she grabbed toys from other children and hit or scratched her
classmates.

Lorinda’s mother had suspected that Lorinda was different, but everyone had
told her not to worry—that Lorinda would outgrow her disruptive behavior.
The mother expressed relief at having her daughter in the special preschool
program. At last, someone else recognized Lorinda’s problem and would be
 working to help her. The hours Lorinda would be in school would offer her
mother the first break since Lorinda was born, and her mother was looking
forward to receiving help from the school on home behavior management.

Questions
1. How was Lorinda’s problem identified?

2. What are Lorinda’s strengths?

3. What are Lorinda’s weaknesses?

4. In what educational setting do you think Lorinda should receive

services?

Did You Get It?

Many games that might seem childish can be used effectively to

entertain and develop specific skills. Which traditional childhood
activity/game is easily and effectively integrated into an educational
setting to develop bodily awareness?

a. any card game

b. Simon Says

c. Operation®

d. jump-roping

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
The early years are a critical time in a child’s development
and can avert or reduce later failure.

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement

Act (IDEA-2004) incorporates provisions for two age
groups: preschool children (ages 3 to 6) and for infants and
toddlers (ages birth to 3).
 Motor learning is a developmental skill, and it is considered
a key curriculum activity in the general education setting for
young children.

Perception is an important domain for young children with

disabilities.

Consideration should be given to auditory and visual

processing.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Why are the early years so important? What are some of the benefits of early
intervention?

2. What are the developmental indicators of disabilities found in young

children? How can early intervention practices help young children with
special needs?

3. Describe the two early childhood age groups covered in the Individuals With
Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA-2004). Compare and
contrast the effect of the law for these two age groups.

4. What are some educational settings for young children with disabilities?

Chapter Review

Key Terms
at risk

child-find

developmental delay

developmental indicators

educational environments

Head start

individualized family service plan (IFSP)

kinesthetic perception

occupational therapist (OT)

perception

perceptual motor learning

perceptual processing concept

phonological awareness

screening

sensory integration (SI)

tactile perception

visual perception
 Chapter

Adolescents
and Adults
9
With
Learning
Disabilities
and Related
Disabilities

Chapter Introduction

9.1 Adolescents With Learning Disabilities and Other Related

Disabilities

9.1a Characteristics of Adolescence

9.1b Characteristics of Adolescents With Learning Disabilities

9.2 Special Issues at the Secondary Level (Middle School and High
School)

9.2a Challenges for Adolescents With Learning Disabilities and

Other Related Disabilities

9.2b Educational Settings in Middle School and High School

9.2c Inclusion at the Secondary Level

9.2d Effective Inclusion Practices for Secondary Teachers

 9.2e Performance Standards and High-Stakes Testing

9.2f Content-Area Secondary Teachers

9.3 Transition Legislation for Secondary Students

9.3a Content of the Transition Plan

9.3b Summary of Performance

9.3c Developing Transition Plans

9.4 Approaches to Teaching Adolescents With Learning Disabilities and

Related Disabilities

9.4a Features of Effective Secondary Programs

9.4b Curriculum Models for Serving Adolescents With Learning

Disabilities and Mild Disabilities at the Secondary Level

9.4c Assistive and Instructional Computer Technology

9.4d What Happens to High School Students With Learning

Disabilities

9.5 Learning Strategies Instruction

9.5a Guidelines for Teaching Learning Strategies

9.5b Strategies Intervention Model

9.5c Steps for Teaching Learning Strategies

9.6 Postsecondary Programs

9.6a College Programs

9.6b Legislation for Students With Disabilities in College

Programs

9.6c Accommodations in College Programs

9.6d Professional Licensing and Learning Disabilities

9.6e Nondegree Postsecondary Programs

9.7 Adults With Learning Disabilities and Related Disabilities

9.7a Literacy Organizations for Adults

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms
Chapter Introduction

Steve Debenport/ iStockphoto.com

If you give a starving man a fish, you feed him

for a day. But if you teach the man how to fish,
you feed him for a lifetime. If you teach a
student with learning disabilities a fact, you
help the student for the moment. But if you
teach that student how to learn, you help the
student for a lifetime.

—Deshler, Ellis, and Lenz (1996)

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

9.1
 Describe the characteristics of adolescents with
learning problems

9.2
List effective inclusionary strategies at the secondary
level

9.3
Describe the required components of a transition
plan

9.4
List the approaches to effectively teach adolescents
with learning problems

9.5
Describe the components of learning strategies
instruction

9.6
Describe the characteristics of postsecondary
programs

9.7
Discuss the characteristics of adults with learning
problems

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

CEC Initial Level Special Educator Preparation

Standards as approved by the National Council for the Accreditation
of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
 individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0—Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments so that individuals with
exceptionalities become active and effective learners and develop
emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

2.1—Beginning special education professionals through collaboration

with general educators and other colleagues create safe, inclusive,
culturally responsive learning environments to engage individuals with
exceptionalities in meaningful learning activities and social interactions.

2.2—Beginning special education professionals use motivational and

instructional interventions to teach individuals with exceptionalities how
to adapt to different environments.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically

sound formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and
provide feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning
of individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.
 5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance
language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.5—Beginning special education professionals develop and implement a

variety of education and transition plans for individuals with
exceptionalities across a wide range of settings and different learning
experiences in collaboration with individuals, families, and teams.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and

promote generalization of learning.

5.7—Beginning special education professionals teach cross-disciplinary

knowledge and skills such as critical thinking and problem solving to
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical

Practice
6.2—Beginning special education professionals understand how
foundational knowledge and current issues influence professional
practice.

6.3—Beginning special education professionals understand that diversity

is a part of families, cultures, and schools, and that complex human
issues can interact with the delivery of special education services.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 7: Collaboration

7.0—Beginning special education professionals collaborate with families,
other educators, related service providers, individuals with
exceptionalities, and personnel from community agencies in culturally
responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with exceptionalities
across a range of learning experiences.

7.1—Beginning special education professionals use the theory and

elements of effective collaboration.

7.2—Beginning special education professionals serve as a collaborative

resource to colleagues.

7.3—Beginning special education professionals use collaboration to

promote the well-being of individuals with exceptionalities across a wide
range of settings and collaboration.

For many individuals, learning difficulties are lifelong problems

that continue into the adolescent and adult years. In this chapter,
we discuss
 1. adolescents and adults with learning disabilities and other
related disabilities,

2. special issues at the middle school and secondary levels,

3. approaches to teaching adolescents with learning disabilities

and related mild disabilities,

4. learning strategies instruction,

5. postsecondary programs, and

6. the adult years.

9.1 Adolescents With Learning Disabilities

and Other Related Disabilities
The period of adolescence is well documented as a stage of turmoil
and difficult adjustment. The physical, mental, and emotional
adjustments that characterize adolescents in middle school and
high school affect many dimensions of the adolescent’s life. In
addition to facing difficulties in school and in their social life,
teenagers with learning disabilities and other related disabilities
must also cope with the normal challenges and adjustments of
adolescence. Because many characteristics of learning difficulties
and adolescence overlap, it is hard to know whether a particular
behavior stems from a learning disability or from normal
adolescent development. In many cases, the challenges stem from
both, thus complicating the student’s learning, social, and
behavioral problems.

9.1a Characteristics of Adolescence

The period of adolescence is marked by conflicting feelings about

1. freedom and independence versus security and dependence,

 2. rapid physical changes,

3. developing sexuality,

4. peer pressure,

5. illegal drugs, and

6. self-consciousness.

Many of the characteristics of adolescence can affect the processes

of learning (Snowman & McCown, 2013).

Freedom and Independence Versus Security and

Dependence Adolescents want to become independent and
separate themselves from their families; however, at the same
time, they also need to keep these ties. According to Erikson’s
(1968) psychosocial model of development, adolescents must
resolve a conflict between their desire for freedom and
independence and their desire for security and dependence.

Rapid Physical Changes Adolescence is a period of rapid

changes in physical growth and in appearance, including dramatic
changes in facial and body structure. Adolescents must develop a
new self-image and learn to cope with a different physical
appearance, as well as new psychological and biological drives.

Developing Sexuality The adolescent period is also one of

developing sexuality—another change to which the adolescent
must learn to adjust. The sexual dimensions of adolescence may
be very demanding in terms of time, energy, and worry.

Peer Pressure Adolescents are greatly influenced by peer

pressure and peer values. When the values of friends differ from
those of parents, family confrontation and conflict may result.

Easy Access to Illegal Drugs In today’s society, students

have easy access to drugs and may be tempted to experiment to
discover the feeling of being “high” on drugs.

Self-Consciousness Teenagers tend to be very conscious of

themselves, of how they look, and of how they compare with group
 norms. This self-consciousness can lead to feelings of inferiority
and withdrawal.

9.1b Characteristics of Adolescents With

Learning Disabilities
For adolescents with learning disabilities and other related
disabilities, the problems of adolescence are compounded by their
learning difficulties. As illustrated in Student Stories 9.1, “Tim, an
Adolescent With Learning Disabilities,” the adolescent can find it
devastating to cope with learning disabilities, in addition to the
difficulties created by normal adolescent development.

Student Stories 9.1 Tim, an Adolescent With Learning

Disabilities

Tim is a 14-year-old freshman at Washington High School who has learning

disabilities. His first-semester grades confirmed what he had feared: He
failed three subjects—English, algebra, and history. He made only a D in
general science, and he received a C in physical education and mechanical
drawing.

Tim finds that he cannot cope with the assignments, the workload, and the
demands of his courses. Even worse, he cannot read the textbooks, and he
does not understand all that goes on in his classes. Tim also does poorly on
the written exams. He feels as though he is drowning, and he knows he needs
help.

When Tim was in elementary school, he received intermittent help from the
learning disabilities resource teacher. Last year, in eighth grade, Tim was
placed in general education content-area classes, and he received no resource
help or direct special education services. The special education teacher, his
eighth-grade homeroom teacher, and his other subject-area teachers
informally discussed Tim’s academic progress and planned his program. Tim
was very involved in these planning sessions. In general, he had a successful
year in eighth grade, passing all his subjects with above-average grades,
although he had to work hard to accomplish this.

Over the summer, Tim grew so rapidly that he had to buy a complete set of
new clothes. His voice changed, and he found that he must now shave the
dark hair sprouting over his upper lip about once a week. Tim has made new
friends at the high school and has kept many of his old friends from eighth
grade. However, he has not told any of them about his grades. In fact, he is so
embarrassed about his grades that he has started to stop seeing his friends.

At this point, Tim does not know where to turn. In a conference that the
school counselor held with Tim and his parents, they were told that the tests
show he has the ability and that he should try harder. His parents are
disappointed and angry. Tim is discouraged and depressed. Since the grades
were mailed to his parents, he has cut a number of classes. Clearly, without
help, there is danger that Tim will become another dropout statistic.

Reflective Question
1. How can Tim go about getting help at the high school?

It is critical to know the characteristics of adolescents with

learning disabilities and other disabilities, but it is equally
important to recognize the demands of the setting within which
the adolescent lives and learns (Harris et al., 2011; Deshler et al.,
2008; Lenz & Deshler, 2003). The characteristics of students with
learning problems vary. Many students with learning disabilities
show evidence of higher rates of absenteeism, lower grade point
averages, higher course failure rates, feelings of low self-esteem,
and more inappropriate social behaviors than their peers without
disabilities (Deshler, 2008, 2009). Many adolescents do not
display the characteristics described here, and they may even excel
and possess strengths in some of these areas. Nevertheless, when
one considers the combination of academic difficulties, the traits
of adolescents, and the characteristics of learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities, it is small wonder that these years are
often trying. The following characteristics are seen in some, but
certainly not in all, adolescents with learning disabilities:

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

Learning difficulties can be related to the
adolescent’s cultural and language background.
The family’s cultural views about school, academic performance,
reading, studying, and test taking can shape the student’s attitude.
Some families will not acknowledge any failure or disability and
refuse to seek help for their student. In some cultures, adolescents
are expected to take on many family responsibilities, and
therefore, they have less time for schoolwork. Some cultures are
not as time oriented as the mainstream American culture, and
they may not see the importance of being on time or turning in
work at a specified time. Many classes stress competition, while
the adolescent’s culture may reward group or teamwork, rather
than individual accomplishment.

English-language learners (ELL) are adolescents whose first

language is not English and may lack English proficiency, which
leads to obstacles in many academic subjects. In addition, the
testing demands of the school can be particularly challenging for
ELL students. It is important for secondary teachers to recognize
the impact of cultural and linguistic differences and to understand
the hurdles that these adolescents face (Klingner, Artiles, &
Barletta, 2006). A website that is designed to help teachers with
special students who have cultural and linguistic differences is the
IRIS Center,
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/CLDE/chalcycle.htm.

Passive Learning Many adolescents with learning disabilities

and other related disabilities become passive learners. In
response to many failure-producing experiences, they develop an
attitude of learned helplessness. They learn to be passive instead
of active learners. Instead of trying to solve a problem, passive
learners tend to wait until the teacher directs them and tells them
what to do. In an academic task, they fail to associate new
information with what they already know, and they do not
elaborate in their thinking (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; Lenz &
Deshler, 2003). In addition, adolescents who experience repeated
failures may also begin to exhibit acting-out behaviors or other
types of behavioral reactions.

Poor Self-Concept Poor self-concept and low self-esteem

result from years of failure and frustration. These students do not
have opportunities to develop confidence in their ability to learn
and achieve. Often, emotional problems also develop from their
lack of successful experiences. Thus, they often have low self-
esteem and little self-confidence (Deshler et al., 2008, 2009;
Deshler et al., 1996; Lenz & Deshler, 2003; Silver, 2006).

Social and Behavioral Problems During these critical

adolescent years, when friendships and peer approval are so
important, struggles with social skills create another impediment
for adolescents with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities. Characteristics of social ineptitude lead to difficulty
making and keeping friends. In fact, the social and behavioral
difficulties become even more troublesome than the academic
problems. Years of failure, low self-esteem, poor motivation,
inadequate peer acceptance, and disruptive and maladaptive
behavior take their toll. Disproportionately high rates of
incarcerated juveniles are identified with learning disabilities and
learning disabilities is the second most common disability that is
seen among incarcerated juveniles (Cortiella, 2011). Students with
learning disabilities accounted for 52% of all students with
disabilities who experienced disciplinary actions during the 2007–
2008 year (Cortiella, 2011).

Difficulty with social interactions and nonverbal communication

are also characteristic of adolescents with nonverbal learning
disorders and Asperger’s syndrome (Baker & Welkowitz, 2005;
Thompson, 1997) (see Chapter 7, which discusses attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder). Websites for these 2 social conditions are
http://www.NLDline.org, from the Nonverbal Learning Disorders
Association, and The Source: Autism Asperger Syndrome, at
http://www.asperger.org.

Attentional Difficulties Many adolescents with learning

disabilities and related mild disabilities do not have the
attentional capacity to meet the demands of secondary school.
High school heightens the demand for students to sustain
cognitive effort and to concentrate for extended periods. The
requirements of the secondary curriculum can place a strain on
the adolescent’s capacity to attend to the varied sources of input
from teachers, instructional materials, and peers. Given the long
periods of concentration needed for studying and listening in
class, difficulty with attention can seriously impede progress
(Barkley, 2005; Lerner, Lowenthal, & Lerner, 1995).

One 14-year-old described his attention problem as follows:

I’ll tell you just what my head is like. It’s like a

television set. Only one thing, it’s got no
channel selector. You see, all the programs
keep coming over my screen at the same time
(Levine, 1988).

This student had difficulty maintaining attention, which kept

interfering with his ability to focus. The websites Children and
Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,
http://www.chadd.org, and ADD/ADHD, http://www.adders.org,
offer information about attention deficit hyperactivity disorders.

Language Difficulties Some adolescents with learning

disabilities and emotional/behavioral disorders have language
deficits. They may exhibit pragmatic language difficulties, and
they may not understand the type of information that should be
shared or how much information should be shared. Negative
social interactions related to the inability to initiate, develop, and
 maintain social relationships, can be the result of poor pragmatic
language skills. Students with disabilities earn lower vocabulary
scores than other struggling readers (Harris et al., 2011). Effective
language-based interventions should include teaching students
how to use mnemonics and other learning strategies,
bibliotherapy, self-monitoring, and problem solving (Getty &
Summy, 2006).

The problems of adolescence are compounded by learning disabilities.

Courtesy of Elizabeth Crews Photography

Lack of Motivation By the time students with learning

disabilities and related mild disabilities reach secondary school,
many have experienced years of school failure. Many begin to
doubt their intellectual abilities. They lack resiliency and come to
believe that their efforts to achieve are futile. These feelings, in
turn, lead to a low persistence level; these adolescents give up
quickly as soon as something appears to be difficult (Lavoie, 2007;
Brooks & Goldstein, 2002).

Attribution theory suggests that even when these adolescents

do have successes, they do not believe that they were responsible
for the achievement. Instead, they attribute their success to some
 outside force, such as luck, something the teacher did, or an easy
task (Yasutake & Bryan, 1995). Therefore, even success does not
bring much satisfaction or raise their confidence level. It is
difficult to motivate such students to exert the effort needed to
learn. Yet, the bestmade decisions about what to teach and the
most skillful applications of how to teach will be successful only if
students are motivated to learn and can attribute success to their
own efforts (Lenz & Deshler, 2003; Zigmond, 1997, 2007) (see
Chapter 6, “Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Challenges” for a
further discussion of motivation).

Did You Get It?

theory states that when students who are not used to achieving
success do experience it, they are quick to disregard their own role in
the success, preferring instead to “blame” something or someone else,
or just sheer luck.

a. Attribution

b. Acknowledgement

c. Incrimination

d. Distribution

9.2 Special Issues at the Secondary Level

(Middle School and High School)
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2012), from 1997
through 2006, the percentage of the general population ages 12
through 17 served under IDEA, Part B, increased from 10.2% to
11.6%. This was the largest increase among the age groups. The
special challenges for these adolescents include placement in
inclusive classes, dealing with Common Core Standards and high-
 stakes testing for secondary school students, and adapting to
content-area secondary teachers.

9.2a Challenges for Adolescents With

Learning Disabilities and Other Related
Disabilities
The demands of secondary school differ significantly from those of
elementary school. Students move from a pupil-oriented
elementary-school environment to a content-driven secondary
school setting. Often, the secondary students with learning
disabilities or other related disabilities lack the requisite skills
needed to meet high school academic expectations. If methods
used to teach content areas are not suited to the adolescent’s
particular learning strengths and interests, the prospect of
graduating with a high school diploma becomes increasingly
problematic (Deshler et al., 2008; Deshler et al., 2001; Wagner,
Cameto, & Newman, 2003).

Adolescents can experience numerous problems, ranging from

mild to severe, that interfere with mastering many of the subjects
of the secondary curriculum. In addition to academic problems,
these students may have difficulties with cognitive skills, social
behaviors, and emotional stability. Many adolescents who
received special education services at the elementary level
continue to need help when they reach middle school and high
school. In some cases, problems are not identified until the
adolescent enters the secondary school because of the subtle
nature of the problem and the increased demands of the
secondary curriculum.

Almost one of every three youths with learning disabilities fails

contentarea, general education high school courses (Cowan, 2006;
Getzel & Thoma, 2006; Blackorby & Wagner, 1997; Reith &
 Posgrove, 1996). In reading and math, at least 20% of students
with learning disabilities are five or more grade levels behind their
enrolled grade (Cortiella, 2011). Table 9.1 summarizes the
problems faced by adolescents with disabilities.

Table 9.1 Problems Faced by Some Adolescents With Learning

Disabilities and Other Related Disabilities

Severe deficits in basic academic skills, such as reading, spelling, language, and math
Generalized failure and below-average performance in content-area courses, such as
science, social studies, and health
Deficient work-related skills, such as listening well in class, taking notes, and studying for
and taking tests
Passive academic involvement and a pervasive lack of motivation
Inadequate interpersonal skills
Difficulty with executive function and self-determination

© Cengage Learning

9.2b Educational Settings in Middle School

and High School
The inclusion movement is growing at the middle school and high
school level, as more adolescents with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities are placed in general education, content-
area classes for instruction. More than one-quarter (27%) of
secondary school students with disabilities spent all of their
instruction time in general education courses and earned all their
credits there. In contrast, 3% of students with disabilities earned
all their credits in a special education setting and none in a general
education setting (National Longitudinal Transition Study 2,
(2011). Table 9.2 shows the educational settings for students with
learning disabilities. The percentage of students with learning
disabilities who spent 80% or more of their school day in general
education has increased, between 2000 and 2008, from 40% to
62%. No other category of special education students except
 students with speech-language impairments had higher
percentages spending more time in general education (Cortiela,
2011).

Table 9.2Number of Secondary School Students With

Disabilities, Ages 12–17, Receiving Special Education
and Related Services in Different Educational
Environments as of 2004 as Compared With 1995

1995 2004

Outside the regular class 793,324 1,335,713

less than 21% of the
school day

Outside the regular class 755,875 951,201

21–60% of the school
day

Outside the regular class 541,250 584,600

more than 60% of the
school day

Source: From U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis
System (DANS) “Part B, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act implementation of FAPE
requirements,” 2004. Data updated as of July 30, 2005.

9.2c Inclusion at the Secondary Level

Even though there has been a significant increase in the students
at the secondary level who spend their time in general education
classes, it has been reported that only 60% of students with
learning disabilities have general education teachers who receive
any information about the needs of these students. Approximately
half of all students have teachers who receive advice from special
educators or other staff on how the needs of the students can be
met (Cortiela, 2011).

Secondary schools face several obstacles in providing inclusion

programs, including
 1. the complex content-area curriculum;

2. the large gap between student skill levels and classroom

demands;

3. content-area secondary school teachers not trained to meet

the needs of students with learning disabilities; and

4. the standards-based, high-stakes testing movement

(Beckman, 2001; Cole & McLeskey, 1997; Deshler, 2003; Friend &
Cook, 2003; Lenz & Deshler, 2003; Orkwis, 2003). Including
Students In General Education 9.1, “The Middle School and
Secondary Classroom,” lists strategies for including students in
general education classrooms.

Including Students in General Education 9.1 The Secondary

Classroom

Establish partnerships between content-area teachers and special

educators. Two or more professionals work together to plan and deliver
instruction.

Use collaborative teams. In this ongoing process of collaborative

teaming, teachers with different areas of expertise work together to
develop creative solutions to problems that may be impeding a student’s
progress. Collaborative team members develop supportive and mutually
beneficial relationships and share their resources.

Special educators should provide specialized instruction to secondary

students that is based on their individual needs.

Special educators should work together with content-area teachers to

provide accommodations to students and to enhance instructional
techniques that will assist the student with a disability.

If utilizing coteaching, ensure that it is being implemented with fidelity.

The content-area teacher and the special education teacher instruct
students in the classroom jointly. Ingredients for successful coteaching
include:

a. Determining each teacher’s strengths and preferences

b. Developing trust and respect

c. Receiving strong administrative support

d. Providing adequate communication and time

 Provide differentiated instruction. Individualized instruction is given to
all students in the classroom; both students who do not have disabilities
and students who have special needs. According to Beckman (2001), the
principles for differentiated instruction include:

1. Content-area teacher and special educator should share

responsibility

2. Content-area teacher and special educator should be familiar with

the student’s IEP

3. Content-area teacher and special educator should be aware of the

student’s strengths and weaknesses

4. Sufficient coplanning time should be built into the day

5. Student expectations should be set by student abilities, not by

classification

Professional Resource Download

9.2d Effective Inclusion Practices for

Secondary Teachers
To make inclusion work at the secondary level, it is necessary to
establish partnerships between the content-area teachers, who
are high school teachers that specialize in a content area, and
special education teachers. Special educators must realize that the
content-area teachers deal with many students throughout a
school day and may feel pressured by time and the many other
demands facing them. Special educators should be available to
work with classroom teachers on understanding the specific needs
of individual students, on differentiating instruction, and on
making reasonable accommodations. Some schools provide the
content-area teachers with a list of accommodations that the
student needs but don’t provide an explanation of those
accommodations and don’t explain why the student needs the
accommodations. At times the classroom teacher then wonders
 why the student needs the accommodation and the teacher may
not know how to provide the accommodation. Classroom teachers
can benefit not only from a list of accommodations needed, what
those accommodations mean, and how to provide those
accommodations. The classroom teacher can also benefit from a
brief summary of the student’s particular disability and how it
impacts the student’s classroom performance. As an example, if
the teacher knows the student has a problem in the area of
auditory memory, it will help in understanding that the student
will have difficulty listening to long periods of lecture and will
need visual cues during the lecture.

Special educators must also provide students with specially

designed instruction that is unique to the student and is based on
how the student’s disability adversely impacts their performance.
At the secondary level, focus for the special educator may be on
teaching the student how to utilize mnemonic devices to
memorize key content material, strategies for completing math
problems or writing essays, teaching time management, and
specifically teaching reading or math utilizing a method that is
appropriate for the student.

Special educators may coteach a specific class with a general

educator. Partnerships consist of two or more professionals
working together to plan and deliver instruction in general
education classes that include adolescents with disabilities (Friend
& Cook, 2003; Gately & Gately, 2001; McLeskey, Hoppery,
Williamson, & Rentz, 2004; Murawski & Dieker, 2004). One
example of successful inclusion at the secondary level is presented
in Student Stories 9.2, “Tracy —Trusting One’s Strengths.”

Student Stories 9.2 Trusting One’s Strengths

For Tracy, inclusion worked very well. Tracy’s learning disability was
detected in first grade. When his first-grade teacher asked the students to
copy words from the blackboard, he was unable to do so. Tracy could not
 recognize words, and he still has significant reading problems. However,
Tracy learned to trust his strengths. He had many friends and good social
skills. He was good in sports. His learning disability in reading was identified
in early elementary school. He was placed in the general education class.
Although he continued to have reading problems, he had many strengths.
Tracy was elected president of his class in high school, and he was a winning
member of the basketball team. He also was on the debate team. With the
school’s support, he slowly improved. After high school, Tracy went to
college where he played on the college basketball team. In thinking about his
learning disabilities, Tracy thought it was important to know and trust his
strengths.

Reflective Questions
1. How did Tracy’s strengths assist him in high school?

2. What skills do you believe his teachers taught him that resulted in his
success?

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Motivating Adolescent

Learners: Curriculum Based on Real Life.” A sixth-grade teacher uses a store
in the classroom to teach the math curriculum of fractions, decimals,
percent, taxes, discounts. The teacher found that working in the store made
 the math concepts come alive and become more relevant. Discuss these
questions after you view the video.

Questions
1. How does the store make the concepts more relevant for the math
curriculum?

2. What teaching strategy from this chapter does this video illustrate?

3. What responsibilities did the students learn to take?

9.2e Performance Standards and High-

Stakes Testing
Accountability has become the watchword in education. Common
core standards have been adopted in the majority of states across
the country and are an influential force in our secondary schools
today, with directives about academic levels coming from national,
state, and local sources. Secondary schools have established
common core standards in the high school content areas, which
are standards that all students are expected to meet. In addition,
states have developed assessment tests to determine whether
students meet these set academic standards. Statewide assessment
tests are given to all students. These statewide assessment tests
are often called high-stakes testing because so many critical
decisions are based on the test results. There are rewards and
punishments for students, teachers, administrators, and schools.

Holding students responsible for their performance on state and

district tests is increasing in popularity among governors and
legislators. When tests are used to make high-stakes decisions,
such as whether a student will graduate or be promoted to the
next grade level, dropout rates often increase. Many educators are
concerned about the large number of students with learning
disabilities who are not passing these assessment tests. They
frequently drop out of school and, consequently, these students
have poor prospects for employment and postsecondary education
(Thurlow, 2000; Ysseldyke, 2001).

In the past, students with disabilities were excluded from such

statewide and districtwide assessments. All of this changed with
the IDEA-1997. The current laws, the Individuals With Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEA-2004) and the No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB-2001), require that students with disabilities
be included in statewide and districtwide assessments and that the
results be reported.

IDEA-2004 also requires that states develop alternate assessment

guidelines and policies on accommodations for students with
disabilities. The law outlines several requirements for including
students with disabilities in the statewide or districtwide
assessments. Each student’s IEP must include a plan that details
how the student will be assessed and what accommodations the
student will need for assessment (Thurlow, 2000; Individuals
With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004).

The goal for standards-based testing is the desire to improve

teaching and learning so that all students can demonstrate their
mastery of the knowledge and skills needed to participate in the
global economy of today and the future. We should not lose sight
of these goals. Assessment is only one part of the picture. The
most critical piece is providing all students with the chance to
learn. Unless students are given adequate opportunities to learn,
holding them to higher standards will only further victimize those
students already being harmed by gross inequities in the
educational system (Kauffman & Wiley, 2004; Lenz & Deshler,
2003; Thurlow, 2000; Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2013).

In addition to meeting these Common Core Standards, problems

for adolescents with learning disabilities are magnified by the
 complex set of curriculum demands in high school. At the high
school level, students are faced with a larger, more impersonal,
and competitive school environment (Mcintosh, Flannery, Sugai,
Braun, & Cochrane, 2008). When adolescents with learning
disabilities or mild disabilities are in general education content-
area classes for four periods a day, they are expected to meet the
same requirements that all other students meet. There are heavy
expectations of reading proficiency that many adolescents cannot
meet. There is an increase in the new vocabulary words that
students are expected to know in the content areas. In spite of
their learning problems, they are expected to learn, integrate,
manage, and express large amounts of information (Deshler et al.,
2008; Deshler et al., 1996, 2001; Kauffman & Wiley, 2004).

Students with disabilities may be eligible for accommodations in

taking high-stakes tests. The Educational Testing Service (ETS)
offers information on obtaining accommodations. The website for
ETS is at http://www.ets.org/disability. Teaching Tips 9.1, “Test-
Taking Tips for Students With Learning Challenges,” offers some
helpful advice for taking tests.

Teaching Tips 9.1 Test-Taking Tips for Students With

Learning Challenges

Get enough sleep and try to remain calm.

Look over the entire test and read the directions carefully.

Read each question carefully and note key words and phrases.

Read each question all the way through. Do not read into the question
what is not there.

If you are unsure about a question, reread it and try to eliminate one or
two of the answers.

Budget the time allotted for the test and do not waste time by getting
stuck on one question.

Take all authorized breaks. Also, periodically take a few breaks by

stopping for a moment, shutting your eyes, and taking some deep
breaths.
 Have a sheet of scrap paper to help track lines of print.

Allow time at the end to look over the test and make sure that you did
not skip any questions.

Professional Resource Download

9.2f Content-Area Secondary Teachers

Many content-area secondary teachers are not prepared to work
with students with disabilities. Their training is in their content
specialization, be it mathematics, French, physics, or English
literature, and they are considered “highly qualified teachers”
under the NCLB law. Schools should promote a shared
responsibility for students with disabilities among special
educators and general educators. That shared responsibility must
include instructionally focused collaboration. All teachers must
have the opportunities for professional development adequate
planning time, and manageable caseloads (Eisenman et al., 2011).
An important collaborative role for the special educator in the
high school is to work with content-area teachers to help them
develop a sensitivity to the needs of students with disabilities and
to provide subject-matter teachers with strategies for teaching
these students. Collaboration involves helping the high school,
content-area teacher understand the nature of a specific student’s
problem and how to make the needed accommodations for that
student. For example, if the student has a severe reading
disability, that student may be helped by recording the lesson or
using digitized text. Recording for the Blind and Dyslexics, now
called Learning Ally (http://www.learningally.org), provides
books on audiotapes and CDs that are accessible to students with
learning disabilities. In fact, about 75% of those who use
recordings for the blind and dyslexics are individuals with
learning disabilities. An increasing number of books are available
 in digital versions and those versions then allow the student to
have additional supports through universal design.

More schools are making iPads available to students so that they

have easy access to digitized texts. During examinations, the
student with a severe writing problem might be allowed to give
answers orally, to tape answers, or to dictate answers to someone
else. Students who process information very slowly could be
allowed additional time.

Did You Get It?

Most recent statistics from the U.S. Department of Education (2006)

show that approximately % of the teen/adolescent population is
receiving disability-related services under IDEA.

a. 5

b. 12

c. 18

d. 30

The IEP team discusses transition for a student.

 Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit

9.3 Transition Legislation for Secondary

Students
Transition refers to a change in status from behaving primarily
as a student to assuming emerging adult roles. These new roles
include employment, becoming a student in postsecondary school,
maintaining a home, and experiencing satisfactory personal and
social relationships. Research shows that adolescents receive
inadequate transition planning, which does not help them in
seeking employment (Brown, 2000). Adolescents are most likely
to find a job on their own, with little support from schools or adult
agencies. Relatively few adolescents with learning disabilities and
related disabilities go to college. Only 5% of students with learning
disabilities are enrolled in postsecondary education only
(Corteilla, 2011). Adolescents need training in self-advocacy
because they are expected to take increasingly more responsibility
for their own decisions and lives.
The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act
(IDEA-2004) contains requirements in regard to transition
(IDEA-2004, 2004). Beginning not later than the first IEP to be in
effect when the student is 16, and then updated annually, IDEA-
2004 requires

1. Appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based upon

age-appropriate transition assessments related to training,
education, employment, and, where appropriate, living skills

2. The transition services (including courses of study) needed

to assist the student in reaching those goals

3. Beginning not later than one year before the student reaches
the age of majority under state law, a statement that the
student has been informed of the student’s rights under this
title, if any, that will transfer to the student on reaching the
age of majority

Transition focuses on improving academic and functional

achievement, facilitating movement from school to postschool
activities, such as postsecondary education, vocational education,
employment (including supported employment), continuing and
adult education, adult services, independent living, and
community participation. It must be based on the individual needs
of the student, taking into account the child’s strengths,
preferences, and interests. It includes instruction, related services,
community experiences, the development of employment and
other postschool adult living objectives, and if appropriate,
acquisition of daily living skills and a functional vocational
evaluation (IDEA-2004). Even though IDEA 2004 requires
transition planning at the age of 16 it should begin long before that
time. Cohen and Spenciner (2009) recommend that it begin 4 to 5
years before leaving school. Skills such as social skills,
selfadvocacy, work habits, decision-making skills, participation in
community activities, identifying interests and building on those
interests must begin early. Some states recognize this and require
that transition planning start earlier.
Some examples of transition goals might include:

Nathan will be able to articulate three key points about how

his disability impacts his academic work with 90% accuracy.
(Note: Nathan is an 11thgrader with ADHD and he is
planning to attend a four-year college. Nathan will need to
advocate for himself in the postsecondary world and this
goal helps him do that.

When confronted with an angry customer at the grocery

store, Jeffrey will be able to retain a calm tone of voice and
refer the customer to the manager. (Jeffrey receives services
for his emotional/behavioral disorders and has a job in a
grocery store after school and has had difficulties in the past
remaining calm in a potentially difficult situation.)

Given a job application, Jessica will proofread the

application after she completes it using a proofreading
checklist. (Jessica has a learning disability and exhibits
difficulty with written expression and tends to rush through
writing assignments without checking her work. Her teacher
wants to work with her to proofread job applications before
giving them to an employer.)

When given a list of custodial work that needs to be

completed, Josh will be able to complete the work within the
given period of time allowed and will also be able to look at
the environment and determine one other job that needs to
be done and will complete that job also. (Josh has mild
intellectual disabilities and has been assigned to work with a
custodian. He can complete work that he is told to complete
but there is a problem because when he completes the tasks
on the list, he then sits and does nothing. When other people
observe this, they believe he isn’t doing his work. His
supervisor wants him to also be able to engage in self-
starting behavior—seeing what else needs to be done and
completing it.

When asked by an adult, Beth Ann will be able to articulate

at least two of her strengths. (Beth Ann focuses on what she
can’t do and about 50% of the time makes negative
statements about herself.)

Given Eric’s interest in becoming an automotive mechanic,

Eric be able to articulate the definitions of 10 vocabulary
 words related to this field with 70% accuracy. (Eric, a
student who has behavioral problems, has shown interest in
becoming an automotive mechanic but currently does not
understand the words that are utilized in the field today.
Using picture cues paired with the vocabulary word and the
meaning of the word, Eric will be specifically taught the
vocabulary.)

The law views transition as a set of activities that is based on the

needs of the individual student and that is designed to prepare the
student for the years beyond secondary school. To ensure that the
student completes secondary school prepared for employment or
postsecondary education, as well as for independent living, the law
requires that an individualized transition plan (ITP) be written
for students with disabilities, beginning at age 16, as part of the
IEP. Many school districts use an attachment to the student’s IEP
to indicate transition goals and activities designed to meet those
goals. Other schools develop a separate ITP. The special education
teacher may need to take the lead in developing the ITP.

9.3a Content of the Transition Plan

The transition plan (IEP/ITP) should include the following
(Mazzotti et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2009; Ankeny, Wilkins, &
Spain, 2009; Brown, 2000; NICHCY, 1999; Obiakor & Wilder,
2010):

1. Current levels of academic achievement and

functional performance. The transition plan should
document the student’s current levels of achievement so that
the transition team knows where to begin.

2. Interests and aptitude. The plan should take into

account the student’s interests, aptitudes, potential, and
vision for the future.

3. Background. For students who are culturally and

linguistically diverse, the transition plan must consider the
 student’s culture, which includes the student’s beliefs,
values, customs, perceptions, and family expectations.

4. Postschool goals. The plan should define and project

desired postschool goals as identified by the student,
parents, and transition teams for community living,
employment, postsecondary education, and/or training.

5. Transition activities. The plan should include specific

transition activities in areas such as vocational and career
education, work experience, and community-based
instruction.

6. Designate responsible persons. The plan should

designate a person or agency that is responsible for the
continuation of the transition after the student’s high school
years.

7. Review. The transition plan should be reviewed and revised

as necessary.

Teaching Tips 9.2, “Guidelines for Developing Transition Plans for

Secondary Students With Disabilities,” provides guidelines for
preparing transition plans for secondary students.

Teaching Tips 9.2 Guidelines for Developing Transition Plans

for Secondary Students With Disabilities

Form an individual transition team for each student to develop the

individual transition plan (ITP). Identify resources that are available to
meet the goals of the plan. Include all agencies that may be able to
provide support systems for the student when the student exits the high
school program.

Work with business and industry representatives and build relationships

for students to meet the goals of the transition plan.

Develop a transition curriculum. Include communication skills, self-

esteem development, decision-making skills, career exploration,
community-living skills, and time-management skills to help students
during the transition.

Teach self-advocacy skills. Help students understand the legislative

mandates that support requests for accommodations, both in the
classroom and on the job. Adolescents can use this information in
making decisions about their futures. Teach students to advocate for
 themselves. Many of their interactions require a constructive request for
accommodations and services. Students must interact with teachers in
high school, in postsecondary school, and with employers. They may
need to get services from other agencies. By learning to speak for
themselves and to bear the consequences of their actions or inactions,
students learn the skills necessary for adulthood.

Build competencies in academic skills. Ensure that students have

competencies in reading, writing, mathematics, and computer usage.

Teach study skills. Adolescents need help in test preparation, test-taking

strategies, and learning strategies.

Teach students to use accommodations and modifications appropriately

and effectively.

Teach social skills and interpersonal communication skills.

Teach students to advocate for themselves so that when they exit the
secondary system they are able to explain their disability, their specific
needs, and how their disability may impact their future study or work.

Professional Resource Download

9.3b Summary of Performance

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 2004
regulations require that secondary school staff complete a
Summary of Performance (SOP) when a student is going to
exit the school system. The local education agency is to provide
the student with a summary of the student’s academic
achievement and functional performance, which is to include
recommendation on how to assist the student in meeting
postsecondary goals. The idea of this document is to assist the
student as he or she transitions from the secondary setting to
higher education, employment, or another postsecondary option.
It also provides the necessary documentation that the student has
a disability and may need accommodations under Section 504 of
 the Rehabilitation Plan and the Americans With Disabilities Act.
Postsecondary settings can then make eligibility decisions.

The SOP is to be completed during the final year of high school.

When completing the SOP, the student should be involved and the
document should include pertinent background information,
postsecondary goals for the student, summary of academic
achievement and functional performance, recommendations that
assist the student in meeting postsecondary goals, and the
student’s input.

9.3c Developing Transition Plans

The goals for transition planning for adolescents with learning
disabilities and other related disabilities follow several paths.

Competitive Employment Fifty-five percent of adults with

learning disabilities were employed compared to 76% of those
without learning disabilities (Cortiela, 2011). As of February 2012,
the employment rate for young adults ages 20–24 with disabilities
was less that half of the rate of those without disabilities within
that same age range (GAO report, July 2012). Vocational
educators need to be an integral part of the transition team to help
these students explore occupations and to gain at least a basic
knowledge within the various fields. Parents and educators must
work together to help students identify areas of interest and
potential fields of employment and to determine how the students
can meet the entry-level requirements of those fields. Students
will benefit from job experience by participating in a co-op project
(Brown, 2000; Gerber & Brown, 1997).

Career-Training and Apprenticeship Programs Some

students prepare for a trade after high school by going to a career-
training program or by entering an apprenticeship program.
 Postsecondary and College Attendance In the past,
many students with learning disabilities did not consider
postsecondary education options. Twentytwo percent of students
with learning disabilities are engaged in both work and some type
of postsecondary education (Cortiella, 2011). However, meeting
these goals requires transition plans that are carefully laid out and
that include significant encouragement toward college. The
transition to postsecondary services can be difficult and
overwhelming to students and their families because students are
moving from all services provided through the high school to
services delivered by multiple programs and agencies (GAO
report, July 2012).

Supported Employment Some transition programs offer a

bridge from school to work through supported employment. In
this type of program, transition educators seek potential
employers to hire special education students. In some cases, a job
coach works at the employment site, supervising and helping the
students over the inevitable rough spots. Job coaches work for the
business that employs the student and for the school or agency.

The National Longitudinal Transition Study The

National Longitudinal Transition Study recommends transition
planning activities that are more heavily influenced by the
students themselves and better connected to the skills that are
needed to realize postschool goals (Cortiella, 2009). Few adults
with learning disabilities are accessing workplace
accommodations and do not understand their rights (Cortiella,
2011). It is critical that educational programs teach students about
their disabilities and teach them to advocate for their specific
needs.

Did You Get It?

In the context of both general and special needs education, the terms
“transition” and “transition planning” refer to which of the following
 passages?

a. That of student to real-world adult

b. That of high school to college

c. That of middle school to high school

d. That of “normal” to “disabled”

9.4 Approaches to Teaching Adolescents

With Learning Disabilities and Related
Disabilities
Several different instructional approaches and curriculum models
are used with students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities in secondary schools (Cole & McLeskey, 1997;
Sitlington, 1996; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001).

9.4a Features of Effective Secondary

Programs
According to Zigmond (1997, 2003, 2007), essential features of
effective secondary programs for students with learning
disabilities include the following components.

Intensive Instruction in Reading and Mathematics.

Many students with learning disabilities receive failing
grades in general education courses because of their poor
skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Sixty-five
percent of eighth-graders with disabilities scored below the
basic level on the 2007 National Assessment of Educational
Progress measure of reading achievement (Morgan et al.,
2012; U.S. Department of Education, 2009). These students
 still require basic instruction in reading, writing, vocabulary
development, and mathematics (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001a).

Instruction in Survival Skills. Several functional

skills or survival skills that are needed for successful
functioning in a high school include

1. strategies to help students stay out of trouble in school;

2. skills to help students acquire behavioral patterns that

will make teachers consider them in a positive light;
and

3. study and test-taking skills,

such as organizing time, approaching a textbook, taking

notes from a lecture or text, organizing information,
studying for tests, and taking tests (Zigmond, 1990).

9.4b Curriculum Models for Serving

Adolescents With Learning Disabilities
and Mild Disabilities at the Secondary
Level
A range of curriculum models are used with adolescents with
learning disabilities in junior and senior high schools (Cole &
McLeskey, 1997; Deshler et al., 1996; Lenz & Deshler, 2003;
Sitlington, 1996). These include

1. basic academic skills instruction,

2. strategies instruction,

3. tutorial instruction,

4. functional skills or survival skills instruction, and

5. work-study programs.

More high schools are allowing alternative learning models such

as taking some classes online or taking community college classes
while still in high school. Alternative modes for receiving high
school credits are important for students who exhibit emotional or
behavioral challenges (Chaney, 2010).

Basic Academic Skills Instruction The objective of

teaching basic skills is to remediate the student’s academic
deficits. It has been estimated that more than 8 million middle
and high school students are struggling readers (Joseph &
Schisler, 2009; Grigg et al., 2003). Basic academic skills
instruction usually focuses on improving the student’s abilities
through direct teaching, especially in reading and mathematics.
Students receive instruction at a level that approximates their
achievement or instructional level. For example, if a 16-year-old
student is reading at the fifth-grade level, reading instruction for
that student would be geared to the fifth-grade level (Fuchs &
Fuchs, 2001b). Adolescence is not too late for targeted
interventions and those interventions that focus on word study,
developing word meanings and word concepts, and
comprehension strategies. Struggling readers can improve their
ability to decode words when provided appropriate instruction.
Interventions such as repeated reading have been demonstrated to
be an effective strategy for adolescent readers (Malmgren &
Trezek, 2009).

Tutorial Programs The objective of tutorial instruction is

to help students in their specific academic-content subjects and to
achieve success in the regular curriculum. For example, if Alex
experiences failure or difficulty in his American history class, his
instruction will focus on the specific history material he is
studying. This instruction will be based on the individual needs of
the student and the general curriculum content will be utilized to
strengthen the skills of the student. As an example, if the student
has a significant visual memory problem, Alex will be taught
history in a way that compensates for his visual memory skill
deficit, and at the same time, the American history content will be
utilized to build Alex’s visual memory skills. The goal is to help
Alex succeed in the general education curriculum. The special
education resource teacher must know the requirements of all
academic subjects in which students may have difficulty.

Instruction should include the model:

1. I do—the teacher does the expected task for the student so

the student observes how the teacher approaches the task
and completes it correctly.

2. We do—the teacher and the student work together on the

expected task so the student has the additional assistance of
the teacher and has another opportunity to model and
practice.

3. You do together—Two students work on the task together

while the teacher observes the students working to check to
make sure the task is being completed correctly.

4. You do—The student is then ready to complete the task

independently after the opportunities to model and practice.

Students need to have multiple opportunities for modeling and

practice before they are expected to do a task independently. This
procedure provides those opportunities.

Functional Skills or Survival Skills Instruction The

objective of the functional skills instruction model is to equip
students to function in society. Survival skills enable adolescents
to get along in the world outside of school. The curriculum
includes such subjects as consumer information; the completion
of application forms, such as job applications; banking and money
skills, such as understanding interest rates and installment
purchases; life-care skills, such as grooming; and computer
literacy. Academic content is geared to the students’ careers and
life needs. For example, reading is directed toward relevant areas,
such as directions, want ads, or a driver’s instruction manual.
Guidance and counseling for self-identity and career planning are
also often part of the curriculum.
 High school curricula can incorporate work-study and vocational programs to
teach job skills.

Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

Work-Study Programs The objective of a work-study

program is to provide adolescents with job- and career-related
skills, as well as actual on-the-job experience. Students in work-
study programs typically spend half the day on the job and the
remainder of the day in school. While in school, they may study
materials that are compatible with their jobs. Sometimes these
students take general education courses and also work with a
special education teacher. The work-study approach is particularly
successful for students who are not motivated by the high school
environment. The special education teacher serves as a
coordinator who integrates education with desired job skills and
supervises students on the work site.

9.4c Assistive and Instructional Computer

Technology
 The ability to use common computer applications has become an
absolute necessity. Students who have difficulty with reading,
writing, and spelling often excel with the aid of computer
applications. Adolescents with learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities should learn basic computer technologies, such as
e-mail, word processing, graphic organizers, spreadsheets, and
presentation software (e.g., PowerPoint) (Belson, 2003; Raskind,
1998a). Experience with computers helps students develop the
essential technological skills needed for many types of jobs.
However, according to the National Longitudinal Study 2 in 2003,
only 6% of students with learning disabilities were using a
computer for activities (NLTS2, 2003). It has also been found that
an estimated 25%–35% of students with learning disabilities are
being provided assistive technology to support their instruction
(Cortiella, 2011).

Because technology is in such a continual state of change, it has

been difficult for researchers to conduct appropriate experimental
testing of interventions before they become outdated. However,
principles that apply to effective instruction should be utilized
when using multimedia. Specifically, it should explicitly help
students build skills necessary for literacy, limit extraneous
processing, foster active learning, and match individual student
needs (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). Technology should be used
systematically and strategically in instruction and should
incorporate effective instructional design principles (Maccini,
Gagnon, & Hughes, 2002). Student Stories 9.3, “Richard—How
Computers Changed My Life,” presents the story of an individual
with learning disabilities who believes computers changed his life.

Student Stories 9.3 Richard—How Computers Changed My

Life

Computers changed my experience of being dyslexic and dysgraphic.

Computers allow me to compensate (some might say overcompensate) for
my writing and organizational problems so well that, aside from the few
 times when people see my handwriting, my dyslexia and dysgraphia are not
evident in my daily life. Further, I’ve been lucky enough to actually build a
career out of talking about this with audiences all over the world. The very
tools that I talk about are those that allow me to organize and give these
presentations.

Reflective Question
1. In what way did computers change Richard’s life?

Source: From “Tools and dyslexia,” by Richard Wanderman, 2003, Perspectives, 29(4), 5–9

9.4d What Happens to High School Students

With Learning Disabilities
Cortiella (2011) reported data on the status of high school students
with learning disabilities as they leave school.

64% graduate with a diploma

22% drop out of school

In addition, the U.S. Department of Education (2002) notes that

schools offer several different types of diplomas or certificates:

1. Standard diploma. Students must meet the same criteria

as all general education students, including adequate
performance on tests.

2. Standard diploma with multiple criteria for earning

the diploma. Students can earn the diploma by meeting
different criteria, such as completing IEP goals.

3. Certificate of attendance, completion, or

achievement. Students with IEPs may be allowed to meet
the criteria in different ways.

4. Special education certificate. Available only to students

with IEPs.
 The fact that 22% of students with learning disabilities drop out of
school suggests that schools are failing to serve these students
appropriately. Students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities who stay in school and graduate fare much better than
those who leave. Those who drop out of school face an uncertain
and grim future. Some individuals, however, earn a high school
certificate—a General Education Degree (GED), which is a high
school equivalency degree—after they leave school.

Many students with learning disabilities and related mild

disabilities do well after receiving special instruction in
elementary and secondary school, and they graduate from high
school and go to college. Student Stories 9.4, “Dawn and Teach for
America,” presents the story of a successful student with learning
disabilities.

Student Stories 9.4 Dawn and Teach for America

Dawn had learning disabilities as a student, with particular difficulties in

reading, attention, focus, and organizational issues. She worked hard and
received excellent instruction geared to her learning disabilities at her
elementary and secondary schools. Dawn was able to go on to college and do
well in her college studies. During her senior year, she heard about the Teach
for America program. The idea of being a special education teacher—after
being a special education student—struck a chord within her. Dawn was
accepted in the Teach for America program. In teaching her special
education students, she tells them, “You can achieve. You may have to do it
in a different way, but you can achieve. I know what it is like to struggle”
(Montes, 2007).

Reflective Question
1. How did Dawn’s learning disability make her able to work with
students with disabilities in the Teach for America program?

Did You Get It?

 Which of the following “Survival Skills” would be taught to Desiree, a
15-year-old student with a learning disability who is attending high
school in Milwaukee, Wisconsin?

a. How to endear yourself to teachers with great behavior

b. How to stand up to a workplace bully

c. How to survive an atomic explosion

d. How to budget your paycheck effectively

9.5 Learning Strategies Instruction

Learning strategies instruction offers a viable and promising
approach to help adolescents with learning disabilities learn to
take control of their own learning. The focus of this instruction is
to teach students how to learn, rather than teach what is contained
in a specific curriculum. Effective learning strategy instruction
involves helping students learn and use procedures that will
empower them to accomplish important academic tasks, to solve
problems, and to complete work independently. With proficiency
in learning strategies, students can overcome or lessen the effects
of learning disabilities. Learning strategies are tools that students
can use to approach tasks in content-area classes or other learning
situations. In effect, the teacher helps students learn how to learn
(Deshler et al., 1996, 2001; Lenz & Deshler, 2003).

A learning strategy is an individual’s approach to a task that

includes how a person thinks and acts when planning, executing,
and evaluating performance on a task and its outcome. It includes
both cognitive (thinking processes) and behavioral (overt actions)
elements that guide the student’s planning, performance, and
evaluation of strategy engagement (Lenz, Ellis, & Scanlon, 1996).
Learning strategies research shows that adolescents with learning
disabilities are inefficient learners (DLD and DR, 2012). These
adolescents do not lack the ability to learn, but, rather they go
about learning in an inefficient manner. For example, Maria’s
memory may be adequate for remembering the facts in a history
lesson, but she has to put the right kind of learning effort into
remembering those facts. For Sam, who is having difficulty in
science, learning strategies instruction would teach some
techniques for organizing his materials for learning, rather than
teach him the content of the subject. Thus, the emphasis is on
teaching students how to adapt and cope with the changing world;
that is, the emphasis is on how to learn how to learn. The opening
quotation for this chapter embodies the goal of learning strategies
instruction: “If you give a starving man a fish, you feed him for a
day. But if you teach the man how to fish, you feed him for a
lifetime. If you teach an adolescent with learning disabilities a fact,
you help the adolescent for the moment. But if you teach this
adolescent how to learn, you help the adolescent for a lifetime”
(Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996).

Instruction in learning strategies is particularly effective with

adolescents with learning disabilities who are above third-grade
reading level, are able to deal with symbolic as well as concrete
learning tasks, and have an average intellectual ability (Deshler et
al., 1996, 2001; Lenz & Deshler, 2003). Learning strategies can be
applied to all academic areas of the secondary curriculum, as well
as to social and behavioral learning.

As an example with the focus on high-stakes test, it is critical to

teach students strategies on how to take a test. One such strategy
that is well researched is PIRATES (Hughes, 1996). In this
strategy, the mnemonic to be taught to the student is as follows:

P—Prepare to succeed

I—Inspect instructions

R—Read, remember, reduce

 A—Answer or abandon

T—Turn back

E—Estimate-teaching students valuable guessing and

estimating techniques. Within the E, students are taught ACE
(Hughes, 1996; Holzer, Madaus, Bray, & Kehle, 2009)

S—SURVEY

A—Avoid absolute words in answers

C—Choose the longest most detailed choice

E—Eliminate similar or absurd choices

9.5a Guidelines for Teaching Learning

Strategies
The intense interest in learning strategies instruction has
generated a significant amount of research (DLD & DR, 2012;
Schumaker & Deshler, 2009; Deshler et al., 1996; Lenz & Deshler,
2003; Slavin, 2006). Teaching Tips 9.3, “Teaching Learning
Strategies,” gives some practical guidelines for putting learning
strategies instruction into practice.

Teaching Tips 9.3 Teaching Learning Strategies

Use background knowledge. Students get more from instruction

when their background knowledge, which is defined as information
or experiences that are gained about the topic of instruction or about a
reading selection, is activated or when the teacher elicits, builds, and
focuses on appropriate background knowledge. Background knowledge
is the strongest predictor of a student’s ability to learn new material. The
more students know about a topic, the better they comprehend and learn
about the topic from the text.

Monitor progress. Successful learners monitor their own progress.

They have an idea of how they are doing. In reading, for example, they
use their knowledge of text features and appropriate strategies to
monitor their own learning.
 Teach generalization. Successful learners use skills and knowledge in
new situations, adapting it to particular contexts. Providing students
with direct instruction about situations when a skill will be useful and
monitoring their implementation can improve their generalization.

Create active learners. Students who are actively involved in their

learning are more successful than students who play a more passive role.
Effective learners generate questions, make summaries, and help
determine the direction of the lesson.

Enhance self-concept. There is a strong correlation between

successful learning and the student’s self-concept and positive attitude.
Students with high levels of achievement tend to have high self-concepts,
while low achievers have poor self-concepts. Success in learning
enhances self-concept.

Use memory strategies. Successful learners use effective memory

strategies. Memory is related to background; those who know more are
able to remember more. Short-term memory is limited in capacity. Most
of what is learned is forgotten quickly if it is not acted upon or linked
with previous learning.

Use interactive learning. The opportunity for students to interact

with other students is important. Cooperative learning and peer tutoring
increase achievement and motivation, as well as improve interpersonal
relationships. When one student teaches another student, the
achievement of both students can improve.

Develop questions. Questioning helps comprehension. Students learn

more effectively when they generate their own questions. Students
exposed to higher order questions understand more than students who
are exposed only to lower order questions. They tend to give more
thoughtful, reflective responses to questions when teachers allow more
time for responses and encourage follow-up.

Professional Resource Download

9.5b Strategies Intervention Model

One widely used model of strategy instruction, the strategies
intervention model (SIM), was developed and validated
 through many years of programmatic research with adolescents
with learning disabilities by Deshler and colleagues (2001) at the
Kansas Center for Research on Learning. SIM is a recognized, fully
developed procedure for teaching learning strategies to
adolescents with learning disabilities (Deshler et al., 1996; Ellis et
al., 1991; Lenz & Deshler, 2003; Lenz et al., 1996; Oas,
Schumaker, & Deshler, 1995). This practical and useful model has
two phases for helping students cope with the demands of the high
school curriculum:

1. teachers must identify the curriculum demands of their

students and

2. teachers must match these school demands with specific

learning strategies.

9.5c Steps for Teaching Learning Strategies

Central to the SIM model is a series of eight instructional stages
(Schumaker & Deshler, 2009; Clark, 2000; Deshler et al., 1996;
Lenz & Deshler, 2003). The integrated series of overt acts and
cognitive behaviors enables students to solve a problem or to
complete a task. Table 9.3 summarizes the steps for teaching a
learning strategy. In the following steps, the process of teaching a
learning strategy is applied to a specific situation.

Table 9.3 Steps for Teaching a Learning Strategy

Stage 1. Teacher pretests students and obtains a commitment

Phase 1. Orientation and pretest

Phase 2. Awareness and commitment

Stage 2. Teacher describes the learning strategy

Phase 1. Orientation and overview

Phase 2. Presentation of strategy and system for remembering

Stage 3. Teacher models the strategy

Phase 1. Orientation

Phase 2. Presentation

Phase 3. Student enlistment

Stage 4. Students verbally practice the strategy

Phase 1. Verbal elaboration

Phase 2. Verbal rehearsal

Stage 5. Students have controlled practice and feedback

Phase 1. Orientation and overview

Phase 2. Guided practice

Phase 3. Independent practice

Stage 6. Students have advanced practice and feedback

Phase 1. Orientation and overview

Phase 2. Guided practice

Phase 3. Independent practice

Stage 7. Teacher posttests students and obtains a commitment

Phase 1. Confirmation and celebration

Phase 2. Forecast and commitment to generalize

Stage 8. Students generalize the learning strategy

Phase 1. Orientation

Phase 2. Activation

Phase 3. Adaptation

Phase 4. Maintenance

Source: Adapted from “An instructional model for teaching learning strategies” by E. Ellis, D. Deshler,
B. Lenz, J. Schumaker, & F. Clark, 1991, Focus on Exceptional Children, 23(6), 11. Reprinted by
permission of Love Publishing Company, Denver.

Step 1: Elena Martinez (the teacher) pretests

Andrew Fleming (the student) to determine his
current learning habits, and she obtains a
commitment from him to learn Andrew is asked to
perform a task that requires the target learning strategy. For
example, for the strategy of self-questioning, Ms. Martinez asks
Andrew to read a passage and answer the comprehension
questions. Ms. Martinez and Andrew discuss the results of his
performance and she helps him see his need for acquiring the
learning strategy. Seeing the benefit, Andrew readily commits to
learning the new strategy.

Step 2: Ms. Martinez describes the new learning

strategy Next, Ms. Martinez explains to Andrew the steps and
behaviors involved in performing the learning strategy: “First,
Andrew, you will read a paragraph. Then you will stop reading and
ask yourself some questions. As you think of a question, you will
either answer it yourself or go back to the paragraph to find the
answer. After you have answered all the questions you can think
of, you will read the next paragraph.” She also explains to Andrew
the situations in which the strategy will be useful.

Step 3: Ms. Martinez models the new learning

strategy She demonstrates all the steps described in Step 2.
While doing so, Ms. Martinez thinks aloud so that Andrew can
witness the entire process. In subsequent modeling, Ms. Martinez
includes Andrew by asking appropriate questions.

Step 4: Andrew verbally rehearses the steps of the

learning strategy Andrew rehearses the steps by talking
aloud until he reaches the goal of 100% correct without prompting
from Ms. Martinez. Andrew becomes familiar with the steps
through a self-instruction procedure.

Step 5: Andrew practices with controlled materials

and obtains feedback Elena Martinez provides materials
for Andrew to practice the new learning strategy. By carefully
selecting practice materials, she keeps other intervening problems
to a minimum. For example, to practice the strategy of
selfquestioning in reading material, she selects material that is
 easy enough for Andrew to practice the target strategy without
being bogged down in very difficult vocabulary.

Step 6: Andrew practices with classroom materials

and obtains feedback Once Andrew has gained proficiency
in the strategy with controlled materials, Ms. Martinez applies the
strategy to materials used in his general education classroom. This
step is a stage in developing an application and generalization of
the learning strategy. After using the strategy successfully in the
resource room, Andrew must learn to generalize the technique to
broader learning situations.

Step 7: Ms. Martinez post tests to determine

Andrew’s progress, and she obtains his permission
to generalize Instruction is successful if Andrew has
progressed sufficiently to cope with curricular demands in the
target area.

Step 8: Andrew generalizes the learning strategy

The real measure of effective strategy instruction is the degree to
which students generalize the acquired strategy to the real world
and maintain its use in new settings and situations. Ms. Martinez
assists Andrew in generalization by monitoring his performance of
the strategy in other settings, reviewing the steps as necessary,
helping him brainstorm appropriate adaptations to the strategy,
and encouraging him in its use.

In summary, the goal of the learning strategies approach is to

teach adolescents with disabilities to become involved, active, and
independent learners. Research shows that learning strategies
instruction is effective because students “learn how to learn.” For
additional information about the strategies intervention model,
contact the Center for Research on Learning (University of
Kansas, 3061 Dole Human Development Center, Lawrence, KS
66045; phone (785) 864-4780; website http://www.ku-crl.org).

Did You Get It?

 Ruth, a student with a mild learning disability, is having difficulty in
algebra class, specifically in understanding the concept and function of
the quadratic equation. The tutorial instruction she is given will focus
on

a. algebra

b. her entire course-load

c. the quadratic equation

d. mathematics in general

9.6 Postsecondary Programs

Postsecondary education is becoming the new academic frontier
for individuals with learning disabilities and related disabilities.
Postsecondary education includes community colleges,
vocational-educational training, nondegree postsecondary
programs, and four-year colleges (Cook & Rumrill, 2006; Cowan,
2006). An increasing number of high schools are now allowing
students to participate in college classes while still in high school.

9.6a College Programs

Some years ago, attending college was out of the question for most
adults with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities.
Today, however, the prospects for getting a college education have
brightened considerably, and there are now many college
opportunities for such young adults. Many individuals with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities can look forward
to enrolling at a college and being better prepared for their future
(Cook & Rumrill, 2006; Vogel, 1998; Vogel & Adelman, 2000).
 Community colleges are often a good choice for young adults.
They bridge the gap between high school and college and may
offer special programs and services. Student Stories 9.5, “Darlene,
a College Student With Learning Disabilities” presents the story of
a college student with learning disabilities.

Student Stories 9.5 Darlene, a College Student With Learning

Disabilities

Darlene was the youngest of three children. Her older sister and brother
were model students—they received good grades in school with little effort.
For Darlene, however, school was difficult. At first her parents would say,
“Why can’t you get as like your brother and sister?” Finally, in sixth grade,
her parents realized that Darlene had learning disabilities. She received help
during her middle school years, and her grades improved. During her high
school years, Darlene, her parents, and the transition team developed a
transition plan for college. She wanted to major in art, an area in which she
excelled. She worked with her high school counselor and selected a college
with a good arts curriculum and a supportive learning disabilities program.
Darlene requested special accommodations for the college entrance
examinations, and she was admitted to the college of her choice. At the
college, she worked with the learning disabilities staff in planning her
courses. When she needed any special accommodations in her courses, she
knew her rights under the law and was able to advocate for herself. She
decided to take three courses each semester instead of four so that she would
graduate in five years instead of four years. Darlene is now a college senior,
and she looks forward to her graduation. With careful planning and
preparation, her college education has been a challenging, but happy,
experience.

Reflective Question
1. What accommodations did Darlene request to help her during her
college education?
9.6b Legislation for Students With
Disabilities in College Programs
The protections of the Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEA-2004) end when the student graduates
from high school or when the student has reached the maximum
age of 22. Two other laws explained in more detail in Chapter 10
come into play for protection of adults with disabilities:

1. the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) and

2. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

The Americans With Disabilities Act Amendments is a federal law

that was first passed in 1990 and reauthorized in 2008 to ensure
the rights of individuals with disabilities to nondiscriminatory
treatment. ADAA provides protections of civil rights in the specific
areas of employment, transportation, public accommodations,
state and local government, and telecommunications. It also can
protect the rights of adults with disabilities in educational settings.
This law has been used to provide accommodations for individuals
with disabilities taking licensing exams.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 largely triggered the

proliferation of postsecondary and college programs. Section 794
of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 states:

No otherwise qualified individual with a

disability … shall, solely, by reasons of his/her
disability, be excluded from participation in,
be denied the benefits of, or be subject to
discrimination under any program or activity
receiving federal financial assistance ….

Case law further clarifies the interpretation of Section 504 with

regard to the requirements of schools and educational institutions.
Because most colleges receive some federal financial assistance,
 they are subject to the Section 504 regulations (Weber, 2006;
Rothstein, 1998).

Learning disabilities and students with other mild disabilities are

recognized as a disability under both ADAA and Section 504. As
this legislation is increasingly being implemented at educational
institutions, adults with learning disabilities and related
disabilities are able to enroll at colleges and postsecondary schools
in steadily growing numbers, and they are eligible to receive a
variety of services there (Weber, 2006). Teaching Tips 9.4
provides a whole array of ways that educators within the
college/university setting can assist students in being successful in
learning.

Teaching Tips 9.4 Guidelines for Helping College Students

With Learning Disabilities

1. Make the syllabus available 4 to 6 weeks before the beginning of the class
and, when possible, be available to discuss it with students with learning
disabilities who are considering taking the course.

2. Begin lectures and discussions with reviews and overviews of the topics
to be covered.

3. Utilize graphic organizers or outlines as an introduction to the lecture or

discussion.

4. Use PowerPoint slides to outline lecture material, reading what is

written or what is on previously prepared slides to highlight key
concepts, unusual terminology, or foreign words (being mindful of
legibility and of the necessity to read what is written).

5. Emphasize important points, main ideas, and key concepts orally in

lecture.

6. Give assignments in writing, as well as orally, and be available for

further clarification.

7. Provide clear deadlines and reminders about when assignments are due.

8. Provide opportunities for student participation, question periods, and/or

discussion.

9. Provide time for individual discussion of assignments and questions

about lectures and readings.
 10. Provide study guides for the text, study questions, framed outlines, and
review sessions to aid in mastering material and preparing for exams.

11. Allow oral presentations or tape-recorded assignments instead of a

written format.

12. Modify evaluation procedures. For example, permit untimed tests and
oral, taped, or typed exams instead of written exams. Allow alternative
methods to demonstrate course mastery and provide adequate scratch
and lined paper for students with overly large or poor handwriting. Offer
alternatives to computerscored answer sheets.

13. Assist students in obtaining e-books or audio books. A valuable resource

is http://www.learningally.org, which replaces the previous Recording
for the Blind and Dyslexic.

Professional Resource Download

9.6c Accommodations in College Programs

Compliance with the regulations of Section 504 and ADAA
(Americans With Disabilities Act Amendments) require that
colleges make reasonable accommodations. Including
Students In General Education 9.2, “Suggested Accommodations
in College Programs,” offers some common accommodations in
college programs (Bursuck et al., 1989; Vogel, 1998). The
Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) (2012)
stresses that postsecondary level institutions may request a
reasonable level of documentation for students to receive
accommodations. However it does not require extensive medical
and scientific evidence that there is a disability. Discussed are
three types of documentation:

1. Primary documentation, which is the student’s self report.

2. Secondary documentation, which comes from observation

and interaction by higher education disability professionals
during interviews and conversations.
 3. Tertiary documentation, which includes external or third-
party information such as medical records, previous testing,
or discussions with the high school system (AHEAD, 2012).

Including Students in General Education 9.2 Suggested

Accommodations
in College
Programs

Extending the time allowed to complete a program

Adapting the method of instruction

Substituting an alternative course for a required course

Modifying or substituting courses for the foreign language requirements

Allowing for part-time, rather than full-time, study

Modifying examination procedures to measure achievement without

contamination from areas of deficit

Providing e-texts or audiobooks

Providing note takers to help students with lectures

Offering counseling services and other necessary support services to the

students

Developing accommodation plans for students

Developing IEPs for the students

Providing basic skills instruction in areas of reading, mathematics, and

language

Professional Resource Download

College Entrance Testing for Individuals With

Learning Disabilities Special accommodations are also
available for students with learning disabilities who are taking
college entrance examinations. Information on accommodations
for the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) can be obtained at the
College Board website, http://www.collegeboard.org, and for the
ORE and the GMAT from the Educational Testing Service (ETS)
(Rosedale Road, Princeton, NJ, 08541; phone 609-921-9000; fax
 609-734-5410; website http://www.ets.org). Information on
special accommodations on the American College Test (ACT) is
provided in the ACT Assessment Special Testing Guide (available
from ACT Universal Testing Special Testing: 61, P.O. Box 4028,
Iowa City, IA, 52243-4028; phone 319-337-1332; fax 319-337-
1285; website http://www.act.org). A resource for college
programs can be found in The K & W Guide for Students with
Learning Disabilities or Attention Deficit Disorder (Kravetz &
Wax, 2003). Teaching Tips 9.4, “Guidelines for Helping College
Students With Learning Disabilities,” offers ways to help college
students with learning disabilities

9.6d Professional Licensing and Learning

Disabilities
Individuals entering professions such as law, medicine, and
optometry must pass licensing examinations. Under the 2008
ADAA, individuals with learning disabilities may receive
accommodations when taking these exams. A frequently requested
accommodation is an extension of time on the exam. Research
shows that extended time is beneficial to such people (Weaver,
2000). Unfortunately, individuals with learning disabilities trying
to enter professions are too often denied the opportunity for
accommodations (Hagin & Simon, 2000).

Such barriers are all the more cruel because these young adults are
usually among the most promising graduates. They are individuals
whose intelligence, motivation, and perseverance, together with
the supports and accommodations supplied by families and
teachers, have enabled them to succeed in higher education and in
their professional education despite the vicissitudes of a learning
disability. Given the opportunity to serve society as professionals,
they could make substantial contributions (Hagin & Simon,
2000).
9.6e Nondegree Postsecondary Programs
Some young adults with learning disabilities may not be eligible
for college programs, yet they will benefit from postsecondary
transitional programs that will provide them with opportunities to
learn independence; social experiences; practical activities, such
as budgeting; computer skills; life experiences; and work
experiences. A few colleges have developed such programs for
these students. One is the PACE program, located at National-
Louis University in Skokie, Illinois. Another is the Threshold
Program, which is part of Lesley University in Cambridge,
Massachusetts. Both are two-year programs that provide students
with a college-like experience of living in dormitories. Students
take classes in consumer math, problem solving, health and
wellness, human development, music and art appreciation, social
strategies, assertiveness training, independent living, and
computer technology. They also gain experience working at jobs
throughout their two-year program, with the support of a job
coach. The Threshold Program conducted a follow-up study of its
graduates for the past twelve years and found that 69% were living
independently in apartments and 82% were employed (Yuan &
Reisman, 2000). A study of graduates of the PACE program
showed that 82% were employed, a figure that is much higher
than that for other adults with learning disabilities (Harth &
Burns, 2004). The PACE program website can be found at
http://www.nl.edu/academics/pace.

Other postsecondary programs are Elmhurst Life Skills Academy

(ELSA) located at Elmhurst College, Elmhurst, Illinois
(http://public.elmhvirst.edu), and the College Living Experience
(CLE) with several locations in the United States
(http://www.cleinc.net).

Did You Get It?

 Which of the following legislative acts provides “coverage” for the
student with a learning and/or related disability once he or she
graduates from high school or reaches the age of 22?

a. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act

(IDEA-2004)

b. The Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)

c. No Child Left Behind

d. Head-Start Adult

9.7 Adults With Learning Disabilities and

Related Disabilities
Learning disabilities do not disappear when individuals leave
school. For many, difficulties continue throughout their lives.
Oftentimes the postschool outcomes that students with learning
disabilities anticipate differ from the postschool results they
experiences. They may be satisfied with their position but not
receive raises or get promotions (Daviso et al., 2011). Adults with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities need support and
assistance to successfully make the transition to the adult world.
Through public awareness programs about learning disabilities, as
seen on television and reported in newspapers and magazine
articles, many adults come to recognize that their problems are
related to learning disabilities. For example, an article in
Newsweek brought information about learning disabilities to the
general public (Wingert & Kantrovitz, 1997).

What is the life of Frank, an adult with learning disabilities, like?

These adults may have difficulty finding their niche in the world.
They have trouble finding and keeping a job, developing a
satisfying social life, and even coping with individual daily living.
 Many adults with learning disabilities have developed amazing
strategies for avoiding, hiding, and dealing with their problems.
Such a situation is described in Student Stories 9.6, “Frank, an
Adult With a Learning Disability.”

Student Stories 9.6 Frank, an Adult With a Learning

Disability

Frank is a 36-year-old man with a learning disability. He is of average

intelligence, but he has great difficulty with reading. Employed as a
journeyman painter, and supporting his wife and two children, he has
learned to cope with many daily situations that required reading skills.
Although he was unable to read the color labels on paint cans, and he could
not decipher street and road signs, nor find streets, addresses, or use a city
map to find the locations of his house-painting jobs, Frank had learned to
manage by compensating for his inability to read. He visually memorized the
color codes on paint cans to determine their color. He tried to limit his work
to a specific area of the city because he could not read street signs. When he
was sent into an unfamiliar area, he would ask a fellow worker to provide
directions and accompany him, or he would request help from residents of
the area to reach his destination. He watched television to keep abreast of
current affairs, and his wife read and answered his correspondence.
However, Frank finally realized that advancement was not possible unless he
learned to read. Moreover, his children were rapidly acquiring the reading
skills that he did not possess. His disability was a continual threat to him and
finally led him to seek help at a university learning disabilities clinic. It is
remarkable that after so many years of failure and frustration, Frank
recognized that his problem is a learning disability and that he had the
fortitude and motivation to attempt once again the formidable task of
learning to read.

Reflective Question
1. What prompted Frank to seek help?
Surveys of adults with learning disabilities indicate that their
major needs are in the areas of

1. social relationships and skills;

2. career counseling;

3. developing self-esteem and confidence;

4. overcoming dependence;

5. survival skills;

6. vocational training;

7. job procurement and retention; and

8. reading, spelling, management of personal finances, and

organizational skills.

When these adults lose a job, they are uncertain about what has
gone wrong (Gerber & Brown, 1997). The Ohio Longitudinal
Transtion Study indicates that students with learning disabilities
have better employment outcomes when they are involved career
and technical education, work-study opportunities, and paid
employment prior to leaving secondary education. They also have
minimal contact with social and vocational rehabilitative agencies
after graduation, so providing these transition services when
students are in secondary education is very important (Daviso et
al., 2011).

What is unique about adults with learning disabilities? They are

usually self-identified and self-referred. To succeed, they must be
intimately involved in both the diagnosis and the remediation
process. They are likely to be highly motivated to learn the skills
they know they need in life. They want to know what test results
mean and the goals and purposes of the remediation program. It is
their commitment to the remediation program that enables them
to succeed. Adults with learning disabilities should learn about
their rights under the law (Latham & Latham, 1997).
9.7a Literacy Organizations for Adults
Often adults are motivated to seek instruction in learning to read.
The problem is that after individuals with learning disabilities
leave school, there are fewer educational options open to them.
Some literacy programs designed for adults include:

Literacy Volunteers of America. Literacy Volunteers of

America (LVA) is a national, nonprofit organization that has
a network of volunteer tutors to teach reading, writing, and
English-speaking skills to adults. (LVA can be contacted at
1320 Jamesville Ave., Syracuse, NY 13210; phone 800-448-
8878; websites http://www.literacyvolunteers.org;
http://www.proliteracy.org).

The Laubach program. The objective of this private

organization is to teach literacy to people around the world.
(Write to Laubach Literacy Action, P.O. Box 131, 1320
Jamesville Ave., Syracuse, NY 13210; phone 800-528-2224;
website http://www.laubach.org).

Adult Basic Education (ABE) and General Education

Degree (GED). These government-sponsored programs
offer education for adults. A person passing the GED
examination is awarded a high school equivalency degree.

I Have a Kid Who… ELLIE: A Student With Social Interaction

Difficulties
Ellie is 14 years old and in ninth grade. She has just moved to the community
from another city. Ellie’s mother said that Ellie’s previous school reported
that Ellie had learning disabilities. Ellie is quiet, withdrawn, and doesn’t
appear to have made many new friends. She often sits alone in the back of
the classroom and doesn’t volunteer responses, ideas, or engage in class
discussions. While she does most, if not all, of the independent work
required of her, she does not actively participate in any partner or
cooperative activities. Ellie avoids group contact by reading or drawing
quietly, or asking to be excused to go to the rest-room, locker, or office. From
all the information the teachers have gathered and their observations, Ellie
appears to be able to read and write on grade level.
 Mr. Salinas, Ellie’s English teacher, is concerned because her
nonparticipation in group activities is beginning to cause some resentment
from her peers. Some students have stated they don’t want to be placed in a
group with Ellie because, “She won’t help out and it just drags us down. It’s
like she doesn’t even know we’re there.” Academically, this is also impacting
Ellie’s grade in English class because several of the semester competencies
and assignments require peer and group interaction. There are upcoming
small-group literature-discussion activities and peer editing/writing support
groups.

Questions
1. What strategies could be used to help Ellie participate with the class?

2. How can Ellie be taught specifically the skills to work with others?

Source: The Iris Center, http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu.

Did You Get It?

The Ohio Longitudinal Transition Study found that those students with
learning disabilities who experienced certain settings/scenarios had
morepositive vocational outcomes than those who did not. Which of
the following is not one of the settings pointed to in this study?

a. Career and technical education

b. Work-study

c. Paid employment during high school

d. Experiences with a mentor

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Adolescents with learning disabilities and related disabilities
must cope with the dramatic changes in their lives caused by
puberty, conflicting feelings, physical changes, peer
 pressure, illegal drugs, and self-consciousness, as well as
with problems related to their disabilities.

Characteristics of adolescents with learning problems

include: cultural and linguistic diversity, poor self-concept,
social and behavioral issues, attentional and language
difficulties, and lack of motivation.

The required components of the transition plan include

current levels of academic achievement and functional
performance including interests and aptitudes, measurable
postsecondary goals and the services to meet those goals,
and connections to those agencies available to provide
services during and after the student’s school career.

Important features for success in high school include

intensive instruction in reading and mathematics, explicit
instruction in survival skills, and completion of all required
high school courses for graduation. Curriculum models for
learning disabilities in the secondary schools include basic
skills instruction, tutorial instruction, functional skills
instruction, and work-study programs.

Learning strategies instruction helps adolescents with

learning disabilities learn how to learn and become active,
efficient learners. The learning strategies approach teaches
students how to learn rather than what to learn. Students
can apply learning strategies to all areas of the secondary
curriculum.

Postsecondary and college programs for young adults with

learning disabilities are growing, and an increasing number
of colleges have developed special services for college
students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities. The Americans With Disabilities Act
Amendments and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
provide protection for college students with disabilities.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

 1. Describe three characteristics of adolescents with learning disabilities and
related disabilities and discuss how these characteristics affect high school
achievement.

2. What special problems occur at the secondary level that differ from the those
at the elementary level?

3. More secondary students with learning disabilities and other related

disabilities are in general education content-area classes. How can content-
area teachers and special education teachers work together? When they don’t
agree on what should be covered in class, what steps should be taken to
resolve their differences?

4. What is a transition plan for secondary students with disabilities? What are
some of the possible goals for such a transition plan?

5. Several different curriculum models are used for teaching adolescents with
learning disabilities. Describe three of these approaches and provide the
advantages and disadvantages of each.

6. What is the purpose of using learning strategies instruction for adolescents

with learning disabilities? Describe each of the eight steps in learning
strategies instruction.

7. How does Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act affect the education of
college students with disabilities? Describe three accommodations for college
students.

Chapter Review

Key Terms
accommodations

Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)

attribution theory

background knowledge

basic academic skills instruction

collaborative teaming

content-area teachers
functional skills or survival skills

high-stakes testing

learning strategies instruction

reasonable accommodations

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

strategies intervention model (SIM)

Summary of Performance (SOP)

transition

transition planning

tutorial instruction

work-study program
 Chapter

Understanding
the Laws
10
Related to
Students
With
Disabilities

Chapter Introduction

10.1 Special Education Laws: Why Are They So Important?

10.2 History of Special Education Legislation

10.2a Early Childhood Amendments of 1986 (PL 99-457)

10.2b The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (PL

101-476)

10.2c The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (PL

105-17)

10.2d The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement

Act of 2004 (PL 108-456)

10.3 Key Provisions of Special Education Law

10.3a Individualized Education Program (IEP)

10.3b Nondiscriminatory Evaluation Procedures

10.3c Least Restrictive Environment

 10.3d Procedural Safeguards

10.3e Contentious Issues Surrounding IDEA

10.3f Specific Legal Protections for Students With ADHD

10.4 Other Laws Impacting Students With Disabilities

10.4a No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

10.4b Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

10.4c The Americans With Disabilities Amendments Act (ADAA)

10.4d Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)

10.5 The Court System: Case Law

10.5a Application of the Law: You Be the Judge

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit

You get justice in the next world, in this world

you have the law.

—William Gaddis

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

10.1
Explain the reasons that laws are so important

10.2
Describe the history of special education law
 10.3
Explain the key provisions of Special Education Law

10.4
Describe other laws that affect students with
disabilities

10.5
Describe the key concepts that have been determined
by the U.S. Supreme Court.

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special

Educator Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council
for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical
Practice
6.0—Beginning special education professionals use foundational
knowledge of the field and their professional ethical principles and
practice standards to inform special education practice, to engage in
lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.

6.1—Beginning special education professionals use professional ethical

principles and professional practice standards to guide their practice.

6.2—Beginning special education professionals understand how

foundational knowledge and current issues influence professional
practice.

6.3—Beginning special education professionals understand that diversity

is a part of families, cultures, and schools, and that complex human
issues can interact with the delivery of special education services.

6.4—Beginning special education professionals understand the

significance of lifelong learning and participate in professional activities
and learning communities.

6.5—Beginning special education professionals advance the profession

by engaging in activities such as advocacy and mentoring.
Teachers may think that it is not important for them to pay
attention to laws that govern special education or court cases that
clarify the intent of those laws. This is a myth that must be
dispelled. Educators are responsible for translating the law, the
regulations that implement those laws, and the court case law.
Educators must have the background and the knowledge to
translate the law into their work with students with disabilities
and their families.

Laws and regulations are designed to protect the rights of

students; if educators do not understand those rights they cannot
protect the students they serve. Imagine the teacher who does not
understand the protections of the Family Educational Rights and
Privacy Act (FERPA) and gives students’ records to someone who
should not have those records. That teacher has violated the law
and failed to protect the rights of the student. Imagine the teacher
who is continuing to have behavioral problems with a student but
does not relay that information at the Individual Education
Program (IEP) meeting and therefore no functional assessment is
conducted and no behavioral intervention plan is written to
address the needs of the student. The parent would have the right
to a call for a due process hearing because of the teacher’s failure
to do what was required for the child.

In this chapter we describe the laws that govern education and

special education. This chapter

a. provides an historical perspective of federal special

education laws,

b. describes important features of special education laws, and

c. describes the implications of several other federal laws that

affect children and teachers.
10.1 Special Education Laws: Why Are They
So Important?
Many families and educators erroneously take for granted that
special education services have always been available for students
with disabilities. This is not the case. There was a relatively recent
time in our history when students with disabilities did not have
the right to go to school—when there was no mandate for special
education services. Children with disabilities were either ignored
or excluded from attending public schools. It was only through the
persistence of many dedicated advocates that laws were passed to
provide education for children with disabilities. These advocates
can be credited for working with policy-makers to create the
mandate for special education.

The important federal laws, regulations, and court cases that

pertain to students with disabilities are discussed in this chapter.
However, it is also paramount for teachers to know the specific
laws and regulations that govern special education in their states.
Teachers can find that information through their State
Department of Education website and through their professional
organizations.

Laws and regulations provide protections to students with disabilities.

 Paul Doyle/Alamy

Student Stories 10.1 exemplifies the state of education before the

Education for All Handicapped Children Act. Three decades ago,
children with disabilities were neglected or ignored and their
education was out of the realm of possibility.

Student Stories 10.1 Before There Was a Special Education

Law

Sally was a 10-year-old student enrolling in school for the first time. Sally
had been diagnosed with severe behavioral disorders, significant intellectual
development disabilities, and cerebral palsy. She had an unrepaired cleft
palate and virtually no speech or language skills. Grunting was her chief form
of communication. Every year from the time that Sally was 5 years old, her
mother attempted to register her for school. Year after year, the principal
said the school could not accommodate a special needs student like Sally.

Until Sally was 10, there was no law that said that she had the right to a free,
appropriate public education. Many formative years for Sally’s education
were lost—Sally would have had a much better chance for some educational
success if she could have been enrolled at school when she was 3 years of age.

Reflective Questions
 1. Do you believe that what happened to Sally could happen in today’s
schools—why or why not?

2. How would Sally have benefited from receiving special education

services when she was 3 years old?

Let us now look at the basic laws that protect the rights of students
with disabilities and investigate the key concepts associated with
those laws.

Did You Get It?

In describing the steps necessary in getting legislation passed to

include students with disabilities in a system that not so long ago
shunned and excluded them, your authors use which word(s) to
describe the efforts of the advocates who took on this fight?

a. “Persistent”

b. “Shocking, militant, and at times violent”

c. “Stoic”

d. “Unpretentious and fatalistic”

10.2 History of Special Education

Legislation
A series of 5 special education laws were passed over a period of
almost 40 years to ensure the education of students with
disabilities.

1. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL

94-142)

2. Early Childhood Amendments of 1986 (PL 99-457)

 3. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (PL
101-476)

4. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (PL

105-17)

5. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement

Act of 2004 (PL 108-456)

The first special education law was passed, and it is considered a

landmark legislation. The Education for All Handicapped
Children’s Education Act gave students with disabilities the right
to a free appropriate public education (FAPE). Prior to the passage
of the first special education law in 1975, children with disabilities
were largely ignored or were excluded from attending public
school. This law also required that schools develop
individualized education program (IEP) to plan for the
instruction of each child identified with a disability. The IEP
became the determinant document for what specific educational
programs and related services were needed for that child.
Placement was to be based on a thorough analysis of the child’s
levels of performance. From those levels of performance, the goals
and objectives were determined for the child. The IEP was done
yearly and a thorough reevaluation of the student’s ability and
achievement is conducted every three years.

Children ages 3 through 5 have the right to a free, appropriate public

education. Programming for infants and toddlers is available for many
students with disabilities.
 Barros & Barros/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Related services are services delivered by specially trained

professionals and are needed for the student with disability to
benefit from special education. Such services include speech-
language services and auditory services, psychological services,
physical and occupational therapy, social worker services,
counseling services, travel training instruction (or orientation and
mobility services), and medical services for diagnostic and
evaluation purposes.

10.2a Early Childhood Amendments of 1986

(PL 99-457)
 In 1986, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was
amended with Early Childhood Amendment (Public Law 99-457).
This amendment was significant because it extended the
provisions of the law to young children with disabilities, ages 3
through 5 years of age. Whereas PL 94-142 focused on the
individual child with a disability, this latest set of amendments
also focused on family needs and interventions. Programming for
infants and toddlers also became a reality. While not a mandate
that schools must provide services to children birth through 2,
states must establish an interagency coordinating council to
determine how services will be provided, and the coordinating
council must specify the statewide system that includes definitions
for children with disabilities who are eligible, individualized
family service plans that are required for young children receiving
services, and Child Find that requires that babies who may be
eligible for services are sought, and a lead agency in each state
must be designated.

10.2b The Individuals With Disabilities

Education Act of 1990 (PL 101-476)
In 1990, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was
renamed and became the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) (PL 101-476). Two new categories of students with
disabilities—autism and traumatic brain injury—were added. This
revision also began the era of transition services—to prepare
students from school to the world of work and independent living.
The 1990 revision also began the provisions of assistive
technology devices and services.
10.2c The Individuals With Disabilities
Education Act of 1997 (PL 105-17)
In 1997, there was a major revision to the IDEA, which became
known as the Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997 (IDEA-
1997). The purpose of the law was to broaden the 1997 revision.
Beyond the purpose of a FAPE emphasizing special education and
related services designed to meet the student’s individual needs,
the 1997 revision added that it also must be designed to prepare
students for employment and independent living, including
students who have been suspended or expelled from school. New
protections were also provided for students with behavioral
challenges. Although those protections were maintained in the
1997 revision of the law, they were modified in IDEA-2004.

In IDEA-1997, many new requirements were added to the IEP

process in order to more thoroughly address the needs of students
with disabilities. The IEP feature called the present levels of
performance included how the disability affects the child’s
involvement and progress in the general curriculum. In addition,
the IEP team had to consider the participation of students with
disabilities in statewide and local assessment and the
accommodations that were be needed for taking those tests. If a
student could not take the statewide and local assessment, the IEP
team needed to specify why the assessment was not appropriate
and had to determine an alternate method of assessment.

In IDEA-1997, for the first time, the general education teacher was
required to be a participant in the IEP process. Teachers’
organizations had voiced serious concerns that, with the
movement toward inclusion, they were being expected to provide
significant services and accommodations for students with
disabilities within their classroom yet were not involved in the
decision-making process. There was also an addition in the focus
of the IEP process. Previously the IEP team addressed the needs of
 the student alone. With IDEA-1997, language was added to
support school personnel. Consequently, if teachers stated, within
the IEP process, that they needed additional training to meet the
needs of the student, then the training had to be addressed within
the IEP process (Johns, 1998).

IDEA-1997 also required that the IEP team consider the strengths
of the student and the concerns of the parents for enhancing the
education of the child. Additional requirements in the IEP process
included addressing special factors, such as: positive behavioral
interventions when the student’s behavior impeded learning; the
language needs of students with limited English proficiency;
instruction in Braille and the use of Braille unless the IEP team
determined otherwise; communication needs of the student; and
the provision of assistive technology devices and services.

10.2d The Individuals With Disabilities

Education Improvement Act of 2004
(PL 108-456)
In 2004 President George W. Bush signed the most recent version
of the law, the Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-2004), or Public Act 108-446.
The Final Regulations for IDEA-2004 were issued by the U.S.
Department of Education in 2006. IDEA-2004, the current
revision of the law (as did the original law) assures that all
students with disabilities are provided FAPE based on their
individual needs. IDEA is based on the premise that there is zero
reject (i.e., all students have the right to go to school regardless of
the severity of their disability).

Remember also that in IDEA-97 and continuing in IDEA-2004, a

FAPE is provided to all students—even those students who are
suspended or expelled from school. Students who are suspended
 from school for any more than 10 days per year must have access
and reach progress in the general curriculum and their IEP
services. Also they should receive a functional behavioral
assessment, behavioral intervention services, and modifications
that are designed to address the behavior violation so that it does
not recur (IDEA-2004, Section 615, 34 C.F.R. 300.530–300.536).

Did You Get It?

The key right granted to students with disabilities as a result of The

Education for All Handicapped Children’s Education Act is “FAPE,”
otherwise known as Free Public Education.

a. Accessible

b. Applicable

c. Acceptable

d. Appropriate

10.3 Key Provisions of Special Education

Law
10.3a Individualized Education Program
(IEP)
IEP is a mandate of the IDEA. The IEP is a written statement for a
child with a disability. A student’s IEP is developed, reviewed, and
revised in accordance with the law (IDEA-2004). Educational
services and settings for students with disabilities are based on the
individual needs of the student as determined by the IEP team.
The IEP is the hallmark of good planning for students and has
been in existence since the inception of the special education
mandate in 1975.
 The IEP is developed at least yearly and addresses the educational
implications of the evaluations. The IEP includes the child’s levels
of academic achievement, the child’s functional performance, the
annual goals for the child, and the placement and services where
those goals can be met and where the student can receive
meaningful benefit. IDEA-2004 allows 15 states to apply for
waivers to do students’ IEPs, with parental consent, every three
years at key transition points for the student. Figure 10.1 shows
the first page of a sample IEP.

Figure 10.1 Sample IEP

© Cengage Learning 2015

Professional Resource Download
 Special Considerations in the IEP Figure 10.2 lists a
number of special factors that must also be considered within the
IEP process.

Figure 10.2 Special Considerations in the IEP

Special Considerations in the IEP

Positive behavioral interventions and supports. In the case

of a child whose behavior impedes the child’s learning or
that of others, consider the use of positive behavioral interventions and
supports.

English-Language Learners (ELL). In the case of a child with limited

English proficiency, consider the language needs of the child as such
needs relate to the child’s IEP.

Visual Impairment. In the case of a student with visual impairment,

provide for instruction in Braille and the use of Braille unless the IEP
team determines it is not needed.

Hearing Impairment. In the case of a student with specific

communication needs, consider those needs.

Assistive Technology. In the case of a child who may need assistive

technology, consider those needs.

Professional Resource Download

© Cengage Learning 2015

IEP Planning Team There is no such thing as unilateral

action in special education. This is a theme that should govern
actions of school personnel in special education. This concept,
however, is very difficult for school personnel to understand
because school officials in general education are able to make
unilateral decisions about general education students. In special
education, however, it is the IEP team that determines the needs
of the student and the placement of that student. In the evaluation
process, there must be a multidisciplinary evaluation that is
conducted by a group of individuals. No one individual within the
educational system determines that the student has a disability
 which adversely impacts educational performance. Instead, a
group of individuals must conduct a variety of assessments and
then as a team with the parent determine the disability of the
student, whether that disability results in an adverse effect on
educational performance, and what the needs of the student are.
For example, if the student has speech/language problems, it is
critical that an individual who has expertise and certification or
licensure in speech/language be part of the evaluation team.

Figure 10.3 shows the IEP team members as specified within

IDEA-2004.

Figure 10.3 The IEP Team Members

The IEP Team Members

A parent. The parent of a child with a disability;

An education teacher. Not less than one regular education teacher of

such child (if the child is, or may be, participating in the regular
education environment);

A special education teacher. Not less than one special education

teacher, or where appropriate, not less than one special education
provider of such child;

A person who is knowledgeable about special education and the

general education curriculum. A representative of the local educational
agency who is qualified to provide, or supervise the provision of,
specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of children
with disabilities, is knowledgeable about the general education
curriculum, and is knowledgeable about the availability of resources of
the local educational agency;

A person who can interpret the evaluation. An individual who can

interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results, who may
be a member of the team described in the other sections;

Other individuals. At the discretion of the parent or the agency, other

individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the
child, including related services personnel as appropriate; and
whenever appropriate, the child with a disability (IDEA Section 614, 34
C.F.R. 300.321).
 Professional Resource Download

© Cengage Learning 2015

Thus, the IEP team is charged with examining the needs of the
student, planning goals, and then determining how and where
those goals can be met. It is critical for the IEP team to consider
the whole range of student needs:

Students who have a disability that results in an adverse

effect on educational performance require specialized
instruction to meet those needs.

They also require sufficient accommodations in assessment

and instruction.

They may require specific modifications to the general

curriculum.

They may also require related services coordinated with

their special education program and placement.

The IEP team is charged with examining the needs of the student,
planning goals, and then determining how and where those goals
can be met. Figure 10.4 represents a flow chart of how the IEP
team should proceed in determining the individualized needs of
the child.

Figure 10.4 What the IEP Team Should Consider

© Cengage Learning 2015

 After the IEP meeting is over, the team members’ responsibilities
continue every day. The IEP team members are responsible for
implementing the IEP and monitoring whether the student is
making progress. Progress reports must be provided to the family
in accordance with the school district’s reporting system. When
the student is not making progress it is up to the team members to
call a new IEP team meeting to determine what needs to be
changed.

Student Stories 10.2 Teacher’s Role in an IEP

Mrs. Johns, the special education teacher, has been working with Jonathan,
a fifth-grade student with significant learning disabilities, and he has made
good progress. His reading comprehension has increased from a 1.3 grade
level to a 2.6 grade level, as measured on an individualized achievement test.
Each day Jonathan receives 90 minutes of specialized instruction—one-on-
one with Mrs. Johns and peer-to-peer collaboration.

Jonathan’s IEP includes his progress based on Mrs. Johns’s observations and
curriculum-based assessment. Going into the IEP meeting, Mrs. Johns
believes Jonathan should continue to receive the same amount of
instructional time in the learning disabilities resource class. When the
administrator talks about placement recommendations, he announces that
the school district is going to cut back on services and wants to provide more
time for the special education students in the regular classroom. He explains
that rather than receive pullout special services, those services will be
provided in the general education classroom. Jonathan’s parents are upset
because they want him to receive the same amount of services as in the past.
The general education classroom teacher, Ms. Lee, also agrees with the
parents; however she is afraid to speak up and voice her opinion because she
does not yet have tenure. She knows that she should have a voice in the
decision-making process. She also knows that the decision should be based
on the individual needs of Jonathan and not the convenience of the school
district. However Ms. Lee is torn between the needs of the student and the
opinion of the school administrator.
 Reflective Questions
1. What could Mrs. Johns have done to prevent this dilemma from
occurring?

2. What is Mrs. Johns’s obligation as an active participant in this IEP?

3. What is the responsibility of Ms. Lee as an active IEP participant?

10.3b Nondiscriminatory Evaluation

Procedures
Each school district is responsible for assuring that no one single
measure or assessment is utilized as the sole criterion for
determining whether a child has a disability. Further, the school
district must assure that, within the evaluation process, only
technically sound instruments are utilized. Criteria established in
IDEA-2004 require that school districts ensure that:

Assessments and other evaluation materials are selected and

administered so as not to be discriminatory on a racial or
cultural basis.

Assessments are provided and administered in the language

and form most likely to yield accurate information on what
the child knows and can do academically, developmentally,
and functionally, unless it is not feasible to do so.

Assessments are used for purposes for which the

assessments or measures are valid and reliable.

Assessments are administered by trained and knowledgeable

personnel.

Assessments are administered in accordance with any

instructions provided by the producer of such assessments.

Assessments are provided to the child in all areas of

suspected disability (Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act 2004, Section 614).
TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Foundations: Aligning

Instruction With Federal Legislation.” In this video a teacher, a specialist, an
intern, and the principal discuss the federal laws of the Individuals With
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), and
the implementation of these laws and the implications of the law for special
educators:

Questions
1. What will you do when you begin teaching to ensure that you are
following the laws that govern children with disabilities?

2. What will you do when you disagree with another IEP team member
about what the least restrictive environment should be for the student?

3. What role do you believe that state testing should play in evaluating
students with disabilities and in evaluating the teacher’s performance?

Assessments and other evaluations are to be tailored to assess

specific areas of educational need and are not merely those that
are designed to provide a single general intelligence quotient (34
C.F.R. 300.304). Assessments are also to be selected and
administered, so as to ensure that if an assessment is
administered to a child with impaired sensory, manual, or
speaking skills, the assessment results accurately reflect the child’s
 aptitude or achievement level or whatever other factors the test
purports to measure, rather than reflecting the child’s impaired
sensory, manual, or speaking skills (unless those skills are the
factors that the test purports to measure) (IDEA Regulations
Section 300.304).

We know that students and their needs change, and therefore

IDEA-2004 requires an evaluation at least every three years or
more often as determined by the parent and school district
personnel. Parental consent must be given for the evaluation. A
team meeting is held after the evaluation occurs to review the
results of the evaluation with the parent. No one person is
responsible for all components of the evaluation; rather, it is a
multidisciplinary process.

10.3c Least Restrictive Environment

The least restrictive environment (LRE) provisions of the
IDEA provide that, to the maximum extent appropriate, students
with disabilities are educated with their peers without disabilities.
The premise of the LRE is that placement decisions about the
student’s educational setting should be based on each student’s
individual needs.

IEP teams must consider the student’s level of academic

achievement and functional performance and then develop goals
to address the individual needs of the student. Based on that
information, the IEP team must determine where those goals can
be met—in what specific educational setting is the student likely to
gain meaningful benefit?

Some educators interpret the LRE feature of the law to mean that
students should always be educated within the general education
classroom. Some individuals and organizations go further,
advocating the philosophy of full inclusion.
 Actually the word inclusion does not appear anywhere in the law.
The concept of full inclusion is a philosophy that goes further,
proposing that all children, regardless of the severity of their
disability, are to be educated within the general education
classroom. Criteria for determining the LRE were established in
the Rachel Holland case. Rachel Holland was a child with
intellectual disabilities and went to school in the Sacramento
Unified School District. Rachel’s parents wanted her to be
educated within the regular classroom setting but the school
district believed that it was more appropriate to educate her in a
special education classroom. The school district lost the case. The
criteria established were as follows:

1. Will the student derive educational benefit from the

placement considered?

2. Will the student derive noneducational benefit from the

placement? The examples used within the case were
friendships, improved self-confidence, and excitement for
learning.

3. Will there be detriment because the student is disruptive,

distracting or unruly, and would the student take up so
much of the teacher’s time that the other students would
suffer from lack of attention?

4. What is the cost of the proposed placement? Will the

placement burden the school district’s funds or adversely
impact services available to other children?

Teaching Tips 10.1 Preparing for an IEP

As an IEP participant, you are part of a decision-making process that will

impact a student’s life. Take that responsibility very seriously.

Be well prepared by reviewing the student’s previous IEP and

evaluations.

Be prepared to talk about the student’s strengths and interests.

Be prepared to share factual information about your work with the

student.
 Remain objective in the information that you provide. During the
discussion of the present levels of academic achievement and functional
performance, reveal information that is based on assessment
information and your observations.

Suggest goals that are measurable, observable, and objective.

Engage the parent actively in the discussion by asking specific questions

about what the student does well at home.

Participate actively in the decision-making process. Use data to justify

your recommendations.

Professional Resource Download

Sacramento City Unified School District Board of Education v.

Rachel H., 20 IDELR 182 (9th Cir., 1994).

Later the year that Holland was decided, the same circuit ruled
differently with another student while applying this 4-prong test.
(Clyde K. and Sheila K. individually and as guardians for Ryan
K. v. Puyallup School District, 21 IDELR 664, September 13,
1994). Ryan K. was a 15-year-old with Tourette’s Syndrome and
ADHD who had also engaged in incidents of sexual harassment.
Because of escalations in his behavior, including an assault on a
staff member, the district recommended that Ryan be placed in
STARS—Students Temporarily Away from Regular School. That
program provided a more structured environment and provided
more individualized attention. Parents originally agreed but then
changed their minds and filed a lawsuit alleging violation of his
rights to due process. The parents believed that Ryan could be
educated in a mainstream setting if the school provided a personal
aide for him.

The court determined that the STARS program was the least
restrictive environment for Ryan, applying the Holland test as
follows:

a. Ryan’s disruptive behavior kept him from learning.

 b. He derived at best only minimal nonacademic benefits from
his previous general education placement.

c. The record indicated that his presence in classes in the

regular school building had an “overwhelmingly negative
effect on teachers and other students.”

d. He was dangerously aggressive. Schools have a special

obligation to ensure that students in their care are kept out
of harm’s way.

e. Ryan’s sexual harassment was also problematic. Public

officials have a compelling duty not to tolerate it in
classrooms and hallways. School officials should be
concerned about liability for failing to remedy peer sexual
harassment that exposes students to a hostile educational
environment.

The court said that disruptive behavior that significantly impairs

the education of other students strongly suggests that a
mainstream placement is not appropriate. School officials have a
duty to ensure that students with disabilities receive an
appropriate education but they are “not required to sit on their
hands when a disabled student’s behavioral problems prevent
both him and those around him from learning.”

10.3d Procedural Safeguards

A cornerstone of IDEA is the right of the parent or the school
district to disagree with decisions that might be made by the IEP
planning team. School districts and parents all want the same
thing for children, but sometimes they may not agree on how to
achieve these goals. There are safeguards to protect the rights of
the students. School personnel and parents are always encouraged
to resolve their differences through informal measures. Under
IDEA-2004 mediation is provided. Mediation is more informal
and less legalistic procedure than going to a due process hearing
and requires an impartial individual, who is not an employee of
 the school district, to listen to both sides of the issue and render a
decision. Mediation is provided at no cost to the parents. In
addition, IDEA-2004 designates a requirement that prior to a due
process hearing, the school district will convene a meeting with
the parents and the relevant member or members of the IEP team
to resolve differences. If informal procedures and mediation still
fail to resolve the issue, then the due process system is provided
and specific procedures are outlined for it in IDEA-2004 and its
accompanying regulations (34 C.F.R. 300.500?300.518). States
then determine the specific procedure for who is a hearing officer
and how the due process hearings are conducted. Figure 10.5
summarizes the list of procedures from least to most formal.

Figure 10.5 Steps to Take When There Is a Dispute Between

Parents and the School Districts

When there is a dispute between the parent and the school district—:

1. Parents and school district meet with each other to attempt to resolve
differences. If that is unsuccessful,

2. Parent can file a complaint with the appropriate State Department of

Education. If that is unsuccessful,

3. Parent can request mediation where a neutral third party is appointed

by the State Department of Education to listen to both sides of the story
and render a decision. If that is unsuccessful,

4. Parent can request a due process hearing and prior to that hearing, the
school district must convene a meeting with the parents and the
relevant member or members of the IEP. If the district has not resolved
the complaint to the satisfaction of the parent, the due process hearing
occurs.

Professional Resource Download

© Cengage Learning 2015

10.3e Contentious Issues Surrounding IDEA

 However, IDEA-2004 is very contentious on several issues.

Rights of Parents. For the first time in a reauthorization, the

rights of parents and students were reduced, particularly in
the areas of transition, due process rights, and discipline
issues (Johns, 2005).

Transition. Transition planning had previously been

required at the age of 14, but in IDEA-2004, it is not
required until the age of 16.

Attorney’s fees. Within due process rights, if a parent files a

hearing that could be construed as frivolous, the parent’s
attorney or the parent will be required to not only pay their
own attorney’s fees but also the fees of the school district.

Discipline. In the area of discipline, if the behavior is not a

manifestation of the disability, the school district may move
the child to the recommended disciplinary setting regardless
of whether the parent agrees. The parents’ recourse is to file
for a due process hearing, but in the meantime, the student’s
placement is the recommended disciplinary setting.

Response-to-Intervention. Another change was in the

evaluation procedures for students with learning disabilities.
IDEA-2004 provides that a local school district may use a
response-to-intervention model in determining whether a
student has a learning disability. The Regulations for IDEA-
2004 (34 C.F.R. 300.307) permits the process of response-
to-intervention, but it does not require its use. The district
may choose not to use a discrepancy between ability and
achievement model for identification purposes. Many
families of children with learning disabilities, as well as
educators, fear that the lack of a research base for response-
to-intervention may result in delays in case study
evaluations for those students who need such evaluations.
Response-to-Intervention is discussed earlier in this book.

10.3f Specific Legal Protections for Students

With ADHD
 Special education services. Children with ADHD may be
eligible for special education services under the category of
“other health impaired” in IDEA-2004. The law describes
other health impaired, when applied to children with ADHD,
as heightened alertness to environmental stimuli that results
in limited alertness with respect to the educational
environment.

A child with ADHD may also be eligible for special education

services under other existing categories of special education,
in addition to other health impaired, such as the categories
of learning disabilities or emotional disturbance.

Section 504 services. A child with ADHD may be eligible

for services under the legislation of Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, even if that child is not eligible
for special education services. Section 504 mandates that
any agency receiving federal funds must provide reasonable
accommodations for people with disabilities.

According to Section 504, if the child is found to have a physical or

mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity,
such as learning, the school must make an individualized
determination of the child’s educational needs, and reasonable
accommodations must be provided within the general education
classroom (Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act). Students who
are eligible for Section 504 have a disability but the disability does
not adversely impact educational performance. As an example, a
student with ADHD would be eligible for a Section 504 plan if
there is no adverse effect on educational performance; if there is
an adverse effect, however, then the student would have an IEP.
Students who have IEPs have a disability that impacts educational
performance.

Did You Get It?

IDEA-2004 placed the onus on which of the following in ensuring that

neither assessments nor any other form of evaluation contained any
aspects at all which could be considered discriminatory in nature?
 a. Local school districts

b. State governments

c. The federal government

d. Both states and the federal government

10.4 Other Laws Impacting Students With

Disabilities
10.4a No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Educators must not only focus on the laws that govern the rights
of students with disabilities, they must also be cognizant of how
laws governing all students impact on students with disabilities.
The most important law governing all students is No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, the latest reauthorization of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act. NCLB resulted in
massive changes to the entire field of education, including special
education. School personnel struggle to meet the requirements of
NCLB, which looks at all students and at what level they achieve as
compared to their grade level peers, while at the same time it also
addresses the individual needs of the student as the cornerstone of
the IDEA-2004. NCLB focuses on these major requirements:
highly qualified personnel and accountability for results for all
students,

Highly Qualified Personnel What are the implications of

NCLB for special education teachers? NCLB requires that all
teachers be highly qualified to teach the students within their
classroom. This law requires that special education teachers not
only have certification in special education, but also are highly
qualified in the core academic subjects if they are the sole provider
of that instruction. If the teacher is providing
consultation/collaboration to the classroom teacher regarding
appropriate accommodations to the classroom curriculum, the
teacher must possess certification in special education. If the
special education teacher provides the instruction for students
who take alternate assessment with alternate achievement
standards, then the teacher must be qualified as an elementary-
school teacher. Each state must establish certification standards
for teachers and, therefore, must establish a mechanism to assure
that all teachers are highly qualified for their positions. If a
student in a Title I school is being taught for more than 4 weeks by
a teacher who is not considered highly qualified, then the school
district must notify the parents of the student that the student has
a teacher who does not meet the standard.

The provisions for highly qualified teachers do not apply to

teachers hired by or working in private elementary schools and
private secondary schools (34 C.F.R. 300.18).

Accountability for Results for All

Students Special educators have long been
responsible for assuring that students with
disabilities gain meaningful benefits as a result of their special
education and related services. Since NCLB, accountability is the
expectation for all students. All students must make adequate
yearly progress (AYP) in reading, math, and science. Scores
are disaggregated or separated for specific groups of students—
students with disabilities may be a disaggregated group of
students depending upon the number of students that the state
has determined as the minimum size of a disaggregated group.
Data is disaggregated for students by poverty levels, race
ethnicities, disabilities, and English-Language Learners (Office of
the Undersecretary of Education, 2002). The data is reported
according to each of these groups separately.
 Students must take a state-determined assessment and then each
State Department of Education compiles the results of the tests.
With the latest adoption of the Common Core Standards in the
majority of states, schools are revising their tests to measure the
common core.

Each state must report the information back to the school district,
while also reporting the school and district results to the public via
newspaper and the Internet. For students with disabilities, the IEP
team determines whether the student takes the state assessment
with or without accommodations. If the student takes the test
with accommodations, the IEP team determines the specific
accommodations that should mirror the accommodations made
within instruction. No more than 1% of students with the most
significant cognitive disabilities may take an alternate assessment
based on alternate achievement standards.

The U.S. Department of Education is also allowing an additional

2% of students with disabilities to take a modified assessment
based on modified achievement standards. The 2% subgroup
(about 20% of students with disabilities) would be in addition to
the separate 1% group of students (about 10% of students with
disabilities), with the most significant intellectual disabilities who
are permitted to take alternate assessments aligned to alternate
achievement standards. Therefore, about 30% of students with
disabilities could take either the alternate assessment based on
alternate achievement standards or a modified assessment based
on modified achievement standards.

Students participating in assessment.

 Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images

The final regulations that govern how states can measure the
students in the 2% group (34 C.F.R. Parts 200 and 300) are as
follows:

States may develop modified achievement standards and

give assessments to qualified students based on those
standards.

States must develop, disseminate information on, and

promote the use of appropriate accommodations to increase
the number of students with disabilities who are tested
against academic achievement standards for the grade in
which a student is enrolled.

Standards must continue to hold students to high

expectations; modified standards must be aligned with grade
level curriculum.

Students assessed under modified achievement standards

must receive grade level instruction in the relevant subjects.

Students who are eligible to be assessed based on alternate

or modified academic achievement standards may be from
any of the disability categories listed in IDEA.

Out-of-level testing is not permitted: a student who is in fifth

grade, for example, cannot take the test at the third-grade
level.
 If the student’s IEP includes goals for a subject that is
assessed at the grade level in which the student is enrolled,
the goals must be based on the academic-content standards
for the grade in which the student is enrolled.

Modified achievement standards may not preclude a student

from earning a regular high school diploma (34 C.F.R. Parts
200 and 300).

NCLB also holds schools accountable to ensure that students

attend schools that are safe. Each state shall establish and
implement a policy that a student attending a persistently
dangerous school or who becomes a victim of a violent criminal
offense is allowed to attend a safe school.

10.4b Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

of 1973
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits
discrimination on the basis of a disability. Section 504 also
provides reasonable accommodations to students with disabilities
and those accommodations are to be determined within the scope
of a Section 504 accommodation plan for the student who has a
disability but may not be eligible for special education.

The ADA Amendments Act of 2008 amended the definition of a

disability. The term disability means a physical or mental
impairment that substantially limits one or more major life
activities of the individual. Major life activities include but are not
limited to: caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing,
hearing, eating, sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending,
speaking, breathing, learning, reading, concentrating, thinking,
communicating, and working. An individual meets the
requirements of having an impairment if the individual
establishes that he or she has a disability even if the disability can
be corrected. The exception is for a person who has a vision
 problem that can be corrected with eye glasses (ADA Amendments
Act of 2008).

Under Section 504, an appropriate education means an education

comparable to the education of other students without disabilities,
unlike IDEA that defines an appropriate education as one that
meets the individualized needs of the student. A student with a
disability may be eligible for the provisions of Section 504, yet not
eligible for services under the IDEA. In order for a student to be
eligible for services under IDEA, the student must exhibit a
disability that results in an adverse effect on educational
performance. First, the evaluation team determines whether there
is a disability. If there is a disability determination, then the team
determines whether there is an adverse effect on educational
performance. If there is not an adverse effect, then the student
may need accommodations for his or her disability and will need
an accommodation plan under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Act of 1973. If there were an adverse effect, then the student would
need an IEP.

Section 504 provides that the student have the same access as
other students such as physical accessibility to the building and
accommodations in instruction and assessment so the student has
access to the same curriculum and instruction. IDEA provides that
the student’s education be individualized to meet his or her special
needs.

10.4c The Americans With Disabilities

Amendments Act (ADAA)
School personnel must also be aware of the laws that govern the
rights of any individual who comes in to the school setting.
Physical and program accessibility must be available to all
individuals who need access to the school. The Americans With
 Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 broadened the scope of services to
individuals with disabilities throughout their lifetime and in
multiple settings. This legislation prohibits employers from
discriminating against a person with a disability who is able to
perform the essential functions of the job. Employers must make
reasonable accommodations for employees with disabilities unless
it would create an undue hardship. The law applies to businesses
that employ 15 or more workers. The law also requires that public
transportation must be accessible and local areas must provide
alternative transportation if persons with disabilities are unable to
use the fixed route service. New buildings must be accessible.
Telephone companies must also have relay assistance to
telephones for those who are hard of hearing or have speech
impediments (Wood, 1992).

10.4d Family Educational Rights and Privacy

Act (FERPA)
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) is a
critical law that protects students’ records. It is important that all
educators understand how the records of each of their students
are handled and with whom records can be shared. This law is also
known as the Buckley Amendment and it applies to all educational
agencies that receive funds administered by the U.S. Secretary of
Education. Educational records are those that are specific to the
student and are maintained by an educational agency. They may
include handwritten or print materials, computer media, video or
audiotape, film, microfilm and microfiche, and e-mail. Exceptions
to those records include records that are maintained by
educational personnel that are not revealed to anyone else—these
records are known as sole possession records. Examples of sole
possession include records created and kept by a law enforcement
 unit, employment records, medical records, and alumni records
(Allen, 2003).

FERPA requires that school personnel must obtain written

permission from a parent/guardian prior to disclosing the records
to a third party outside of a public school. There are exceptions to
the rule. Specifically, schools can disclose information:

To appropriate authorities in the event of an emergency to

protect the health and safety of a student.

To comply with a lawfully issued subpoena or court order.

To comply with requests of local law enforcement

information that is based on an official’s personal knowledge
or observation.

To comply with an audit or evaluation of federal or state

supported education programs.

Teachers will generate information for a student’s record—most of

it will be considered a temporary record but some part may be a
student’s permanent record. Temporary records are records that
are only kept until the student is out of school for a designated
period of time (usually five years). Permanent records are
maintained within the district for many years. Special education
records are considered temporary records (Johns & Crowley,
2003).

Did You Get It?

In terms of accountability, states are required by No Child Left Behind

Act to report the results of statewide assessments to both the school
district in question and the

a. federal government

b. Attorney General

c. U.S. Senate

d. public-at-large
10.5 The Court System: Case Law
When laws and regulations are ambiguous on specific issues (and
this is the case in a number of areas), the courts become involved.
You have learned earlier that both parents and school district
personnel may go to due process on specific issues. When a
decision is rendered, one party will have been deemed to have
“won” the case. The other party will be dissatisfied and will have to
decide whether they wish to appeal the case to a higher level.
Ultimately, a case may move through the system and a very few
will go as far as the U.S. Supreme Court. Relatively speaking, few
cases pertaining to special education have been heard by the
Supreme Court. Those cases however have become the law of the
land. Table 10.1 lists key cases in education that have been decided
by the Supreme Court.

Table 10.1 Key Cases in Education Decided by the Supreme

Court

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that school segregation based on race was
prohibited by Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Such case law
raised the question that if schools could not discriminate based on race, then
they should not be able to discriminate based on disability. Oliver Brown and a
group of other parents took their children to schools in their neighborhood in
Topeka, Kansas, and were denied entrance and told that their children had to
attend schools that were designated for African American students. As a result
the local chapter of the NAA CP filed the suit on behalf of these families.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483, 74 S. Ct. 686, 98 L. Ed.
873 (1954).

Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v.

Rowley (1982)
Amy Rowley was a deaf student who needed an interpreter. The U.S. Supreme
Court determined that her school district was not required to provide a sign
language interpreter. The Court ruled that schools must offer personalized
instruction with sufficient support services to permit the child with a disability
to benefit educationally from that instruction. They do not have to ensure that
the student reaches his or her full potential. Since that ruling, the law has
changed to require interpreters for students who need them.

Bd. Ed. Hendrick Hudson Sch. Dist. v. Amy Rowley (458 U.S. 176)

Irving Independent School District v. Tatro (1984)

The student had spina bifida and required intermittent catheterization. The
Supreme Court ruled that a Texas school district must provide sterile,
intermittent catheterization as a related service.

Irving Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Amber Tatro, 468 U.S. 883 (1984)

School Committee of the Town of Burlington v. Department of Education of

the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (1985)

The student from Massachusetts was placed in a private school without the
approval of public school officials. The Supreme Court decided that the
parents of the student should be reimbursed for tuition even though they took
their son out of a public school and placed him in a private school without the
approval of public school officials. The Supreme Court also stated that the
parents can be reimbursed in such situations if hearing officers or judges
subsequently rule that the move was in the child’s best interest. The Supreme
Court did warn that parents are not entitled to such payments if hearing
officers or judges rule that the student’s public school placement was
“appropriate” under the law.

Burlington Sch. Comm. v. Mass. Dept Ed., 471 U.S. 359 (1985)

Honig v. Doe (1988)

The Supreme Court ruled that when students pose an immediate threat to the
safety of others, officials might temporarily suspend the student for only up to
10 school days. Schools cannot permanently and unilaterally exclude disabled
children by means of indefinite suspensions and expulsions.

Honig v. Doe (484 U.S. 305)

Bowen v. Massachusetts (1988)

The Supreme Court ruled that services provided under a student’s

individualized education program could not be excluded from Medicaid
reimbursement just because the services were characterized as partly
“educational” (Illinois Alliance for Exceptional Children and Adults, 1990).
Bowen v. Massachusetts, 487 U.S. 879 (1988)

Bowen v. Massachusetts, 487 U.S. 879 (1988)

Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District (1993)

The Supreme Court ruled that the provision of a publicly paid sign language
interpreter for a deaf student on the grounds of the student’s parochial school
did not violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the
Constitution (Maloney and Pitasky, 1995).

Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School Dist., 509 US 1 - Supreme Court 1993

Cedar Rapids v. Garret F. (1999)

Garret Fry was a teenaged quadriplegic who required intensive medical

services within the school. The district believed it was not responsible for such
complex services under the definition of IDEA’s related services. The Supreme
Court ruled that the school district is responsible for services other than what
would need to be performed by a physician. This is known as the “bright line”
rule (Lake and Pitasky, 2000).

Cedar Rapids Community School Dist. v. Garret F., 526 US 66 - Supreme

Court 1999

Brian Schaffer v. Jerry Weast, Superintendent of Montgomery County

Schools 04-698 (2005)
The Supreme Court ruled that parents who want better special education
programs for their children and challenge the school district would have the
burden of proof, if the state does not specify who has the burden of proof. The
case involved a Maryland family that challenged the school district’s special
education program designed for their son with ADHD.

Schaffer v. Weast, 546 US 49 - Supreme Court 2005

Arlington Central School District v. Murphy 05-18 (2006)

The Supreme Court ruled 6–3 that the IDEA does not authorize the courts to
reimburse parents for the fees of experts (including consultants) when parents
prevail in a hearing.

Arlington Central School District Board of Education v. Murphy, 548 U.S.

291 (2006)

Winkelman by Winkelman v. Parma City School District 5-983 (2007)

The Supreme Court ruled that a parent of a child with a disability could pursue
a case involving IDEA in federal court without hiring an attorney.

Jacob Winkelman v. Parma City School District (No. 05-983)

Forest Grove School District v. T.A. 08-305 (2009)

The Supreme Court ruled that parents in a special education dispute with a
school district may be reimbursed for “unilaterally” placing their child in a
private school when the child has never received special education services
from the district.

Forest Grove School District v. T. A., 129 S.Ct. 2484 (2009)

© Cengage Learning

It is important that educators be lifelong learners. This is

especially true in the arena of special education laws and
regulations. These laws and regulations and court interpretations
of these laws are changing continually. Educators must work to
have their voice heard in the development of such laws and
 regulations and should grab every opportunity possible to provide
input. Internet access makes it easier for educators to provide
input into the development of future policies. It is also critical for
educators to be active in their professional organizations, so that
they can stay abreast of the latest policy issues. Policy issues drive
what happens to students and to the educators providing services
to the students—educators must be active in those policy issues.

The Supreme Court building.

© Orhan Cam/ Shutterstock.com

10.5a Application of the Law: You Be the

Judge
You have read throughout this chapter about the students and
their guardians’ legal rights. You may be wondering whether you
as a teacher have any rights when you advocate for the rights of
the child. How would you rule in this case shown in Figure 10.6?

Figure 10.6 A Court Case: Sturm v. Rocky Hill Board of

Education
A Court Case: Sturm v. Rocky Hill Board of Education
 A teacher advocated on behalf of the students with disabilities in the
district’s special education programs. Because of her advocacy on behalf of
the children, she suffered from retaliation in the school district. She decided
to assert retaliation within the protections of Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act.

You be the judge for this case. Which of the following was the court’s ruling?
Select A or B.

A. The court ruled that Section 504 did not protect her right to advocate
for her students.

B. The court ruled that, because of her advocacy efforts, she had the right
to claim retaliation under Section 504.
© Cengage Learning 2015

In Sturm v. Rocky Hill Board of Education, 43 IDELR 36 (D.

Conn. 2005), the U.S. District Court in Connecticut ruled that the
teacher had standing to assert a claim because Section 504 does
extend its protections to those who advocate on behalf of those
individuals with disabilities. The court ruled that individuals with
disabilities might need assistance in vindicating their rights from
those individuals who have their own claim to relief under Section
504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Norlin, 2006). Therefore, the court
ruling was B.

Teaching Tips 10.2 Ways to Keep Up With Current Laws

Become active in your special education professional organization, such

as the Council for Exceptional Children or the Learning Disabilities
Association of America.

Attend local and statewide workshops on legal issues impacting special

education.

Download your own copy of the federal and state special education laws
and keep those in a binder for your reference.

Familiarize yourself with your state’s Department of Education’s

website.
 Become familiar with this compilation of websites related to Special
Education:

Council for Exceptional Children www.cec.sped.org

Learning Disabilities Association of America www.ldaamerica.org

Department of Education www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml

Wrights Law www.wrightslaw.com

LD Online www.ldonline.org

Council for Exceptional Children www.cec.sped.org

U.S. Department of Education www.ed.gov

Our Children Left Behind www.ourchildrenleftbehind.com

Autism Society of America www.autism-society.org

The ARC www.thearc.org

National Association of Special Education Teachers www.naset.org

National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities

www.nichcy.org

Disability Rights Education and Defense Fun www.dredf.org

Council of Parent Attorneys and Advocates www.copaa.org

National Down Syndrome Society www.ndss.org

National Association of Protection and Advocacy Systems

www.napas.org

TASH www.TASH.org

Americans With Disabilities Act www.ada.gov

Professional Resource Download

It is important that teachers advocate for the needs of their

students. To do so, teachers should follow the appropriate chain of
command within the school system. When a teacher is concerned
that a student may not be getting what he or she needs, the
teacher should go to his or her immediate supervisor and talk with
that individual. It is important that the teacher go to the
supervisor with factual information about the student’s progress
 or lack of progress. It is always important for the teacher to collect
data about how the student is doing.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Legal and Ethical Dimensions
of Teaching: Reflections from Today’s Educators.” In this video, you will hear
several educators discuss the daily ethical issues that they face and how they
resolve those issues acting responsibly and in the best interests of the
students.

Questions
1. After watching this video, what do you believe are the major ethical
issues that might be seen within the IEP process and why?

2. What will you do if you observe a teacher not following an IEP? What
steps will you take?

3. How do you express your opinion when you see that a student is not
getting the services that are outlined in the student’s IEP?

4. How can you be proactive in learning information about special

education laws?

As an important member of the IEP team, the teacher should ask

for a new IEP if he or she believes that the student is not making
progress. Within the IEP meeting, the teacher should present the
 relevant information to substantiate his or her beliefs that changes
need to be made. If the team does not agree with this information
and consensus is reached that is not in accord with the teacher’s
belief, then the teacher has an obligation to file a minority report.
Such a report allows the teacher to voice his or her beliefs about
the needs of the student.

I Have a Kid Who… What About Jesse?

When Jesse enrolled in kindergarten, his mother told the principal and his
kindergarten teacher that she had obtained an evaluation for Jesse. Jesse
had been diagnosed with ADHD and was on medication that was
administered at home. She offered to provide a copy of the evaluation to the
school. The principal told her the school didn’t need to have the information.
Jesse had problems focusing in kindergarten and his teacher recommended
that he be retained. The parent was upset and requested that Jesse have an
evaluation by the school. The kindergarten teacher thought that would be a
good idea but the principal thought that another year in kindergarten would
make a positive difference, so Jesse repeated kindergarten.

Jesse had a different teacher his second year in kindergarten and he

continued to have difficulty staying on task. His mother again asked for
another evaluation and the new kindergarten teacher thought that would be
a good idea. The principal told the mother to take Jesse back to the doctor to
evaluate his medication. Jesse’s mother did that and his medication was
changed. Jesse began to do better and went on to the first grade. In first
grade, Jesse struggled with reading. By the end of the first semester, Jesse
was behind his peers. His mother again asked for an evaluation and the first-
grade teacher and principal told the mother it was not necessary; they
wanted to wait to see if he would catch up. He ended his first-grade year not
reading at all but went to second grade.

In second grade Jesse struggled more with his reading and his mother got an
attorney and requested that he be evaluated. The evaluation was finally done,
and it was determined that Jesse had a significant learning disability. The
 mother, together with the attorney, took the school district to a due process
hearing.

Questions
1. What were the legal responsibilities of each of Jesse’s teachers and the
building principal at the school?

2. How do you think the due process hearing officer ruled in this case and
why?

Did You Get It?

An 8-year-old Texas girl with spina bifida required intermittent

catheterization every few hours, including in school, in order to avoid
kidney damage. The Supreme Court ruled that the school district had to
include this procedure as a related service. This case was

a. School Committee of the Town of Burlington v. Department of

Education of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (1985)

b. Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills Sch. Dist. (1993)

c. Irving Independent School District v. Tatro (1984)

d. Arlington Central School District v. Murphy 05-18 (2006)

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
1. Public Law 94-142 was the first federal special education law
in the United States. This law provided for a free,
appropriate public education. This law has had several
revisions since its passage in 1975 and is now the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 2004).

2. Laws protect the rights of students with disabilities to have

an education and without those laws some children might
not receive an education or would not receive an appropriate
education. Laws mandate that all school districts provide an
 appropriate education in the least restrictive environment to
all students with disabilities regardless of the severity of the
disability.

3. Key requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act of 2004 include an individualized educational
program for all students whose disability has an adverse
impact on their educational performance. That IEP must be
reviewed at least once a year. Students have the right to a
free appropriate public education in the least restrictive
environment. Parental participation is required.

4. There are other laws that impact the education of students

with disabilities. Those laws include Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities
Act, FERPA, and No Child Left Behind.

5. Over the years, the Supreme Court has defined what is an

appropriate education, what is a free education, what
specific related services must be provided, and what
disciplinary measures are appropriate for students with
disabilities.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Why is it so important to have laws and regulations that protect the rights of
students with disabilities?

2. Do you believe that school districts would provide services if they were not
mandated to do so? Why or why not?

3. What are the laws that protect the rights of students with disabilities?

4. What is the major difference between Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act—2004?

5. What is the 4-prong test established to determine least restrictive

environment?

6. Which of the Supreme Court cases do you believe has had the most impact
on students with disabilities and why?
 Chapter Review

Key Terms
adequate yearly progress (AYP)

individualized education program (IEP)

least restrictive environment (LRE)

related services

transition

zero reject
 Chapter

Spoken
Language
11
Difficulties:
Listening and
Speaking

Chapter Introduction

11.1 Theories Describing Spoken Language Difficulties

11.2 Spoken Language, Reading, and Writing: An Integrated Language

System

11.2a Forms of the Language System

11.2b Language as a Communication Process

11.3 Teaching Language in the General Education Classroom

11.3a How Do Children Acquire Language?

11.4 Components of the Language System

11.4a Phonology

11.4b Morphology

11.4c Syntax

11.4d Semantics

11.4e Pragmatics

11.5 Types of Language Problems

11.5a Language Disorders Versus Speech Disorders

 11.5b Delayed Speech

11.5c Poor Phonological Awareness

11.5d Temporal Acoustical Processing

11.5e Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and Word Finding

11.5f Language Disorders

11.6 English-Language Learners (ELL)

11.6a Learning a Second Language

11.6b Disproportionality

11.7 Early Literacy and Oral Language

11.8 Assessing Oral Language

11.8a Informal Measures

11.8b Formal Tests

11.9 Teaching Strategies to Improve Spoken Language Difficulties

11.10 Listening

11.10a Listening Means Comprehension

11.10b Phonological Awareness of Language Sounds

11.10c Building a Listening Vocabulary

11.10d Understanding Sentences

11.10e Listening Comprehension

11.10f Critical Listening

11.10g Listening to Stories

11.11 Speaking

11.11a Stages of Oral Language Development

11.11b Problems in Language Acquisition

11.11c Activities for Natural Language Stimulation

11.11d Activities for Teaching Spoken Language

11.11e Activities for Improving the Oral Language of Adolescents

11.12 Assistive and Instructional Computer Technology for Oral

Language

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

 Key Terms

Chapter Introduction

Bolot/ iStockphoto.com

Language shapes the way we think, and determines

what we can think about.

—Benjamin Lee Whorf

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

 11.1
Explain theories describing spoken language difficulties

11.2
Describe the components of the language system

11.3
Outline the challenges of teaching language in the general
education classroom

11.4
List components of the language system

11.5
Identify types of language problems

11.6
Explain the difficulties of students who are English-
Language Learners (ELL)

11.7
Define early literacy and oral language

11.8
Discuss how to assess oral language

11.9
List teaching strategies to improve spoken language
difficulties

11.10
Describe problems in listening

11.11
Describe problems in speaking

11.12
Identify computer technology to help teach speaking

Part IV considers the major areas of learning that affect children and
youth with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities:

1. spoken language (Chapter 11),

2. reading (Chapter 12),

 3. written language (Chapter 13), and

4. mathematics (Chapter 14).

In each of these chapters, there are 2 major sections: the “Theories”

section describes the concepts underlying the chapter’s area of
learning, and the “Teaching Strategies ” section describes methods for
improving skills in that area of learning.

The three chapters on language constitute an integrated segment. Each

chapter focuses on a different form of language, from spoken language
(Chapter 11) to reading (Chapter 12) to written language (Chapter 13).
Their organic unity comes from the underlying integrated language
system.

This chapter highlights spoken language, which includes listening and

speaking. In the “Theories” section, we review

1. the integrated language system;

2. language as a communication process;

3. how children acquire language;

4. the components of the language system;

5. types of language problems;

6. English-language learners;

7. early literacy and oral language; and

8. assessing oral language.

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special

Educator Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council for
the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual
Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use this
knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning experiences for
individuals with exceptionalities.
 1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how language,
culture, and family background influence the learning of individuals with
exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of individuals
with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and
specialized curricula to individualize learning for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.1—Beginning special education professionals understand the central

concepts, structures of the discipline, and tools of inquiry of the content areas
they teach and can organize this knowledge, integrate cross-disciplinary skills
and develop meaningful learning progressions for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.2—Beginning special education professionals understand and use general

and specialized content knowledge for teaching across curricular content
areas to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

3.3—Beginning special education professionals modify general and

specialized curricula to make them accessible to individuals with
exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically

sound formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.

4.2—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of

measurement principles and practices to interpret assessment results and
guide educational decisions for individuals with exceptionalities.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and provide
feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.
 5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s
abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic factors
in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning experiences for
individuals with exceptionalities.

5.2—Beginning special education professionals use technologies to support

instructional assessment, planning, and delivery for individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.3—Beginning special education professionals are familiar with

augmentative and alternative communication systems and a variety of
assistive technologies to support the communication and learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and promote

generalization of learning.

5.7—Beginning special education professionals teach cross-disciplinary

knowledge and skills such as critical thinking and problem solving to
individuals with exceptionalities.

For students, Common Core Standards for English Language

Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and
Technical Subjects can be found at: www.corestandards.org.

11.1 Theories Describing Spoken Language

Difficulties
Language is recognized as one of the greatest of human achievements—
more important than all the physical tools invented in the past 2,000
years. The acquisition of language is unique to human beings. Although
other animals have communication systems, only humans have
attained the most highly developed system of communication—speech.
Language fulfills several very human functions: It provides a means of
communicating and socializing with other human beings, it enables the
 culture to be transmitted from generation to generation, and it is a
vehicle of thought.

Understanding language learning is critical for understanding learning

disabilities and related mild disabilities. We know that language is
essential for development, thinking, and human relationships; yet
many aspects of language remain mysterious. How is language
acquired by the child? What are the links between language, reading,
and cognitive and social learning? How does a language impairment
affect learning? Language researchers continue to investigate these
complicated issues (Stone & Carlisle, 2006; Stillman & Scott, 2006).

Did You Get It?

The power of speech and language are, comparatively speaking, greater than
.

a. the wheel

b. the automobile and Internet

c. the four greatest physical inventions in history: the wheel, the plow,
the printing press, and the telephone

d. all human inventions of the past two millennia combined

11.2 Spoken Language, Reading, and Writing:

An Integrated Language System
Language appears in several forms:

1. spoken language (listening and speaking),

2. reading, and

3. writing.

These forms of language are linked through an underlying integrated

language system. The interrelationships of spoken language, reading,
and writing serve to build the core of the language system. As children
gain competence and intimacy with language in one form, they also
build knowledge and experience with the underlying language core,
which are then carried into learning language in another form. What
the child learns about the language system through oral language
provides a knowledge base for reading and writing, and what the child
learns about language through writing improves reading and spoken
language. Further, when a child exhibits language difficulty in one
form, the underlying language deficit often reappears in other forms.
For example, a child who has a language delay at age 3 may have a
reading disorder at age 8 and a writing disorder at age 14 (Mather &
Goldstein, 2008; Tomblin, 2006; Lyytinen, Ekland, & Lyytinen, 2005).

Early experiences in listening and talking provide the foundation for

reading and writing. Through experience with oral language, children
learn the linguistic structures of language, expand their vocabularies
(or semantic knowledge), and become familiar with different types of
sentences (syntactic knowledge). Examples include oral language
experiences of hearing stories, songs, and rhymes, and recognizing
repeated refrains in books. The knowledge of sentence sequences or the
formation of plurals carries over to reading and writing (Jennings,
Caldwell, & Lerner, 2010; Adams Foorman, Lundberg, and Beeler,
1998).

By becoming familiar with the sounds of language, children develop a

language base for reading. Poor readers often lack an awareness of the
sounds of language and they will need specific practice with
phonological awareness to establish the basis for word-recognition
skills in reading (Adams et al., 1998; Blachman, Tagel, & Ball, 2004;
Moats, 2000).

In summary, language is an integrated system, and many areas of

learning depend upon mastery of language. As the child matures,
language plays an increasingly important part in the development of
the thinking processes and in the ability to grasp abstract concepts.
Words become symbols for objects, groups of objects, and ideas.
Language permits human beings to speak of things unseen, of the past,
and of the future.
11.2a Forms of the Language System
The language system encompasses the language forms of listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. The acquisition of these language skills
follows a general sequence of development:

1. listening,

2. speaking,

3. reading, and

4. writing.

As shown in Figure 11.1, the different language forms have an

underlying language core that integrates the four forms of language.
Moreover, experiences with each form of language strengthen the
underlying language core, which in turn improves the individual’s
facility in other language forms.

Figure 11.1 Language Forms and the Integrated Language Core

© Cengage Learning

Historically, as civilization evolved, oral language systems for listening

and speaking developed hundreds of thousands of years before the
creation of written systems for reading and writing. In fact, in historical
terms, the written form of language is relatively recent; even today,
many societies in the world have only a spoken language and no written
language.
 Because the oral skills of listening and speaking are developed first,
they are considered the primary language system. Reading and
writing are considered the secondary language system because we
are dealing with a symbol of a symbol. Whereas the spoken word is a
symbol of an idea or a concrete experience, the written word is a
symbol of the spoken word. Helen Keller’s primary language system
was finger spelling because she learned it first, and Braille was her
secondary system. Student Stories 11.1, “Language and Learning,”
illustrates Helen Keller’s first experiences in language learning.

Student Stories 11.1 Helen Keller: Language and Learning

One of the most dramatic illustrations of the dependency of thought on language

is the experience of Helen Keller as she became aware that things have symbolic
names that represent them. The impact of this discovery, made at age 7, changed
her behavior from that of an intractable, undisciplined, animal-like child to that of
a thinking, language-oriented human being.

Her teacher, Anne Sullivan, described the events (Keller, 1961):

I made Helen hold her mug under the spout while pumped. As
the cold water gushed forth, filling the mug, I spelled “w-a-t-e-
r” in Helen’s free hand. The word coming so close upon the
sensation of cold water rushing over her hand seemed to
startle her. She dropped the mug and stood as one transfixed.
A new light came into her face. She spelled “water” several
times. Then she dropped to the ground and asked for its name
and pointed to the pump and the trellis and suddenly turning
around she asked for my name…. All the way back to the house
she was highly excited, and learned the name of every object
she touched, so that in a few hours she had added 30 new
words to her vocabulary.

Helen Keller also described the transformation caused by her own awareness of
language:

As the cool water gushed over one hand she spelled into the
other the word water, first slowly, then rapidly. I stood still,
my whole attention fixed upon the motion of her fingers.
 Suddenly I felt a misty consciousness as of something
forgotten—a thrill of returning thought; and somehow the
mystery of language was revealed to me. I knew then that “w-
a-t-e-r” meant the wonderful, cool something that was flowing
over my hand. That living word awakened my soul, gave it
light, hope, joy, set it free…. I left the wellhouse eager to learn.
Everything had a name, and each name gave birth to a new
thought,.

Helen Keller had learned that a word can be used to signify objects and to order
the events, ideas, and meaning of the world about her. Language had become a
tool for her to use.

Reflective Question
1. For Helen, what was the importance of learning that words signify objects?

Two of the four forms of the language system can be categorized as

input or receptive language modes, and the other 2 are output or
expressive language modes. Listening and reading are input or
receptive skills, feeding information into the central nervous system.
Speaking and writing are output or expressive skills in which ideas
originate in the brain and are sent outward.

One implication for teaching is that abundant quantities of input

experience and information are needed before output skills can be
effectively executed. This principle has been concisely stated as “intake
before outgo.” Students should not be assigned to produce output, such
as a written theme or an oral report, before they have been exposed to
adequate input experiences, such as discussions, graphic organizers,
field trips, or reading. These experiences will enhance the productivity
of the output. The integrating mechanism between the input and the
output is the brain, or the central nervous system. Figure 11.2 shows
the relationship between the four language forms.

Figure 11.2 Relationship of the Four Forms of Language

 © Cengage Learning

11.2b Language as a Communication Process

Language provides a way for people to communicate with one another.
There are also other methods of communication, such as gesturing,
using body language, and using sign language. The communication
process between two people consists of sending a message (expressive
language) and receiving a message (receptive language). As Figure
11.3 illustrates, Person A, who is transmitting an idea to Person B, must
convert her idea into language symbols. She encodes (or converts) the
message into either sound symbols (speaking) or visual graphic
symbols (writing). Person B, who receives the message, must then
convert the symbols back into an idea. He decodes (converts) either the
sound symbols (listening) or the visual graphic symbols (reading).

Figure 11.3 Model of the Communication Process

 © Cengage Learning

A breakdown can occur anywhere in this process. For example, in the

expressive portion of the communication process, the impairment
could be in formulating the idea, in coding it into spoken and written
language symbols, or in remembering the sequences of previous
speaking or writing. In the receptive portion of the communication
process, the impairment could be in the reception and perception of the
symbols through the eye or ear, in the integration of these stimuli in
the brain, or in the recall or memory as it affects the ability to translate
the sensory images into an idea. Understanding the communication
process helps teachers deal with the communication problems of
students with language disabilities.

Did You Get It?

What is the sequence of language acquisition and skill development for all
children, in all societies and cultures?

a. speaking to listening to writing to reading

b. speaking to listening to reading to writing

c. listening to speaking to reading to writing

 d. listening to speaking to writing to reading

11.3 Teaching Language in the General

Education Classroom
Many children in general education classrooms have problems with
spoken language. Students with learning disabilities and other related
disabilities often have coexisting language difficulties. General
education and special education teachers can assist these students in
general education classrooms. Including Students in General Education
11.1, “Teaching Language,” provides some ideas for helping students
with language.

Including Students in General Education 11.1 Teaching Language

Encourage students to use spoken language during the class session. Provide
students with many opportunities for speaking, explaining, and giving their
own points of view.

Find areas of interest that students want to talk about. Promote discussion
groups on topics of interest.

Students can explain to classmates the steps in an activity. Have students

explain how to do something or demonstrate how to make something.

Students have many interests that they like to talk about. Provide
opportunities for students to talk about themselves and their interests.

Teach vocabulary that is related to an area of study. Have students talk about
the meaning of words in a content area.

Provide good language models. The teacher should encourage a give-and-take

discussion about a topic of interest.

Use role-playing and acting out of stories. Often areas of the curriculum
provide opportunities to role play and act out stories. For example, what
might a character in history say about some topic?

Encourage students to talk about their interests, such as movies, television

shows, books, sports, music, or hobbies.

Professional Resource Download

11.3a How Do Children Acquire Language?
Most children acquire language before they reach school age; they
understand and respond to the language of others in a meaningful way.
However, up to 8% of children exhibit deviations and delays in
language development and require additional time and teaching to
internalize the language system (Tallal, 2000; Tallal et al., 1997).
Several different views of how children learn language are

1. imitation and reinforcement

2. innate factors, and

3. social factors.

Imitation and reinforcement. This is a behavioral view of

language learning, which suggests that young children try to
imitate the sounds they hear in their environment and they are
reinforced for their language attempts. Children begin to learn
language when adults reward the child for their language
attempts with attention and praise. Student Stories 11.2, “Peter’s
First Word,” describes how Peter learned his first word.

Student Stories 11.2 Peter’s First Word

Peter’s mother was worried about her 22-month-old son who was not, as yet,
saying words.

During a Thanksgiving dinner, Peter was sitting in a high chair at the family
gathering of about 25 people. When Peter gestured that he wanted to get up, his
mother said the word up, and Peter tried to imitate the sound. When Peter
attempted to utter the sound, the group decided to encourage his vocalizations, so
all 25 people stood up and in unison said “up.” Peter looked around and was
delighted with the response he had generated. He uttered the sound “up” again
and again, each time eliciting the same response from the group. By the end of the
Thanksgiving meal, Peter had learned his first word, “up.”

Reflective Question
1. How did positive reinforcement help Peter learn his first word?
 Innate factors. The innate view of language learning is that the
task of learning human language is so complex that some
important aspects of language cannot be learned but are innate
within the brain and that children are biologically predisposed to
learn and use language. In all cultures, children have the ability to
perform this feat in their native language at about the same
chronological and developmental stage. The innate view suggests
that in learning language, the child does not merely learn a set of
sentences, but rather internalizes the total language system
(Tomasello, 2003; Chomsky, 1965). In terms of teaching, the
innate view implies that a child’s language will naturally develop
and flourish if the child is given a stimulating language
environment.

Social factors. Another perspective of the way in which

children acquire language is through social interactions within
interpersonal relationships with more knowledgeable language
users. The reciprocal interactions between the child and the
parent and between the child and other people are essential for
language learning. The acquisition of language is promoted in a
natural environment where human relationships help the child
become an active processor of language (Vygotsky, 1997).

In terms of teaching, the social factors involved in language learning

are emphasized as the child and adult develop a reciprocal relationship,
influencing each other in the communication process. In terms of
teaching, the adult plays a mediating role, shaping learning
opportunities to bring them to the attention of the young child. For
example, 18-month-old Sarah knew the word plane and the phrase all
gone. While Sarah was sitting at the kitchen table with her mother, an
airplane flew over the house. Her mother, initiating a conversation,
pointed up questioningly as the plane flew overhead, and Sarah said,
“Plane.” When the noise disappeared, her mother continued the
conversation, asking, “What happened?” Sarah replied, “Plane all
gone,” along with a gesture of extended hands to show “all gone.” With
her mother’s guidance, Sarah produced her first sentence.

Did You Get It?

 Having would not be considered an effective way to teach and/or
promote spoken language in a general education classroom.

a. a student explain the steps needed to hang a picture on a wall

b. a student tell the class what she did over the weekend

c. a student speak about his favorite topic and refraining from giving his
own opinions and views

d. two students act out the words to a song they know as they sing

11.4 Components of the Language System

Basic linguistic concepts and terms comprise the components of
language. They include

1. phonology,

2. morphology,

3. syntax,

4. semantics, and

5. pragmatics.

In this section, we discuss each of these language components and how

they affect language learning and language difficulties.

11.4a Phonology
Phonology refers to the speech sounds in a language. The smallest
unit of sound in a language system is a phoneme. Different languages
and dialects use different phonemes. The word cat contains three
phonemes: k-a-t. Phoneme recognition is extremely important in oral
language and reading. Phonics is the recognition, analysis, and
synthesis of phoneme elements in written words. Learning phonics is
 difficult for some children because they have poor phonological
awareness or recognition of phoneme sounds.

11.4b Morphology
Morphology refers to the meaning units in language. The smallest
unit of meaning is a morpheme. Different languages indicate
meaning changes through different morphological forms. For example,
in Standard English, the word boy is one morpheme or meaning
unit; and the word boys contains two morphemes or meaning units
(boy plus plurality). A child who has not internalized the morphemic
structure of Standard English—for example, a student whose native
language is Spanish—might say, “There are three boy.”

Children who are unaware of exceptions to morphemic rule may over-

generalize. For example, they might formulate the past tense of fight
and go as fighted and goed. Typical preschool and first-grade children
have well-established rules of morphology and can apply their
morphological rules to nonsense words. For example, researcher Berko
(1958) showed each child a drawing of a birdlike creature and said,
“This is a wug.” Next, she pointed to a drawing with two of these
creatures and asked each child to complete the sentence, “There are
two ________.” By applying the morphological rule for plurals,
typical children were able to give the answer of wugs by adding the
phoneme /z/.

11.4c Syntax
Syntax is the grammar system of a language—the way the words are
strung together to form sentences. Different languages have different
syntactic or grammatical systems. In the English language, unlike some
other languages, word order is extremely important to convey meaning.
Thus, “John pushes a car” differs in meaning from “A car pushes John.”
A child with a syntactic language disorder may not have learned how to
 order words in a sentence. Further, in English, we can transform the
order of the words—still keeping the same subject—to generate a new
meaning. The sentence “Mother is working” can be transformed to
generate “Is Mother working?” A child with a syntactic language
difficulty may be unable to generate such sentence transformations.
For example, when children with language disorders are asked to
repeat the question form of “Is the boy running?” many simply repeat
the simple declarative form “The boy is running.”

The active form of a sentence—“Mother bakes cookies”—is easier to

comprehend than the passive form, “The cookies are baked by Mother.”
Children with language disabilities may not understand a passive
sentence. To illustrate, when first graders are shown two pictures, one
of a cat chasing a dog and the other of a dog chasing a cat, and are
asked to point to the picture called “The cat is chased by the dog,” many
children choose the incorrect picture because they do not understand
the passive form of the sentence.

11.4d Semantics
Semantics refers to the vocabulary system or word meanings in a
language. Pupils who have meager vocabulary understanding or usage
and those who have difficulty relating a string of words to a meaningful
association may have a semantic language disorder. While morphology,
phonology, and syntax components normally become firmly
established during the preschool years, the development of vocabulary
(the semantic component) continues throughout life.

A student with a semantic disorder may understand a concept but may

not possess the appropriate word to express it. For example, referring
to twins, one boy with language problems talked about the “two girls
with the same face.” He did not know the word twin to communicate
his idea.
11.4e Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to the social side of language, how the speaker uses
language in his or her environment. Pragmatics takes into account
factors such as the relationship between speaker and listener; the
speaker’s assessment of the listener’s degree of knowledge about the
subject; behaviors, such as taking turns in conversation, staying on
topic, and asking pertinent questions; the individual’s involvement in
the conversation; and eye contact. Some students have more difficulty
in the social use of language and are less effective in their
communication attempts. They may interrupt the speaker more
frequently in order to insert their own ideas in the conversation (Orlich
et al., 2013; Wong and Donahue, 2002).

Another element of the language system is intonation, or the sound

patterns of spoken language, including pitch (melody), stress (accent),
and juncture (pauses). The intonation system of each language is
different.

When listening to the intonation pattern of infants, one cannot

distinguish the babbling of a 3-month-old Chinese baby from that of a
Dutch or an American baby of the same age. By the age of 6 months,
however, the intonation of the babbling is similar to the intonation of
the language in the infant’s immediate environment; the babbling is in
Chinese, Dutch, or English. The “native language” of a 6-month-old
baby can be identified through tape recordings of the baby’s babbling.
The baby’s babble consists of the intonation patterns and the
phonemes of the native language.

Did You Get It?

According to the view of language acquisition and development,

language is such a complex undertaking that specific aspects of language
must be preprogrammed in the brain rather than being learned.

a. innate

b. wired

c. naturalistic
 d. extrinsic

11.5 Types of Language Problems

Many children with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
have speech and/or language difficulties. They do not do well in
situations that require extensive language interactions and
conversations, and they are also less skillful in maintaining a
conversation. About 88% of preschool children (ages 3 through 5) who
receive special education services are classified with speech or language
impairment (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). In addition, speech
and/or language disorders are a common co-occurring condition for
older students with disabilities. Adolescents and adults with learning
disabilities often continue to have poor oral language and
communication skills (Vogel & Reder, 1998).

In this section, we discuss

1. language disorders versus speech disorders,

2. delayed speech,

3. problems with phonological awareness,

4. temporal acoustical processing,

5. rapid automatized naming and word finding, and

6. language disorders.

The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, a

website that describes spoken language problems, can be found at
http://www.nichcy.org.

11.5a Language Disorders Versus Speech

Disorders
 Language disorders differ from speech disorders. Speech disorders
are abnormalities of producing sounds, such as

1. articulation difficulties (e.g., the child who cannot produce the r

sound and says “wabbit”),

2. voice disorders (e.g., a very hoarse voice), or

3. fluency difficulty (e.g., stuttering).

Language disorders are much broader and encompass the entire

spectrum of communication. Types of language disorders are described
in the following sections.

11.5b Delayed Speech

Children with a language delay may not speak at all, or they may use
very little language at an age when language normally develops. For
example, the 4-year-old child who has not yet learned to talk has a
language delay. At least 8% of children fail to develop speech and
language at or near the expected age (Tallal, 2000; Tallal et al., 1997).
Examples of a speech delay can be found in Student Stories 11.3,
“Marsha: A Child With a Language Delay” and in “I Have a Kid Who… ”
at the end of this chapter.

Student Stories 11.3 Marsha: A Child With a Language Delay

Marsha is 4 years old and has a language delay.

Marsha’s early development was typical in terms of motor development. She

walked at 11 months old, she learned to ride her tricycle early, and she enjoys
playing with her dolls, blocks, and puzzles. Marsha’s language development,
however, has been very slow. She did not use single words until age 3. Her speech
now consists of one- or two-word phrases. Marsha understands the speech of
others, she can follow directions that are given to her, and her receptive language
is good—she understands the language of others. Her parents enrolled her in the
school’s special early childhood program. The speech/language therapist, the
preschool teacher, and her parents are collaborating using a technique called
naturalistic language teaching. When Marsha says, “Go” and points to the door,
 her teacher expands her language by asking, “Go out now?” Marsha repeats the
expanded phrase, saying, “Go out now.”

Reflective Question
1. What kind of language problem does Marsha have? What strengths does
Marsha have?

Otitis media is a relatively common childhood condition that can

seriously impair language learning in children. Otitis media involves an
infection of the middle ear that can cause temporary hearing loss. Even
if the hearing loss is temporary and mild, it can lead to language delay
if it occurs at stages that are critical to language learning in young
children.

11.5c Poor Phonological Awareness

Phonological awareness refers to the child’s ability to focus on and
manipulate phonemes (or the sounds of language) in spoken words. As
noted earlier, phonemes are abstract units of language, the smallest
units constituting spoken language. Learning to reflect about the
phoneme sounds of language is different from learning to understand
and use language. Many children who have difficulty in learning to read
are not sensitive to the phoneme sounds of language and words
(Blachman, Tangel, & Ball, 2004; Mann & Foy, 2003; Lyon, Shaywitz,
& Shaywitz, 2003). Table 11.1 illustrates the number of phonemes in
several common words.

Table 11.1 Number of Phonemes in Several Common Words

Word Number of Phonemes

Oh one

Go two

Check three
Word Number of Phonemes

Stop four

Checkers five

Shaque three

© Cengage Learning

Successful beginning readers must be aware of phoneme sounds within

words to appreciate that the words cat and bat differ in a single
phoneme sound. Children with poor phonological abilities are unable
to tap out the number of sounds within a word, such as mop. As
children become aware of the phonological system, they can gain entry
into the alphabetic system, in which letters of the alphabet represent
speech sounds. Written English is an alphabetic system. Research
shows that there is a link between the lack of phonological awareness
and poor reading in alphabetic languages, such as English, Swedish,
Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and others (Lundberg, 2002).
(Some written languages, such as Chinese, are pictorial—the printed
characters reflect ideas, not sounds.)

The National Reading Panel is a research group that was established by

the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to
assess the status of research-based knowledge on the effectiveness of
teaching children to read. The website for the National Reading Panel
report is http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org.

After an exhaustive search of over 100,000 research-based studies, the

National Reading Panel (2000) reached the following conclusions
about phonological awareness. Phonological awareness

can be taught and helps in reading,

is effective in kindergarten and first grade,

helps older students, all socioeconomic status (SES) groups, and

bilingual students,

can be successfully taught by many different methods,

is usually used for an average instructional session of 25 minutes,

can be taught by classroom teachers, and

 can be used along with printed letters.

Table 11.2 shows examples of several phonological awareness tasks that

teachers can use in instruction (Adams et al., 1998; Blachman et al.,
2004; Coyne, Kame’enui, & Simmons, 2001). An informal test of
phonological awareness is provided in Table 11.3.

Table 11.2 Phonological Awareness Tasks

Task Activity

1. Phoneme segmentation How many phonemes are in the word

ship?
2. Phoneme isolation Tell me the first sound in paste.
3. Phoneme blending What word is s/k/u/i?
4. Phoneme identity Tell me the sound that is the same in
bike, boy, bell
.

5. Phoneme categorization Which word does not belong: bus, bun,

rat?
6. Rhyming Did you ever see a fly kissing a tie?
7. Phoneme deletion Say smile without the s.
© Cengage Learning

Table 11.3 Informal Test of Phonological Awareness

Give the child two demonstration items to help the child understand that task. For example,
say the word playground. Then ask the child to say the word. Then ask the child to say the
word again, but not to say play.
Then give the child the word snowflake. Then ask the child to say the word. Then ask the child
to say the word again, but not to say snow. Then give the child the following test.
Item Question Correct Response

1. Say the word toolbox Now say it again but do not tool
say /box/
2. Say the word compute Now say it again but do not pute
say /com/
3. Say the word Now say it again but do not fone
telephone say /tele/
 4. Say the word surface Now say it again but do not face
say/sur/
5. Say the word boat Now say it again but do not oat
say/b/
6. Say the word feet Now say it again but do not eat
say/f/
7. Say the word make Now say it again but do not ache
say/m/
8. Say the word start Now say it again but do not tart
say/s/
9. Say the word please Now say it again but do not lease
say/p/
10. Say the word clean Now say it again but do not lean
say/k/
11. Say the word sting Now say it again but do not sing
say/t/
12. Say the word play Now say it again but do not pay
say(l)
13. Say the word stock Now say it again but do not sock
say/t/
Scoring: Give one point for each correct answer.
Score Expected Level

1–3 kindergarten

4–9 Grade 1

10–11 Grade 2

12–13 Grade 3

© Cengage Learning 2015

For formal tests of phonological awareness, see Table 11.4.

Table 11.4 Oral Language Tests

Test Age or Grade Publisher

Tested

General Oral Language Tests

Test Age or Grade Publisher
Tested

• Clinical Evaluation of Grades K—12 Harcourt Brace

Language http://www.harcourt.com
Fundamentals—
Revised (CELF-R)

• Detroit Tests of Ages 6–17 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

Learning Aptitude—4
(DTLA-4)

• Oral and Written Ages 3–21 AGS http://pearsonassessments.com

Language Scales
(OWLS)

• Test of Adolescent Ages 12–18 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

Language—3 (TOAL-
3)

• Test of Language Ages 8.5–12.1 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

Development—3:
Intermediate (TOLD-
3: Intermediate)

• Test of Language Ages 8–11 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

Development—3
(TOLD-3: Primary)

Listening Tests

• Listening Ages 5–21 AGS

Comprehension Scales http://www.pearsonassessments.com
—Oral, Written, and
Language Scales
(OWLS)

• Peabody Picture Ages 2–18 AGS

Vocabulary Test—II http://www.pearsonassessments.com

• Test de Vocabulario Ages 2.5–18 AGS

en Images Peabody http://www.pearsonassessments.com
(Spanish version of
the Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test—III)

Phonological Awareness Tests

• Comprehensive Test Ages 5–21 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

of Phonological
Processing
 Test Age or Grade Publisher
Tested

• Lindamood Auditory Preschool—adult Riverside http://www.riverpub.com

Conceptualization
Test

• Phonological Ages 5–9 http://

Awareness Test

• Test of Phonological Grades K–2 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

Awareness

Word-Finding Tests

• Test of Word Ages 6.5–13 Pro-Ed http://www.proedinc.com

Finding—2

• Test of Adolescent Ages 12–80 Riverside http://www.riverpub.com

and Adult Word
Finding

© Cengage Learning

11.5d Temporal Acoustical Processing

Temporal acoustical processing offers an explanation for why
some children do not develop speech and language at or near the
expected ages. Some children find it difficult to process sounds quickly
enough to distinguish rapid acoustical change in speech. During the
course of normal language, the speech sounds come in too fast for these
children to recognize and decipher. A series of studies conducted by
Paula Tallal and her colleagues over many years suggests that children
who have delays in speech and language development may have
difficulty with rapid temporal integration of acoustically varying signals
and serial memory. These deficits impact central auditory processing in
the millisecond time range (Hall et al., 2002; Tallal, 2000; Tallal et al.,
1997).
11.5e Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and
Word Finding
Some children with a language delay have difficulty with rapid
automatized naming (RAN) and word finding. These children
cannot quickly and automatically name objects and are slow at
recalling the correct words. For example, when given the task of
naming pictures as they are shown, these children cannot rapidly say
the names of the pictures. Slowness in word finding and naming is an
accurate predictor of later reading and learning disabilities. Slowness
in naming is probably caused by memory retrieval problems, which
make it difficult to access verbal information (DeJong & Vrielink,
2004; Catts, 1993; German, 2001).

Problems with naming and slow word retrieval affect adolescents and
adults with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities, as well as
children. Word-finding problems can be lifelong sources of difficulty in
reading, learning, and using expressive language.

There are various resources that address word-finding problems. In a

study published in 1998, Meyer and colleagues described useful
instructional methods for dealing with word-finding problems in
children. Word-finding strategies for adults can be found in the book
It’s on the Tip of My Tongue by Diane German (2001). The Word
Finding Intervention Program (German, 1993) is a word-finding
teaching program for children. Additional information is available at
the Word Finding website at http://www.wordfinding.com. (See Table
11.4.)

11.5f Language Disorders

Language disorders are sometimes referred to as acquired aphasia or
developmental aphasia. The term acquired aphasia is a medical term
used to identify adults who lose the ability to speak because of brain
damage from a stroke, disease, or accident. In contrast, the term
 developmental aphasia is used to describe children who have severe
difficulty in acquiring oral language (Kuder, 2003). Children can have
difficulty with

1. receptive language disorders or

2. expressive language disorders.

Receptive language disorders refers to difficulty in understanding

language. Receptive language is a prerequisite for the development of
expressive language. A child with receptive language problems may be
able to understand single words, such as sit, chair, eat, and candy, but
will have difficulty understanding a sentence using those words, such
as “Sit on the chair after you eat the candy.” Some children understand
a word in one context, but they are unable to relate it to another
context. The word run may be understood as a method of locomotion,
but the child may not understand the meaning when the word is used
in reference to baseball, a faucet, a woman’s stocking, or a river.

Expressive language disorders refers to difficulty in producing

spoken language. Children with expressive language disorders may
depend on pointing and gesturing to make their wants known. These
children can understand speech and language produced by others, they
do not have a muscular paralysis that prevents them from talking, and
they do well on nonverbal tasks. Yet these children have difficulty in
producing speech or in talking.

Several clinical conditions are related to expressive language. One such

condition is dysnomia, a word-finding problem or a deficiency in
remembering and expressing words. Children with dysnomia may
substitute a word, such as thing, for every object they cannot
remember, or they may attempt to use other expressions to talk around
the subject. For example, when asked to list the foods she ate for lunch,
one 10-year-old girl used circumlocution in describing a tomato as a
“round red thing that rhymed with potato,” but she was unable to
remember the word tomato.

Did You Get It?

 According to the U.S. Department of Education (2012), approximately
in ten of all preschool-aged children who are receiving special
education services have at least some form of speech impairment.

a. 2

b. 4

c. 7

d. 9

11.6 English-Language Learners (ELL)

English-language learners (ELLs) are students for
whom English is not their primary language. ELL
students are not proficient in English, and they use
their native language. They encounter many difficulties in classes
taught entirely in English. In today’s diverse society, an increasing
number of students come from homes in which a language other than
English is spoken. In fact, ELL students represent one of the fastest
growing groups among the school-age population (Samson & Lesaux,
2009). ELL students speak over 350 different languages, but Spanish is
the language spoken by nearly 77% of ELL students, or approximately 3
million students (Samson & Lesaux, 2009).

These children are sometimes referred to as bilingual students, but

children who are truly bilingual understand and use 2 languages well,
both their native language and their second language. In fact, research
shows that true bilingual abilities are associated with a higher level of
cognitive attainment. Bilingual acquisition involves a process that
builds on an underlying base for both languages. The duality of
languages does not hamper overall language proficiency or cognitive
development for bilingual children (Miller, Heilmann, & Nockerts,
2006; Hakuta, 1990; Jiménez, 2002).
 The problem for many ELLs is that they have limited English
proficiency and they have difficulty understanding and using English.
Some ELL students speak only in their native language; others use both
English and their native language but still have considerable difficulty
with English. A child’s native language provides the foundation upon
which English-language skills are built. Students who use their native
language effectively are likely to acquire and use English appropriately,
but students who have problems in their native language also
experience problems in English as a second language (Miller et al.,
2006; Lundberg, 2002). Research shows that a student may acquire
conversational English in six months but may not have the language
proficiency to support the complex demands of academic development
in English. Reaching that proficiency level may take up to two years or
more (Jiménez, 2002; Ortiz, 1997).

Some students who are ELLs also have learning disabilities or related
disabilities. These students must cope not only with learning English,
but also with their underlying disabilities. When students have a
language disorder in their primary language, the language problem will
also be reflected in the second language (Samson & Lesaux, 2009;
Miller et al., 2006).

Teachers must be particularly sensitive to the needs of English-

language learners and recognize that achieving proficiency in English
requires time. These teachers need competencies in both special
education and in teaching students with limited English proficiency.
Teaching Tips 11.1, “Effective Practices for Supporting English-
Language Learners,” provides some suggestions for ELLs who have
learning disabilities.

Teaching Tips 11.1 Effective Practices for Supporting English-

Language Learners

Be responsive to cultural and individual diversity.

Teach English-language reading to develop English-language competence.

Become familiar with assessment tools, and acceptable accommodations.

Encourage collaboration between home and school.

 Develop cooperation between general educators and special education
teachers.

Professional Resource Download

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Culturally Responsive Teaching: A

Multicultural Lesson for Elementary Students.” In this video, the teacher leads the
class in talking about their diverse multicultural backgrounds. They talk about the
countries they came from, the food in their culture, the people, and the language
they spoke in their country. The multicultural discussion is then woven into a
writing lesson on coming to America.

Questions
1. How can a discussion about multicultural backgrounds of children in the
class be used to teach language skills?

2. What subjects could students from diverse cultures talk about?

11.6a Learning a Second Language

There are four methods for teaching a second language: ESL, bilingual,
sheltered English, and immersion methods.
 The English as a Second Language (ESL) method is used in
classes that have students who come from many different
language backgrounds. Students learn through carefully
controlled oral repetitions of selected second-language patterns.

Bilingual instruction is used when all of the students are from

one language background. Students use their native language for
part of the school day and use the second language (English) for
the other portion of the school day. Instruction is provided in 2
languages. Academic subjects are often taught in the native
language and the student receives oral practice in English. The
objective of the bilingual program is to strengthen school learning
through the native language and gradually to add the secondary
language. An underlying philosophy is that students will
recognize and respect the importance of their native culture and
language in American society.

Sheltered English is a method of teaching children who have

some proficiency in English by having students learn English
more rapidly through instruction with printed materials that are
written in English, typically used for a content-area subject. The
rationale for this approach is that spoken language is fleeting and
inconsistent over time. In written language, the text is stable and
does not pass the learner by. With written text, students can
reread and reconsider what is being learned. For children whose
native language is Spanish, the students continue to use Spanish
for part of the day, while English is used in teaching certain
subjects with written materials, such as reading or social studies.
Wide reading of high-interest stories in English helps develop
English-language competence.

Immersion instruction is a method in which students are

immersed in, or receive extensive exposure to, the second
language. In fact, where there is no formal instruction for a
person learning a second language, this is essentially what occurs.
Individuals learn through this type of repeated exposure as they
live daily in the mainstream of the dominant-language society.
Immersion is the instructional method for schoolchildren in
Canada, where it is used to teach French to English-speaking
children by enrolling them in French-speaking immersion schools
(Fortin & Crago, 1999).

Disproportionality
 11.6b

The disproportionate representation of English-

language learners has long been a concern in
discussions of educational equity. The issue is that
culturally and linguistically diverse students are disproportionately
enrolled in special education. Research shows that ELL students have a
greater chance of being identified as a student with a disability, often
within the category of learning disabilities (De Valenzuela, Copeland,
Huaqing, & Park, 2006). To form a more just and equitable society for
all students, it is important for the educational system to correct the
inequities of ELL students.

Did You Get It?

Three students whose primary languages are Spanish, Vietnamese, and

Igbo, respectively, and who now live and learn in the United States are
students.

a. ELL

b. ELF

c. LEFL

d. SLE

11.7 Early Literacy and Oral Language

Early literacy refers to the child’s early entrance into the
comprehensive world of words, language, books, poetry, and stories.
The importance of providing young children with a rich literary
environment and helping children become aware of print, words, and
the sounds of language is essential to the world of language. The early
literacy philosophy encourages young children to enjoy experiences
with stories and books, and it encourages early writing (Strickland &
Shanaham, 2004). It is especially important that children with learning
 disabilities and related mild disabilities be given an abundant and rich
literature environment. From an early age, they should hear stories, tell
stories, and even write journals and stories. Story reading helps build
oral language experiences. Predictable books that have a pattern or
refrain should be used and children should be encouraged to repeat the
predictable elements. It is also important to read and reread favorite
stories and have the children listen to them on CDs or tapes while
following along in their books. Teaching Tips 11.2, “Activities to
Promote Early Literacy,” describes methods that foster early literacy.

Teaching Tips 11.2 Activities to Promote Early Literacy

Promote Oral Language Activities. Give children many opportunities to

talk and use language.

Surround children with a Literacy Environment. Have many books,

stories and poems for the child and discuss them.

Concepts about print. Show the children that print has meaning, that it is
read left to right, top to bottom, and that words are separated by white
spaces.

Use word and sound games. Teach rhyming games. Use nursery rhymes,
poetry.

Build alphabet knowledge. Help children to recognize letters of the

alphabet. Have children write letters of the alphabet.

Help children to recognize letter-sound correspondence. Help

children know the relationship between letters and sounds.

Encourage early writing. Have writing materials available. Let children

scribble, draw pictures, or write letters.

Help children build a reading vocabulary. Compile a collection of their

favorite words.

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

The early literacy philosophy stresses which aspect of the use of stories and
books?

a. lenience
 b. stringency

c. rigor

d. enjoyment

11.8 Assessing Oral Language

The purpose of assessing oral language is to determine what language
abilities the child has acquired, what language problems the child
exhibits, and how well the child uses language functionally. Assessment
information should be a guide in planning the teaching. Assessment
should consider the two sides of oral language: listening and speaking.
Language assessment measures include

1. informal measures and

2. formal tests.

11.8a Informal Measures

Often the most valuable information is obtained by observing as the
child uses language functionally in a real environment, such as a class
or recreational setting. When rating scales are used in assessment, an
informant (usually a parent) provides information about the child’s
language development and usage. Informal assessment measures are
not standardized but offer valuable information about the child’s
language ability.

An informal measure of listening can be obtained by assessing the

child’s ability to understand a story that the teacher reads aloud. This
listening test is often used as part of an informal reading inventory
(IRI) (see Chapter 12, “Reading Difficulties”). The procedure requires
the teacher to read aloud stories that are graded for difficulty level.
Then the child is asked comprehension questions to determine how
 well he or she understands this material (Jennings et al., 2010; Spinelli,
2006).

Early literacy refers to the child’s entrance into the world of words.

Robert Berner/Photo Edit Inc.

11.8b Formal Tests

Formal tests are standardized instruments for gathering information
about oral language development. Formal test results are often
included in the child’s individualized education program (IEP). Table
11.4 lists some examples of formal language tests.

Did You Get It?

 The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—II is an assessment battery that tests
and evaluates abilities in which context?

a. writing

b. listening

c. reading

d. memorization

11.9 Teaching Strategies to Improve Spoken

Language Difficulties
In this section, we focus on strategies for listening and speaking. Oral
language has two contrasting sides: understanding oral language
(listening) and producing oral language (speaking).

Did You Get It?

Oral language has two distinct and contrasting components. One of these
components, the understanding of oral language, focuses on

a. listening.

b. interpreting.

c. processing.

d. filtering.

11.10 Listening
Listening is an often-neglected element of language learning. Students
are typically expected to acquire the ability to listen without special
instruction. However, many students do not acquire functional skills in
 listening by themselves. Over half the people referred to medical
hearing specialists for suspected deafness have no defect in hearing
acuity and no organic pathology that would cause their seeming
hearing impairment. In this section, we suggest some strategies for
listening in the areas of

1. listening comprehension,

2. phonological awareness of language sounds,

3. understanding words and building a listening vocabulary,

4. understanding sentences,

5. listening comprehension,

6. critical listening, and

7. listening to stories.

11.10a Listening Means Comprehension

Listening is a basic skill that can be improved through practice. An
explanation for poor listening is that students today are so bombarded
with constant sound that they learn to “tune out.” Students who are
skillful at not listening should be taught to “tune in.”

Listening differs from hearing, which is a physiological process that

does not involve interpretation. One can hear a foreign language with
good auditory acuity but be unable to listen to what is being said. In
contrast to hearing, listening demands that one select appropriate
meanings and organize ideas according to their relationships. In
addition, listening calls for evaluation, acceptance or rejection,
internalization, and, at times, appreciation of the ideas expressed.
Listening is the foundation of all language growth, and the child with a
deficit in listening skills will have difficulty with all the communication
skills.

There are significant differences between listening and reading. The

reader can reread and study the material, but the listener hears the
material only once and then it is gone. (Of course, using a recording
 device modifies this difference.) Readers can regulate their own speed,
going slower or faster as their purpose and the difficulty of the material
dictate, but the listener’s speed of listening is set by the speaker. The
listener has additional clues from the speaker’s voice, gesture,
appearance, and emphasis, but the reader cannot derive such
supporting information from the printed page. The listener-speaker
combination also offers more opportunity for feedback, questioning,
and a two-way discussion than reading offers.

When teachers ask students to listen, they do not want them simply to
hear or to recognize the words being spoken. Students who are directed
to listen are expected to comprehend the communication message
being sent.

Teaching strategies for each of the following listening skills are

described in the next sections.

Phonological awareness of language sounds

Understanding words and building a listening vocabulary

Understanding sentences

Listening comprehension

Critical listening

Listening to stories

11.10b Phonological Awareness of Language

Sounds
Precursors for learning to read include recognizing phonemes, which
are the sounds of our language. To be successful during the beginning
stages of reading, children must hear individual phoneme sounds of the
language and be aware that the words they are hearing are composed of
individual sounds. Abilities in phoneme awareness prepare children for
learning phonics.

1. Nonsense. Have children listen to and detect the slight change

in the name of a familiar story or poem, such as “Baa, Baa, Purple
Sheep” or “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Car.”
2. Clapping names. Ask children to clap out syllables in names
and words. For example, clap “Jenn-if-er” (three claps) or “Zip-
pi-ty-doo-dah” (five claps).

3. Finding things: Initial phonemes. Use real objects or

pictures of objects. Say the name of the object and ask children
which picture or object begins with the same sound. For example,
the initial consonant m may be presented with milk, money,
moon, man, and monkey.

4. Take away a sound. Have children say their names or a word

without the initial sound. For example, say, “____enjamin.”
Children in the group must identify the whole word.

5. Troll talk: Blending games. The troll talks funny, saying the
sounds of words separately. The children must guess the word by
blending the sounds. For example, the troll utters the phonemes
“ch-ee-z,” “p-e-n,” “f-u-n,” or “What is your n-a-m?” The children
blend the sounds and identify the word.

6. Nursery rhymes. Read nursery rhymes or Dr. Seuss books to

children. Look at the pictures and emphasize the rhyming
elements. Children enjoy the many repetitions of nursery rhymes.
Occasionally leave off the word that is the rhyming element and
have the child say the word: “Jack and Jill went up the ____.”

7. Using visual cues to segment speech sounds. To help

children recognize the speech sounds in words, put a picture
representing a short word on a card. Draw a rectangle underneath
the picture and divide it into the number of phonemes in the
word. Have the child say the word slowly, putting a counter in
each square as each sound is articulated. Figure 11.4 illustrates a
segmenting card for the word sun. To use a segmenting card,
obtain counters such as buttons or pennies. Place a picture with a
short word on a card. Use words with the same number of letters
as sounds (e.g., cap, run, and lamp). For sound counting, say the
word slowly and have the child put down a counter for each
sound. One set of cards can have both pictures and words, and
another can have only the pictures (Blachman, 1997; Blachman et
al., 2004).

Figure 11.4 A Segmenting Card for Speech

Sounds
 © Cengage Learning
Professional Resource Download

8. Rhyming riddles and games. The teacher selects a group of

words, one to rhyme with head and the other to rhyme with feet.
Then the teacher asks a riddle so that the answer rhymes with
either head or feet. The children then point to the part of their
body that has a name that rhymes with head or feet to answer the
riddle. For example, “When you are hungry, you want to ____.”
The children point to their feet because eat rhymes with it.
Repeat by naming other parts of the body to elicit words that
rhyme with hand or knee or with arm or leg (Jennings, Caldwell,
& Lerner, 2010). Make up riddle rhymes and encourage students
to make up others. One such example is, “I rhyme with look. You
read me. What am I?” Have students listen to a series of three
words, such as ball, sit, and wall or hit, pie, and tie, and tell
which two words rhyme.

9. Deleting sounds. In this activity, children learn to take a word

apart, remove one sound, and pronounce the word without that
sound. For example, to remove a syllable: “Say playground. Now
say it without play.” It is more difficult to remove a phoneme:
“Say ball. Now say it without the b.” “Say stack. Now say it
without the t.”

10. Beginning sounds. Give three words like astronaut, mountain,

and bicycle. Have the students tell which word begins like milk.
Ask the children to think of words that begin like Tom, to find
pictures of words that begin like Tom, or to find pictures of words
that begin with the sound T. Show them three pictures of
 different objects ( for example, a pear, a table, and a car) and ask
the students to select the picture of an object with a name that
begins like Tom.

11. Beating out names. Beat the syllables in the rhythm and accent
of names of the children in the group. For example, for a name
like Marilyn McPhergeson, you might beat out the following
pattern:

Drumbeat: LOUD-soft- soft-LOUD-soft-soft

soft
123 4123

12. Consonant-blend bingo. Make bingo cards with consonant

blends and consonant digraphs in the squares. Read words and
ask the students to cover the blend that begins each word.

13. Substitutions. Help the students learn to substitute one initial

sound for another to make a new word. For example: “Take the
end of the word book and put in the beginning of the word hand,
and get something you hang coats on.” (The word would be
hook.)

11.10c Building a Listening Vocabulary

Listening requires that students acquire a listening vocabulary.
Students must understand the names of objects, actions, qualities, and
more abstract concepts. It is easier to teach words that carry primary
lexical meaning (such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) than to
teach structure or function words (such as prepositions and articles)
that indicate relationships within sentences.

1. Names of objects. To help students understand names, use

actual objects, such as a ball, pencil, or doll. Sometimes you will
have to add exaggeration and gestures to help the student with a
severe receptive disorder understand the meaning of the word
that symbolizes the object.

2. Verb meanings. It is more difficult to teach the concept of a

verb than the name of an object. You can illustrate verbs such as
hop, sit, and walk by performing the activity.

3. Pictures. Pictures are useful in reinforcing and reviewing the

vocabulary that has been taught. Short clips from television
 shows or DVDs can also be utilized to reinforce vocabulary.

4. Concepts of attributes. Words that describe the attributes of

objects can be taught by providing contrasting sets of experiences
that illustrate the attributes. Examples of such sets are rough-
smooth, pretty-ugly, little-big, and hot-cold. Both concrete
objects and pictures are useful in teaching attributes.

5. Classes of objects. A broader classification of objects must be

made and labeled with a word. For example, the word food refers
not to any single type of food, but to all foods. The students,
therefore, could be taught objects that “are food” and could be
asked to remove from a display any objects that “are not food.”

11.10d Understanding Sentences

It is more difficult to understand sentences than single words. Some
students with language disabilities need structured practice in
understanding sentences.

1. Directions. Give simple directions in sentences to provide the

students with needed experiences in understanding sentences.
For example, you can say, “Give me the blue truck” or “Put the
book on the table.”

2. Finding the picture. Line up several pictures. State a sentence

describing one of them and ask the students to point to the
correct picture. You can make this exercise harder by adding
more sentences to your description of the picture.

3. Function words. Function or structure words establish

structural relationships between parts of a sentence and
grammatical meaning. They include noun determiners, auxiliary
verbal forms, subordinators, prepositions, connectors, and
question words. These words cannot be taught in isolation; they
must be taught within a sentence or phrase. You might, for
example, teach words such as on, over, under, behind, in front of,
beneath, inside, and in by placing objects in a box or under a
chair while saying the entire phrase to convey the meaning.

4. Riddles. Have students listen to a sentence and fill in the word

that fits. For example, for the word sled, you might say, “I am
thinking of a word that tells what you use to go down a snowy
hill.”
11.10e Listening Comprehension
Listening comprehension is similar to reading comprehension, but the
information is received by hearing rather than by reading language.

1. Following directions. Students listen to a set of directions for

making something. Have the materials ready and ask students to
follow the directions step by step.

2. Understanding a sequence of events. Students listen to a

story and are then asked to picture the different events in the
order in which they happened. Pictorial series, such as comic
strips, can help illustrate the events of the story, and you can mix
the pictures and ask the students to place the series in the proper
chronological order.

3. Listening for details. The teacher can read a story aloud and
ask detailed questions about it. Phrase questions to ask who,
what, when, where, and how. The teacher can also read aloud an
instructional manual on a subject, such as how to care for a new
pet, and then ask students to list all the things that should be
done.

4. Getting the main idea. The teacher reads aloud a short but
unfamiliar story and asks the students to make up a good title for
the story. The teacher also reads aloud a story and asks the
students to choose the main idea from 3 choices.

5. Making inferences and drawing conclusions. The teacher

reads part of a story that the students do not know and stops at
an exciting point to ask the students to guess what happens next.

11.10f Critical Listening

Good listening means not only understanding what is said, but also
being able to listen critically and to judge and evaluate what is being
said.

1. Recognizing absurdities. Tell a short story with a word or

phrase that does not fit the story. Ask the students to discover
what is funny or foolish about the story. For example, you could
 say, “It rained all night in the middle of the day,” or “The sun was
shining brightly in the middle of the night.”

2. Listening to advertisements. Have the students listen to

advertisements and determine how the advertiser is trying to get
the listener to buy the products. Adolescents enjoy detecting
propaganda techniques.

11.10g Listening to Stories

Story reading is a useful strategy for building oral language
experiences. Frequently reading stories to small groups of children with
language problems helps them to acquire language, figure out
grammar, and learn the structure of stories (Jennings et al., 2010).
Read stories frequently (at least once each day) to small groups of five
to seven children. Involve all the children in the story by asking
questions appropriate to their individual levels of language acquisition.
Select predictable books (ones that have a pattern, refrain, or sequence)
to read aloud, encouraging the children to repeat the predictable
element. Select well-illustrated books (ones with many illustrations
closely tied to the text) to read aloud. Throughout the story, ask the
children thought-provoking questions. Read and reread favorite stories
and let the children listen to them on CDs or tapes while following
along in their books. Children can also watch a DVD of some stories.

Did You Get It?

What skill is frequently overlooked and neglected because a young child is

“expected” to acquire it without the need for formal instruction?

a. reading comprehension

b. dictation

c. listening

d. imitating
11.11 Speaking
The activities in this section focus on speaking and include

1. stages of oral language development,

2. activities for natural language stimulation,

3. activities for teaching oral language, and

4. activities for improving the oral language of adolescents.

11.11a Stages of Oral Language Development

A general overview of a child’s oral language development provides a
perspective for viewing language deviations. A child’s first attempt to
use vocal mechanisms is the birth cry. In the short span of time from
the birth cry to the full acquisition of speech, the child goes through
several stages. Visit the student website for this text to see speech and
language milestones for ages 1–6.

Babbling Vocalization during the first nine months of life is called

babbling. During this stage, children produce many sounds, those in
their native language as well as those found in other languages. Infants
derive pleasure from hearing the sounds they make, and making such
sounds gives them the opportunity to use the tongue, larynx, and other
vocal apparatuses and to respond orally to others. Children who are
deaf begin the babbling stage but soon stop because they receive no
satisfaction from hearing the sounds they produce. Parents of children
with language disorders often report that their child does not engage in
the activities of babbling, gurgling, or blowing bubbles. These children
should be encouraged to engage in such oral play to help them have the
normal experiences of language acquisition.

Jargon By about 9 months, the babbling softens and becomes

jargon. Children retain the phoneme sounds that are used in the
language they hear. Their vocalizations reflect the rhythm and melody
of the oral speaking patterns of others around them. Although their
intonational patterns may be similar to those of adults, children do not
yet use words at this stage; it is as though they are pretending to talk.
The parents of children who are diagnosed as having language
disabilities often report that their children missed this stage of
development.

Chinese children have been observed to have a mastery of basic

Chinese intonation patterns by 20 months of age, a feat that is very
difficult for an English-speaking adult to accomplish. Yi was a baby
from China who was adopted at 10 months of age. Her adoptive parents
became concerned about a possible language disorder because she
displayed no signs of language play and did not engage in jargon. The
problem was happily solved when the family had lunch at a Chinese
restaurant. As soon as Yi heard people talking in Chinese, she
spontaneously began “talking” in jargon, using Chinese sounds and
intonational patterns.

Single Words Single words, such as mama and dada, normally

develop between 12 and 18 months of age. The ability to imitate is
evident at this stage, and children may well imitate sounds or words
that they hear others say or that they themselves produce. Parents
often report that their child with language disabilities did not engage in
verbal imitation and repetition activities.

Two- and Three-Word Sentences Two- and three-word

sentences, such as Baby eat, Daddy home, and Coat off, mark the next
stage and follow the use of single words. Once children begin to use
language, their skill in producing speech increases at a remarkably
rapid pace.

Between 18 months, when a toddler first produces a two-word

utterance, and age 3, many children learn the essentials of English
grammar and can produce all linguistic types of sentences. The child’s
oral language development at age 3 appears to be almost abrupt; the
child has an extensive vocabulary and uses fairly complex sentence
structures. During this stage, reports become rather hazy—partly
because things develop so rapidly and partly because as observers, we
do not understand the underlying mechanism of language acquisition.
 By the time children enter school at age 6, they are fairly sophisticated
users of the grammar of their native language.

11.11b Problems in Language Acquisition

Most children acquire spoken language in a relatively natural and easy
manner, without a need for direct teaching. Many children with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities, however, do not go
through the typical developmental stages of language acquisition and
exhibit difficulty in acquiring one or several properties of language.
Some have difficulty with the phonology of language—differentiating
and producing the appropriate sounds. Others have difficulty
remembering words or structuring morphological rules. Some have
difficulty with grammar or syntax and in putting words together to
formulate sentences. Still others have a semantic difficulty in
vocabulary development.

11.11c Activities for Natural Language

Stimulation
Teachers, parents, and family members can take advantage of many
opportunities in the daily life of a child in school or at home to provide
natural language stimulation (Lerner, Lowenthal, & Egan, 2003).

1. Expansion. This is a technique to enlarge and enhance the

child’s language. In the conversation that follows, the adult
expands a child’s limited utterance. Child: “Cookie.”

Teacher or parent: ‘“Cookie? I want cookie.’ Well, here it is!”

2. Parallel talk. In this technique, the adult tries to help language

development by supplying language stimulation, even when no
speech is heard. As the child plays, the teacher or parent guesses
what the child is thinking and supplies short phrases describing
the actions, thereby placing words and sentences in the child’s
mind for future reference. For example, if the child is banging a
block on the floor, the teacher might say, “There’s a block. If I hit
 the block on the floor, it makes a noise. A big noise. Bang, bang,
bang. Block. My block. Bang the block.”

3. Self-talk. In this technique, teachers model language by

engaging in activities that do not directly involve the child. As
teachers complete their own tasks and work in close proximity to
the child, they can capitalize on opportunities to use meaningful
language stimulation that the child can hear. For example, while
cutting some paper, the teacher might say, “I have to cut the
paper. Cut the paper. I need scissors. My scissors. Open, shut the
scissors. Open, shut. I can cut, cut, cut.”

11.11d Activities for Teaching Spoken Language

Activities for teaching spoken language skills include

1. building a speaking vocabulary,

2. learning language patterns,

3. formulating sentences, and

4. practicing spoken language skills.

Building a Speaking Vocabulary Some children with language

disorders have an extremely limited vocabulary and a very specific,
narrow, and concrete sense of the meaning of words. Throughout their
lives, people have a much larger listening vocabulary than speaking
vocabulary. Young children are able to understand words long before
they are able to produce and use them. Children with a language
disorder may be able to recognize words when they hear them, but they
may be unable to use those words. Adults with known brain injuries
may lose their ability to remember words easily as a result of damage to
the language area of the brain. This condition, as noted earlier, is
dysnomia, meaning the inability to remember the names of objects.
Children may substitute another referent like thing, whatsit, or that, or
a gesture or pantomime for the word they cannot bring to mind. The
following activities can help children use words and build an accessible
speaking vocabulary.

1. Naming. Have the children name common objects in or outside

the room (chair, door, table, tree, or stone). Have a collection of
 objects in a box or bag. As each is removed, have the children
name it. Have the children name colors, animals, shapes, and so
forth. A collection or a file of good pictures of objects provides
excellent teaching material. You can make pictures more durable
and washable by backing them with cardboard and covering them
with a self-adhesive transparent covering.

2. Department store. The game of department store (or hardware

store, supermarket, restaurant, shoe store, etc.) gives the children
an opportunity to use naming words. One child plays the role of
the customer and gives orders to another, who is the clerk. The
clerk collects pictures of the ordered items and names the items
while giving them to the customer.

3. Rapid naming. Give the students a specified length of time,

such as 60 seconds, to name all the objects in the room. Keep a
record of the number of words named to note improvement. You
can also ask the students to rapidly name objects in pictures.
Another variation could be related to sports, the outdoors, pets,
and so forth.

Children with problems with spoken language need

intervention to build their facility with spoken
language.
 Nick White/Photodisc/Getty Images

4. Missing words. Have the students say the word that finishes a
riddle. For example: “Who delivers the mail? (mail carrier). I
bounce a ______. (ball)” Read a story to the children, pausing at
certain places to leave out words. Have the children supply the
missing word. The use of pictures helps in recalling and naming
the object.

5. Word combinations. Some words can best be learned as part

of a group. When one member of the group is named, the
children may be helped to remember the second; for example,
paper-pencil, boy-girl, hat-coat, and cats-dogs. Series such as
days of the week and months of the year may also be learned in
this fashion.

6. Troublesome words. Be alert for troublesome words. When

you note such a word, you may be able to give an immediate
lesson on it and then plan for future exercises using that word.

Formulating Sentences Some children are able to use single

words or short phrases but are unable to generate longer syntactic units
or sentences. In acquiring language, children must learn to internalize
sentence patterns so that they can generate new sentences. Some
linguists have said that the child becomes a sentence-producing
machine. To achieve this state, the child needs many skills, including
the ability to understand language, to remember word sequences, and
to formulate complex rules of grammar.

1. Provide experiences with many kinds of sentences. Start

with the basic simple sentence and help the child generate
transformations. For example, 2 basic sentences can be combined
in various ways:

2. Demonstrate structure words. As mentioned earlier, words

such as on, in, under, and who, which show the relationship
among parts of the sentence, are best taught within the sentence.
Close observation reveals that many children have hazy concepts
of the meanings of such words. You can help students understand
these concepts if you ask them to put blocks in, on, or under a
table or chair, and then ask them to explain what they did. Words
such as yet, but, never, and which often need clarification. Give a
sentence with only the key or class words and then ask the
students to add the structure words, as in this example:

“Jack—went—school—late.”

“Jack went to school, but he was late.”

3. Substitute words to form sentences. Have students form

new sentences by substituting a single word in an existing kernel
sentence. For example:

“I took my coat off. I took my boots off.”

“The child is reading. The child is running. The child is

jumping.”
 4. Play a detective game. To help students learn to formulate
questions, hide an object and have students ask questions
concerning its location until it is found.

Practicing Spoken Language Skills Students with a

deficiency in spoken language need practice and many opportunities to
use words and formulate sentences. The following activities can help
students to practice their speaking skills.

1. Use spoken language activities. A number of activities can be

used to practice spoken language, such as conversations;
discussions; radio or television broadcasts; show-and-tell
sessions; puppetry; dramatic play; telephoning; choral speaking;
reporting; interviewing; telling stories, riddles, or jokes; giving
book reports; and role-playing.

2. Discuss objects. Help the students tell about the attributes of

an object—its color, size, shape, composition, and major parts—
and to compare it with other objects.

3. Use categories. Place items in a box that can be grouped to

teach categories, such as toys, clothes, animals, vehicles,
furniture, and fruit. Ask the students to find the ones that go
together and tell what they are. You can vary this activity by
naming the category and asking the students to find and name
the items or by putting items together and asking which do not
belong.

4. Finish stories. Begin a story and let the students finish it. For
example: “Betty went to visit her aunt in a strange city. When the
plane landed, Betty could not see her aunt at the airport _____.”

11.11e Activities for Improving the Oral

Language of Adolescents
Direct instruction in language also helps improve the communication
skills of adolescents. Sometimes students at the middle school or high
school levels appear, at first, to have adequate oral language skills, so
their true needs are often overlooked. In addition, the secondary school
curriculum emphasizes performance in written language more than in
oral language, so their deficiencies may go undetected. On closer
observation, however, we find that the spoken language of many
secondary students is meager. Many of the methods described earlier
work for adolescents, and the following methods are also useful.

1. Learning strategies. Instruction in learning strategies is

particularly useful for adolescents. They should be involved in
setting the goals they are trying to reach and in selecting learning
strategies to reach these goals. Self-monitoring, verbal rehearsal,
and error analysis are the kinds of strategies that have been
helpful in reading, and they can also be used for improving their
spoken language.

2. Building vocabulary. Adolescents can expand their oral

vocabularies by classifying and organizing words. For example,
they can build lists or hierarchies of words on a topic. For
example, for the topic of space exploration, they might use words
that classify space vehicles, space inventions, first events that
occurred in space, and so on. There are several approaches to this
activity. The teacher can supply the words for classifying, the
students can supply the words, or the teacher can provide a
partial classification system and the students can complete it.

3. Reciprocal questioning. This is a variation of reciprocal

teaching. Instead of the teacher asking the questions, the students
ask the questions. The technique encourages the development of
questioning skills.

4. Sentence combining. Say 2 short sentences aloud and ask

students to think of all the ways in which the sentences can be
combined into one sentence.

5. Reviewing a group discussion. Have students hold a short

discussion on an assigned topic. After the discussion, ask them to
analyze the effectiveness of the discussion. Did they stay on the
topic? Did they allow others to talk? Did they direct the
conversation to the right people? Did they follow through when a
point was made?

6. Explaining how to play a game. Many students with learning

disabilities have difficulty giving explanations and need practice
in this activity. Such practice could consist of having students
explain to another person how to play a game, how to make
something, or how to do something. The recipient of the
explanation can be a peer or a younger child. The students could
first engage in verbal rehearsal to practice the explanation and
then try to be sensitive to whether the listener understands and is
 able to respond to questions. Examples of subjects for
explanation include the rules of a video game, how to cook and
peel a hard-boiled egg, or how to play checkers or bingo.

Did You Get It?

At approximately 9 months, children are expected to progress out of the

“babbling” stage. If they are displaying age and developmentally appropriate
levels and skills, they should begin replacing babble with

a. syntax

b. chatter

c. jargon

d. vernacular

11.12 Assistive and Instructional Computer

Technology for Oral Language
Computer technology can be helpful in teaching oral language skills. A
few select computer software programs are described in this section.
Before using these in the classroom, you may wish to review the
National Educational Technology Standards for Students to determine
how they can best be incorporated into your teaching. These standards
were developed by the International Society for Technology in
Education, http://www.iste.org.

Earobics. This educational software program teaches auditory

and phonological awareness skills. It uses a CD-ROM and six
interactive games that teach oral language skills. Earobics has
small positive effects on alphabetics and potentially positive effect
on reading fluency, according to the What Works Clearinghouse.
(http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwclintervention report), Publisher:
Cognitive Concepts, Inc., http://www.cogcon.com.

Did You Get It?

 An effective computer-based learning program that presents six interactive
games designed to teach oral language skills, focusing primarily on the
development of auditory and phonological awareness, is

a. Earobics

b. Auditory Olympics

c. Run, Jump, and Listen

d. Ear I Am

I Have a Kid Who… NOAH: A Child With a Language Delay

Noah G., age 5 years 6 months, was in kindergarten when his parents were
contacted about problems he was having in school. The kindergarten teacher said
that Noah did not seem to get along with the other children in class. He had no
friends, would often strike out and hit his classmates, and was especially
disruptive during the conversation time and story periods. He refused to
participate in class activities, such as the puppet show that was being prepared for
presentation to the parents. The kindergarten teacher said that when she did not
know what Noah wanted, this situation often provoked a tantrum.

Mrs. G. said that Noah does not want to go to school and that it is sometimes
difficult to get him to go to his class. In describing his developmental history, Mrs.
G. said that Noah was born 6 weeks prematurely, weighing 4 lb 5 oz., and that he
had been placed in an incubator for a short period. He was a colicky baby and had
difficulty nursing. His motor development was average; he crawled at 8 months
and walked alone at 12 months. Language development, however, was slow. He
spoke his first word at 24 months and did not begin speaking in sentences until
age 4. Because he could not communicate with others, he often resorted to
pointing and grunting to make his desires known, and frequently Noah had
temper tantrums when others did not understand what he wanted. Noah does not
get along well with his 2 older sisters. Both sisters are very verbal and do not give
Noah much chance to talk. When Noah is asked a question, his sisters answer
before he can respond. Mrs. G. said that the doctor suspected a hearing loss when
Noah was younger. He had many colds as a toddler and had a condition the doctor
called otitis media, with fluid behind the eardrums. The doctor put tubes in
Noah’s ears when he was 4, and his hearing tested normal after this procedure.
 The speech teacher observed Noah during class and reported that he played alone
most of the time. During the storytelling period and show-and-tell time, he
wandered about the room. Often, when another child was playing with a toy,
Noah would grab it. If the other child did not give the toy up readily, Noah would
hit his classmate until he got it. He listened very little and did not talk to other
children in the class. He seemed to tire of one activity very quickly, and would
move on to another.

During the multidisciplinary evaluation, the speech teacher checked Noah’s

hearing with an audiometer, and his auditory acuity was normal. The school
psychologist tested Noah with an IQ test, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary
Scale of Intelligence-Revised. His full-scale IQ score was in the normal range
(FSIQ 101), with his performance IQ score (PIQ 119) substantially higher than his
verbal IQ score (VIQ 84). The IEP team identified Noah with a speech delay.

The case conference team recommended that Noah be placed in a developmental

kindergarten and receive language therapy from the speech-language pathologist
in the school, who would also collaborate with Noah’s parents and kindergarten
teacher to develop language activities for the home and the developmental
kindergarten.

Questions
1. Why do you think Noah had temper tantrums?

2. What were Noah’s strengths?

3. What were Noah’s weaknesses?

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Components of the language system include phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

English-language learners are students whose first

language is not English and who exhibit limited
English proficiency. Some children are both
English-language learners and also have a learning disability or a
related disability.
 Many children have problems in listening and understanding
what they hear.

Problems in listening include phonological awareness of language

sounds, understanding words, and building a listening
vocabulary, understanding sentences, critical listening, and
listening to stories.

Problems in speaking involve delayed speech, lack of

phonological awareness, problems with temporal or acoustical
processing, receptive language disorders, and expressive language
disorders.

Computer technology can be helpful in teaching oral language

skills.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Describe the communication process. Discuss the kinds of problems that a
student may encounter in communicating.

2. What are the components of language? Give an example of each. What kinds of
problems can a student with learning disabilities or related mild disabilities
encounter with each component of language?

3. Describe a few of the problems faced by students who are English-language

learners. Describe a few practices that have been shown to be helpful for English-
language learners.

4. What is meant by the term early literacy? Describe a few methods that foster
early literacy.

5. What is phonological awareness? Why is it important for young children to

develop skills in phonological awareness?

Chapter Review

Key Terms
bilingual instruction

components of language
developmental aphasia

dysnomia

early literacy

English as a second language (ESL) method

expressive language disorders

immersion instruction

language delay

language disorders

morpheme

morphology

otitis media

phoneme

phonics

phonology

pragmatics

primary language system

rapid automatized naming (RAN)

receptive language disorders

secondary language system

semantics

sheltered English

speech disorders

Standard English

syntax

temporal acoustical processing

word finding
 Chapter

Reading
Difficulties
12

Chapter Introduction

12.1 Theories Describing the Consequences of Reading Disabilities

12.2 Reading Strategies for the General Education Classroom

12.2a Response-to-Intervention (RTI)

12.2b Dyslexia

12.3 Elements of Reading

12.3a Phonemic Awareness

12.3b Phonics and Word-Recognition Skills

12.3c Phonics

12.3d Fluency

12.3e Vocabulary

12.3f Comprehension

12.4 The Reading-Writing Connection

12.4a Early Literacy and Writing

12.5 Literature-Based Reading Instruction/Whole-Language Reading

Instruction

12.6 English-Language Learners (ELL) and Reading

12.7 Assessing Reading

12.7a Informal Measures

12.7b Formal Tests

 12.8 Teaching Strategies to Improve Reading Difficulties

12.9 Strategies to Improve Word Recognition

12.9a Building Phoneme Awareness

12.9b Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS)

12.9c Phonics Methods

12.10 Strategies to Improve Fluency

12.10a Repeated Reading

12.10b Predictable Books

12.10c Neurological Impress Method

12.11 Strategies to Improve Reading Comprehension

12.11a Using Basal Readers

12.11b Activating Background Knowledge

12.11c Building Meaning With Vocabulary and Concepts

12.11d The Reading–Writing Connection

12.11e Cognitive Learning Strategies for Reading

12.11f Multisensory Methods

12.12 Enjoyment and Appreciation of Reading

12.13 Assistive and Instructional Technology and Reading

12.13a Text-to-Speech Programs

12.13b Recorded Textbooks and Digital CD-ROMs

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Maria Uspenskaya/ Shutterstock.com

I don’t believe in the kind of magic in my

books. But I do believe something very
magical can happen when you read a good
book.

—J. K. Rowling, Author of the Harry Potter Books

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

12.1
Explain theories describing the consequences of
reading difficulties
 12.2
Describe reading strategies for the general education
classroom

12.3
List the elements of reading

12.4
Explain the connection between reading and writing

12.5
Explain the literature-based approach to teaching
reading

12.6
Discuss the challenges faced by ELL students and
reading

12.7
Discuss methods to assess reading

12.8
List teaching strategies to improve reading difficulties

12.9
Describe strategies to improve word recognition

12.10
List strategies to improve reading fluency

12.11
List strategies to improve reading comprehension

12.12
Explain the importance of reading enjoyment and
appreciation

12.13
Describe assistive technology to promote reading

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

 Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special
Educator Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council
for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and
Individual Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use
this knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how

language, culture, and family background influence the learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of
individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general
and specialized curricula to individualize learning for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.1—Beginning special education professionals understand the central

concepts, structures of the discipline, and tools of inquiry of the content
areas they teach and can organize this knowledge, integrate cross-
disciplinary skills and develop meaningful learning progressions for
individuals with exceptionalities.

3.2—Beginning special education professionals understand and use

general and specialized content knowledge for teaching across curricular
content areas to individualize learning for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.3—Beginning special education professionals modify general and

specialized curricula to make them accessible to individuals with
exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically

sound formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.
 4.2—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of
measurement principles and practices to interpret assessment results
and guide educational decisions for individuals with exceptionalities.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and
provide feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and

Strategies
5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning
of individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic
factors in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning
experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

5.2—Beginning special education professionals use technologies to

support instructional assessment, planning, and delivery for individuals
with exceptionalities.

5.3—Beginning special education professionals are familiar with

augmentative and alternative communication systems and a variety of
assistive technologies to support the communication and learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and

promote generalization of learning.

5.7—Beginning special education professionals teach cross-disciplinary

knowledge and skills such as critical thinking and problem solving to
individuals with exceptionalities.

For students, Common Core Standards for English

Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies,
Science, and Technical Subjects can be found at:
www.corestandards.org.
 This chapter focuses on reading and is the second of 3 chapters on
the integrated language system. Reading is an integral part of the
language system and is closely linked to both spoken language and
writing. In the first half of this chapter, the “Theories” section, we
discuss several topics about reading:

1. the consequences of reading disabilities,

2. dyslexia,

3. the elements of reading,

4. phonemic awareness,

5. phonics and word-recognition clues,

6. fluency,

7. vocabulary,

8. comprehension,

9. the reading-writing connection,

10. literature-based reading instruction (whole language),

11. reading instruction for English-language learners (ELL), and

12. assessing reading.

In the “Teaching Strategies” section, we review methods for

teaching reading.

12.1 Theories Describing the Consequences

of Reading Disabilities
If our children do not learn to read, they cannot succeed in life.
Without the ability to read, the opportunities for academic and
occupational success are limited. Unfortunately, over 80% of
students with learning disabilities and related disabilities
encounter difficulties in reading (Lerner & Johns, 2012). In fact,
the reading of books is on a decline, with only 57% of adults
reported to have read a book in 2002 (National Endowment for
the Arts, 2004).

It is critical to identify children with reading problems early and

provide them with appropriate early instruction. More than 17.5%
of the nation’s school children—about 1 million children—
encounter reading problems during the crucial first 3 years of
schooling (National Reading Panel, 2000). Moreover, 74% of
children who are unsuccessful in reading in third grade are still
unsuccessful in ninth grade (National Institute for Child Health
and Human Development, 1999). The reading problems of
adolescents and adults reflect reading difficulties that were not
resolved during their early years. The wait-and-fail method refers
to the policy of not promptly addressing the reading difficulties of
young children but, instead, waiting to do so when they are older.
Research supported by the National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development resulted in some key findings about reading
disorders (Dunn, 2010; Mazzocco & Meyers, 2003; Lyon, 2003):

Reading is so critical to success in our society that reading

failure not only constitutes an educational problem, but it
also rises to the level of a major public health problem.

Characteristics of children who are most at risk for reading

failure are:

They lack phonemic awareness (or sensitivity to the

sounds of language).

They are not familiar with the letters of the alphabet.

They may not understand the purpose of print.

They often lack sufficient oral language and verbal

skills and have meager vocabularies.

Children may also be at risk for reading failure because of

their linguistic and cultural backgrounds and their limited
exposure to the English language.

Early identification of young children who are at risk for

reading failure and timely intervention to assist them are
essential for maximizing treatment success.
 Because reading is the basic skill for all academic subjects, failure
in school can be traced to inadequate reading skills. Students
today face more mandatory tests than ever before, and they need
to earn diplomas and degrees to obtain jobs. Overcoming these
hurdles, as well as facing the necessity of filling out application
forms and taking licensing examinations, makes life for poor
readers difficult and full of impassible barriers. In today’s world,
high technology and automation have created a demand for highly
trained people. Telecommunications, e-mail, and the Internet all
require users to read and comprehend written electronic
information on a computer screen.

The development of reading skills serves as the major academic

foundation for all school-based learning. Workers in every
occupation now have to retrain themselves to prepare for new jobs
many times during their work/careers. Efficient reading is a key
skill for maintaining employment or retraining for another job.
Poor reading skills cause many problems for individuals in the
world of work. Fewer jobs are available for unskilled and
semiskilled workers, and these individuals are likely to end up
being chronically unemployed. Opportunities for gainful
employment decrease for youth who drop out of school. Dropouts
have twice the unemployment rate that high school graduates do,
so they have fewer opportunities for continued training. Further,
they lack the qualifications to attend postsecondary school or
college (National Joint Committee and Learning Disabilities,
2008; Wagner et al., 2006; Gerber et al., 2004; Hennesy,
Rosenberg, & Tramaglini, 2003).

Children should be surrounded by the world of books and have many

experiences listening to stories, reading books, and writing.
 JDC/LWA/Corbis

Reading is not a natural process. In contrast to other

developmental achievements, such as learning to walk or to talk,
learning to read requires careful instruction. Learning to read is
also a relatively lengthy process. It takes several years, and the
learner must persevere over a long period of time. Moreover, the
process of recognizing words is complex; readers must use a
variety of strategies to accomplish this task. Children must first
learn to read so that later they can read to learn. Current
information and research about reading can be found at the
Reading Rockets website at http://www.readingrockets.org.

Did You Get It?

According to statistics compiled by the National Institute for Child

Health and Human Development (1999), approximately % of
students who experienced reading deficits in third grade still had
related deficits by the ninth grade.

a. 15

b. 45

c. 5 to 8

d. 75
12.2 Reading Strategies for the General
Education Classroom
Many children with learning disabilities and related disabilities
who have reading problems receive their instruction in general
education classrooms. Throughout this chapter, we present many
reading strategies for students in general education classrooms.
Including Students in General Education 12.1, “Reading
Strategies,” gives some overall suggestions for students with
reading disabilities in general education classrooms.

Including Students in General Education 12.1 Reading

Strategies

General Modifications and Accommodations

Increase the amount of repetition and review.

Allot more time for completing work.

Provide more examples and activities.

Introduce the work more slowly.

Phonics
Play word and rhyming games.

Analyze the phoneme elements that make up a word.

Build word families.

Fluency
Help students recognize sight words.

Find opportunities for students to reread passages aloud.

Use predictable books.

Use read-along methods.

Use the language experience method to let the children read their own
language.

Vocabulary
 Teach content vocabulary before reading a chapter in a science or social
studies text.

Find words in the student’s areas of interest (sports, movies, television

shows, current events) and use these words for study.

Use word webs to study vocabulary words.

Reading Comprehension
Provide students with background knowledge about a story or content-
area reading.

Have students predict what will happen next in a story.

Use graphic organizers to visualize the reading passage.

Show movies or videos about a book to enhance interest.

Have students act out passages in a story.

Professional Resource Download

12.2a Response-to-Intervention (RTI)

Response-to-intervention (RTI) is a process for all students in
general education. RTI uses evidence-based instruction, and its
purpose is to resolve reading problems by using tiers of
instruction. (See Chapter 2 “Assessment and the IEP Process,” for
an extensive description of RTI.)

Next we will discuss dyslexia, which is a severe reading challenge

faced by many students.

12.2b Dyslexia
The condition known as dyslexia is an unusual type of severe
reading disorder that has puzzled the educational and medical
communities for many years. Actually, dyslexia is one type of
learning disability that affects some children, adolescents, and
 adults. People with this baffling disorder find it extremely difficult
to recognize letters and words and to interpret information that is
presented in print form. People with dyslexia are intelligent and
may have very strong mathematics or spatial skills. Student
Stories 12.1, “People With Dyslexia,” offers the reflections of well-
known individuals with dyslexia about how this reading problem
affected their lives.

Student Stories 12.1 An Individual With Dyslexia

Individuals with dyslexia who are successful adults possess the quality of
resilience and a strong desire to succeed. Bob exemplifies these qualities.
Bob’s problems with reading began in the first grade. He developed a school
phobia and refused to go to school. At age 12, his parents sent him to a
private residential school, where he was diagnosed with dyslexia. He
developed a resilience to cope with his reading failure and he also learned
how to advocate for his rights under the law. His poor working memory
meant that he read very slowly and could not complete examinations during
a time limit. He was able to take entrance examinations with extended time,
and he completed an engineering degree at a major university, using the
accommodations he needed under the law. Bob really wanted to be a
physician. He had to take the MCAT exams many times until he was finally
admitted to a medical school. When he failed a class, he managed to retake it.
He failed the Medical Boards several times before he passed this test. Bob
failed the Boards for his specialty several times before he passed this Board
exam, with the accommodation of extended time. Today Bob is a successful
physician, with outstanding clinical skills and a thriving practice.

Reflective Question
1. What is a major characteristic that permitted Bob to succeed?

Although there are several different definitions of dyslexia there is

general agreement on several points (Rosen, 2010; Shaywitz,
2003):
 1. Dyslexia has a biological basis and is caused by a disruption
in the neural circuits in the brain.

2. Dyslexic problems persist into adolescence and adulthood.

3. Dyslexia has perceptual, cognitive, and language

dimensions.

4. Dyslexia leads to difficulties in many areas of life as the

individual matures.

5. Many individuals with dyslexia excel in other facets of life.

The life stories of corporate CEOs with dyslexia show their

remarkable skills in the business world (Morris, 2002). People
with dyslexia tend to find ingenious ways to hide their disability.
For example, a widowed gentleman caught in the social dating
whirl routinely handled the problem of dining in restaurants by
putting down his menu and saying to his companion, “Why don’t
you order for both of us, dear? Your selections are always so
delicious.” This man hired professionals to handle his reading and
writing matters. His friends attributed his actions to wealth, never
suspecting his inability to read.

For many years, scholars strongly suspected that dyslexia had a

neurobiological basis; however, they lacked the scientific evidence
to support this belief. Today, the cognitive neurosciences research
provides strong evidence that dyslexia is caused by variant in
brain structure, a difference in brain function, or genetic factors
(Rosen, 2010; Pugh, 2010; Shaywitz, 2003; Gilger, 2010; Shaywitz
& Shaywitz, 1998, 1999). The brain research studies on dyslexia
and the new technologies for assessing the link between brain
function and learning are fascinating. While neuroscientists
continue their search for the causes of dyslexia, however, teachers
must provide the instruction to teach these individuals how to
read.

We will now discuss elements of effective reading instruction for

all children.
 Did You Get It?

Which alteration or modification can be made to a general education

reading program to help students overcome reading difficulties?

a. providing few informal and enjoyable activities and sticking with

the basics and fundamentals

b. deescalating review and repetition when the student is making

mistakes

c. rapid introduction of new concepts and exercises

d. providing additional time for task completion

12.3 Elements of Reading

The National Reading Panel (2000) is a commission of reading
scholars that was assigned by the U.S. Congress to conduct an
evidence-based assessment of the research literature on reading
and its implications for reading instruction. Finding that over
100,000 research studies on reading had been published since
1966, the National Reading Panel established stringent criteria for
the inclusion of research studies in their evidence-based
assessment. (More information about their findings is available at
the National Reading Panel website at
http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org.)

The conclusions of the National Reading Panel (2000) included a

list of key reading components in which effective readers need to
be competent.

1. Phonemic awareness (discussed in Chapter 11, “Spoken

Language Difficulties: Listening and Speaking”)

2. Phonics (discussed in this chapter)

3. Fluency (discussed in this chapter)

 4. Vocabulary (discussed in this chapter)

5. Text comprehension (discussed in this chapter)

Each of these elements is described in the following sections.

12.3a Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and
work with the individual sounds in spoken words. Before children
learn to read print, they need to become aware of how the sounds
work in words. They must understand that words are made of
speech sounds, or phonemes. The term phonological
awareness is broad and includes the ability to identify and
manipulate larger parts of spoken language, such as words,
syllables, and rhymes, as well as phonemes. Phonemic awareness
is a part of phonological awareness. Phonological awareness
focuses on children’s hearing and using the sounds of language.
You can find more information on the National Institute for
Literacy’s website at http://www.nifl.gov. (See Chapter 11,
“Spoken Language Difficulties: Listening and Speaking,” for more
information about phonological awareness.)

12.3b Phonics and Word-Recognition Skills

Reading requires the reader to recognize words. Once readers
develop a facility in word recognition, they can concentrate on the
meaning of the text. Without these lower-level reading skills, the
higher cognitive skills cannot function. When readers exert so
much effort into recognizing words, they will have little processing
capacity remaining for comprehension.

Early attention to word-recognition skills is important because

this early ability accurately predicts later skill in reading
 comprehension. Children who get off to a slow start rarely become
strong readers (National Reading Panel, 2000). Learning word-
recognition skills early leads to wider reading abilities in and out
of school. Reading a wide variety of material provides
opportunities to increase the student’s vocabulary, increase the
student’s interest in books, and foster the student’s general
reading growth (Moats, 2000; Henry, 2003; Lyon, 2003).

Readers use several word-recognition procedures to identify

words, including

1. phonics,

2. sight words,

3. context clues, and

4. structural analysis.

The “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter suggests

methods for teaching each of these word-recognition skills.

12.3c Phonics
Phonics refers to the relationship between printed letters
(graphemes) and the sounds (phonemes) in language. As an
essential word-recognition skill, phonics involves learning the
correspondence of language sounds to written letters and applying
that knowledge in recognizing words and reading. Children must
learn to decode printed language and translate print into sounds
through the alphabetic principle of the symbol-sound relationship,
a process known as breaking the code.

Children with reading disabilities require systematic phonics

instruction. A systematic phonics program is a planned, sequential
set of phonics elements that is taught explicitly and systematically.
Research shows that children who learn the sound-symbol system
of English read better than children who have not mastered this
skill (Chall, 1967, 1983; Lyon, 2003; Moats, 2000; National
Reading Panel, 2000). As noted, learning phonics requires that
the child has competencies in phonological awareness and the
ability to recognize that speech can be segmented into sounds.
(See Chapter 11, “Spoken Language Difficulties: Listening and
Speaking.”)

Understanding phonics helps children break the code so that they

can recognize words quickly and easily. In a written alphabet
language, such as English, the code involves a system of mapping,
or seeing the correspondences between letters and sounds. Once a
child learns these mappings, the child has broken the code and
can then apply this knowledge to figure out plausible
pronunciations of printed words (Adams, 1990; Moats, 2000).

Children with reading disabilities need direct instruction in

phonics and decoding that makes the relationship between
printed letters and sounds explicit. Explicit code-emphasis
instruction helps children develop a basis for remembering the
relationship of sounds to the printed letters and for deriving the
meanings of printed words. (See “Teaching Strategies” section
later in this chapter for phonics instruction.)

Findings of the National Reading Panel on the

Effectiveness of Phonics Instruction The National
Reading Panel (2000) reached the following conclusions about the
effectiveness of phonics instruction:

1. Systematic phonics instruction makes a bigger contribution

to children’s growth in reading than other programs that
provide unsystematic or no phonics instruction.

2. All systematic phonics programs are effective in promoting

reading achievement, and they do not appear to differ
significantly from one another.

3. Systematic phonics instruction is effective when delivered

through tutoring, through small groups, or through teaching
classes of students.
 4. Systematic phonics instruction is effective when taught in
kindergarten. It must be appropriately designed for young
learners and must begin with foundational knowledge
involving letters and phonemic awareness.

5. Phonics instruction is effective in helping to prevent reading

difficulties among at-risk students and in helping to
remediate reading difficulties in students with reading
disabilities.

6. Systematic phonics instruction is beneficial to students

regardless of their socioeconomic status (SES).

Teacher Knowledge About Phonics Children who are

taught phonics directly and systematically in the early grades
receive higher scores on reading achievement tests during their
primary years than children who do not receive this instruction
(Chall, 1991; Lyon & Moats, 1997; Moats, 2000; National Reading
Panel, 2000). Many teachers, however, lack a firm grounding in
phonics and phonics generalizations (Horne, 1978; Moats, 2000).
Some teachers do not remember learning phonics themselves, and
many do not receive adequate phonics instruction during their
teacher training. (The reader may wish to take the Foniks Kwiz in
“Phonics Quiz and Review” on the student website that
accompanies this book. A brief review of phonics generalizations
follows the quiz.)

Types of Phonics Approaches There are several different

types of phonics instructional approaches (Jennings, Caldwell, &
Lerner, 2010). Table 12.1 lists types of phonics approaches, with
an explanation and examples of each approach.

Table 12.1 Different Types of Phonics Approaches

Phonics Approach Explanation Example

Phonics Approach Explanation Example

Synthetic phonics Teaching students explicitly Take the word stop.

to convert letters into
sounds (or phonemes) and
Break it into sounds: s/t/o/p.
then blend the sounds to Then blend the sounds into the
form recognizable words word.

Analytic phonics Teaching students to Analyze the sounds in the

analyze letter-sound whole word making
.
relations in previously
learned words to avoid
pronouncing sounds in
isolation

Analogy phonics Recognizing that a rhyme Known word kick

New word brick
segment of an unfamiliar
word is identical to that of
a familiar word Known word sing

New word ring.

Embedded phonics Teaching students phonics Instruction in phonics skills

skills by embedding phonics is incidental and is taught
instruction in text reading; during the reading of a
this is a more implicit text.
approach that relies on
incidental learning

Phonics through Teaching students phonics Students are instructed to

spelling through spelling instruction spell words phonemically.
and to segment words into
phonemes

Source: From Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction, p. 8, Report of the National Reading
Panel, 2000, Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Sight Words Sight words are words that are recognized

instantly, without hesitation or further analysis. Unlike some
other languages, written English has an inconsistent phoneme-
grapheme relationship, or spelling pattern. The relationship
between the letter and its sound equivalent is not always
predictable. The letter a, for example, is given a different sound in
each of the following typical first-grade words: at, Jane, ball,
 father, was, saw, and are. Another example of this complexity is
the phoneme of the long i, which has a different spelling pattern in
each of the following words: aisle, aye, I, eye, ice, tie, high, buy,
sky, rye, pine, and type. To further complicate the problem of
learning to read English, many of the most frequently used sight
words in first-grade books have irregular spelling patterns. A few
of these words are shown in the first column of Table 12.2; the
second column shows the way they would be spelled with a
dependable phoneme-grapheme relationship so that readers could
“sound them out.” These irregular spelling pattern words must
thus be learned as sight words (Jennings et al., 2010).

Table 12.2 Typical First-Grade Sight Words

English Spelling Phonic Spelling

of uv

laugh laf

was wuz

is IZ

come kum

said sed

what wut

from frum

one wun

night nite

know noe

they thai

© Cengage Learning

The problems caused by the undependable written form of English

can be approached in 2 ways:
 1. Introduce only a small number of words at a time,
selecting words on the basis of frequency of use.
Some beginning reading words have regular spellings,
whereas others have irregular spellings. Sight words are
learned visually through extensive review and through
context, meaning, and language. Basal readers, for example,
rely on a controlled introduction of a small number of new
words.

2. Simplify the initial learning phase by selecting only

words that have a consistent sound-symbol spelling
relationship. With this approach, students learn phonics
and are exposed to carefully selected words with dependable
spellings. Eventually, of course, the child must learn about
the undependable spelling of many common English words.
Through careful selection of the words for reading, students
are kept from learning the awful truth about spelling until
second grade or later. Inevitably, however, the reader must
confront the undependable written form of English.

Context Clues Context clues help a student recognize a

word through the meaning, or context, of a sentence or paragraph
in which the word appears. There are many redundancies in our
language, which occur when information from one source repeats
or supports information from another source. These language
redundancies provide hints about unknown words from the
meaning of the surrounding text, which helps readers make
conjectures and guesses about unfamiliar words.

Instruction in recognizing words through context is best done by

actual reading. When students with reading disabilities have
consistent practice in reading stories and books, they naturally
learn to use context clues. The meaning of the sentence plus the
initial sounds in the word may provide enough clues for the reader
to recognize the word.

Structural Analysis Structural analysis refers to the

recognition of words through the analysis of meaningful word
units such as prefixes, suffixes, root words, compound words, and
syllables. Structural elements include compound words (cowboy),
 contractions (can’t), word endings or inflectional suffixes (s, -ed, -
er, -est, -ing), word beginnings or prefixes (in-, pre-, un-, re-, ex-),
roots (play in replaying), and syllables (i.e., breaking
multisyllabic words into smaller units).

A reader may recognize structural elements of a word (e.g., the

prefix re- and the suffix -tion in repetition). These clues,
combined with the context of the sentence, may be sufficient for
recognizing the word.

Combining Word-Recognition Clues Readers should be

encouraged to use all of the word-recognition clues (phonics, sight
words, context clues, and structural analysis). However, they will
need these strategies only when an unknown word stops the
reading process. Readers usually use several clues together until
they recognize the unknown word. Students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities need instruction and
practice in each of these word-recognition clues to achieve
independence and flexibility and to gain fluency.

12.3d Fluency
Reading fluency is the ability to read connected text rapidly,
effortlessly, and automatically (Hook & Jones, 2004; Meyer,
2002; National Reading Panel, 2000). Readers must develop
fluency to make the bridge from word recognition to reading
comprehension (Jenkins et al., 2003). In this section, we describe

1. building sight vocabulary,

2. automaticity,

3. repeated reading, and

4. other methods to improve reading fluency.

The “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter offers additional

strategies to improve fluency.
 Building a Sight Vocabulary Many poor readers have
difficulty reading fluently because they do not possess an adequate
sight vocabulary and must labor to decode many of the words in
the reading passages. With their energies focused on recognizing
words, their oral reading is filled with long pauses and many
repetitions, and may be characterized by monotonous expression.
Fluent reading requires that most of the words in a selection be
recognized as sight words. When a selection contains too many
difficult (nonsight) words, the reading material will be too
arduous and frustrating for the reader (Jennings, Caldwell, &
Lerner, 2010). Table 12.3 shows the 100 most common sight
words.

Table 12.3 100 Common Words

1 the 21 this 41 so 61 people 81 back

2 be 22 but 42 up 62 into 82 after

3 to 23 his 43 out 63 year 83 use

4 of 24 by 44 if 64 your 84 two

5 and 25 from 45 about 65 good 85 how

6a 26 they 46 who 66 some 86 our

7 in 27 we 47 get 67 could 87 work

8 that 28 say 48 which 68 them 88 first

9 have 29 her 49 go 69 see 89 well

10 I 30 she 50 me 70 other 90 way

11 it 31 or 51 when 71 than 91 even

12 for 32 an 52 make 72 then 92 new

13 not 33 will 53 can 73 now 93 want

14 on 34 my 54 like 74 look 94 because

15 with 35 one 55 time 75 only 95 any

16 he 36 all 56 no 76 come 96 these

 17 as 37 would 57 just 77 its 97 give

18 you 38 there 58 him 78 over 98 day

19 do 39 their 59 know 79 think 99 most

20 at 40 what 60 take 80 also 100 us

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© Cengage Learning 2015

Table 12.3 illustrates common sight words that students should

know by the end of third grade. One of the best and certainly most
natural ways to learn sight words is by actually reading stories.
Sight words appear many times in context. A natural way to
expose children to sight words is through language experience
stories, which contain many sight words. Students with reading
disabilities need other direct approaches to strengthen their sight
vocabulary. Some methods for teaching sight vocabulary are
presented in the “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter.

Automaticity Automaticity is the fast, accurate, and

effortless word identification at the single word level. The speed
and accuracy with which single words are identified is a key
predictor of reading comprehension. The range of children’s skill
in recognizing words is large. One research study reported that in
a first-grade class, the number of words that children recognized
ranged from 15 words to 1,933 words. The average skilled reader
reads three times as many words as the average less skilled reader
(Compton & Appleton, 2004).

Recognizing Syllables A powerful tool to develop automatic

word recognition is to teach students the visual patterns in the 6
syllable types, which are shown in Table 12.4.

Table 12.4 Syllable Types

Syllable Types Examples

Syllable Types Examples

Closed peg, big

(closed with a consonant, vowel takes its

short sound)

Open we, go

(ends in a vowel, vowel makes its long

sound)

Silent e make, ride

e
(ends in vowel consonant , makes the
long sound)

Vowel combination boat, fried

(2 vowels together make a sound

Controlled r card, corn

r
(Contains a vowel plus , vowel sign is
changed)

Consonant + le ta/ble, fa/ble

(at end of a word)

© Cengage Learning 2015

Repeated Reading Repeated reading is an instructional

strategy in which students read a passage aloud several times. The
repeated reading method is simple and straightforward,
emphasizing practice and repetition. Repeated reading improves
fluency, comprehension, and overall reading achievement
(Jennings et al., 2010; National Reading Panel, 2000). Research
shows that repeated reading improves reading fluency for both
elementary students and secondary students (Nelson, Alber, &
Gordy, 2004). The “Strategies” section in this chapter describes
strategies to improve reading fluency through repeated reading.

Other Methods to Improve Reading Fluency Fluency

occurs when students begin to read easily instead of laboring
through reading material. Students need many opportunities to
 read if they are to gain fluency. The books or passages that
children read have to be at the appropriate difficulty level—not too
hard, but not too easy. The following strategies are additional
methods to improve reading fluency:

Read-along method. The teacher and one student read a

passage together orally.

Paired reading. Two students read in pairs, alternating

pages; paired reading provides extensive reading practice for
both students.

Echo reading. First, the teacher models an oral reading

passage; the student is then asked to imitate the teacher’s
reading.

Reading aloud to other audiences. Children can read

aloud to willing listeners, such as grandparents, other family
members, or even the dog.

12.3e Vocabulary
vocabulary occupies a central position in learning to read. The
student’s vocabulary has a significant effect on reading
achievement and is strongly related to reading comprehension
(Jennings et al., 2010; National Reading Panel, 2000).

Vocabulary knowledge requires the reader to not only know the

word, but also to apply it appropriately in context. For example,
when 2 boys tried to make cookies, they were puzzled when their
cookies stuck to the pan. They had followed the directions in the
recipe and greased the bottom of the pan. Their vocabulary
problem was they thought the meaning of the word bottom
referred to the underside of the pan. The part on which they had
been told to place the cookies seemed to them to be the top of the
pan.

Some important facets of teaching vocabulary are

 Differences between oral vocabulary and reading
vocabulary.

1. Oral vocabulary—the words the child uses in speaking

and in listening—and

2. reading vocabulary—the words the reader recognizes

in print.

Children enter school with a large oral vocabulary, estimated

to be about 6,000 words. The average high school senior
knows about 45,000 words (Stahl, 2004). Many of these
words are in the student’s reading vocabulary.

Indirect instruction and direct instruction. Students

build their vocabulary knowledge both indirectly and
directly. Methods for indirect instruction include the
expansive use of oral language and students reading
extensively on their own. In direct instruction, words are
explicitly taught using word-learning strategies.

Stages of learning words. It is important to recognize

that students learn words gradually. Most words require 20
exposures in context before an adequate grasp of their
meanings is acquired (McKenna, 2004).

The National Reading Panel (2000) summarized its findings

about vocabulary instruction, noting that

Instruction in vocabulary leads to gains in comprehension

and the method must be appropriate for the age and ability
of the reader.

Computer programs are helpful in teaching vocabulary.

Vocabulary can be learned incidentally in the context of

storybook reading or by listening to others.

The instructional procedure of teaching vocabulary before

reading a text is helpful.

The “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter offers some

specific strategies to improve students’ vocabulary.
12.3f Comprehension
The purpose of reading is comprehension, that is, gathering
meaning from the printed page. All reading instruction should
provide for the development of reading comprehension. Reading
comprehension is the major problem for many students with
reading disabilities. Comprehension skills do not automatically
evolve after word-recognition skills have been learned. Although
most students with reading disabilities eventually learn the basics
of word-recognition skills, many continue to have great difficulty
with tasks that require comprehension of complex passages. These
students need to learn strategies that will help them become active
readers who understand the text. In this section, we describe

1. different views of reading comprehension,

2. strategies to promote reading comprehension, and

3. comprehension of narrative and informational materials.

Views of Reading Comprehension Reading

comprehension is an active process that requires an intentional
and thoughtful interaction between the reader and the text. As
readers try to comprehend the material they read, they must
bridge the gap between the information presented in the written
text and the knowledge they possess. Reading comprehension thus
involves thinking. The reader’s background knowledge, interest,
and the reading situation all affect comprehension of the material.
Each person’s integration of the new information in the text with
what is already known will yield unique information (Jennings et
al., 2010; National Reading Panel, 2000).

Reading Comprehension Depends on What the

Reader Brings to the Written Material Reading
comprehension depends on the reader’s experience, knowledge of
language, and recognition of syntactic structure, as well as on the
redundancy of the printed passage (Jennings et al., 2010).
 When a reader is faced with text that is about something the
reader knows nothing about yet is able to read the individual
words, the individual will not be able to comprehend the text. The
implication for teaching is that when a reader has limited
knowledge to relate to text content, no amount of rereading will
increase comprehension. What students with learning disabilities
and related disabilities need in many cases is more background
knowledge to improve their comprehension.

Reading Comprehension Is a Thinking Process The

relationship between reading and thinking has been noted for a
long time. In 1917, Thorndike likened the thinking process used in
mathematics to that of reading:

According to Thorndike, understanding a paragraph is like solving

a problem in mathematics. It consists of selecting the right
elements of the situation and putting them together in the right
relations, and also with the right amount of weight or influence or
force for each … all under the influence of the right mental set or
purpose or demands.

Reading can be viewed as thinking or as something akin to

problem solving. As in problem solving, the reader must employ
concepts, develop and test hypotheses, and modify those concepts.
Thus, reading comprehension is a mode of inquiry, and methods
that employ discovery techniques should be used in the teaching
of reading. The key to teaching from this perspective is to guide
students to set up their own questions and purposes for reading.
Students then read to solve problems that they have devised for
themselves. Students can be encouraged first to guess what will
happen next in a story, for example, and then to read to determine
the accuracy of those predictions (Stauffer, 1975). This approach,
which is called a directed reading-thinking activity (DRTA),
is described in the “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 © Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Reading Comprehension

Strategies for the Elementary School: Questioning Techniques.” In this video,
the teacher, Liz Page, instructs students on how to understand the text, read
between the lines, and interpret texts at multiple levels, then leads a
discussion with the group on interpretation questions.

Questions
1. How does the teacher model the reading strategy?

2. How does an interpretation comprehension question differ from a

factual comprehension question?

Reading Comprehension Requires Active

Interaction with the Text Readers must be active
participants, interacting with the text material. They must actively
combine their existing knowledge with the new information of the
printed text.

There is evidence that good readers generally do not read every

word of a passage; instead, they “sample” certain words to
determine the meaning and skip many others. They go back and
read every word only when they encounter something unexpected.
For example, when people in love are reading a love letter, they
read for all they are worth. They read every word three ways; they
read the whole in terms of the parts, and each part in terms of the
whole; they grow sensitive to context and ambiguity, to
insinuation and implication; they perceive the color of words, the
order of phrases, and the weight of sentences. They may even take
punctuation into account (Adler, 1956).

Strategies to Promote Reading Comprehension In

its review of reading comprehension, the National Reading Panel
(2000) recognized several strategies that have a solid scientific
basis of instruction for improving reading comprehension.

1. Comprehension monitoring. Students learn how to be

aware of their understanding of the material.

2. Cooperative learning. Students learn reading strategies

together.

3. Using graphic and semantic organizers, including

story maps. Students make graphic representations of the
material to assist their comprehension.

4. Question answering. Students answer questions posed by

the teacher and receive immediate feedback.

5. Question generation. Students ask themselves questions

about various aspects of the story.

6. Story structure. Students are taught how to use the

structure of the story as a means of helping them recall story
content in order to answer questions about what they have
read.

7. Summarization. Students are taught to integrate ideas

and to generalize from the text information.

Students with reading disabilities often require a different type of

comprehension instruction. Just as students with reading
disabilities need explicit structured instruction to learn word-
recognition skills, they need explicit, highly structured instruction
to learn reading comprehension skills. Incidental, literature-based
instruction may be successful to teach reading comprehension to
typical learners but such instruction is not sufficient for students
with reading disabilities. Joanna Williams (1998) taught
 comprehension to students with reading disabilities through a
“Themes Instruction Program,” which consists of a series of twelve
40-minute lessons. Each lesson is organized around a single story
and is composed of five parts:

1. Prereading discussion on the purpose of the lesson and the

topic of the story that will be read.

2. Reading the story.

3. Discussion of important story information using organized

(schema) questions as a guide.

4. Identification of a theme for the story, stating it in general

terms so that it is relevant to a variety of stories and
situations.

5. Practice in applying the generalized theme to real-life

experiences.

Comprehension Activities Before, During, and After

Reading Reading comprehension can be taught before reading,
during reading, and after reading, as indicated in Teaching Tips
12.1, “Strategies to Promote Reading Comprehension.”

Teaching Tips 12.1 Strategies To Promote Reading

Comprehension

Before During After Reading

Reading Reading
Establish a Direct attention Ask students to
purpose for to difficult or retell or
reading. subtle dimensions summarize the
of the text. story.
Review Point out difficult Create graphic
vocabulary. words and ideas. organizers (e.g.,
webs, cause-and-
effect charts,
outlines).
Build background Ask students to Put pictures of
knowledge. identify problems story events in
and solutions. order.
 Before During After Reading
Reading Reading
Relate Encourage silent Link background
background reading. information.
knowledge and
information to the
story.
Encourage Encourage Generate
children to predict students to questions for
what the story monitor their own other children.
will be about. comprehension
while reading.
Discuss the Insert author Have students
author if such information in the write their own
knowledge helps story. reactions to
to set up the stories and
story. factual material.

Professional Resource Download

Before reading a story, teachers should motivate and interest

students in the reading selection, review the vocabulary, build
background information, and have the students predict what the
story will be about. During reading, the teacher should direct the
students’ attention to the difficult or subtle dimensions of the
story, anticipate difficult words and ideas, talk about problems
and solutions, encourage silent reading, as well as encourage
students to monitor their own comprehension. After reading,
comprehension strategies can include having the readers
summarize or retell the story, talk about what they liked and what
they wished had been different in the story, create graphic
organizers, put pictures of story events in order, link background
information, and talk about the characters in the story (Jennings
et al., 2010).

Comprehension of Narrative and Informational Text

Two types of reading comprehension materials are narrative
materials and informational materials. Narrative materials are
stories that are usually fiction. Informational materials are
nonfictional materials that provide new knowledge about a
subject.

Narrative Materials Narratives have characters, a plot, and a

sequence of events. To read narrative materials effectively,
students must be able to identify the following:

Important characters

Setting, time, and place

Major events in sequence

Problems that the characters had to solve and how those

problems were resolved

Sometimes narratives are inspirational. Readers can leave the

limits of their everyday lives and travel to other parts of the world,
to space, and to other time periods. Poor readers often respond
negatively to narrative materials and have to be strongly
encouraged to read stories. It is important to ask students for their
reactions and to find narrative materials that meet their interests.
Different varieties of narrative reading materials are called genres.
To become good readers, students need to have experiences with a
variety of narrative materials, such as realistic fiction; fantasy
fiction (such as books with talking animals); science fiction; fairy
tales, folktales, and tall tales; fables; mysteries; historical fiction
set in a period in the past; plays; and narrative poetry (poems that
tell stories).

Comprehension of Informational Materials

Informational materials include subject-matter materials,
such as textbooks used in social studies or science content areas.
As students move through the grades, the reading tasks they
confront change dramatically. Reading assignments in content-
area textbooks take the place of narrative stories. Students are
often assigned to read textbooks independently, without
supervision or help. They may be required to read a chapter,
complete a written assignment on the chapter, prepare for a class
activity based on the chapter, and take a test on the content of the
chapter. It is not surprising that many students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities cannot complete such
assignments. A student whose reading has been limited to
narrative stories will lack experience with, and the ability to do,
the kind of reading that informational, content-area textbooks
require.

Instruction at the secondary level places heavy demands on

reading proficiency and provides little teacher direction. Major
problems in content-area reading for students with learning
disabilities and related disabilities include the following:

1. There is a heavy emphasis on reading to obtain

information. Content-area instruction is based on
presumed proficiency in reading. Students are expected to
read, comprehend, and retain large amounts of information
—up to 50 pages a week for each general education content
class. Furthermore, students may be required to take four
content-area classes (e.g., English, science, mathematics,
and history). For students with reading disabilities, the
reading demand can become overwhelming.

2. Content textbooks are generally written above the

grade level in which they are used. The textbook could
be extremely difficult for the student with reading
disabilities to understand. For example, if a tenth-grade
student is at a fifth-grade reading level and the social studies
textbook is written at an eleventh-grade level, there will be a
6-year discrepancy between the student’s reading level and
the reading level of the textbook.

3. Content-area teachers often assume that students

have adequate reading ability, and they do not teach
reading skills. At the secondary level, there is little time
spent on teaching reading skills, such as organizing or
studying an outline. Teachers can help students read content
books by making the reading meaningful, connecting it to
other material that the students have covered, and
encouraging students to review the material to get an
orientation to the text as a whole. Teachers can also
 introduce difficult or technical words before reading the text
and alert students to monitor for comprehension as they are
reading.

The “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter provides some

suggestions to help students read informational materials when
using content-area textbooks.

Did You Get It?

In 2000, the National Reading Panel published a list of 5 categories in

which every child should/must be able to display specific levels of
reading competency. The list did not include which category?

a. test comprehension

b. literary critique

c. phonemic awareness

d. fluency

12.4 The Reading-Writing Connection

Strong ties exist between reading and writing. As students write,
their reading skills improve. Both readers and writers construct
meaning. Readers construct meaning from the author’s text;
writers compose or construct meaning as they write.

12.4a Early Literacy and Writing

Young children begin to grasp the insight that alphabet letters
represent abstract speech segments. At a very early stage of
literacy development, young children begin to write letters for
words. For example, a child might write KR for car, TRKE for
 turkey, or PTZU for pizza. Children should be encouraged to
write. Acceptance of “invented spelling” encourages children’s
writing. Figure 12.1 shows the writing of a young child who uses
the alphabetic principle.

Figure 12.1 Example of Early Alphabet Reading-Child’s

Response to “What Did You Eat for
Thanksgiving?”

© Cengage Learning

With the early literacy emphasis, sometimes children learn to

write before they learn to read. Student Stories 12.2, “Writing
Before Reading,” tells the story of a kindergartner who learned to
write before learning to read.

Student Stories 12.2 Writing Before Reading

The following example describes an incident involving a kindergartner who

confidently used writing before learning to read. A business call was made to
a client’s home and the client’s 5-year-old child answered the phone. The
 caller’s side of the telephone conversation was overheard and went as
follows:

“Hello, I want to speak to Mr. John Walsh… Oh, he’s in the shower? Well,
would you please write a message for him?… Good. Please write that… What?
You haven’t any paper?… Okay, I’ll wait until you get a piece of paper… You
got the paper? Good. Please write that… What? You haven’t got a pencil?…
Okay, I’ll wait… Good. You found a pencil. Please write that Eugene Lerner
called. I’ll spell that— E-U-G-E-N-E L-E-R-N-E-R. My phone number is 708-
555-1437. Did you write that down?… Good. Now would you read the
message back to me?… What’s that? You can write, but you haven’t learned
to read?”

Reflective Question
1. What kind of early childhood curriculum do you think this child was
in?

Did You Get It?

A very young child wrote a new word he heard, “bicycle,” as “bykicl.”

This to-be-accepted form of early writing is referred to as “
spelling.”

a. invented

b. ventured

c. gambled

d. aspiration

12.5 Literature-Based Reading

Instruction/Whole-Language Reading
Instruction
A contentious issue regarding approaches for teaching reading
involves the controversy between whole-language reading
instruction and skills-based reading instruction that includes
phonics. The concept of whole-language reading instruction was
first introduced by Kenneth Goodman (1967). The underlying
philosophy of this approach was that children should learn to read
in the same way they learned to talk. By being involved in
numerous books and stories and having many experiences
listening to stories, they can learn to read in a natural way. The
whole-language approach quickly rose in popularity in the schools
during the late 1980s and the 1990s and was used in many schools
throughout the country. The popularity of whole language has
waned with the current emphasis on skills and phonics, but there
are still many proponents of whole-language reading instruction
(Flurkey & Yu, 2003).

The literature-based approach to teaching reading promotes a

number of sound principles for reading instruction:

1. There are strong interrelationships among the

various language systems: oral language, reading,
and writing. The links between reading and oral language
and writing should be strengthened. Active experiences with
writing and oral language will improve a child’s reading. The
early literacy curriculum focuses on the links between oral
and written language and encourages children to write as
early as kindergarten and even before learning to read.

2. Young children should be immersed in language

and books from infancy. Children need much exposure
to language, books, and stories. The value of using stories
has been part of our culture from Mother Goose to Dr. Seuss.
It is essential that books, stories, and poems become an
integral part of a child’s life. Children benefit greatly from
sharing books and hearing stories. (See Chapter 11, “Spoken
Language Difficulties: Listening and Speaking.”)

3. Children should be given many experiences with

writing. Children need opportunities to engage in abundant
writing and to express their thoughts and ideas in writing
 and in journals. Figure 12.2 shows the written journal entry
of a 5-year-old kindergarten student.

Figure 12.2 Journal of a Kindergarten

Student

© Cengage Learning

4. Children need time for independent reading.

Children need opportunities to engage in reading for
enjoyment when they are not under the supervision of a
teacher.

Did You Get It?

Children should be presented with opportunities for language and

book-related activities from infancy on in a manner that constitutes
.

a. superficial exposure

b. familiarity

c. empiricism

d. immersion
12.6 English-Language Learners (ELL) and
Reading
English-language learners (ELL) are students who
are not yet proficient with the English language,
and their native language is not English. An
increasing number of students come from homes in which a
language other than English is spoken. For over 77% of ELL
students in the United States, Spanish is the native language, but
over 350 languages are used by ELL students in U.S. schools
(Samson & Lesaux, 2009; McCardle, 2005). Chapter 11, “Spoken
Language Difficulties: Listening and Speaking,” provides
additional information about English-language learners. Many
students who are English-language learners have much difficulty
learning to read in English.

The following methods for teaching reading to ELL students are

recommended by Hudson and Smith (2001):

Build reading fluency. Have students reread orally two

familiar books in English from previous lessons.

Keep a running record of errors. The teacher has a

duplicate copy of the text the student is reading aloud and
marks errors that the student makes in the oral reading. The
teacher and student discuss these errors.

Incorporate writing into the lesson. The student writes

the story that has been read.

Cut up the written story into sentences. The student

reassembles the sentences, and rereads it several times.

Write a new story. The student reads a new book and then
writes a new story about what has been read.

Did You Get It?

How many primary languages other than English are spoken by

students in schools in the United States?
 a. 25–50

b. 100–150

c. 200–300

d. well over 300

12.7 Assessing Reading

There are many more measures and tests for assessing reading
than for other areas of the curriculum. Reading can be assessed
through

1. informal measures, such as the informal reading inventory

and portfolio assessment or

2. formal tests, such as survey tests, diagnostic tests, and

comprehensive batteries.

12.7a Informal Measures

One of the simplest methods of assessing reading is to observe
informally as the student reads aloud. The teacher can readily
detect the student’s general reading level, word-recognition
abilities, types of errors, and understanding of the material. This
method is very practical and can be as informative as elaborate
test batteries.

Informal Reading Inventory The informal reading

inventory (IRI), which can be administered quickly and easily,
provides a wealth of information concerning the student’s reading
skills, reading levels, types of errors, techniques of attacking
unknown words, and related behavioral characteristics (Jennings
et al., 2010; Johnson, Kress, & Pikulski, 1987).
The informal reading inventory procedure requires the examiner
to choose selections of approximately 100 words in length from a
series of graded reading levels. The student reads aloud from
several graded levels while the teacher systematically records the
errors. If the student makes more than 5 errors per 100 words, the
student is given progressively easier selections until a level is
found at which there are no more than 2 errors per 100 words. To
check comprehension, the teacher asks the student 4 to 10
questions about each selection. By means of the following criteria,
an informal reading inventory can determine 3 reading levels:

1. Independent reading level. The student is able to

recognize about 95% of the words and to answer about 90%
of the comprehension questions correctly. (This is the level
at which the student is able to read library books or do
reading work independently.)

2. Instructional reading level. The student is able to

recognize about 90% of the words in the selection, with a
comprehension score of about 70%. (This is the level at
which the student will profit from teacher-directed reading
instruction.)

3. Frustration reading level. The student is able to

recognize fewer than 90% of the words, with a
comprehension score of less than 70%. (If the student does
not understand the material, this level is too difficult and
should not be used for instruction.)

In addition to informal reading inventories developed by teachers,

several standard commercial inventories are available, and they
offer a convenient way to administer the reading inventory.

The IOTA Informal Word-Reading Test The IOTA test

is an informal test for word-reading skills in the public domain.
This means it is no longer under copyright law. It was originally
published by M. Monroe (1932). (See the Student Website for
information about how to administer the IOTA informal reading
test.)
 Portfolio Assessment of Reading Portfolio assessment is
an alternative to traditional, standardized reading assessment
tests. The problem with standardized reading tests is that they do
not measure what students are actually doing in the reading
classroom and do not closely link the assessment to the reading
curriculum. Proponents of portfolio assessment propose that
learning is too complex and assessment too imperfect to rely on
any single index of achievement.

Specifically, portfolio assessment consists of keeping samples of

the students’ reading and writing work. It is relatively easy to
collect samples of students’ writing during the school year. For
reading, the teacher keeps a reflective log, recording the students’
reactions to books they read, along with the teacher’s own
reactions. The log shows the growth of each student in reading
comprehension. Samples of language experience stories can be
kept in the portfolio. Other assessment methods of this type are
observations of students (“kid watching”), checklists, interviews
with students, and collections of student work. By reviewing the
students’ work over a period of time, teachers, parents, and
students themselves are able to evaluate progress (Jennings et al.,
2010).

12.7b Formal Tests

Formal reading tests can be classified as survey tests, diagnostic
tests, or comprehensive batteries. Survey tests are group tests that
give an overall reading achievement level. These tests generally
give at least 2 scores: word recognition and reading
comprehension. Diagnostic tests are individual tests that provide
more in-depth information about the student’s strengths and
weaknesses in reading. Comprehensive batteries are tests with
components that measure several academic areas, including
 reading. Table 12.5 lists some of the widely used formal reading
tests in each of these categories.

Table 12.5 Commonly Used Formal Reading Tests

Test Grade or Age Assessed

Survey tests

Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (4th ed.), Riverside Grades 1–12

Publishing http://www.riverpub.com

Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Harcourt Grades K–12

http://www.harcourtassessment.com

Wide-Range Achievement Test—4 (WRAT -4), Ann Ages 5–adult

Arbor http://www.annarbor.co.uk

Diagnostic tests

Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (4th ed.), Harcourt Grades 1–12

http://www.harcourtassessment.com

Woodcock Reading Mastery Test—Revised Normative Ages 5–adult

Updates (WRMT-R), AGS
http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

Comprehensive batteries

Brigance Comprehension Inventory of Basic Skills— Grades K–9

Revised Curriculum Associates
http://www.curriculumassociates.com

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 2nd ed.

(KTEA-2), AGS http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

PIAT-R/NL Peabody Individual Achievement Test— Grades K–12

Revised Normative Update, AGS
http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III, Preschool–adult

Riverside Publishing http://www.riverpub.com

© Cengage Learning

Did You Get It?

level is an assessment result used to determine the level of

reading at which a student is not able to perform adequately—a level
 considered beyond optimal for him or her.

a. Frustration

b. Antagonistic

c. Vexation

d. Apprehension

12.8 Teaching Strategies to Improve

Reading Difficulties
The “Teaching Strategies” section presents approaches, methods,
and materials to teach reading to students with learning
disabilities and related disabilities. It is organized by the following
strategies:

1. strategies to improve word recognition,

2. strategies to improve fluency,

3. strategies to improve reading comprehension,

4. enjoyment and appreciation of reading,

5. multisensory methods, and

6. assistive and instructional technology for reading.

Did You Get It?

Phoneme awareness is considered an inextricable link in the process of

teaching/improving word recognition. Which strategy is not used to
build phoneme awareness?

a. segmenting the sounds and syllables in words

b. learning to recognize and assess rhyming patterns

c. learning to recognize basic aspects of word-origin

d. learning to properly count the sounds within a word

12.9 Strategies to Improve Word
Recognition
12.9a Building Phoneme Awareness
A child who is learning to read must first become aware of the
sounds in words and language. Strategies for teaching children to
become aware of the phonemes, or sounds, in language include

1. learning to count the sounds in words,

2. learning to segment the sounds and syllables in words, and

3. learning to recognize rhyming words.

These strategies are presented in Chapter 11, “Spoken Language

Difficulties: Listening and Speaking.”

12.9b Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early

Literacy Skills (DIBELS)
Some schools are using a measurement system called DIBELS to
assess the early reading skills of young children in grades K–2.
DIBELS stands for Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills. DIBELS measures are designed to assess the young child’s
skills in phonological awareness (initial sound fluency and
phonemic segmentation fluency), alphabetic principles (nonsense
word fluency), and oral reading fluency. The intent of DIBELS is
to monitor the early reading skills of young children frequently to
identify young children who are likely to have difficulty in learning
to read and to provide the appropriate intervention. More
 information about DIBELS can be found at the DIBELS website at
http://dibels.uoregon.edu.

12.9c Phonics Methods

Phonics systems and phonics books have been on the market for
over 70 years. Many phonics programs today are repackaged as
preprinted masters for duplication or as CDs, recordings,
audiotapes, videotapes, computer software programs, and
multimedia packages. Two phonics approaches are

1. synthetic and

2. analytic.

Synthetic phonics methods first teach students isolated letters and

their sound equivalents. Then they teach students to synthesize or
blend these individual phoneme elements into whole words.
Analytic phonics methods teach students whole words that have a
consistent sound-spelling pattern, and they then teach students to
analyze the phoneme elements that make up the words. A typical
exercise in phonics materials appears in Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.3 Examples of Phonics Exercises

© Cengage Learning

The Dollar Store Many useful reading games and materials

can be found by browsing through a dollar store. These bargain
 items include phonics games, alphabet letters, sight word cards,
and other reading-related materials. Teachers can develop a
collection of these items that can be placed in an activity center or
used to reinforce a reading lesson. Dollar store items can also be
purchased through the Internet. The URL for one such dollar
store, Oriental Trading, is http://www.OrientalTrading.com.
Figure 12.4 provides you with a menu of some reading activities
you can plan using low cost materials.

Figure 12.4 Sample Page from Phonics Remedial Reading

Lessons

10 Ways to Use Low Cost Materials to Build Reading Skills

1. Purchase three hula hoops and put three different letters that make a
word in each hula hoop. Have the student jump in the hoops in
sequence as they say the sounds of the letter and then put them
together in the last hoop to make a word.

2. Purchase a shower curtain or a plastic tablecloth and write words that

you are working on with the students on the curtain or cloth and tape
to the floor. Say the word and have the student jump to the correct
word.

3. Purchase a large plain ball where you have written in permanent

marker key words that you want to review with your students or where
you have written key letters. You throw the ball to the student and
wherever the student’s left thumb lands, the student has to read the
word or give the sound of the letter closest to where the student’s left
thumb landed.

4. Purchase hand clappers for each student. Students get to clap for each
sound they hear in the words they say.

5. Purchase sand paper and cut out letters in sand paper so students are
able to feel the letters as they say them and provide the sound.

6. Purchase flash cards that have a picture and the matching word.

7. Purchase sheets of foam and make puzzles with letters that make words
and have the students put together the puzzle to make a word.

8. Purchase a plastic bucket and scoop and place various words in the
bucket and have students read those words as they scoop the letters
 one at a time from the bucket.

9. Purchase blank name tags. Give 3 or 4 or 5 students a nametag with a

letter on it and have students put themselves together and in order to
make a word.

10. Purchase a dot to dot book with letters. In order for a student to
connect the dot, he or she has to say a word that begins with the letter.
You can also make your own dot to dots.

Professional Resource Download

© Cengage Learning 2015

Did You Get It?

Repetition is a very effective strategy for improving fluency. The basic

length of a standard passage meant for repetition should be

a. 10 to 15 words—a standard sentence.

b. 30 to 45 words—a short paragraph.

c. 50 to 200 words—a half-page of text.

d. 1,200–1,500 words—a short chapter.

12.10 Strategies to Improve Fluency

In addition to recognizing words accurately, readers must read the
words quickly and fluently. Otherwise, reading is labored and not
enjoyable, and the reader loses meaning. Some strategies to
improve fluency include

1. repeated reading,

2. predictable books, and

3. the neurological impress method.

12.10a Repeated Reading
Repeated reading is a strategy used to give the student repeated
practice to improve his or her oral reading fluency. It is especially
useful with slow, halting readers who accurately identify most
words in a passage but have not developed fluency. The method
involves the selection of passages that are 50 to 200 words long
and at a difficulty level that enables the student to recognize most
of the words. The student then reads the selection orally three or
four times before proceeding to a new passage. Word-accuracy
rates and reading speed are usually reported to the student after
each reading, and daily practice is recommended (Jennings et al.,
2010). Some students particularly enjoy repeated reading when
the passages are displayed on a computer screen. Read Naturally
is a commercial fluency and training program that focuses on
fluency development. Its website is at
http://www.readnaturally.com.

12.10b Predictable Books

Predictable books contain patterns or refrains that are repeated
over and over. Many are based on folktales and fairy tales. For
example, in The Three Billy Goats Gruff, the question “Who is
that trip-trapping over my bridge?” is asked by the troll as each
Billy goat goes over the bridge. Another favorite predictable book
is Brown Bear, Brown Bear. After the book has been read to
young children several times, they are able to predict the wording
and begin saying the refrain along with the storyteller. Using
predictable books is an excellent way to actively involve children
in a story even before they can read. They begin to develop
language knowledge and anticipate what will be said. This
experience helps develop support for word recognition when they
do read the story (Jennings et al., 2010).
12.10c Neurological Impress Method
Another approach to improving fluency for students with severe
reading disabilities is the neurological impress method
(Heckelman, 1969; Langford, Slade, & Barnett, 1974). It is a
system of rapid-unison reading by the student and teacher. The
student sits slightly in front of the teacher, and both read together
out of one book. The voice of the teacher is directed into the ear of
the student at a fairly close range. The student or the teacher
places a finger on the word as it is read. At times, the teacher’s
voice may be louder and faster than the student’s, and at other
times the teacher may read more slowly than the student, who
may lag slightly behind. No preliminary preparations are made
with the reading material before the student sees it. The goal is
simply to cover as many pages as possible within the time
available without tiring the student. The theory underlying this
method is that the auditory process of feedback from the reader’s
own voice and from the voice of someone else reading the same
material strengthens the reading process.

In the read-along method, a similar process occurs. In this

method, children listen to a CD or a tape recording of a story as
they read along with the text. In the classroom, headphones may
be used so that the tape recording does not disturb other children.
There are many commercial stories and tapes available for this
purpose.

Did You Get It?

The fundamental aspect of the structure of a basal reading series is its

nature of difficulty levels as the series progresses.

a. escalating

b. deescalating

c. stable
 d. random

12.11 Strategies to Improve Reading

Comprehension
This section describes strategies to improve reading
comprehension. Comprehension is the essence of the reading act.
Students must understand and interact with the text. The section
discusses

1. basal readers,

2. activating background knowledge,

3. language experience method,

4. the K-W-L technique,

5. building meaning with vocabulary and concepts,

6. the reading-writing connection,

7. thinking strategies, and

8. cognitive learning strategies for reading.

12.11a Using Basal Readers

Basal readers are a sequential and interrelated set of books and
supportive materials intended to provide the basic material for the
development of fundamental reading skills. A basal reading
series consists of graded readers that gradually increase in
difficulty, typically beginning with very simple readiness and first-
grade books and going through the sixth- or eighth-grade level.
The books increase in difficulty in vocabulary, story content, and
skill development. Auxiliary material, such as teacher’s manuals
 and activity books, often accompanies the books. Most basal
reading series incorporate an eclectic approach to the teaching of
reading, using many procedures to teach readiness, vocabulary,
word recognition, comprehension, and the enjoyment of
literature.

As the major tool of reading instruction for the past 40 years, the
basal reader has been the target of continual criticism from
diverse groups, including some educators, scholars from other
academic disciplines, the popular press, parent groups, political
observers, moralists, and, recently, ethnic and women’s groups.
Critics have scoffed at and satirized the language, phonics
presentation, story content, class appeal, pictures, qualities, and
environment of the characters of the basal reader. In spite of this
highly vocal and severe criticism, basal readers continue to be the
major tool for reading instruction in elementary classrooms
throughout the country.

Because most basal readers are not committed to any one teaching
procedure, publishers are continually modifying them in response
to the demands of the times and the consumer market. For
example, more phonics and decoding activities are currently being
added to basal readers. Other recent basal reader modifications
have more literature-based materials and language activities in the
early grades. The modifications have also made stories longer and
more sophisticated and added stories that are culturally and
ethnically diverse. There are also series of readers produced
especially for slow readers.

12.11b Activating Background Knowledge

The following strategies alert the student to the background
knowledge needed for reading comprehension and build on
student experiences.
Language Experience Method The language
experience method is well accepted as a method that builds on
the student’s knowledge and language base, linking the different
forms of language—listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This
method uses the student’s own experiences and language as the
raw material. Students begin by dictating stories to the teacher (or
writing stories by themselves). These stories then become the
basis of their reading instruction. Through the language
experience approach, students conceptualize written material as
follows:

What I can think about, I can talk about.

What I can say, I can write (or someone can write for me).

What I can write, I can read.

I can read what others write for me to read.

There is no predetermined, rigid control over vocabulary, syntax,

or content. The teacher uses the text or stories that the student
composes to develop reading skills. The language experience
approach to reading has a vitality and immediacy, as well as an
element of creativity. The method is effective both in the
beginning-to-read stage with young children and in corrective
instruction with older pupils. The interest of the student is high
because the emphasis is on reading material that grows out of the
student’s personal experiences and natural language in expressing
these experiences. Figure 12.4 shows an example of a language
experience story. (Language experience is also discussed as a
writing strategy in Chapter 13, “Written Language Difficulties:
Written Expression, Spelling, and Handwriting.”)

The K-W-L Technique K-W-L is a technique for reading and

studying contentarea textbooks (Ogle, 1986). The letters represent
3 questions in 3 steps of a lesson:

1. What I know. Students think of and state all the

knowledge they have on a subject. A group of students can
pool their knowledge.
 2. What I want to find out. Each student thinks of and
writes on a sheet of paper what he or she wants to (or
expects to) learn from the reading. Students can then
compare their answers to this question.

3. What I learned. Students read the lesson silently and write

what they have learned from the reading. Answers to this
question can be shared by the group.

Figure 12.5 provides a chart that shows the importance of passage

review. To increase comprehension, the teacher must build on
prior knowledge, review key vocabulary words in the passage,
review the big ideas, review what students want to learn about the
passage, how they want to learn about the passage, and then
review what they learned that can then provide a basis for new
passages.

Figure 12.5 Steps to Build Comprehension

© Cengage Learning 2015

12.11c Building Meaning With Vocabulary
and Concepts
To read effectively, readers need to have knowledge of word
meanings and of the concepts underlying the words. The more
students read, the more word meanings and language they will
acquire. It is important to use strategies that will build the
student’s vocabulary and understanding of words.

Knowledge of vocabulary and the ability to understand the

concepts of words are closely related to reading achievement.
Limited vocabulary knowledge can seriously hamper reading
comprehension. Further, as words become more abstract, the
concepts become more difficult to grasp.

Concepts are commonly explained as ideas, abstractions, or the

essence of things. For example, the concept of chair refers to an
idea, an abstraction, or a symbol of concrete experiences. A
person’s experiences may have included exposure to a specific
rocking chair, an upholstered chair, and a baby’s highchair, but
the concept chair symbolizes a set of attributes about “chairness.”
The word chair allows a person to make an inference about new
experiences with chairs, such as a lawn chair observed for the first
time. The word or concept of chair by itself does not have an
empirical reference point.

At a still more abstract level, words become further removed from

concrete referents. The concept chair is part of a broader concept
of furniture. Concepts even more removed from the sensory world
are ideas, such as democracy, loyalty, fairness, and freedom.

A further confusion in school learning is related to the fact that

textbooks present important concepts as technical terms, such as
plateau, continental divide, density of population, pollution, the
law of gravity, or space exploration. Problems in reading in the
content areas are frequently due not to the difficulty of the words,
 but to the concentration and compactness of the presentation of
the concepts.

Because language plays a key role in concept development,

language problems are likely to be reflected in faulty conceptual
abilities and limited vocabulary development. Students who have
meager, imprecise, or inaccurate concepts will have difficulties
understanding a reading passage. Student Stories 12.3,
“Misunderstanding of Concepts,” illustrates the consequences of
imprecise concept development.

Student Stories 12.3 Misunderstanding of Concepts

Some students confuse one attribute of an object with the concept of

the object. For example, Paula could not understand the circular
concept of the roundness of a plate. When told that the plate was
“round” and asked to draw a circle around its edges, Paula said, “That’s
not round; that’s a dish.” Students may also confuse the concept of an
object with its name. When Paula was asked if the moon could be called
by another name, such as cow, she responded, “No, because the moon
doesn’t give milk.”

Misunderstanding a symbol that conveys multiple concepts may have

unexpected consequences. Nine-year-old Susie was in tears when she
brought home a medical form from the school nurse advising Susie’s
parents to take their daughter for an eye examination. Susie sobbed
that the cause of her anguish was not that she needed eyeglasses, but
that the nurse had filled in an F in the blank next to the word sex on the
examination form. That symbol F conveyed the concept of a grade, and
Susie feared she had “failed sex.”

Students often deal with their inability to understand a concept by

ignoring it. By failing to read a word they do not know, they may
change the entire meaning of a passage. One high school student
thought the school was using pornographic material because the people
described in the following passage were nude: “The pilgrims did not
wear gaudy clothes.” Because the boy did not know the meaning of the
word gaudy, he simply eliminated it from the sentence.

To make pizza, Lisa and Jaime were told to put it in the microwave
oven, heat it, and then bring it to the lunchroom. Thinking they were
 following the directions, after heating the pizza, they unplugged the
microwave oven and carried it (with the pizza inside) to the lunchroom.

Reflective Question
1. How can a student’s lack of understanding vocabulary affect reading
comprehension?

Expanding Vocabulary The following activities are

designed to expand and build vocabulary:

1. Highlighting multiple word meanings. Multiple

meanings of words often cause confusion in reading. For
example, there are many meanings of the word note. In
music, note means the elliptical character in a certain
position on the music staff. In arithmetic or business, a note
might mean a written promise to pay. In English or study
hall, a note might refer to an informal written
communication. In social studies, a note might refer to a
formal communiqué between the heads of two nations. In
science, one might be able to note the results of an
experiment, meaning to observe them. In English class, the
selection of literature might discuss an individual who was a
person of great note, or importance, in the community. In
any lesson, the student could be asked to make note of an
examination date, meaning to remember it. The teacher
could make a note, meaning a remark, in the margin of the
paper. In material on England, paper money may be called a
bank note. The student who cannot hold the various
concepts of this word in mind will have trouble
understanding many areas of the curriculum. By
highlighting multiple meanings—through dictionary games,
sentence-completion exercises, and class discussion—
teachers can offer important help to students who must
develop an awareness of one word’s different meanings.

2. Providing concrete experiences. To build vocabulary

and develop concepts for reading, students need concrete
experiences with words. A first step is to provide students
with primary experiences with the word or concept. The next
step is to encourage and assist students to draw conclusions
from their experiences. As students progress to more
 advanced stages, teachers can foster skills of classifying,
summarizing, and generalizing.

3. Exploring sources of vocabulary. Because vocabulary is

woven into every phase of our lives, new words can be drawn
from any aspect of a student’s experience: television, sports,
newspapers, advertising, science, and so on. Many students
enjoy keeping lists of new words and developing word books.

4. Expanding vocabulary through classification.

Another way to learn new words is to attach them to known
words. Much vocabulary growth takes place in this manner.
Vertical vocabulary expansion involves taking a known word
and breaking it down into categories. For example, students
take the concept dog and break it into many species (collie,
terrier, cocker spaniel). Horizontal vocabulary growth refers
to enrichment and differentiation. Children may first call all
animals dogs. Then they learn to distinguish cats, horses,
and other creatures.

Word Webs A word web is a type of graphic organizer, which

is a strategy for helping build vocabulary and making information
easier to understand and learn. Word webs enrich associations
with a word and deepen a student’s understanding of important
concepts. Figure 12.6 shows an example of a word web for ice
cream. A group of students developed the word web by answering
3 questions: “What is it?” “What is it like?” and “What are some
examples?” Research shows that graphic organizers help students
with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities understand
reading material and improve their comprehension (Fisher et al.,
1995; Sabbatino, 2004). A computer program that produces many
types of graphic organizers is Inspiration (Inspiration Software,
http://www.inspiration.com).

Figure 12.6 Word Web

 Source: From Cook, D. M (Ed.). Strategic learning in the content area
, 1989, Madison, WI:
Department of Public Instruction. Reprinted with the permission of the Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction, 125 South Webster Street, Madison, WI 53702, 800-243-8782.

Cloze Procedure The cloze procedure is a useful technique

for building comprehension and language skills. It is based on a
person’s impulse to provide closure, or complete a structure and
make it whole by supplying a missing element. When the cloze
procedure is applied to the reading process, the following steps are
used:

1. Select a passage of reading material.

2. Rewrite the material and delete every xth word (e.g., every
fifth word or every tenth word). Replace the deleted word
with a blank line; all lines should be the same length.

3. Ask students to fill in each blank by writing the word they

think was deleted.

One advantage of the cloze test over the conventional reading test
or other fill-in-the-blank tests is that because words are deleted at
random, both lexical words and structural words are omitted.
Lexical words carry primary meaning and are roughly similar to
verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Relationships are indicated
by structural words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions,
and auxiliary verbs. What the reader supplies provides clues to his
or her underlying language processes.
 The cloze procedure may be modified and used for a variety of
purposes. To teach vocabulary, for example, only the words of the
vocabulary lesson can be deleted. In content areas, such as social
studies, technical words can be deleted. Or the teacher can delete
other selected categories, such as adjectives, adverbs, or
prepositions. For students who have difficulty in writing, the cloze
words can be printed on cards backed with felt or Velcro, which
students place on the appropriate blank space in the written
passage.

In the sample cloze exercise shown in Figure 12.7, the reading

material was retyped with every tenth word deleted and replaced
by a standard-size line. Students supply the missing words.

Figure 12.7 Sample Cloze Exercise

Fill in the deleted words in the following passage entitled “Farming in

Switzerland”:

1. Switzerland is a country of very high, steep mountains

narrow valleys. In the valleys are the farms where farmers
raise much of the food they need for and their animals.
Because the valleys are tiny, the are small. There is no room
on them for grassland that is needed for pasturing cows or
goats sheep during the summer.

Source: From High Roads, by McKee Paul, M. Lucile Harrison, Annie McCowen, & Elizabeth
Lehr. Copyright 1962, renewed 1990 by Beverly McKee Eaton, Paul E. Harrison, and Gloria
Royer. Reprinted with the permission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

12.11d The Reading–Writing Connection

The following strategies connect reading with writing.

Dialogue Journals Dialogue journals are a personal way to

integrate reading and writing. To initiate this activity, the teacher
gives each student a notebook, and teachers and students write
 personal messages to one another through the notebook. A variety
of topics can be addressed; teachers may ask students how they
liked a story or ask them about their pets, birthdays, holidays, or
something that happened to them. Some teachers paste a picture,
a cartoon, or a Polaroid photograph of the student in the journal
and ask for student comments. After the student writes
something, the teacher responds in the journal. The response may
provide some personal information and then ask for more
information or may start another topic. Typically, as students get
used to the journal, they begin to write more and look forward to a
regular interchange through the journal.

Materials Without Words To foster reading

comprehension, the teacher can use materials that do not have
words, such as comic books without captions, silent films, and
books of photographs. The students first figure out the story
content from the pictures; then they make the transition to
printed words. Once the students understand the material, words
become meaningful. The students can even write their own
dialogue.

Written Conversations Instead of saying what they wish to

communicate to the teacher or to friends, students can write the
message and give it to their teacher or to other students. The
teacher’s (or classmates’) responses should also be written
(Jennings et al., 2010). Students in middle school often
surreptitiously send small folded notes to their friends. This
activity legitimizes the note exchange ventures.

12.11e Cognitive Learning Strategies for

Reading
Learning strategies are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5,
“Theories of Learning,” and Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults
 With Learning Disabilities and Related Mild Disabilities.” A major
reading comprehension problem for students with reading
disabilities is that they tend to be passive and to wait for teacher
direction. They do not know how to interact effectively with the
text or to merge the information with what they already know.
They often read reluctantly, hesitating to ask questions and
focusing solely on what they think the teacher wants them to
remember. These students may not monitor their reading
comprehension. When they are not sure of the meaning of a
passage they are reading, they do not take action by going back
and trying to understand. Instead, they continue to read and lose
even more of the meaning. Often, they are unaware that
something is wrong.

Young children should be immersed in language and books from infancy.

Photodisk/Getty Images

Students who have difficulty with reading comprehension need

instruction that helps them become actively involved in the
reading and in trying to reconstruct the author’s message. They
need to develop metacognitive abilities by learning to recognize
 their loss of comprehension when it occurs and employing “fix-up”
strategies. Learning strategies for improving reading
comprehension help students become active, involved learners
who are able to direct their own learning (Lenz & Deshler, 2003;
Deshler et al., 2001).

12.11f Multisensory Methods

A collection of programs that are based on the Orton-Gillingham
Method comprise the multisensory methods for students with
severe reading and learning disabilities (Birsh, 2005). They
include the Orton-Gillingham Method, Project READ, the Wilson
Reading System, Alphabetic Phonics, the Herman Method, and
the Spalding Method (Birsh, 2005; Henry, 1998). These
multisensory groups have formed an umbrella organization called
the International Multisensory Structured Language Council
(McIntyre & Pickering, 1995). The multisensory methods have the
following similar characteristics (Oakland et al., 1998):

Help anchor verbal information by providing links with the

visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic pathways for
learning.

Use highly structured phonics instruction with an emphasis

on the alphabetic system.

Include abundant drill, practice, and repetition.

Have carefully planned sequential lessons.

Emphasize explicit instruction in the language rule systems

to guide reading and spelling.

The multisensory methods use several senses to reinforce

learning, as indicated in the acronym VAKT, which is formed
from the first letter of the words visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and
tactile. To stimulate all of these senses, students hear the teacher
say the word, say the word to themselves, hear themselves say the
word, feel the muscle movement as they trace the word, feel the
tactile surface under their fingertips, see their hands move as they
trace the word, and hear themselves say the word as they trace it.
Several of the multisensory methods are described in this section.

The Orton-Gillingham Method The Orton-Gillingham

Method is an outgrowth of the Orton theory of reading disability
(Orton, 1937, 1976). This method focuses on a multisensory,
systematic, structured language procedure for reading-decoding
and spelling instruction. Initial activities focus on learning
individual letter sounds and blending. The student uses a tracing
technique to learn single letters and their sound equivalents.
These single sounds are later combined into larger groupings and
then into short words (Gillingham & Stillman, 1970; Orton, 1976).

Simultaneous spelling tasks are also part of the Orton-Gillingham

Method. While writing the letters, the students say both the
sounds of the letters in sequence and the letter names. The
method emphasizes phonics and depends on a formal sequence of
learning. Independent reading is delayed until the major part of
the phonics program has been covered.

There are a number of extensions and applications of the Orton-

Gillingham Method. Project READ, an adaptation of the Orton-
Gillingham Method in the public schools of Minnesota, reported
significant gains in reading achievement (Enfield, 1988). A
variation of the Orton-Gillingham Method was developed by
Slingerland (1976), who offered an extensive set of materials.
Another adaptation is the Recipe for Reading (Traub & Bloom,
1978), which is accompanied by 21 supplementary readers.

The Wilson Reading System The Wilson Reading System

(Wilson, 1988) is a multisensory, structured language program
based on the Orton-Gillingham philosophy. It provides a step-by-
step method for teachers working with students who require
direct, multisensory, structured language teaching. The Wilson
 Reading System targets students who have difficulty decoding
independently, reading with fluency, or spelling words, even with
the help of a spell checker or dictionary. The program teaches
students the structure of words and language through a carefully
sequenced 12-step program that helps them master decoding and
improve encoding in English. It directly teaches phonological
awareness, phonology, and total word structure, and it takes one
to three years to complete. The Wilson program is also used for
adults with dyslexia.

The Fernald Method Grace Fernald (1988) developed an

approach to reading that uses visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and
tactile senses, but it differs from the other multisensory programs
in that it teaches a whole word (rather than single sounds). The
student traces the entire word, thereby strengthening the memory
and visualization of the entire word. Teaching Tips 12.2, “The
Fernald Method for Learning Words,” describes a method used by
Grace Fernald. It consists of four stages, but its uniqueness is
most evident in Stage 1. The Fernald Method is also effective for
teaching spelling. (See Chapter 13, “Written Language Difficulties:
Written Expression, Spelling, and Handwriting.”) A Multisensory
Teaching of Basic Language Skills: Activity Book (Carreker &
Birsh, 2005) provides activities for multisensory teaching.

Teaching Tips 12.2 The Fernald Method For Learning Words

Stage 1

It is essential that the student select the word to be learned. The teacher writes
the student’s word on paper with a crayon. The student then traces the word
with his or her fingers, making contact with the paper, thus using both tactile
and kinesthetic senses. As the student traces it, the teacher says the word so
that the student hears it (using the auditory sense). This process is repeated
until the student can write the word correctly without looking at the sample.
Once the student learns the word, the sample is placed in a file box. The words
accumulate in the box until there are enough words for the student to write a
 story by using them. The story is then typed so that the student can read his or
her own story.

Stage 2

The student is no longer required to trace each word, but rather learns each
new word by looking at the teacher’s written copy of the word and saying it to
himself or herself while writing it.

Stage 3

The student learns new words by looking at a printed word and repeating it to
himself or herself before writing it. At this point, the student may begin
reading from books.

Stage 4

The student is able to recognize new words from their similarity to printed
words or to parts of words previously learned. The student now can generalize
the knowledge he or she has acquired through the reading skills.

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

In the K-W-L model of reading comprehension, “W” represents

a. goals and expectations of new knowledge to be acquired.

b. previous knowledge pertaining to a subject.

c. what was learned from a given written passage.

d. what students found confusing.

12.12 Enjoyment and Appreciation of

Reading
 The man who does not read good books has no
advantage over the man who cannot read
them.

—Mark Twain

An important goal for reading instruction is for students to enjoy

reading. Students enjoy reading series books, such as the Magic
Tree House series. They also enjoy books about horses, animals,
sports figures, and books that hook them into reading
independently. The Harry Potter series is a remarkable example of
books that students like to read.

Unfortunately, because of stringent curriculum demands, less

skilled readers often find themselves reading materials that are
too difficult to enjoy or to be helpful in building their fluency. As a
consequence, poor readers do not have the opportunities to read
books and stories at their reading level and to practice newly
acquired skills. All children should be provided with as many
reading experiences as possible, regardless of their achievement
levels. In fact, frequent reading not only improves reading fluency
and reading skills, but it also improves verbal abilities and
thinking abilities (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1998; Nelson et al.,
2004).

The greatest reward for any teacher is to see a child engrossed in a

book and developing a love of reading. This experience vividly
came home to all teachers and parents on July 16, 2005, when the
seventh of the wildly popular series of Harry Potter books went on
sale. Harry Potter book lovers anxiously awaited the moment and
a record 8 million copies of this book were sold to ardent Harry
Potter fans on the first day after the book was released, a record
for book sales.

The Harry Potter series appeals to many different readers.

Children who are good readers; children who are struggling
readers; younger children, adolescents, and adults; and children
 from diverse cultures are all captured by the tale of Harry Potter
and his friends and their adventures at a boarding school for
wizards in England. Taking a cold, calculating look at this book,
we can conjure up many reasons why children would not like it. It
takes place at a boarding school in England, a locale that is not
familiar to children in America. There are many difficult words
and names in the book and one would think this would keep poor
readers away from this book. Not so. Children are willing to
envision this strange place and struggle to read through the
difficult words because the story line and the presentation are so
intriguing. J. K. Rowling, the author of the Harry Potter books,
has the wizardry to capture the hearts and minds of young
readers. (See the author’s website at http://www.jkrowling.com.)

Many other books have captured children’s attention over the

years, for example, A Wrinkle in Time by Madeline L’Engle, The
Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame, Charlotte’s Web by E.
B. White, and Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder.
Teachers often have fond memories of their own favorites that
turned them on to reading. Teachers have to cherish their own
experiences when children show a love for reading.

Did You Get It?

In a standard school curriculum, exists between the levels of

reading difficulty typically presented and the inability to derive
pleasure from the reading material.

a. no correlation

b. an inconclusive correlation

c. a negative correlation

d. a positive correlation
12.13 Assistive and Instructional
Technology and Reading
New technology is changing the way that students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities communicate. Social
networking websites have rocketed from a niche activity into a
phenomenon that engages tens of millions of youths, ages 12
through 17. Over 55% of online teens use social networking sites,
such as Facebook, MySpace, and YouTube (Roe, Stoodt-Hill,
Burns, 2010; Lenhart & Madden, 2008).

Computers also offer many instructional advantages for students

with reading difficulties. Computer programs are motivating, they
provide time for learning on a one-to-one basis, they help develop
automaticity, and they offer time to think about reading passages.
Computer reading programs are available for the prereading,
elementary, secondary, and adult levels. Computer programs can
teach literacy, sight words, phonics skills, vocabulary, reading
comprehension, and they improve reading rate (Belson, 2003).

Reading Blaster (Knowledge Adventure). A skill-and-drill

software application that allows students to practice spelling
and letter-sound relationships

The Living Books Series (The Learning Company). CD-based

books that read stories to children in a normal (human)
voice

Earobics (Cognitive Concepts). A software application

designed to teach phonemic awareness through a series of
activities and games

Inspiration and Kidspiration (Inspiration Software). This

software provides a graphic organizer to help students
organize their ideas about stories and words. The Inspiration
website is at http://www.inspiration.com.

12.13a Text-to-Speech Programs

 There are several computer programs that are designed to read
text aloud. These programs are designed for very poor readers and
for individuals with visual disabilities. Several of these programs
are described in the following list.

Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic (RFBD) provides

information on their program at http://www.rfbd.org. This
organization is dedicated to providing books, including
textbooks, for individuals who are dyslexic or blind. Material
is available in two formats:

1. RFBD Classic Cassettes are audio recordings that are

played on cassette players, and

2. RFBD AudioPlus are digital recordings that are played

on CD players.

Kurzweil Educational Systems provides software programs

that read text aloud. Information about Kurzweil can be
viewed at http://www.kurzweiledu.com. With these
programs, text can be scanned, and there are several
electronic voices that can be chosen.

Read Please (free) and Read Please Plus (shareware) read

any electronic text. Their website is
http://www.readplease.com. The program is available in
several languages, which users can download to their
computers.

E-Text Reader currently allows its material to be

downloaded without charge. The website is
http://www.readingmadeeasy.com. E-Text Reader will read
any electronic or scanned text. There are three excellent
voice choices. It comes from Premier Assistive Technology,
which also sells a more robust text-to-speech program.

12.13b Recorded Textbooks and Digital CD-

ROMs
There are several sources for obtaining recorded books on tape or
on digital CD-ROMs that are available to students with
 disabilities. Students who are identified as having learning
disabilities are eligible to obtain, at no cost, books recorded for the
blind. In addition, new titles can be recorded if needed. For
students with severe reading problems, recorded textbooks can be
a real boon; using recorded books allows them to keep up with
content while continuing to improve their reading skills. The
website for Reading for the Blind and Dyslexic is at
http://www.rfbd.org.

Did You Get It?

Computer programs that read passages aloud to the student are called
programs.

a. visual-to-auditory

b. text-to-speech

c. eye-to-ear

d. difficult-to-easy

I Have a Kid Who… PABLO:A Child With Reading

Comprehension Difficulties
Pablo is 10 years 3 months and is in fifth grade. Pablo has been identified as
having learning disabilities, and his major reading difficulty is with reading
comprehension. Pablo’s reading strengths include a strong vocabulary,
average decoding skills, and average fluency. He has built these strengths
across the past 3 years working with the special education teacher, Mr. Trout.
Pablo enjoys reading but still has difficulty comprehending what he reads.
Pablo’s comprehension difficulties are in reading narrative stories. Pablo has
difficulty identifying the main components of a story. As the end of the
school year approaches, Pablo’s classroom teacher has become concerned
about his lack of progress in reading comprehension. A collaboration
meeting was held with his classroom teacher, with the reading specialist, and
the special education teacher, Mr. Trout. They discussed Pablo’s reading
strengths, his reading difficulties, and possible instructional strategies.
 Questions
1. What are Pablo’s strengths in reading?

2. What are Pablo’s difficulties in reading?

3. The team recommended using graphic organizers to improve his

reading of narrative text. How could graphic organizers be used for
narrative stories?

Source: Adapted from The Iris Center for Faculty Enhancement: Comprehension,
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu.

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Reading is part of the language system and is closely linked
to the other forms of language—oral language and writing.

Reading is a major academic difficulty for students with

learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. The
detrimental effects of reading disabilities have serious
consequences in terms of academic achievement,
employment, and success in life.

Many students with learning disabilities and related mild

disabilities have reading problems and are in general
education classrooms.

Dyslexia is a learning disability in which the individual has

extreme difficulty in learning to read. Dyslexia is associated
with neurological dysfunction.

Major elements of reading are phonemic awareness, phonics

and word-recognition skills, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension.

Readers need skills in word recognition to develop fluency in

reading. Word recognition takes place through phonics,
sight words, context clues, and structural analysis.

Reading fluency refers to the reader’s ability to recognize

words quickly and read text with speed, accuracy, and
proper expression.
 The purpose of reading is comprehension, which is the active
understanding and involvement with the written material.

Narrative text is the reading of stories. Informational text is

the reading of subject-matter material, such as textbooks.

There are many ways to assess reading ability. Informal

measures include informal reading inventories and portfolio
assessment. Formal tests include survey tests, diagnostic
tests, and comprehensive batteries.

The “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter presents

strategies for teaching reading to students with reading
disabilities. It includes methods for improving word
recognition, improving fluency, and improving reading
comprehension.

Assistive and instructional technology can be useful in

teaching reading.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. Describe the elements of reading. What does each element contribute to
learning to read?

2. Readers use a variety of methods to recognize words. Describe the different

methods of word recognition. What method(s) do you think good readers
rely upon?

3. Describe reading fluency. Why is it important to teach fluency?

4. What is reading comprehension? Identify a few strategies used to promote

reading comprehension. Describe how students might respond to these
strategies.

5. What are the differences between informal and formal methods for assessing
reading achievement?

Chapter Review
Key Terms
automaticity

basal reading series

cloze procedure

comprehension

context clues

decode

DIBELS

direct instruction

directed reading-thinking activity (DRTA)

explicit code-emphasis instruction

indirect instruction

informal reading inventory (IRI)

Informational materials

phonemic awareness

language experience method

multisensory methods

phonics

phonological awareness

reading comprehension

reading fluency

repeated reading

sight words

structural analysis

VAKT

vocabulary

word web

word-recognition procedures
 Chapter

Written
Language
13
Difficulties:
Written
Expression,
Spelling, and
Handwriting

Chapter Introduction

13.1 Theories Describing Written Language Difficulties

13.2 Written Expression

13.2a The Writing Connection in the Integrated Language System

13.2b Early Literacy and Writing

13.2c The Writing Process

13.2d Principles for Teaching the Writing Process

13.2e The Learning Strategy Approach to Writing

13.2f Strategies for Writing

13.2g Assistive and Instructional Technology for Struggling

Writers

13.2h Assessment of Written Expression

13.3 Spelling

13.3a Developmental Stages of Learning to Spell

 13.3b Problems Related to Spelling

13.3c Invented Spelling

13.3d Multisensory Approaches to Spelling

13.3e Two Theories of Word Selection for Teaching Spelling

13.3f Assessment of Spelling

13.4 Handwriting

13.4a Manuscript Writing

13.4b Cursive Writing

13.4c The Left-Handed Student

13.4d Keyboarding or Typing Skills

13.5 Teaching Strategies to Improve Written Language Difficulties

13.6 Writing Strategies for the General Education Classroom

13.6a Instruction for Essay Writing Tests

13.7 Strategies for Teaching Written Expression

13.8 Strategies for Using Word Processing

13.9 Strategies for Teaching Spelling

13.10 Strategies for Teaching Handwriting

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Tom Odulate/Cultura/Getty Images

What is the most frightening thing you ever

encountered?

—A blank sheet of paper.

—Ernest Hemingway

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

13.1
Explain theories describing written language difficulties

13.2
Describe written language and expression

13.3
Outline how to teach spelling
 13.4
Outline different methods to teach handwriting

13.5
List teaching strategies to improve written language
difficulties

13.6
List writing strategies to be used in the general education
classroom

13.7
List strategies for teaching manuscript and cursive writing

13.8
List strategies for teaching word processing

13.9
Compare and contrast strategies for teaching spelling

13.10
Outline strategies for teaching handwriting

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special Educator

Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual
Learning Differences
1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities
may interact with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide
meaningful and challenging learning experiences for individuals with
exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how language,

culture, and family background influence the learning of individuals with
exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of individuals
with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

 3.0—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and
specialized curricula to individualize learning for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.1—Beginning special education professionals understand the central concepts,

structures of the discipline, and tools of inquiry of the content areas they teach
and can organize this knowledge, integrate cross-disciplinary skills and develop
meaningful learning progressions for individuals with exceptionalities.

3.2—Beginning special education professionals understand and use general and

specialized content knowledge for teaching across curricular content areas to
individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

3.3—Beginning special education professionals modify general and specialized

curricula to make them accessible to individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically sound

formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.

4.2—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of measurement

principles and practices to interpret assessment results and guide educational
decisions for individuals with exceptionalities.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with colleagues

and families use multiple types of assessment information in making decisions
about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and provide
feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s abilities,

interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic factors in the
selection, development, and adaptation of learning experiences for individuals
with exceptionalities.

5.2—Beginning special education professionals use technologies to support

instructional assessment, planning, and delivery for individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.3—Beginning special education professionals are familiar with augmentative

and alternative communication systems and a variety of assistive technologies to
support the communication and learning of individuals with exceptionalities.
 5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance
language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and promote

generalization of learning.

5.7—Beginning special education professionals teach cross-disciplinary

knowledge and skills such as critical thinking and problem solving to individuals
with exceptionalities.

For students, Common Core Standards for English Language

Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and
Technical Subjects can be found at:
http://www.corestandards.org.

Written language is the third form of the integrated language system. In

the “Theories” section of this chapter, we consider three areas of written
language:

1. written expression,

2. spelling, and

3. handwriting.

In the “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter, we present specific

instructional strategies for

1. written expression,

2. word processing,

3. spelling, and

4. handwriting to help students with writing difficulties develop their

written language skills.

13.1 Theories Describing Written Language

Difficulties
Many people dislike writing and try to avoid writing. Their disdainful
attitude is depicted in the story of the New York City taxicab driver who
skillfully guided his cab past a pedestrian. The cabby then explained to his
passenger why he was so careful: “I always try to avoid hittin’ ‘em because
every time ya hit one, ya gotta write out a long report about it.”

Words are the primary means of communication for human beings. Using
words is the way we tell one another what we want, what we do not want,
what we think, and how we feel. When words are spoken, they are a
wonderful asset—quick, direct, and easy. But when words must be written,
they can become burdensome, part of a slow and laborious task. Many
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities have
difficulty writing. Some of these students also have underlying language
problems, including difficulty with spoken language. Many students,
however, do well with oral language but encounter significant problems in
the acquisition and use of written language. Moreover, written language
difficulties often continue to adversely affect their lives as adults
(Linstrom, 2007; Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2003; Lenz & Deshler, 2003;
Adelman & Vogel, 2003; Vogel & Adelman, 2000).

Writing is the most sophisticated and complex achievement of the

language system. In the sequence of language development, writing is
typically the last to be learned, although the early literacy approach
encourages children to write even before they learn to read. Through
writing, we integrate previous learning and experiences in listening,
speaking, and reading. Proficiency in written language requires an
adequate basis of oral language skills, as well as many other competencies.
The writer must be able to keep one idea in mind while formulating the
idea into words and sentences, and the writer must also be skilled in
planning the correct graphic form for each letter and word while
manipulating the writing instrument. In addition, the writer must also
possess sufficient visual and motor memory to integrate complex eye–
hand relationships.

The instructional concept of “writing across the curriculum” has become a

persuasive force in the teaching of writing. This implies that writing
should be taught in all subjects of the curriculum, not only those in which
written language is the center of instruction. Three components of writing
are addressed in this chapter:

1. written expression,

2. spelling, and
 3. handwriting.

Did You Get It?

There are a myriad of tasks, processes, and expectations that go into the
learning and mastery of our language system. In that regard, experts deem
which of the following as being both the most complex and most sophisticated?

a. speaking

b. writing

c. reading

d. processing

13.2 Written Expression

Success as a writer is intimately tied to the quality of writing instruction
the student receives. Writing requires many related abilities, including
facility in spoken language, the ability to read, skills in spelling, legible
handwriting or skill with computer keyboarding, knowledge of the rules of
written usage, and cognitive strategies to organize and plan the writing
(Bashir & Singer, 2009).

Many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities may
lack many of these critical writing-related abilities and therefore find
communicating through writing very challenging. The writing of these
students is often replete with errors in spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, handwriting, and grammar. Their written products tend to
be short, poorly organized, and impoverished in terms of development of
ideas.

Poor skills in written communication and difficulty in sharing thoughts

through writing can persist over time and into the adult years (Harris et
al., 2003; Lenz & Deshler, 2003). Student Stories 13.1, “Written Language
Problems,” provides one account of an individual with writing difficulties.

Student Stories 13.1 Written Language Problems

 Written language skills are required in most occupations today—even to be a
successful bank robber. The following news story from Miami illustrates the
importance of writing skills for successful communication. In an attempted burglary,
a would-be robber handed this handwritten note to the bank teller:

A GOT A BUM. I ALSO HAVE A CONTOUR. I’M GOING TO

BLOW YOU SKY HEIGHT. I’M NO KILLEN. THIS IS A HELD UP.

Unable to decipher the note, the teller asked the robber for help in reading the
message. By the time the robber deciphered the words for the teller, the police had
arrived and arrested the robber. To make matters worse for the robber, the police
were able to trace him to other bank holdups in which the same spelling and writing
errors were made in the burglary notes (Miami Herald, 1980).

(Possible translation: I got a bomb. I also have a control. I’m going to blow you sky
high. I’m no killer. This is a holdup.)

Reflective Question
1. Analyze the would-be bank robber’s note. Do you think the bank robber’s note
displayed difficulty with phonics or visual memory of sight words? Why?

13.2a The Writing Connection in the Integrated

Language System
The links among the elements of language connect the language forms
with one another and also strengthen the underlying language system.
Extensive oral language experiences promote reading. In turn, instruction
in reading improves performance in writing. Further, experiences with
writing and composing improve one’s knowledge of language and skills in
speaking and reading. All of these language experiences strengthen the
underlying language system (Jennings, Caldwell, & Lerner, 2010).

There are many similarities in the processes used in spoken language,

reading, and writing. In both reading and writing, people set and revise
goals, refining and reconstructing meaning as they go through the
material. They develop expectations about what they will read or write
 next, form attitudes about the text, and they monitor the information they
wish to remember or convey (Mason, 2009; Harris et al., 2003).

By its very nature, writing is an active process. The physical aspect of

writing literally forces active involvement upon the writers. Writers
perform the actions of picking up a pen or pencil (or using a computer
keyboard) and recording their thoughts. While people write, they must
actively work at producing something that did not exist before by using
their own background knowledge and integrating their language skills.
The process of revising requires rethinking and reconstruction. Much
reading also occurs during the process of writing. When adults write, over
half of the writing time is actually devoted to reading. As soon as good
writers complete a section of writing, they reread it. They also reread to
see how to connect a previously written section to one they are about to
write. When writers complete an entire text, they reread it again
immediately and then reread it a short time later. The kind of reading that
takes place during writing is intensive and involves much critical analysis
(Mason, 2009; Berry, 2006; Graham & Harris, 2005; Graham, Harris, &
Mason, 2005).

13.2b Early Literacy and Writing

The term early literacy refers to a young child’s early entrance into the
world of words, language, and stories. The concept of early literacy
emphasizes the interrelatedness of the various forms of language in the
child’s development. Children develop literacy through simultaneous
experiences with language, reading, and writing.

The philosophy of early literacy instruction suggests that writing may be

easier than reading and may actually develop earlier than reading (Snow,
Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Writing is a more self-involving task than reading
because the meaning of a writer’s message originates from within the
writer and is known to the writer in advance. In contrast, reading requires
that the reader be able to interpret someone else’s ideas and use of
language, which is a more difficult task for the beginner.
 The early literacy curriculum emphasizes that writing is beneficial, even
for primary-age children, and should be encouraged (CIERA, 1998; Snow
et al., 1998). When young children write, they directly explore both the
functions and the forms of written language. Writing helps children
understand that, in English, print progresses from left to right. Many
young children who have not yet learned this rule of written English
reverse this process, writing from right to left, as shown in Figure 13.1.

Figure 13.1 Children Must Learn That Writing in English Goes from
Left to Right

© Cengage Learning

In their early writing experiences, young children should not be required

to adhere to criteria of proper form or correct spelling; they should simply
be encouraged to explore and to play with writing. Young children are
encouraged to use invented spelling, which means they follow their
own spelling rules. Early writing also increases the child’s awareness of
the phonological properties of language. When children attempt to put
their ideas into print, they explore and learn about the alphabetic nature
of written English. As they begin to realize that words can be segmented
into sounds, they acquire important skills for the early stages of reading.
Figure 13.2 shows an example of a child’s writing.

Figure 13.2 Example of a Child’s Writing in a Kindergarten Early

Literacy Class
 © Cengage Learning

13.2c The Writing Process

Current theories on the teaching of writing call for a major shift in
instructional emphasis to the writing process instead of the writing
product (Harris, Grahm, & Mason, 2008; Graves, 1994; Harris et al.,
2003). The traditional writing product approach to writing emphasized
the written assignment (or product) created by the writer. In contrast, the
writing process approach to writing focuses on the entire process that
writers use in developing a written document.

In the traditional writing product approach, the teacher’s checking and

grading of the written product is based on certain expectations of
perfection. Students are expected to spell correctly, to use adjectives, and
to compose topic sentences. Their written papers are graded on word
choice, grammar, organization, and ideas. The graded papers are then
returned to the students with corrections (often in red ink), and students
are expected to learn and improve their writing skills from these grades
and teacher corrections. The more conscientious the teacher, the more
conscientiously the corrections fill student papers. Too often, the result of
applying the writing product approach to writing instruction is that people
learn to dislike writing.
 The writing process approach to writing is different; it emphasizes the
thinking that goes on during writing. Teachers are encouraged to
understand the complexity of the writing process as they help students
think about, select, and organize tasks. Students are encouraged to ask
themselves questions such as: What is the purpose of my writing? How
can I get ideas? How can I develop and organize the ideas? How can I
translate and revise the ideas so that the reader will understand them?
Who is the intended audience?

Writing is a learned skill that can be taught in a school setting as a

thinking-learning activity, with emphasis on the writing process. As a
cognitive process, writing requires both backward and forward thinking.
Good writers do not simply sit down and produce a text. Rather, they go
through several stages of the writing process—prewriting, drafting,
revising, and sharing with an audience, as shown in Figure 13.3 (Graham
et al., 2002; Graves, 1994).

Figure 13.3 Stages of the Writing Process

© Cengage Learning
Professional Resource Download

Stage 1: Prewriting During this first stage, the writer gathers ideas
and refines them before beginning formal writing. Prewriting involves a
type of brainstorming, such as talking through some thoughts and ideas,
jotting a few notes in a margin, or developing a graphic organizer or list of
the main points. During this time, the writer also identifies an intended
audience. Students are more willing to write if they choose the topic. They
may write about someone they know, a special event, or themselves.
Teachers can help by asking students to make a list of people who are
special to them or to list activities they did during a holiday break.

TeachSource Video Case Activity

 © Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Elementary Writing Instruction:

Process Writing.” In this video, the classroom teacher and the literacy coordinator
work together to help students at various stages of the writing process. The students
get ideas from social studies and history to develop stories of historical fiction.

Questions
1. How do the students in this video get their ideas for writing?

2. What are the stages of the writing process shown in this video?

Stage 2: Drafting In the second stage of the writing process, the

writer records ideas on paper. Although many people think of this stage as
“writing,” it actually is only one step in the process. The term drafting is
used instead of writing to emphasize that this is one version of what
eventually will be written and that it will be changed. The first draft of a
piece of writing is not for the reader, but for the writer. As the writer jots
down words, sentences, and paragraphs, these give rise to new ideas or
ways to revise ideas already written. At this stage, there may be an
overflow of ideas, with little organization or consideration of prose,
grammar, and spelling.

Stage 3: Revising Having completed the prewriting and drafting

stages, the writer then refines the draft version of the text by revising
and editing. Mature writers take the ideas of the first draft, and then
reorganize and polish them. There may be several revisions, with different
kinds of changes made in each, such as in content, the way of expressing
 the ideas, the vocabulary, the sentence structure, and the sequence of
ideas. The last revision is editing, which includes checking for
grammatical, punctuation, and spelling errors. This stage requires a very
critical view of one’s own work.

Students who have writing difficulties are often reluctant to revise. Just
writing the draft requires extensive effort, and making revisions can seem
overwhelming. Rewriting of earlier drafts is greatly facilitated by using
computers and word-processing software programs.

To help writers learn to revise, teachers can model revisions in dictated

stories or in their own work. They can have students make suggestions for
revising some of the teacher’s writing, make the revisions, and share the
revised version. Students can also make suggestions for revising the drafts
of their classmates. It is important to make this a positive experience. Be
sure to note some good features of a student’s work before making
suggestions for revision.

Stage 4: Sharing With an Audience This stage is important

because it gives value and worth to the entire writing process. It provides
students with the opportunity to receive feedback and to perceive
themselves as authors who are responding to an audience. In this final
stage, the writer considers the audience for whom the material is intended
and whether the ideas will be well communicated to the reader. The
amount of rewriting will depend on the intended audience. The audience
could be the teacher, other students in the class, or a larger audience that
is reached through publication (Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2005; Graham
et al., 2002; Graves, 1994).

Sharing with an audience can occur in a number of ways: A written

document can be published and bound and shared with a class or placed
in a classroom library. Students can share their work through a
presentation, a bulletin board display, a newsletter, or a puppet show.

13.2d Principles for Teaching the Writing Process

The following principles apply to planning instruction for the writing
process (Harris et al., 2003).
1. During the prewriting stage, the writing process
requires much time, input, and attention. Writers need
something to write about. They need sufficient prior experiences to create
and stimulate ideas for a good written production. When teachers give a
written assignment (such as “write a 100-word theme on spring”) without
first supplying a prewriting buildup, the process will not produce a rich
written product. Teachers can provide necessary input experiences
through activities, such as trips, stories, discussions, and oral language
activities. Sources of inspiration for writing include reading, art, content-
area activities, films, television, newspapers, trips and field experiences,
brainstorming, and Internet searches. Devote as much time to the
prewriting stage as to the writing stage.

2. The drafting stage frees students from undue

concentration on the mechanics of writing. Students should
realize that all writers make errors in spelling and grammar in the first
draft. Although such mistakes should eventually be corrected, they need
not be fixed immediately. Instead, the student should focus on the content
during the drafting stage and later clean up the work through editing.

3. The revising stage helps students edit their work.

Students often think that their writing is finished when they have
completed their first draft. When they realize that they must go through
the revising stage before their work will be complete, they begin to think
of writing as a process instead of a product. A teacher can demonstrate the
imperfections of a first draft by exhibiting first drafts of his or her own
writing to show the students that all writing needs to be edited. Students
can form small groups to review and edit one another’s work.

4. Avoid excessive corrections of students’ written work.

Students are discouraged from trying if their attempts to express ideas are
met by having their papers returned full of grammatical, spelling,
punctuation, and handwriting corrections in red ink, with heavy penalties
for mistakes. As one pupil remarked, “An F looks so much worse in red
ink.”

When students receive negative reinforcements, they soon learn to beat

the game. They will limit their writing vocabulary to words they know how
to spell, to keeping their sentences simple, to avoid complex and creative
ideas, and to keep their compositions short.
13.2e The Learning Strategy Approach to Writing

By its very nature, writing is an active process. When people write, they must actively
work at producing something that did not exist before by using their own background
knowledge and integrating that with their language skills.

Tom Stewart/Flirt/Corbis

A learning strategy approach called self-regulated strategy development

(SRSD) is an explicit, structured approach to teaching writing (Graham &
Harris, 2005; Graham, Harris, & Larsen, 2001; Harris et al., 2003).
Students who have difficulty with writing need structure and direction to
acquire writing strategies. The goals of SRSD are

1. to help students develop a knowledge of writing and the strategies

involved in the writing process,

2. to support students in the ongoing development of the abilities

needed to monitor and manage their writing, and

3. to promote students’ development of positive attitudes about writing

and about themselves as writers.

The six stages of the SRSD model of writing are (Mason, 2009; Harris et
al., 2003):

1. Develop background knowledge. Working within a group,

students think about what is known about the topic and find
additional information from a variety of sources.
 2. Discuss it. The students talk about and discuss what they have
learned with one another and with their teacher. They then discuss a
specific writing strategy that they plan to use. For example, they may
decide to use the strategy of semantic mapping.

3. Model it. The students model how to use a writing strategy,

thinking aloud as they work.

4. Memorize it. Students review and say aloud the parts of the
writing strategy.

5. Support it. Students begin to write a story by using the writing

strategy.

6. Independent performance. Students now use the writing

strategy independently.

13.2f Strategies for Writing

For students who find writing tasks overwhelming, teachers must provide
adequate structure to help students carry out a writing assignment.
Support students in finding ideas for writing, sharing ideas on paper, and
finding interesting and descriptive vocabulary. Use a variety of writing
strategies, such as

1. personal journals,

2. written conversations,

3. patterned writing,

4. graphic organizers, and

5. drawing pictures

(Graham et al., 2001; Harris et al., 2003; Jennings et al., 2010).

Personal Journals In a personal journal, students record personal

events or experiences in writing. They practice writing by recording day-
to-day accounts of events in their lives and their feelings about these
experiences, which they can read later. Each student needs a journal,
usually a notebook of lined paper. Students often create titles for their
journals and decorate the cover or title page. Set aside time (usually at
least a few periods a week) to record personal thoughts in journals. It is
easier for students to read and write if they use only one side of a page.
 Students may choose to share some of their journal entries, but they
should have the choice of not doing so. If a student does not want the
teacher to read a journal entry, the student can fold a page in half
lengthwise, and the teacher will then not read the folded pages. Teachers
should also be careful not to correct grammatical errors or spelling errors
because this practice undermines the student’s confidence and may
decrease the amount of writing.

Some students with writing difficulties lack the confidence to maintain a

journal. Teachers can help students overcome this problem by modeling
journal writing and help students who cannot think of journal topics with
suggestions, such as favorite places, special people, favorite stories, things
I like to do, things I don’t like to do, things that make me angry, and
things I do well. When one parent asked for permission to take a student
out of school for a special family trip, the teacher asked that the student
keep a journal about the trip. A list of “Ideas for Writing” could be put on
a chart in the room or placed in the student’s journal on an “Ideas” page.
An example of a journal entry is shown in Figure 13.4

Figure 13.4 An Example of a Journal Entry

© Cengage Learning

Written Conversations Written conversations or dialogue journals

are written interactions between teacher and student or between 2
students. Students write their thoughts or questions to the teacher, and
the teacher writes a response. Students keep their journal during the day
 and then give it to the teacher at the end of the school day. The teacher
responds to the student’s thoughts. A student and teacher can also use e-
mail to communicate with each other. For example, the teacher can ask
the student in writing how things are going. Or the teacher can write a
greeting and message, and the student can answer. For this exchange,
each writer can use a different-colored pen or pencil (Jennings et al.,
2010). Figure 13.5 shows an example of a written conversation.

Figure 13.5 An Example of Written Conversation

© Cengage Learning

Patterned Writing In this strategy, the students use a favorite

predictable book with a patterned writing, and then they write their own
version. This method gives students the security of a “frame” to use to
write a personalized response. For example, “Black Dog, Black Dog, What
do you see? I see a red bird looking at me.” Students make up their own
refrain and illustrate it. The finished writing of several students can be put
together into a book and placed on the library table for others to read.

Graphic Organizers Graphic organizers are visual displays that

organize and structure ideas and concepts. In the context of reading,
graphic organizers help students understand the reading material.
Research shows that reading comprehension improves when students use
graphic organizers. In the context of writing, graphic organizers can help
students generate and organize ideas as they prepare for a writing
assignment (Lenz & Deshler, 2003; Sabbatino, 2004).
 The Venn diagram is one graphic organizer in which there are 2
intersecting circles. This graphic is useful for preparing for a “compare
and contrast” writing assignment. For example, in comparing 2 people in
history, one puts the descriptors of one person in one circle, the
characteristics of the other person in the second circle, and the common
characteristics in the intersecting section. Figure 13.6 shows a Venn
diagram comparing oranges and apples.

Figure 13.6 Venn Diagram Comparing Oranges and Apples

© Cengage Learning

Inspiration is a software program that makes it easy for students to

develop graphic organizers to plan, develop, organize, or summarize a
writing project. The website for Inspiration Software, Inc. is at
http://www.inspiration.com. Users can download or request trial versions
of this software. Students find it easier to tackle a writing assignment if
they begin to organize their ideas in the prewriting stage using this
graphic organizer program. Kidspiration is a version of this software for
younger children. Figure 13.7 displays a graphic organizer of the writing
process that was accomplished using Inspiration software.

Figure 13.7 Graphic Organizer for the Writing Process

 © Cengage Learning

Drawing Pictures An important communication method for children

with writing difficulties is the drawing of pictures. Children with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities often excel at expressing their
ideas in pictures. The visual areas of learning are often an area of strength
and should be encouraged (Smith, 2001, 2005; West, 1997).

13.2g Assistive and Instructional Technology for

Struggling Writers
Technology offers a wide range of applications to support struggling
writers (MacArthur, 2009; Roe, Stoodt-Hill, & Burns, 2011). In this
section, we discuss word processing, electronic keyboards, keyboarding,
talking word programs, word-prediction programs, voice-recognition
systems, e-mail, and presentation software.

Computers and Word Processing One of the most widely used

computer applications, word processing offers an excellent means of
teaching writing and integrating the language systems. With this effective
tool, writing can become a less arduous task for many individuals with
 writing difficulties. With a computer, students can write without worrying
about handwriting and can revise without making a mess of the written
document. In Figure 13.8, a fourth-grade student uses a word-processing
program to describe his invention for a science project.

Figure 13.8 The Sanitary Sleeve

The Sanitary Sleeve

I invented the sanitary sleeve so people could wipe their nose on their sleeve and not
ruin their shirt. You make a sanitary sleeve by gluing Velcro on the sleeve of your
shirt (glue the Velcro on the left sleeve if you are a lefty and on the right sleeve if you
are a righty). You’ll also need special Kleenex with Velcro on it. This is an invention
that your Mom will like because your shirt will stay clean even when you have a cold.

© Cengage Learning

Electronic Keyboards Alphasmart, Dana, and Nero are electronic

keyboards that are used for word processing. These are lightweight,
relatively low-cost devices (about $200–$400) that can be used instead of
a computer. Files are stored on a disk, which can be transferred to a PC or
a Macintosh computer. Pages can be printed by connecting the
Alphasmart, Dana, or Nero keyboards to any printer. Many classes
provide all students in the class with an Alphasmart or Dana keyboard.
The web address for Alphasmart is http://www.alphasmart.com.

Advantages of Word Processing As the writing tool of the

contemporary classroom, word processing supports writing in the
following ways (Jennings et al., 2010):

Motivation. Students are motivated to write because word

processing increases their ability to produce neat, error-free copies.
It also encourages them to share their writing and to publish it in a
variety of formats.

Collaboration Students learn to collaborate in the writing process

with teachers and peers because of the visibility of the screen and
the anonymity of the printed text.

Ease of revision. The editing power of the computer eases the

physical burden of revising, making it easier to correct, revise, and
rewrite a text. The writer can readily add, correct, delete, and revise
and can freely experiment until the display screen shows exactly
 what the writer wants to say. The writer can also work with the
printed copy to make further changes, if desired, and then enter
those changes into the computer.

Help with fine-motor problems. Typing is inherently easier and

neater than handwriting, especially for students with fine-motor
problems. At any point, by clicking “print,” the writer can obtain a
printed copy. Word processing eliminates the difficult task of
recopying or retyping and encourages the student to expend energy
on the important part of the writing process—thinking about
content, editing, and revising.

Special features. Many word-processing software programs have

special features, such as spell checkers, a thesaurus, grammar
checkers, and speech synthesis programs, that make the process of
writing easier.

Keyboarding To use a word processor for writing, students must learn

typing or keyboarding skills. Keyboarding is discussed in this chapter, in
the section on handwriting instruction.

Talking Word-Processing Programs Talking word-processing

programs are text-to-speech programs that allow users to hear electronic
text. These programs are helpful for people who have difficulty reading
print. Several text-to-speech programs are listed in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1 Computers and Writing

Type of Name Company and Web Address

Computer
Program

Talking word- Write: OutLoud Don Johnston,

processing http://www.donjohnston.com
programs

Kurzweil 3000 Kurzweil Education Systems,

http://www.kurzweiledu.com

WYNN 5.1 Freedom Scientific,

http://www.freedomscientific.com

Word-prediction Co:Writer Don Johnston,

programs http://www.donjohnston.com

Word-processing Microsoft Works Microsoft, http://www.microsoft.com

software
Type of Name Company and Web Address
Computer
Program

Microsoft Word Microsoft, http://www.microsoft.com

WordPerfect Corel, http://www.wordperfect.com

Voice-recognition Type to Learn Dragon Sunburst, http://www.sunburst.com

programs

NaturallySpeaking Nuance, http://www.Nuance.com

© Cengage Learning

Word-Prediction Programs Word-prediction programs can be

very helpful for poor writers. Word-prediction programs work together
with a word processor to predict the word the user wants to enter into the
computer. When the user types the first one or 2 letters of a word, the
word-prediction software offers a list of words beginning with that letter.
The user simply selects the desired word. The word-prediction software
can also predict the next word in a sentence, even before the letters of the
next word are entered. The prediction is based on syntax, spelling rules,
word frequency, redundancy, and repetitive factors. The word-prediction
software is helpful for students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities who have difficulty in writing (MacArthur, 2009; Belson,
2003; Lewis, 1998; Raskind & Higgins, 1998a; Roe, Stoodt-Hill, & Burns,
2011). A popular word-prediction program is Co:Writer (see Table 13.1).

Voice-Recognition Systems Voice-recognition systems are

dictation programs that allow a person to operate a computer by speaking
to it. Using it in combination with a word processor, the user dictates to
the system through a microphone, and the spoken words are converted to
text on the computer screen. The computer learns to recognize the speech
of the individual using it. The more the system is used, the more accurate
it becomes in recognizing the user’s spoken language. Voice-recognition
systems may be particularly helpful for those individuals who have oral
language abilities that are superior to their written language abilities.
Voice-recognition programs are especially useful for individuals with
dyslexia (MacArthur, 2009; Belson, 2003; Raskind & Higgins, 1998a).
Some voice-recognition systems are listed in Table 13.1.
 Word-Processing Software Many excellent word-processing
programs are available for students at all levels. Table 13.1 lists some of
the programs used in schools.

Writing E-mail Messages A widely used and exciting method for

encouraging writing and sharing written messages with an audience is
through e-mail. Many classes are linking up with other classes through the
Internet, providing children with the opportunity to write to one another.
Many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities use
social networking websites, such as Facebook and MySpace.

Using Presentation Software Software that allows users to

develop presentation slides (such as Microsoft PowerPoint) provides an
excellent way for students to engage in writing. Students with writing
difficulties often struggle with writing, a skill that taps into many of their
most severe disability areas. Secondary students with severe writing
disabilities often master presentation software very quickly.

Students might develop, for example, a PowerPoint slide presentation

about what they did during their winter break, recalling an experience
that was recent and vivid. Presentations can be augmented with color, a
variety of fonts, background colors, animations, graphics, and photos.
Students can then present their PowerPoint shows to the class.

Many students with writing difficulties are enthusiastic about using

Power-Point and about making PowerPoint presentations in lieu of
writing compositions. They explain that it is easier to write in short
phrases rather than in long sentences; it is fun; and, most important, it is
easy to share their work with an audience. Creating a presentation slide
project seems to call upon the students’ visual skills, an area of strength
for many students with learning disabilities.

Making a Web Page Wikispaces is a program that allows classes or

groups of students to easily develop websites. The address for Wikispaces
is http://www.wikispaces.com.

13.2h Assessment of Written Expression

 The assessment of writing usually focuses on the written product. As with
other areas of instruction, both informal and formal measures can be used
to assess writing. Some of these measures are listed in Table 13.2. Written
language tests usually require students to first write a passage, which is
then evaluated.

Table 13.2 Tests of Written Expression

Test Age or Grade Assessed

• OWLS: Written Language Scales, AGS Ages 3–21

http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

• Test of Adolescent Language—3 (TOAL-3), Pro-Ed Ages 12–19

http://www.proedinc.com

• Test of Written Expression (TOWE), Pro-Ed Ages 5–17

http://www.proedinc.com

• Test of Written Language—3 (TOWL-3), Pro-Ed Ages 7–18

http://www.proedinc.com

• Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery—III, Grades K–17

Tests of Achievement, Riverside Publishers
http://www.riverpub.com

© Cengage Learning

Did You Get It?

The authors of your text describe success and achievement in writing as being
“intimately tied” to something else specifically, that tangible something which
allows students to hone their skills now and for the future. To what are the
authors referring?

a. Proper instruction

b. Inherent, nonteachable factors

c. Inner drive and motivation

d. A high intelligence quotient

13.3 Spelling
 Spelling has been called “the invention of the devil.” Continuing this
spiritual analogy, someone has quipped that the ability to spell well is “a
gift from God.” Spelling is one curriculum area in which neither creativity
nor divergent thinking is encouraged. Only one pattern or arrangement of
letters can be accepted as correct; no compromise is possible. What makes
spelling so difficult is that the written form of the English language has an
inconsistent pattern; there is not a dependable one-to-one
correspondence between the spoken sounds of English and the written
form of the language. Therefore, spelling is not an easy task, even for
people who do not have learning disabilities and related mild disabilities.

Spelling a word is much more difficult than reading a word. In reading,

there are several clues—context, phonics, structural analysis, and
configuration—that help the reader recognize a word in print. Spelling
offers no such opportunities to draw on peripheral clues. Many
individuals who have trouble spelling words are skilled in recognizing
words in reading. However, individuals who are poor in decoding words in
reading are almost always poor in spelling as well.

13.3a Developmental Stages of Learning to Spell

Children go through several distinct stages of spelling development,
following a general progression of spelling knowledge. The rate of
progression differs among children with different spelling abilities, but all
children pass through the stages in order. Moreover, the spelling errors
that children make reflect their current developmental stage of spelling.
There are overlaps in the ages at which children pass through each
developmental stage of spelling. The stages and their accompanying ages
and characteristics follow:

Stage 1: Developing Prephonetic Writing, Ages 1–7

Children scribble, identify pictures, draw, imitate writing, and learn to
make letters, as shown in Figure 13.9.

Figure 13.9 Developing Prephonetic Writing: Making Letters

 © Cengage Learning

Stage 2: Using Letter Names and Beginning Phonetic

Strategies, Ages 5–9 Children attempt to use phoneme
representations but exhibit limited knowledge. They use invented spelling
by letter name (e.g., HIKT for hiked, LRN for learn, or TRKE for turkey).
Children may be able to spell some sight words correctly, as shown in
Figure 13.10.

Figure 13.10 Pictures and Beginning Phonetic Stages

© Cengage Learning

Stage 3: Using Written Word Patterns, Ages 6–12 Spelling

attempts are readable, pronounceable, and recognizable, and they
approximate conventional spelling, even though they are not precise (e.g.,
offis for office or alavater for elevator). The child’s invented spellings
follow rules of short vowel and long vowel markers. Many sight words are
spelled correctly, as shown in Figure 13.11.
Figure 13.11 Witten Word Patterns

© Cengage Learning

Stage 4: Using Syllable Junctures and Multisyllabic

Words, Ages 8–18 Students display errors in multisyllabic words.
Invented spelling errors occur at syllable juncture and schwa positions
and follow deviational rules (e.g., useage for usage; the term schwa refers
to unaccented syllables and reflects common spelling errors, such as
cottin for cotton). Multisyllabic sight words may or may not be transferred
to spelling performance.

Stage 5: Developing a Mature Spelling Perspective, Ages

10–Adult At this stage, previously acceptable invented spellings are
now viewed as errors. Many individuals continue to have great difficulty
with spelling, even if they follow the rules. Because of the many exceptions
in English, individuals should learn to rely on backup sources, such as
dictionaries, computer spelling checks, and electronic spellers. (Franklin
Electronics offers many handheld electronic spelling devices,
http://www.franklin.com.)

13.3b Problems Related to Spelling

Spelling requires many different abilities. For example, a child who lacks
phonological awareness will not recognize that there are phonemes or
sounds within spoken words and will have difficulty with the spelling-to-
sound linkages that are necessary in spelling (Torgesen, 1998). Some
children are initially unable to read a spelling word. Other children do not
know how to apply phonics and structural analysis to spell a word. Still
 others are poor at visualizing the appearance of the word. Some children
have poor motor facility and physical difficulty writing words.

To spell a word correctly, an individual must not only have stored the
word in memory, but must also be able to completely retrieve it from
memory without the help from visual clues. Poor spellers who cannot
remember or visualize the letters and the order of the letters in words
benefit from activities to help strengthen and reinforce the visual memory
of the spelling words. Fernald (1988), for example, developed a tracing
technique to teach spelling by reinforcing the visual image of the word,
drawing on the tactile and kinesthetic senses. (The Fernald Method is
described in the “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter.)

Some poor spellers have difficulty with auditory memory and cannot hold
the sounds or syllables in their minds. These students need instruction
that will help them recognize the sounds of words and build phonological
skills. Motor memory is also a factor in spelling because the speller must
remember how the word “felt” or recall the motor movement when the
word was previously written.

13.3c Invented Spelling

Invented spelling is the beginning writer’s attempt to write words by
attending to their sound units and associating letters with them in a
systematic, although unconventional, way (Jennings, Caldwell, & Lerner,
2010). Examples of invented spellings used by young children are evry
budy for everybody, na-bor for neighbor, ez for easy, neck all for nickel,
and 1000ilnd for thousand island. Examples of writing with invented
spelling are shown in Figures 13.12 and 13.13.

Figure 13.12 Example of Invented Spelling

 © Cengage Learning

Figure 13.13 A Second-Grade Student’s Note to Her Mother Using

Invented Spelling
 © Cengage Learning

Children who are encouraged to use invented spelling and to write

anything they want in whatever way they can are much more willing to
write. They learn to take risks in a failure-free environment, and they
come to understand that writing is a pleasurable form of communication
in which thoughts are translated into symbols that mean something to
other people. Figure 13.13 illustrates the writing of a second-grade student
who was able to express her deep emotional feelings about a ladybug.
Research shows that children who were allowed to invent their own
spelling at an early age tend to spell as well as, or better than, children
who were not given this instruction (Sipe, 2001).

It is important that teachers who use invented spelling as an instructional

technique make sure that parents understand the philosophy and purpose
of the method. Student Stories 13.2, “Learning the Awful Truth About
Spelling,” relates the tale of Brian, who happily used invented spelling in
first and second grade and was shocked when told that spelling has rules.
Student Stories 13.2 Learning the Awful Truth About Spelling

Sometimes children who freely use invented spelling in first and second grades are
jolted when they realize that there are strict rules about correct spelling. Brian had
been in third grade for two weeks in the fall semester when he asked his mother to
transfer him to a different third-grade class. When his mother asked Brian about
why he wanted to change teachers, Brian explained that the reason was that his
current third-grade teacher was not a very good teacher. When his mother probed
further, Brian confided that his third-grade teacher thought there was only one way
to spell a word.

Reflective Question
1. Do you think children should be encouraged to use invented spelling?

A critical factor in using invented spelling is the child’s phonological

awareness of the sounds of language. Young children who have acquired
phonemic awareness of the sounds of language have proficiency in
invented spelling and tend to write more.

13.3d Multisensory Approaches to Spelling

We discussed multisensory approaches for reading in Chapter 12,
“Reading Difficulties.” Multisensory techniques are also useful for
teaching spelling. Using several senses helps to reinforce the learning of
spelling words. Multisensory learning involves learning spelling through
the visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile senses. The multisensory
spelling approaches include the multisensory method and the Fernald
Method, which are described in detail in the “Teaching Strategies” section
of this chapter.

13.3e Two Theories of Word Selection for

Teaching Spelling
 In selecting words for teaching spelling, there are two alternative
approaches:

1. the word-pattern approach and

2. the word-frequency approach.

Word-Pattern Approach to Spelling The word-pattern

approach to spelling is based on the contention that the spelling of
American English is sufficiently rule-covered to warrant an instructional
method that stresses phonological, morphological, and syntactic rules or
word patterns. This word-pattern approach capitalizes on the underlying
regularity between the phonological and morphological elements in oral
language and their graphic representations in written language.

In spite of the seemingly numerous exceptions to the rules of spelling,

research demonstrates that American English spelling does have
predictable patterns and an underlying system of phonological and
morphological regularity. Teachers can help students discover underlying
linguistic patterns by selecting certain words for spelling instruction. For
example, when teaching the spelling pattern of the phoneme oy, the
teacher should include words such as boy, joy, Roy, and toy to help
students form a phonics generalization. The teaching of spelling can be
merged with phonics instruction so that phonics and word-analysis skills
are practiced during the spelling lesson.

Word-Frequency Approach to Spelling In the word-

frequency approach to spelling, words for spelling instruction are
chosen on the basis of frequency of use, rather than on phonological
patterns.

A core of spelling words that are most frequently used in writing was
determined through extensive investigations of the writing of children and
adults (Fitzgerald, 1951). A few words in our language are used over and
over. In fact, only 2,650 words and their derivative repetitions make up
about 95% of the writing of elementary-school children. A basic list of
3,500 words covers the needs of children in elementary school (Fitzgerald,
1955), and 60% of our writing consists of the 100 words shown in Table
13.3.

The 100 Most Common Words in Written Language

Table 13.3

a eat in our there

all for it out they

am girl it over this

and go just play time

are going know pretty to

at good like put too

baby got little red tree

ball had look run two

be has made said up

big have make saw want

boy he man school was

but her me see we

can here mother she went

Christmas him my so what

come his name some when

did home not take will

do house now that with

dog how of the would

doll I on them you

down I’m one then your

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© Cengage Learning

The word-frequency approach to spelling is based on the contention that

so many exceptions to spelling rules occur in the most frequently used
words that it is difficult to convey patterns and rules to beginning spellers.
Examples of the irregular relationship between phonemes (the spoken
sounds) and graphemes (the written symbols) are easy to cite. George
Bernard Shaw, an advocate of spelling reform, is credited with the
suggestion that the word fish be spelled ghoti: gh as in cough, o as in
 women, ti as in nation. Following phonic generalizations, the word
natural could be spelled pnatchurile.

One teacher found that students’ spelling of the word awful was varied
and included offul, awfull, offel, and offle. Each is an accurate phonetic
transcription of the oral sounds of the word.

13.3f Assessment of Spelling

Informal Tests Informal and teacher-constructed spelling tests are
particularly useful. Curriculum-based assessment also offers a way to
obtain information on spelling that is directly linked to instruction
(Spinelli, 2006).

A short informal spelling test, as shown in Table 13.4, was developed by

selecting 10 words from a frequency-of-use word list. The student is asked
to spell on paper words from each grade list until 3 words in a grade list
are missed. The student’s spelling level can be estimated as that at which
only 2 words are missed.

Table 13.4 Informal Spelling Test

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7

all be after because bread build although

at come before dinner don’t hair amount

for give brown few floor music business

his house dog light beautiful eight excuse

it long never place money brought receive

not must in sent minute except measure

see ran gray table ready suit telephone

up some hope town snow whose station

me want live only through yesterday possible

go your mother farm bright instead straight

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 © Cengage Learning

Formal Tests Some formal tests of spelling are individual spelling

tests, and others are part of a comprehensive academic achievement
battery. Table 13.5 shows some commonly used spelling tests.

Table 13.5 Tests of Spelling

Test Type Age or Grade

Assessed

Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Battery Grades K–9

Skills—Revised, Curriculum Associates
http://www.curriculumassociates.com

Peabody Individual Achievement Test— Battery Grades K–12

Revised (PIAT -R), AGS Pearson
http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

Test of Written Spelling—3 (TOWS-3), Pro-Ed Spelling Grades 1–12

http://www.proedinc.com

Wide-Range Achievement Test—4 (WRAT-4), Battery Ages 5–adult

PAR Psychological Assessment Resources
http://www3.parinc.com

© Cengage Learning

Did You Get It?

Mr. Kelvin and Ms. Santiago are parallel teachers of a class of young students.
These students are today working on spelling-related tasks, such as basic
letter-writing, imitation of writing, and simple pictures and sketches, which
run the gamut from scribbling to basic drawing. This class is at which level of
writing?

a. Syllable junctures

b. Prephonetic

c. Phonetic

d. Written word patterns

13.4 Handwriting
Three different ways to produce writing are currently taught in schools:

1. manuscript writing (a version of printing),

2. cursive writing (sometimes called script), and

3. keyboarding (or typing).

Even though computer word processing is becoming more common in our

schools, handwriting remains a necessary competency. Handwriting is
still the major means by which students convey to teachers what they have
learned. In many life situations, adults find handwriting an unavoidable
necessity.

Handwriting is the most concrete of the communication skills. It can be

directly observed, evaluated, and preserved, providing a permanent
record of the output. The process of handwriting is intricate and depends
on many different skills and abilities. Handwriting requires accurate
perception of the graphic symbol patterns. The act of writing entails keen
visual and motor skills that depend on the visual function of the eye, the
coordination of eye movements, smooth motor coordination of eye and
hand, and control of arm, hand, and finger muscles. Writing also requires
accurate visual and kinesthetic memory of the written letters and words.

Extremely poor handwriting is sometimes called dysgraphia, and this

condition may reflect other underlying neurological conditions. Poor
handwriting may be a manifestation of fine-motor difficulties because the
student is unable to execute efficiently the motor movements required to
write or to copy written letters or forms. Students may be unable to
transfer the input of visual information to the output of fine-motor
movement, or they may have difficulty in activities that require motor and
spatial judgments. Some students exhibit dystrophic problems when they
cannot go from a far-point visual task of seeing a letter or word on a
chalkboard to then copying that form on a piece of paper, a near-point
visual task. Other underlying shortcomings that interfere with
handwriting performance are poor motor skills, faulty visual perception of
letters and words, and difficulty in remembering visual impressions.

Figure 13.14 illustrates the attempts of two 10-year-old boys with learning
disabilities and handwriting difficulty to copy some writing materials.
Figure 13.14 Illustrations of the Handwriting of Two 10-year-old
Boys With Handwriting Difficulties (in both cases, the
boys were asked to copy from a sample)

© Cengage Learning

13.4a Manuscript Writing

Handwriting instruction usually begins with manuscript writing in
kindergarten, where children begin to write letters of the alphabet.
Manuscript writing usually continues in first, second, and third grade.

Manuscript writing has certain advantages: It is easy to learn because it

consists of only circles and straight lines, and the letter forms are closer to
the printed form used in reading. Some educators believe it is not
essential to transfer to cursive writing at all because the manuscript form
is legal, legible, and probably just as rapid. Many children with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities find manuscript writing easier
than cursive writing. The manuscript letters are shown in Figure 13.15.
Figure 13.15 Manuscript Letters

© Cengage Learning 2015

13.4b Cursive Writing

In cursive writing (sometimes called script), the letters are connected.
The transfer to cursive writing is typically made somewhere in the third
grade, although schools teach cursive writing as late as fifth grade. In an
earlier era, writing instruction emphasized the flourishes of cursive
writing, but today the goal is to teach functional handwriting. Cursive
writing has certain advantages:

1. it minimizes spatial judgment problems for the student and

2. it has a rhythmic continuity and wholeness that are missing from

manuscript writing.

In addition, errors of reversals are virtually eliminated with cursive

writing. However, many students with learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities find it difficult to make the transfer to cursive writing
after they have learned manuscript writing. Samples of cursive letters are
shown in Figure 13.16.

Figure 13.16 Cursive Letters

 © Cengage Learning 2015

Another handwriting form is the D’Nealian writing system. This system

helps students make the transition to cursive writing more easily. The
D’Nealian system is a simplified cursive writing style in which manuscript
letters have the basic forms of the corresponding cursive letters. Most of
the manuscript letters are made with a continuous stroke that produces a
kind of connected manuscript writing, and the student does not have to
lift the pencil. Some students can more easily transfer from manuscript
writing to this modified form of cursive writing. A website for D’Nealian
writing can be found at http://www.dnealian.com/lessons.html.

13.4c The Left-Handed Student

Left-handed people encounter a special handwriting problem because
their natural tendency is to write from right to left on the page. In writing
from left to right, left-handers have difficulty seeing what they have
written. Their hand covers up the writing and tends to smudge the writing
as it moves over the paper. To avoid the smudging, some left-handed
students begin “hooking” their hand when they start using pens. Left-
handedness today is accepted as natural. Students who have not yet
stabilized handedness should be encouraged to write with their right
hand, unless it is observed that the student has great difficulty doing so.

Students with a strong preference for the left hand should be permitted to
write as a lefty, although this creates some special problems in writing and
requires special instruction. Research shows that left-handers can learn to
write just as quickly as right-handers. For manuscript writing, the paper
 should be placed directly in front of the left-handed student, without a
slant. For cursive writing, the top of the paper should be slanted north-
northeast, opposite to the slant used by the right-handed student. The
pencil should be long, gripped about 1 inch from the tip, with the eraser
pointing to the left shoulder. The position of the hand should be curved,
with the weight resting on the outside of the little finger, and hooking
should be avoided.

Many word-processing programs include adjustments to change the

mouse to a left-handed clicking position. The teacher must observe closely
the preference of the student since some left-handed individuals do not
want to use a left-handed clicking position.

13.4d Keyboarding or Typing Skills

The skills needed to use a computer keyboard are referred to as
keyboarding or typing skills. Students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities who have handwriting difficulties often find that
word-processing programs offer a very welcome and feasible solution to
their handwriting difficulties. The motor skills required for keyboarding
are easier than the motor skills required for cursive writing, and the
output is certainly more legible for the reader. However, simply putting a
student in front of a computer is not enough; it is essential to provide
explicit and consistent instruction in keyboarding. Teaching students the
correct finger positions initially is far superior to allowing them to develop
the bad habits of a hunt-and-peck method.

Learning to type is hard work and requires direct and regular instruction
over an extended period of time, with ample opportunities for drill and
practice. Sufficient time must be provided in the schedule for keyboarding
instruction and for the student to practice the skills.

Good keyboarding software programs for students, such as Type to Learn

(http://www.K12software.com) and Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing (The
Learning Company at http://www.learningco.com), are based on sound
instructional principles. They begin by demonstrating how each new key
should be pressed, showing a keyboard on the screen and demonstrating
 key strokes by highlighting specific keys. As students practice using the
new keys, they receive feedback on their accuracy. There are frequent
opportunities for practice, and the programs contain drills emphasizing
both accuracy and speed. Good typing instructional programs keep a
running record of the students’ proficiency level so that students can keep
track of how fast they type (in words per minute) and how many errors
they make. Students enjoy computer typing games that are provided in
these keyboarding programs.

Did You Get It?

Handwriting is considered to be a necessary and useful form of

communication; it is considered the most concrete of all forms of
communication. Why, and in what aspect is it deemed such a critical and
necessary task?

a. It leaves a permanent record of production.

b. Because of its history and tradition.

c. It is mandated to be part of every curriculum.

d. Actually, in light of technology, it is no longer considered critical or as

necessary.

13.5 Teaching Strategies to Improve Written

Language Difficulties
The balance of this chapter presents specific instructional strategies for
teaching written language in the areas of

1. writing strategies for the general education classroom,

2. written expression,

3. word processing,

4. spelling, and

5. handwriting.
13.6 Writing Strategies for the General
Education Classroom
Most students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities who
have writing difficulties receive their writing instruction in the general
education classroom.

13.6a Instruction for Essay Writing Tests

Often the statewide assessment tests include a writing sample. These
writing tests are usually graded by a trained writing evaluator, using a
specific framework for the evaluation. To produce an acceptable written
essay, students in general education need specific instruction in the
scoring framework. The components of a writing framework to teach
students how to develop a brief informational written product are
described by Jennings and Haynes (2006).

1. Topic sentence. The topic sentence tells what this essay is about.

2. Develop 3 sentences that support the topic.

a. Supporting sentence 1. The student might start out with

the introductory words, “First of all.”

b. Supporting sentence 2. The student might start with the

word, “Secondly.”

c. Supporting sentence 3. The student might start with the

word, “Thirdly,” or “Finally.”

3. Provide an example of each supporting sentence. This can

be a specific fact or a supporting sentence to back up the supporting
topic sentence.

4. Concluding sentence. The student could start out with the words,
“In conclusion.” This sums up what has been presented in the essay.

Teaching Tips 13.1, “A Writing Framework,” gives an example of an essay

that follows this writing framework.

Teaching Tips 13.1 A Writing Framework

Topic sentence
It is important to follow basic safety rules when enjoying an outdoor activity. When
you do an outdoor activity, you should wear pads and a helmet at the appropriate
time. You should also carry a first-aid kit with you when you go hiking or when you
swim. You should do it with a buddy.

Supporting sentence
First of all, when you are hiking or skateboarding, you should wear a helmet or other
protection. The helmet may save your life if you fall and other pads could prevent
other injuries. If a person fell off their bike or skateboard, then there is a chance that
they could get hurt. For example, when I first started to learn to ride a two-wheeled
bike, I would always fall. Each day I would come in with cuts and scrapes. If I had not
worn my helmet, then I could have gotten large cuts on my head. Thankfully, I am a
quick learner.

Supporting sentence
Secondly, when someone hikes, he or she should carry a first-aid kit with them. When
someone hikes, there is always a chance of him or her getting hurt. If someone got
hurt when he or she was hiking, then there would most likely be no one around to help
him or her. For example, whenever I hike somewhere, I always carry a first-aid kit.
The reason I do this is that I have gotten hurt while hiking. I was by myself and I
sprained my ankle. With my first-aid kit, I was able to wrap my ankle.

Supporting sentence
Thirdly, swimming with a buddy is a safe thing to do. Swimming is not always a safe
thing to do by yourself. There is always a risk that someone may drown. If you were
swimming by yourself, you should tell someone where you are going. For example, my
friend decided that he was hot and wanted to go for a swim. His mom and dad were
not at home, so he decided to go anyway. The problem was that he forgot to leave a
note for his parents. His parents were worried sick. He likes to go to a pond in
Topsfield. The pond is not open this time of year so his parents started to think he
might have drowned, but he was only taking a walk around the pond.

Conclusion
In conclusion, following safety rules when doing an activity is important. Many bad
things could happen to someone if they did not follow the rules.

Source: From “Essay writing: An attainable goal for students with dyslexia,” by Terrill M. Jennings &
Charles W. Haynes, 2006, Perspectives: The International Dyslexia Assoc, 32(2), 36–39.

Most students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities

receive their writing instruction in the general education classroom.
 General education teachers need to be familiar with strategies for teaching
writing to all students. Some writing strategies for the general education
classroom teacher are given in Including Students in General Education
13.1, “Writing Strategies.”

Including Students in General Education 13.1 Writing Strategies

Written Expression
Allocate sufficient time for writing. Students learn to write by writing; therefore,
have students write four times per week.

Encourage students in the primary grades to use invented spelling.

Use brainstorming to create ideas about writing topics.

Give students a range of writing tasks, including both creative writing and
functional writing. Creative writing is personal writing, while functional writing
conveys information about a subject.

Teach students the stages of the writing process: prewriting, drafting, revising,
sharing.

Use a graphic organizer, such as Inspiration (http://www.inspiration.com), to

plan a story.

Use a presentation program, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, to develop a story.

Use the Internet to conduct research on a topic.

Spelling
Limit the number of spelling words to be learned at one time.

Analyze the phonemes of new words.

Point out the syllables in multisyllabic words.

Teach word families (e.g., at, sat, rat, mat).

Provide periodic retesting and review.

Use multisensory strategies (e.g., see the word, say the word, write the word in
the air, see the word in your mind’s eye, write the word on paper, and compare
the word to the model).

Use games to motivate students to learn their spelling words. For example,
Wheel of Fortune is an enjoyable game that reinforces the learning of particular
spelling words.

Handwriting
Begin with manuscript writing and explain that it consists of lines and circles.

The teacher says the name of the letter to be written.

Have the students trace the letter with their finger.

 Use dotted lines for a letter and have the students trace the dots with a pencil.

The teacher gives stroke directions to the students (e.g., first we go down, then
we go up).

Have the students copy a letter (or word) on paper while looking at a model.

The students write the letter from memory while saying the name of the letter.

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Did You Get It?

Within a formatted essay, a student typically writes two or three sentences or

short paragraphs beginning—optionally—with the words “firstly,” “secondly,”
or some approximation thereof. These critical sentences are composed in order
to do what, in relation to the argument posited by the essay?

a. Open

b. Close

c. Support

d. Dispel

13.7 Strategies for Teaching Written Expression

Many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
reach upper elementary or secondary levels with little exposure to, and
little experience with, written expression. There is so much effort and
intense instruction to improve poor reading skills that it often
overshadows instruction in writing. Learning to write requires abundant
time and opportunities for various kinds of writing.

Some guides for the teaching of writing are given in Teaching Tips 13.2,
“Teaching the Writing Process.”

Teaching Tips 13.2 Teaching The Writing Process

Provide opportunities for extensive writing. Student writers need

sufficient time to think, reflect, write, and rewrite. Many students with writing
difficulties spend less than 10 minutes per day composing. It is recommended
that composing time be extended to 50 minutes each day, 4 days each week.
Break the writing time into several smaller segments for students who need a
shorter period of writing concentration.

Establish a writing environment. The atmosphere of the writing classroom

should foster writing activities and encourage cooperative writing work.
Teachers can use individual writing folders containing the students’ current
writing projects, a list of finished pieces, ideas for future topics, and writing
assistance materials, such as individual spelling dictionaries. Keep materials and
books in one place, so that students can begin their writing without having to
request teacher assistance.

Allow students to select their own topics. Writing projects are most
successful when students have a personal interest in the subject. If they need
more information, reading other source materials and facilities to use the
Internet should be readily available.

Model the writing process and thinking aloud. The act of writing is
encouraged when teachers and classmates model the cognitive processes
involved in writing. For example, the teacher could model the writing stages by
thinking aloud: “I want to plan a mysterious setting for my story. What about a
haunted house? Next, I must decide on the characters in this story …” (Graham
& Harris, 2005).

Develop a sense of audience. In the traditional writing curriculum, students

write for the teacher and think they must match the teacher’s standards of
correctness. Expand the students’ sense of audience by having them engage in
peer collaboration, consulting, group sharing, and publication. Provide
opportunities to discuss their writing progress with classmates who are not
writing experts. When the writing projects are finished, students can read their
material to an audience of peers and discuss their work.

Transfer ownership and control of the writing to the students. A goal

of the writing process is to transfer ownership and control to the writer. As
students learn to internalize the strategies that are being taught, they should
gradually take more responsibility for their writing and be able to work without
teacher direction.

Capitalize on students’ interests. Learn about the students’ interests and be

alert for relevant events that can become the subject for writing. Interests in
sports, school, music, movies, local and national news, trips, family vacations, or
holidays offer subjects for writing. One teacher found that trolls (the little dolls
with the homely, elf-like features and colorful hair) were reemerging as a
popular toy. So many students were bringing them to school that the teacher had
to limit students to one troll guest a day. Capitalizing on their interest, the
teacher had students design their own trolls in drawings and write stories telling
why the manufacturer should adopt their troll designs.
 Avoid punitive grading. Do not allow grading practices to discourage
students. Consider grading only ideas, not the technical form, for some
assignments, or give 2 grades—one for ideas and one for technical skills. If a
student makes errors in many areas, correct only one skill, such as
capitalization. When the student masters that skill, concentrate on another area.

Differentiate between creative and functional writing. Creative and

functional writing lessons have different goals, and students should understand
that different skills are required for each. In creative writing, the goal is to
develop ideas and express them in written form, and there is less need for
technical perfection. In contrast, functional writing may require students to
learn specific formats. For example, if the final product is a business letter, the
writer must adhere to certain standards and forms.

Provide abundant input. Students need something to write about. Before

asking students to write, make sure that they have enough firsthand experiences,
such as trips, creative activities, viewing a television show, movies, or sports
events that can be drawn upon for writing. Talk about these experiences.

Schedule frequent writing. Students need frequent writing experiences to

develop skills in writing. An assignment to write a certain number of pages per
week in a personal journal that will not be corrected (or perhaps even read) by
the teacher is an excellent technique for providing necessary practice and
improving the quality of writing.

Teach how to combine sentences. This approach is especially useful for

adolescents and adults. The teacher writes several separate kernel sentences.
Students must combine those sentences into a more complex sentence by adding
clauses and connectors.

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

There are a myriad of suitable strategies that can be implemented with the goal
of improving written expression. One of these is to develop a class-wide sense
of what the authors of your text refer to as “audience.” What is the primary
reason for implementing this strategy?

a. To teach social skills in addition to writing skills

b. To break the shackles of students writing for teacher alone

c. To create a sense of unity and brotherhood

d. To provide upper-level students with a venue to showcase their work

13.8 Strategies for Using Word Processing
The following list suggests some activities for using computer word
processing to teach writing:

Expanding vocabulary. Using a word-processing program, write

a sentence or short paragraph on the computer. Use the computer
thesaurus to find synonyms for several words.

Learning story sequence. Place several sentences about a series

of events in incorrect order. Have the students use the “cut” and
“paste” functions to put them in the proper sequence.

Beginning a story. Put the beginning of a story on a disk and have

each student continue the narrative. Each student’s story can be
compared with others’. In another variation, begin a story on a disk
and then have one student write the next segment, another student
write the following segment, and so on.

Keeping an electronic diary or journal. Keeping a journal of

daily events has proved to be an effective technique for improving
reading and writing skills. Instead of writing on paper, the student
can use a computer with word-processing software.

Sending e-mail. Students can use e-mail to send messages. The

messages can be sent between students in the class, between the
teacher and the students, or between the students and students in
other classes throughout the world.

Writing book reports. To make writing a book report on the

computer easier, develop a template with key topics, such as title of
the book, author, type of book, summary, and the student’s name.
To write the book report, the student simply loads the template and
fills out the information next to each topic.

Writing a class newsletter. A newsletter can be written with any

word-processing program. Several commercial programs allow users
to write, illustrate, paste up, and print pages that resemble a
newspaper or newsletter. Microsoft Word allows users to set up two
columns.

Using graphics. Graphics can easily be added to a word-

processing document. Graphics can be found on Internet sites, or
photos can be taken with a digital camera. Clipart often comes with
word-processing software programs. Graphics can be scanned in
with a scanner, or students can create their own art graphics. The
 search engine Google has a collection of images that can be accessed
at http://www.google.com (click on “images”).

Using the Internet. Students who have access to the Internet can
find a wealth of information (such as text, pictures, photographs,
and charts) about a topic of their interest. Topics such as dinosaurs,
baseball, sports figures, or the history of Canada can be investigated
through a search engine. With material gathered from their
searches, the students can develop stories and reports or develop
PowerPoint presentations to share their reports with others.

Did You Get It?

As a teacher and staff member at Minnesota’s Jules Verne high school, you
know how absolutely annoying and distracting it is when a student or teacher
uses any device to send an e-mail or text during school. Why not just place a
sign that says “Forbidden!”

a. No—students need to be able to communicate with loved ones regularly

b. No—contextually, e-mailing can be a useful processing tool

c. Yes—in most school districts this is now mandated

d. Yes—this is recommended

13.9 Strategies for Teaching Spelling

The following list provides strategies for teaching spelling:

1. Auditory perception and memory of letter sounds. Provide

practice in auditory perception of letter sounds, strengthen
knowledge of phonics and structural analysis, and develop skills in
applying phonic generalizations. (See Chapter 11, “Spoken Language
Difficulties: Listening and Speaking.”)

2. Visual memory of words. Help the students strengthen visual

images of each word. Flash cards and computer spelling software
can also be used to develop speed and strengthen memory of
spelling words. (See Chapter 8, “Young Children With Disabilities,”
for specific strategies for developing visual perception and memory.)

3. Multisensory methods in spelling. Students who are told to

study spelling lessons are frequently at a loss as to what to do. The
 following describes a multisensory approach for learning spelling
that engages the visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile senses:

a. Meaning and pronunciation. Have the students look at the

word, pronounce it correctly, and use it in a sentence.

b. Imagery. Ask students to “see” the word and say it. Have
students say each syllable of the word, say the word syllable by
syllable, spell the word orally, and then use one finger to trace
the word, either in the air or by touching the word itself.

c. Recall. Ask students to look at the word and then close their
eyes and see it in their mind’s eye. Have them spell the word
orally. Then ask them to open their eyes and look at the word
to see if they were correct. (If they make an error, they should
repeat the process.)

d. Writing the word. Ask the students to write the word

correctly from memory, check the spelling against the original,
and then check the writing to make sure that every letter is
legible.

e. Mastery. Have the students cover the word and write it. If
they are correct, they should cover and write it two more times.

4. The Fernald method. This method is a multisensory approach,

and it is used to teach reading and writing as well as spelling
(Fernald, 1988). The Fernald method for teaching spelling is shown
in Teaching Tips 13.3, “The Fernald Method for Teaching Spelling.”

Teaching Tips 13.3 The Fernald Method for Teaching Spelling

a. Students are told that they are going to learn words in a new way that has
proved to be very successful. They are encouraged to select a word that
they wish to learn.

b. The teacher writes that word on a sheet of paper, as the students watch
and as the teacher says the word.

c. The students trace the word, saying it several times, and then write it on a
separate piece of paper while saying the word.

d. The students write the word from memory without looking at the original
copy. If the word is incorrect, students repeat Step C. If the word is
correct, it is put in a file box. The words in the file box are used later in
writing stories.

e. At later stages, this painstaking tracing method for learning words is not
needed. Students learn a word by looking as the teacher writes it, saying
it, and writing it. At a still later stage, the students can learn by only
 looking at a word in print and writing it. Finally, they learn by merely
looking at the word.

Professional Resource Download

5. The “test-study-test” method versus the “study-test”

method. There are 2 common approaches to teaching spelling in
the classroom: the “test-study-test” and the “study-test” plans. The
test-study-test method uses a pretest, which is usually given at the
beginning of the week. The students then study only those words
that were missed on the pretest. This method is better for older
students who have fairly good spelling abilities because they do not
need to study words they already know. The study-test method is
better for young students and for those with poor spelling abilities
who would miss too many words on a pretest. The study-test method
permits them to study a few well-selected words before the test is
given.

6. Listening centers, audiotapes, and CDs. Spelling lessons can

easily be put on audiotapes or CDs. After students have advanced to
a level that enables them to work by themselves, they can complete
their spelling lessons in a listening laboratory. Earphones allow for
individualized instruction and help many students to block out
distracting auditory stimuli.

7. Electronic spellers and computer spell checkers. Students

should learn how to use these spelling devices as an aid in spelling.
Franklin Learning (http://www.franklin.com) is one manufacturer
of electronic spellers.

Did You Get It?

One method of testing for spelling adds an additional “test” to the traditional
“study-test” method used in many classrooms. What purpose does this
additional test serve?

a. It is a pretest

b. It is an additional posttest

c. It is an adjunct, informal essay test

d. It is an additional role-play test

13.10 Strategies for Teaching Handwriting
The following are useful activities for teaching handwriting:

1. Chalkboard activities. These activities provide practice before

writing instruction is begun. Circles, lines, geometric shapes, letters,
and numbers can be made with large, free movements using the
muscles of the shoulders, arms, hands, and fingers. (For additional
suggestions, see Chapter 8, “Young Children With Disabilities.”)

2. Position. Have the students prepare for writing by sitting in

comfortable chairs at a table that is at the proper height. Be sure that
the students’ feet are flat on the floor and both forearms are on the
writing surface. Each student’s nonwriting hand should hold the
paper at the top. Have students stand and work at a chalkboard for
the initial writing activities.

3. Paper. For manuscript writing, the paper should be placed without

a slant, parallel with the lower edge of the desk. For cursive writing,
the paper is tilted at an angle—approximately 60 degrees from
vertical—to the left for right-handed students and to the right for
left-handed students. To help the student remember the correct
slant, place a strip of tape parallel to the top of the paper at the top
of the desk. It may be necessary to attach the paper to the desk with
masking tape to keep it from sliding.

4. Holding the pencil. Many students with writing disorders do not

know how or are unable to hold a pencil properly between their
thumb and middle finger, with the index finger riding the pencil.
They should grasp the pencil above the sharpened point. A piece of
tape or a rubber band placed around the pencil can help the student
hold it at the right place.

If a student has difficulty grasping the pencil, the pencil can be put
through a practice golf ball (the kind with many holes). Have the
student place the middle finger and thumb around the ball to
practice the right grip. Large, primary-size pencils, large crayons,
and felt-tip pens are useful for the beginning stages of writing. Clay
might also be placed around the pencil to help the student grasp it.
Short pencils should be avoided because it is impossible to grip them
correctly. There are also a number of types of pencil grips that can
be purchased.

5. Stencils and templates. Make cardboard or plastic stencils of

geometric forms, letters, and numbers. Have the students trace the
form with one finger, a pencil, or a crayon. (Clip the stencil to the
paper to prevent it from moving.) Then remove the stencil and
 reveal the figure that has been made. The stencil can be cut so that
the hole creates the shape or, in reverse, so that the outer edges of
the stencil create the shape.

6. Tracing. Make heavy black figures on white paper and clip a sheet
of onion skin or transparent paper over the letters. Have the
students trace the forms and letters. Start with diagonal lines and
circles, then horizontal and vertical lines, geometric shapes, and
finally, letters and numbers. The students may also trace a black
letter on paper with a crayon or felt-tip pen or they may use a
transparent sheet. Another idea is to put letters on transparencies
and project the images onto a chalkboard or a large sheet of paper.
Students can then trace over the images.

7. Drawing between the lines. Have the students practice making

“roads” between double lines in a variety of widths and shapes. Then
ask the students to write letters by going between the double lines of
outlined letters. Use arrows and numbers to show the direction and
sequence of the lines (Figure 13.17).

Figure 13.17

© Cengage Learning

8. Dot-to-dot. Draw a complete figure and then draw an outline of the

same figure by using dots. Ask the students to make the figure by
connecting the dots (Figure 13.18).

Figure 13.18

© Cengage Learning

9. Tracing with reducing cues. Write a complete letter or word and

have the students trace it. Then write the first part of the letter or
word and have the students trace your part and then complete the
 letter or word. Finally, reduce the cue to only the upstroke and have
the students write the entire letter or word (Figure 13.19).

Figure 13.19

© Cengage Learning

10. Lined paper. Begin by having students use unlined paper. Later,
have them use lined paper with wide lines to help them with the
placement of letters. It may be helpful to use specially lined paper
that is color cued to aid in letter placement. Regular lined paper can
also be color cued to help students make letters (Figure 13.20).

Figure 13.20

© Cengage Learning

11. Template lines. For students who need additional help in stopping
at lines, tape can be placed at bottom and top lines. Windows can be
cut out of cardboard to give further guidance for spacing letters. The
following figure shows a template made from a piece of cardboard
with 3 windows for one-line, two-line, and three-line letters. One-
line letters are those that fit in a single-line space: a, c, e, i, m, n.
Two-line letters are those with ascenders only: b, d, h, k, I, t. Three-
line letters are those with descenders: f g j p q z y (Figure 13.21).

Figure 13.21
 © Cengage Learning

12. Letter difficulty. In terms of ease, cursive letters are introduced in

the following order: beginning letters—m, n, t, i, u, w, r, s, l, and e;
more difficult letters—x, z, y, j, p, h, b, k, f, g, and q; and
combinations of letters—me, be, go, it, no, and so forth.

13. Verbal cues. Students are helped in the motor act of writing by
hearing the directions for forming letters—for example, “down-up-
and-around.” When using this technique, teachers must take care
not to distract the students with these verbal instructions.

14. Words and sentences. After the students learn to write single
letters, instruction should proceed to writing words and sentences.
Spacing, size, and slant are additional factors to consider at this
stage.

I Have a Kid Who… ROSIE:A Student Who Struggles With

Handwriting
Rosie is a 12-year-old girl in the seventh grade at the Rosa Parks Middle School. Her
seventh-grade teacher, Mr. Trump, complained that Rosie never turns in her written
assignments. When asked to write a story or write a report for a subject-area
assignment, Rosie does not complete the project and does not turn in her
assignments. Mr. Trump observed that during the class writing assignment, Rosie
just looks up at the ceiling as though she was trying to think of something to write
about, but she never gets any ideas down on paper.

Rosie has many strengths. She does very well in oral language activities, and she
enjoys giving oral presentations. Her reading skills are above average. She also likes
 mathematics and does well on her math assignments. Rosie has many friends and
gets along well socially with her peers.

In terms of writing, Rosie’s handwriting is so illegible that even she cannot read what
she has written. Rosie still uses manuscript writing and refuses to shift to cursive
writing. She says that it is too hard to connect all the letters the right way.

The occupational therapist, Ms. Walters, provides related services to children at the
school. Ms. Walters observed Rosie as she tries to write and noted that her writing
was painstakingly slow and very laborious. Some informal evaluations showed that
Rosie has difficulty with several fine-motor tasks, such as copying shapes and
designs.

The occupational therapist, Mr. Trump, and Ms. Joseph, the special education
teacher, met as a team to discuss Rosie’s handwriting difficulties. The team
recommended that Rosie learn keyboarding skills so she could use a computer and
word processing for her written assignments. The special education teacher will take
the lead for teaching keyboarding skills to Rosie.

Questions
1. What alternatives are available for handwriting for students who have very
poor motor skills?

2. What are important strategies for teaching a student keyboarding or typing

skills?

3. Do you think keyboarding can be taught to a small group or must it be taught

individually?

Did You Get It?

“Drawing outside of the lines”—proverbially thought of as “thinking outside of

the box”—is something that experts emphatically state fosters creativity.
Drawing inside of the lines should not be used in teaching handwriting.

a. True—the same principle applies

b. Yes and no—children should be taught both formal and more haphazard
expressive handwriting

c. No—students need to learn to stay within parameters with regards to

handwriting

d. Probably false—experts are divided on this issue

 Chapter Review

Chapter Summary
Written language includes: written expression, spelling, and
handwriting.

Spelling is particularly difficult in English because of their regularity

between the spoken and written forms of the language.

Manuscript writing is the first type of writing most children learn. It

is similar to print.

Cursive writing is more complex and is difficult for many children.

Word processing is the ability to type with a computer.

Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. What are the differences between instruction for the writing process and the writing
product?

2. Describe the stages of the writing process.

3. How can graphic organizers be used in writing?

4. Discuss the advantages of computer word processing for writing.

5. What is invented spelling? How does invented spelling influence a young child’s
writing?

6. What kinds of problems do students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities have in written language?

Chapter Review

Key Terms
cursive writing
drafting

dysgraphia

early literacy

graphic organizers

invented spelling

keyboarding

manuscript writing

prewriting

revising

sharing with an audience

word-frequency approach to spelling

word-pattern approach to spelling

word processing

writing process

writing product
 Chapter

Mathematics
Difficulties
14

Chapter Introduction

14.1 Theories Describing Difficulties With Mathematics

14.2 Students With Mathematics Difficulties and Students With

Mathematics Learning Disabilities

14.2a Early Number Concepts and Number Sense

14.3 Characteristics of Students With Mathematics Disabilities

14.3a Information-Processing Difficulties

14.3b Language and Mathematics Abilities

14.3c Math Anxiety

14.4 Students With Mathematics Disabilities at the Secondary Level

14.5 Mathematics Standards

14.5a High Standards and Annual Testing

14.5b Common Core State Standards for Mathematics

14.6 Learning Theories for Mathematics Instruction

14.6a Active Involvement

14.6b Progression From Concrete Learning to Abstract Learning

14.6c Direct Instruction of Mathematics

14.6d Learning Strategies Instruction

14.6e Problem Solving

14.7 Assessing Mathematics Achievement

14.7a Formal Tests

 14.7b Informal Measures

14.8 Teaching Strategies to Improve Mathematics Difficulties

14.9 Mathematics Strategies for the General Education Classroom

14.10 The Mathematics Curriculum

14.10a The Sequence of Mathematics: Grades K–8

14.10b The Secondary Mathematics Curriculum

14.11 Principles of Instruction for Students With Mathematics

Disabilities

14.11a Early Number Learning

14.11b Progressing From the Concrete to the Abstract

14.11c Provide Opportunity for Practice and Review

14.11d Teach Students to Generalize to New Situations

14.11e Teach Mathematics Vocabulary

14.12 Activities for Teaching Mathematics

14.12a Teaching Early Number Skills

14.12b Teaching Computation Skills

14.12c Teaching Word Story Problems

14.12d Secondary Mathematics Strategies

14.13 Using Technology for Mathematics Instruction

14.13a Calculators

14.13b Computers

14.13c Spreadsheets

Chapter Review

Chapter Summary

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

Key Terms

Chapter Introduction
 Courtesy of Elizabeth Crews Photography

I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I

understand.

—Chinese Proverb

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

14.1
Explain theories describing mathematics difficulties

14.2
Compare and contrast students with mathematics
difficulties and those with mathematics learning
disabilities

14.3
 Describe characteristics of students with mathematics
learning disabilities at the elementary level

14.4
Describe characteristics of students with mathematics
learning disabilities at the secondary level

14.5
List the Common Core State Standards for mathematics

14.6
Outline theories for teaching mathematics

14.7
Describe how to assess mathematics achievement

14.8
List teaching strategies to improve mathematics difficulties

14.9
List mathematics strategies to be used in the general
education classroom

14.10
Describe the mathematics curriculum

14.11
Describe teaching principles for students with mathematics
disabilities

14.12
List activities for teaching mathematics

14.13
Discuss the use of technology for teaching mathematics

STANDARDS Addressed in This Chapter:

Council for Exceptional Children Initial Level Special Educator

Preparation Standards as approved by the National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education
CEC Initial Preparation Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual
Learning Differences
 1.0—Beginning special education professionals understand how
exceptionalities may interact with development and learning and use this
knowledge to provide meaningful and challenging learning experiences for
individuals with exceptionalities.

1.1—Beginning special education professionals understand how language,

culture, and family background influence the learning of individuals with
exceptionalities.

1.2—Beginning special education professionals use understanding of

development and individual differences to respond to the needs of individuals
with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and
specialized curricula to individualize learning for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.1—Beginning special education professionals understand the central

concepts, structures of the discipline, and tools of inquiry of the content areas
they teach and can organize this knowledge, integrate cross-disciplinary skills,
and develop meaningful learning progressions for individuals with
exceptionalities.

3.2—Beginning special education professionals understand and use general

and specialized content knowledge for teaching across curricular content areas
to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

3.3—Beginning special education professionals modify general and specialized

curricula to make them accessible to individuals with exceptionalities.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 4: Assessment

4.0—Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of
assessment and data-sources in making educational decisions.

4.1—Beginning special education professionals select and use technically

sound formal and informal assessments that minimize bias.

4.2—Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of

measurement principles and practices to interpret assessment results and
guide educational decisions for individuals with exceptionalities.

4.3—Beginning special education professionals in collaboration with

colleagues and families use multiple types of assessment information in
making decisions about individuals with exceptionalities.

4.4—Beginning special education professionals engage individuals with

exceptionalities to work toward quality learning and performance and provide
feedback to guide them.

CEC Initial Preparation Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

 5.0—Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a
repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning of
individuals with exceptionalities.

5.1—Beginning special education professionals consider an individual’s

abilities, interests, learning environments, and cultural and linguistic factors
in the selection, development, and adaptation of learning experiences for
individuals with exceptionalities.

5.2—Beginning special education professionals use technologies to support

instructional assessment, planning, and delivery for individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.3—Beginning special education professionals are familiar with augmentative

and alternative communication systems and a variety of assistive technologies
to support the communication and learning of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.4—Beginning special education professionals use strategies to enhance

language development and communication skills of individuals with
exceptionalities.

5.6—Beginning special education professionals teach to mastery and promote

generalization of learning.

5.7—Beginning special education professionals teach cross-disciplinary

knowledge and skills such as critical thinking and problem solving to
individuals with exceptionalities.

For students, the Common Core Standards for Math can be

found at: www.corestandards.org

Some individuals with learning disabilities and related disabilities do

well in language and reading, but their nemesis is with mathematics and
quantitative learning. Two mathematics problem areas for students with
learning disabilities are identified in the law through the Individuals
With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-2004)
are:

1. mathematics calculation and

2. mathematics reasoning. Difficulties in either of these areas of

mathematics can interfere with mathematics achievement in
school and with success in later life.
 In the “Theories” section of this chapter, we examine

1. mathematics as a universal language,

2. mathematics difficulties,

3. early number concepts and number sense,

4. characteristics of mathematics disabilities,

5. mathematics disabilities at the secondary level,

6. mathematics standards,

7. learning theories for mathematics instruction, and

8. assessing mathematics skills.

In the “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter, we discuss

strategies and methods for teaching mathematics.

14.1 Theories Describing Difficulties With

Mathematics
We live in a mathematical world. Every culture and language group uses
concepts involved in quantity and math. Mathematics is a symbolic
language, which enables human beings to think about, record, and
communicate ideas about the elements and relationships of quantity.
Mathematics is also a universal language because it has meaning for all
cultures and civilizations. In every culture, social class, language, and
ethnic group, children live in a natural environment that is rich in
quantitative information and events. Human beings in all cultures,
languages, social classes, and ethnic groups think about, record, and
communicate ideas through quantity. Children in some cultures count
blocks; children in other cultures count stones. Students rely on
mathematical concepts when they think about the scores of their
favorite baseball team, compare player standings, plan to purchase a
CD, or pay for a movie ticket. When adolescents and adults plan their
budget, balance a checkbook, or use a spreadsheet, they are using
mathematics. The level of mathematical thinking and problem
solving needed in the workplace and in day-to-day living has increased
 dramatically (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000,
2006).

Did You Get It?

Given that mathematics is universal in its scope, meaning, and use across all
geographical areas and cultures, the statement that mathematics is is
inaccurate.

a. used for problem solving

b. a language based on symbols

c. considered the language of the intelligent but typically too difficult for a
majority of the masses

d. used to explain and quantify

14.2 Students With Mathematics Difficulties

and Students With Mathematics Learning
Disabilities
Many students have difficulty in acquiring and using mathematics skills.
Researchers differentiate 2 different groups:

1. students with math difficulties and

2. students with mathematics learning disabilities.

In this book, we offer strategies for teaching both groups. Students with
math difficulties perform poorly in mathematics achievement tests.
Over 30% of eighth-grade students score below basic math performance
on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (Maccini,
et al., 2008; Mazzocco, 2007).

In contrast, students with mathematics learning disabilities comprise

about 6% of the general population (Mazzocco, 2007). Mathematics
learning disabilities is a biologically based disorder and is related to
difficulties in cognitive processing and brain functioning. Research with
functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) shows these cognitive
processing dysfunctions (Mazzoco, 2007; Gersten, Clarke, & Mazzocco,
2007).

Approximately 26% of students with learning disabilities exhibit

problems in the area of mathematics. Over 50% of students with
disabilities have mathematics goals written into their individualized
education programs (IEPs) (Kunsch, Jitendra, & Sood, 2007; Miller &
Hudson, 2007; Cass et al., 2003).

The term dyscalculia is a medically oriented term that describes a

severe disability in mathematics with medical connotations. When an
adult suffers a brain injury and loses abilities in arithmetic, medical
professionals identify the loss of math skills related to the neurological
impairment as dyscalculia. An analogous term in reading is dyslexia,
the loss of reading skills that has medical and cognitive connotations.

Both mathematics difficulties and mathematics learning disabilities that

emerge in elementary school often continue through the secondary
school years. Not only is a mathematics disability a debilitating problem
for individuals during school years, but it also continues to impair them
as adults in their daily lives (Maccini, Mulcahy, & Wilson, 2007;
Adelman & Vogel, 2003; Cass et al., 2003). Almost one-half of the
children who are identified with severe mathematics difficulties in the
fourth grade are still classified as having serious mathematics
difficulties three years later (Gersten & Jordan, 2005; National Center
for Learning Disabilities, 2006; Swanson, 2007).

It should be emphasized that not all students with learning disabilities

or related disabilities encounter difficulty with number concepts. In
fact, some individuals with severe reading disabilities do well in
mathematics and exhibit a strong aptitude in quantitative thinking.

The identification and treatment of mathematics disabilities have

received much less attention than problems associated with reading
disabilities (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hollenbeck, 2007; Gersten, Clarke, &
Mazzocco, 2007). For students with mathematics difficulties, the
mathematics curriculum in most general education classrooms does not
pay sufficient attention to learning differences in mathematics among
 students. Moreover, the general education mathematics curriculum
does not allot sufficient time for instruction, for guided practice, or for
practical applications. Further, mathematical concepts are introduced at
too rapid a rate for students who have difficulty with math. If students
do not have sufficient time to fully grasp a mathematical concept and to
practice it before another mathematical concept is introduced, they feel
overwhelmed and become confused (Cawley & Foley, 2001; Butler et al.,
2003).

14.2a Early Number Concepts and Number

Sense
Number sense refers to the facility to think about quantity. Examples of
number sense for young children include the ability to count, match and
sort objects, and understand one-to-one correspondence. For some
children, difficulties with number sense begin at an early age. Number
sense hinges on the child’s experience in manipulating objects. A child
with unstable perceptual skills, attention problems, or difficulties in
motor development may have insufficient experiences with the activities
of manipulation that serve to pave the way for understanding quantity,
space, order, time, or distance (Berch & Mazzocco, 2007; Kephart,
1971).

When children are expected to perform mathematics assignments, they

may not have yet acquired the early skills needed for mathematics
learning. If these children are introduced to a number concept before
they have the necessary prerequisite experiences, they will not
understand, and they will be confused. Learning mathematics is a
sequential process, and children must acquire skills at an earlier stage
before going on to the next stage (Jordan et al., 2007).

Early number learning and number sense include skills in

1. one-to-one correspondence,

2. counting,

3. spatial relationships,
 4. visual-motor and visual-perception skills, and

5. concepts of time and direction.

One-to-One Correspondence This refers to the ability to pair

one element of a set to another element of a second set. For example,
the child is able to place one cookie on a table for each child in a group.

Counting Counting entails the ability to count objects by numbers.

Children may first have to point to objects in a set and then count each
object verbally. Some children are unable to see objects in groups (or
sets)—an ability needed to identify the number of objects quickly. Two
developmental counting procedures are called counting-all and
counting-on. With counting-all, when children count the objects in 2
groups, they count each object starting with number 1. With counting-
on, children start with the number in the larger group and the count-on
each number in the smaller group. Even when adding a group of 3 with
a group of 4, some young children with mathematics difficulties persist
in counting the objects starting with the number 1, instead of adding
onto the number of the larger group (Bley & Thornton, 2001; Van de
Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2010).

Spatial Relationships Typically, young children learn by playing

with objects such as pots and pans, boxes that fit into each other, and
objects that can be put into containers. These play activities help
develop a sense of space, sequence, and order. Parents of children with
mathematics difficulties often report that their child did not enjoy or
play with blocks, puzzles, models, or construction-type toys as
preschoolers. These children may have missed these early number-
learning experiences.

Many concepts of spatial relationships are normally acquired at the

preschool age. Children destined to have mathematics disabilities are
baffled by such concepts as up-down, over-under, top-bottom, high-low,
near-far, front-back, beginning-end, and across. The child may be
unable to perceive distances between numbers on number lines or
rulers and may not know whether the number 3 is closer to 4 or to 6.

Visual-Motor and Visual-Perception Abilities Children with

mathematics difficulties may have trouble with activities requiring
visual-motor abilities and visual-perception abilities. Visual-motor
abilities combine motor movement with what one sees, such as copying
a figure or shape. Visual perception refers to the ability to interpret
what one sees, for example, the ability visually to perceive a geometric
shape as a complete and integrated entity. For a child with difficulty
with visual perception, a square may not appear as a square shape, but
rather as 4 unrelated lines. Some children may be unable to count
objects in a series by pointing to each of them and saying, “1, 2, 3, 4, 5.”
These children must first learn to count by physically grasping and
manipulating objects. Some children have difficulty in learning to
perceive number symbols visually. They might confuse the vertical
strokes of the number 1 and the number 4, or they may confuse the
upper half of the number 2 with portions of the number 3.

Other children are unable to see objects in groups (or sets)—an ability
needed to identify the number of objects quickly. Even when adding a
group of 3 with a group of 4, some young children with mathematics
difficulties persist in counting the objects starting with the number 1 to
determine the total number in the groups instead of using the counting-
on strategy. With the counting-on strategy, children learn to add onto
the number of the larger group (Bley & Thornton, 2001; Van de Walle,
Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2010).

Children with inadequate mathematics abilities often do poorly in

visual-motor tasks. Because of their difficulties in perceiving shapes,
recognizing spatial relationships, and making spatial judgments, they
are unable to copy geometric forms, shapes, numbers, or letters. These
children are likely to struggle with handwriting, as well as in arithmetic.
When children cannot write numbers easily, they cannot properly align
the numbers that they write, which leads to computation errors (Bley &
Thornton, 2001).

Concepts of Time and direction Basic concepts of time are

typically acquired during the preschool years. For example, a 4-year-old
counted the time until his grandmother would come to visit in terms of
“sleeps” (e.g., Grandma will be here after three sleeps). Expressions
such as “10 minutes ago,” “in a half hour,” and “later” are usually part of
the preschooler’s understanding and speaking vocabulary. By the end of
 first grade, children are expected to tell time to the half hour, and by the
middle grades to the nearest minute.

Many students with mathematics difficulties have a poor sense of time

and direction. They become lost easily and cannot find their way to a
friend’s house or to their own home from school. They sometimes forget
whether it is morning or afternoon and may even go home during the
recess period, thinking the school day has ended. Because they have
difficulty estimating the time span of an hour, a minute, several hours,
or a week, they cannot estimate how long a task will take. They may not
be able to judge and allocate the time needed to complete an
assignment.

Did You Get It?

While math disability affects approximately 6% of the general population,

math difficulty affects approximately out of 10 students.

a. 1

b. 3

c. 5

d. 7

14.3 Characteristics of Students With

Mathematics Disabilities
A number of characteristics of students with learning disabilities and
related disabilities affect quantitative learning. However, each student
who encounters difficulties in mathematics is unique; not all exhibit the
same traits. In this section, we discuss the following characteristics of
students who have mathematics difficulties or mathematics learning
disabilities:

1. information-processing difficulties,

2. language and reading abilities, and

 3. math anxiety.

14.3a Information-Processing Difficulties

The information-processing model of learning is discussed in Chapter 5.
Briefly, information processing traces the flow of information during
learning. Many of the elements of information processing are linked to
mathematics learning, such as paying attention, visual-spatial
processing, auditory processing, long-term memory and retrieval,
working memory, and motor skills (Geary et al., 2007; Cirino et al.,
2007; Wilson & Swanson, 2001). Table 14.1 shows how problems with
elements of information processing affect mathematics.

Table 14.1 Information Processing and Problems in Mathematics

Information-Processing Problems Effects on Mathematics

Functioning

Motor problems Problems in writing numbers, illegible,

slow, and inaccurate
Difficulty writing numbers in small
spaces

Attention problems Poor attention doing the steps of

mathematics in calculation
Poor attention during mathematics
instruction

Problems in memory and retrieval Cannot remember math facts

Forgets the sequence of steps
Forgets the multiple steps in word
problems

Problems in visual-spatial processing Difficulty in visual

Problems aligning numbers

Problems with auditory processing Difficulty with remembering auditory

arithmetic facts
Difficulty with “counting-on”

© Cengage Learning
14.3b Language and Mathematics Abilities
Early concepts of quantity are evidenced by the child’s use of language,
such as all gone, that’s all, more, big, and little. Although some children
with mathematics disabilities have superior verbal language skills and
may even be excellent readers, for many children the mathematics
disability is compounded by oral language and reading deficiencies.
Their language problems may cause them to confuse mathematics terms
such as plus, take away, minus, carrying, borrowing, and place
value. Mathematics word problems are particularly difficult for
students with reading disabilities. If they are unable to read or do not
understand the underlying language structure of the mathematics
problem, they cannot plan and perform the tasks required to solve the
problem (Bley & Thornton, 2001).

14.3c Math Anxiety

Math anxiety is an emotion-based reaction to mathematics that
causes individuals to freeze up when they confront math problems or
when they take math tests. The anxiety may stem from the fear of school
failure and the loss of self-esteem. Brain research using brain imaging
(functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging—fMRI) shows that triggers for
stress and anxiety are actually located in specific areas of the brain
(Lytle & Todd, 2009). Anxiety has many repercussions. It can block the
school performance of students with mathematics disabilities by making
it difficult for them to initially learn the mathematics, it impedes their
ability to use or transfer the mathematics knowledge they do have, and
it becomes an obstacle when they try to demonstrate their knowledge on
tests (Ashcraft, Krause, & Hopko, 2007; Barkley, 2005; Slavin, 2009).

Many students and adults with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities report that anxiety is a constant companion. One individual
said that she sprinkled anxiety wherever she went, making calm people
nervous and nervous people fall apart. She described how she couldn’t
get out the right words and how she trembled. Teaching Tips 14.1,
 “Guidelines for Dealing With Math Anxiety,” gives suggestions for
dealing with math anxiety.

Teaching Tips 14.1 Guidelines for Dealing With Math Anxiety

Use competition carefully. Have students compete with themselves rather

than with others in the class or school. In a competitive situation, make sure
that students have a good chance of succeeding.

Provide abundant practice with similar tests. Students become familiar with
the test procedure.

Use clear instructions. Make sure that students understand what they are to
do in math assignments. Ask students to work sample problems and be sure
that they understand the assignment. When doing a new math procedure, give
students plenty of practice and examples or models to show how the work is
done.

Avoid unnecessary time pressures. Give students ample time to complete math
assignments in the class period. Give occasional take-home tests. If necessary,
reduce the number of problems to be completed.

Try to remove pressure from test-taking situations. Teach students test-taking

strategies. Give practice tests. Make sure that the test format is clear and that
students are familiar with the format. For example, a student may be familiar
with the problem in the following format:

7 +3

The same child may be unfamiliar with a test format that presents the same
problem in a different form:

7+3

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

According to the information-processing model, a 6-year-old student who

has difficulty writing numbers legibly and coherently, probably has a deficit
in

a. attention

b. visual-spatial ability

c. motor control

d. memory
14.4 Students With Mathematics Disabilities at
the Secondary Level
The mathematics problems of students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities in middle school and high school differ from
those at the elementary level. The secondary mathematics curriculum
becomes increasingly more sophisticated and abstract and it is based on
the presumption that the basic skills have been learned. The increased
mathematics requirements at the high school level and the pressure of
more testing are likely to adversely affect students with mathematics
difficulties (Maccini & Gagnon, 2006; Deshler et al., 2001).

In the United States, high school mathematics requirements for

graduation are becoming more rigorous. In most states, high school
graduation is contingent upon passing mathematics courses, such as
algebra, that previously were required only of students in a college
preparatory curriculum. Many states now include algebra as a
graduation requirement for all students (National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics, 2000, 2006; Witzel, Mercer, & Miller, 2003).

Many secondary students with mathematics difficulties are able to be

successful in advanced mathematics courses, but others shy away from
geometry, statistics, and calculus. In the past, students with learning
disabilities who faced mathematics disabilities were advised to continue
remedial or basic mathematics courses. However, because algebra is
now required for a high school diploma in most states, we must
consider how to teach algebra to students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities.

Common mathematics problems at the secondary level include basic

operations (including fractions), decimals and percentages, fraction
terminology, multiplication of whole numbers, place value,
measurement skills, and division (Cass et al., 2003). Adolescents with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities continue to have
 memory deficits that interfere with the automatic learning of
computation facts. These adolescents appreciate techniques that will
help them learn and remember calculation facts. Students with severe
problems in mathematics need direct instruction, with emphasis on
learning basic skills to help them acquire functional abilities for
successful living.

Many students with learning disabilities and related disabilities can

succeed in advanced mathematics courses. Many of these students will
be going on to postsecondary education and college, and many will
enter professions such as engineering or computer science that require
competencies in advanced mathematics.

Effective instructional strategies in mathematics for secondary students

include the following (Maccini & Gagnon, 2006; Cass et al., 2003;
Witzel Et al., 2003):

Provide many examples. Students need to have many

examples that illustrate the concept being taught. Teachers often
provide too few examples.

Provide practice in discriminating various problem

types. Secondary students with mathematics disabilities have
problems with discrimination. They ignore the operation sign and
add instead of subtract. Once a skill is learned, the mathematics
problem should be placed with different problems so that the
student will learn to discriminate and generalize.

Provide explicit instruction. Students with mathematics

disabilities need direct instruction that is organized with step-by-
step presentations.

Did You Get It?

The sophistication and nature of the secondary mathematics

curriculum increases.

a. concrete

b. anxiety-producing

c. abstract

d. hypothetical
14.5 Mathematics Standards
14.5a High Standards and Annual Testing
Federal and state governments now require the establishment of high
mathematics standards and annual testing that uses those standards as
a measure of achievement. Under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002,
schools are accountable for results, and schools are punished or
rewarded on the basis of students’ test results. The scores that students
receive on these mathematics tests affect high-stakes decisions, such as
whether the student will be promoted to the next grade or will receive a
high school diploma. Garrison Keillor, the satirist, describes Lake
Wobegon as where “all the women are strong, all the men are good
looking, and all the children are above average.” Schools in high
socioeconomic areas tend to have students who do well under high-
stakes mathematics assessment, while schools in impoverished areas
struggle to have their students perform at the expected levels. In
general, students with mathematics disabilities do not fare well under
the high-stakes assessment approach to mathematics education without
special considerations and accommodations (Witzel et al., 2003;
Ysseldyke Et Al., 2001). (See more information on high-stakes testing in
Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process.”)

The Obama administration’s Department of Education proposes to

continue promoting high-stakes testing. Federal incentive grants were
awarded to states and districts that have set high standards for the
students they serve. The majority of states have now adopted the
Common Core Standards for math, and students will be tested based on
the Common Core Standards, which are described further in this
chapter.
14.5b Common Core State Standards for
Mathematics
The Common Core State Standards for math define what

students should understand and what students should be able to do in

their study of math. There are standards for practice and for content.

In math there are eight standards for mathematical practice.

1. Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

3. Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

4. Model with mathematics.

5. Use appropriate tools strategically.

6. Attend to precision.

7. Look for and make use of structure.

8. Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning. (Common

Core State Standards Initiative, 2010)

These eight practices describe the ways in which students should engage
with the subject matter as they grow in mathematical maturity. The
content standards are a combination of procedure and understanding.
Students who do not understand have difficulty engaging in the
mathematical practices. The content standards then at each grade level
set an expectation of understanding (Common Core State Standards for
Mathematics, 2010). There are standards for kindergarten through 8.
Domains are the broad areas. Then there are clusters of standards that
are related and there are the individual standards.

The areas for the Common Core Content Standards (domains) at Grade
5 are listed in Figure 14.1.

Figure 14.1 Fifth Grade Areas/Domains for Common Core State

Standards for Mathematics

At grade 5, the following math content standard areas are:

Operations and Algebraic Thinking

 Number and Operations in Base Ten

Number and Operations-Fractions

Measurement and Data

Geometry (Common Core Standards, 2010)

© Cengage Learning.

At each grade level, within each domain there are specific clusters and
individual standards. A complete set of the standards is available at
http://www.corestandards.org. A free app is available to download for
your iPhone or iPad and is known as Common Core.

Did You Get It?

Annual mathematics assessments, comprehensive standards, and a system of

reward and punishment for educational institutions dependent on student
grades are hallmarks of which piece of educational legislation?

a. No Child Left Behind Act

b. IDEA

c. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

d. Elementary and Secondary Education Act

14.6 Learning Theories for Mathematics

Instruction
14.6a Active Involvement
Learning mathematics should be an active process that involves doing.
Use of hands-on learning materials allows students to explore ideas for
themselves. Manipulative materials enable students to see, to touch,
and to move objects. As students become actively involved in
mathematics, they should be encouraged to use mathematics for solving
 real-life problems. This active view of mathematics learning is
epitomized in the following Chinese proverb: “I hear and I forget. I see
and I remember. I do and I understand.”

Student Stories 14.1, “Active Involvement in Mathematics,” illustrates

the active process approach to mathematics.

Student Stories 14.1 Active Involvement in Mathematics

The following examples illustrate how a young child uses estimation skills.

Four-year-old Lee had just had his first experience sleeping overnight in a
tent. Lee, his brother and his grandparents put up their tent, in which they
place 4 sleeping bags for their overnight campout. After Lee excitedly
described the experience to his parents the next day, they asked if they could
come along next time. Lee did not answer immediately but spent some time
considering the question. After estimating the space, he responded to his
parents, “No you cannot come with us because the tent is not big enough to
hold 2 more sleeping bags.”

The following problems show how young children construct solutions to

subtraction problems.

Problem A: Jane had 8 trucks. She gave 3 to Ben. How many trucks does she
have left?

Problem B: Jane has 8 trucks. Ben has 6 trucks. How many more trucks does
Jane have than Ben?

In problem A, a young child counts out 8 trucks and gives 3 away. Then the
child counts the trucks that are left. In Problem B, the child counts out 8
trucks for Jane and a set of 6 trucks for Ben. The child then matches Jane’s
trucks to Ben’s. Finally the child counts to see how many more trucks Jane
has than Ben. The child has constructed meaning and does not need to ask,
“Should I add or subtract?”

Reflective Question
1. What process did Lee use to estimate how many sleeping bags would fit into
the tent? Draw a picture to show the solution of problem A or problem B.
14.6b Progression From Concrete Learning to
Abstract Learning
The learning of mathematics is a gradual process. It is not

a matter of either knowing it or not knowing it. Instead, the learning of

mathematics follows a continuum that gradually increases in strength.
The Common Core Standards reflect this progression. As mathematics
learning progresses, knowledge slowly builds from concrete to abstract
learning, from incomplete to complete knowledge, and from
unsystematic to systematic thinking. To help students progress from
concrete to abstract learning, three sequential levels of mathematics
instruction are suggested (Mercer & Pullen, 2009; Miller & Hudson,
2007; Cass Et al., 2003).

The three levels from concrete thinking to abstract thinking are shown
in Figure 14.2.

Figure 14.2 Concrete to Abstract Learning

© Cengage Learning

1. The concrete level. At this level, students manipulate actual

materials such as blocks, cubes, marbles, plastic pieces, poker
chips, or place-value sticks. Students can physically touch, move,
and manipulate these objects as they work out solutions to
number problems.

2. The semiconcrete level (or the representational level).

Once the students master the skill on the concrete level,
instruction progresses to the semiconcrete or representational
level. Students use pictures or tallies (i.e., marks on the paper) to
represent the concrete objects as they work on mathematics
problems.

3. The abstract level. At this level, students use only the numbers
to solve mathematics problems without the help of semiconcrete
 pictures or tallies.

14.6c Direct Instruction of Mathematics

Direct instruction is a method of mathematics teaching that helps
students achieve mastery of mathematics skills through instruction that
is explicit, carefully structured, and planned. It is a comprehensive
system that integrates curriculum design with teaching techniques to
produce instructional programs in mathematics (Miller & Hudson,
2007; Marchand-Marella, Slocum, & Martella 2004; Kroesbergan &
Van Luit, 2003; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001). The sequential nature of
mathematics makes the direct instruction approach particularly
adaptable to the content of mathematics.

Mathematics programs that are based on direct instruction are highly

organized and carefully sequenced. Instruction follows an ordered plan.
Teachers determine the objectives of the teaching, plan the teaching
through task analysis, provide explicit instruction, and plan for
continuous testing. Direct instruction has been shown to be very
effective for students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities (Miller & Hudson, 2007; Marchand-Marella et al., 2004;
Jones & Southern, 2003). To use direct instruction, teachers do the
following:

1. Break tasks into small steps

2. Administer probes to determine whether the students are learning

3. Supply immediate feedback

4. Provide diagrams and pictures to enhance student understanding

5. Give ample independent practice

14.6d Learning Strategies Instruction

Learning strategies instruction helps students with mathematics
disabilities acquire specific procedures for meeting the challenges of
 mathematics in their curriculum and to take control of their own
mathematics learning (Deshler, 2003). Intervention practices that use
learning strategy instruction are effective in increasing achievement.
Teachers who implement a learning strategies instruction model
perform the following (Deshler, 2003; Mainzer et al., 2003):

1. Provide elaborate explanations to model learning processes

2. Provide prompts to use strategies

3. Engage in teacher—student dialogues

4. Ask processing questions

See Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults With Learning Disabilities and

Related Disabilities,” for more information about learning strategies
instruction.

14.6e Problem Solving

Problem solving was identified as the top priority for the mathematics
curriculum by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM,
2000) and is reflected in the Common Core Standards. Moreover,
problem solving is rapidly assuming a larger part of the curriculum in
both general education and special education (Cawley & Foley, 2001;
NCTM, 2000; Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2010). Mathematics
problem solving involves the kind of thinking needed to work out
mathematics word problems. In addition, a current view of
mathematics expands the perspective of problem solving to the
processes by which a student resolves unfamiliar situations. Implicit in
the teaching of problem solving are the following underlying beliefs
about mathematics:

1. there is no single way to do mathematics,

2. there is no single way to organize mathematics for instructional

purposes, and

3. important mathematical concepts are actually learned through

problem solving (Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams 2010).
 An example of a problem-solving task is to ask students to think about
the number 8 and to draw a picture of how the number 8 can be broken
in two different amounts. Then ask the students to tell a story to go with
their pictures (Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2010).

Problem solving is the most difficult area of mathematics for many

students with mathematics difficulties. Students with math difficulties
need extensive guidance and practice to learn to combine thinking and
language with the calculation skills and concepts required to solve
mathematics problems. To solve mathematics problems, students must
analyze and interpret information so that they can make selections and
decisions. Problem solving requires that students know how to apply
mathematics concepts and how to use computation skills in new or
different settings.

How do students go about solving problems in mathematics? Research

shows that first and second graders readily invent their own ways to
solve simple word problems. However, by the middle grades, they stop
their personal problem-solving attempts and begin to rely on rote
procedures they have learned in school. Middle-grade students should
be encouraged to continue to create and use their own ways to solve
mathematics problems, as illustrated in Student Stories 14.2,
“Encouraging a Problem-Solving Attitude.”

Student Stories 14.2 Encouraging a Problem-Solving Attitude

The following example of a word problem illustrates how teachers can encourage
an inventive, problem-solving attitude (Lindquist, 1987).

Problem: Rebecca wants to sell 30 boxes of Girl Scout cookies. She has sold 25.
How many more must she sell? The teacher asks if anyone can draw a picture to
show this problem.

One student drew the figure at right to solve this

problem.

Reflective Question
1. How does drawing a picture help the student with © Cengage Learning

problem solving?
 Middle-grade students tend to automatically compute with whatever
numbers are in the problems. To encourage a problem-solving attitude,
teachers should help structure the students’ responses to problems by
talking with them about those responses. Encouraging such a discussion
raises the reasoning level of the students’ answers. Teachers can help by
listening to the students as they think aloud about the word problems. It
is also important to encourage the use of different strategies to solve
mathematics problems and to ask students, “How did you get your
answer?”

Many of the mathematics textbooks that are used in general education

classrooms today use a problem-solving approach. Because problem
solving is often difficult for students with learning disabilities and
related mild disabilities, they need extensive guidance and practice to
learn to combine thinking and language with the calculation skills and
concepts required in mathematics problem solving. To solve
mathematics problems, students must analyze and interpret
information so that they can make selections and decisions. The
following 3 steps can help structure mathematics problem-solving
lessons (Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2010):

Step 1. Getting ready First, students attend to the problem and

translate the problem into their own experiences and language. The
teacher makes sure they understand what is expected.

Step 2. Students work It is at this stage that students have a

chance to work without constant guidance. The teacher lets go, listens
carefully, and provides hints.

Step 3. Class discussion In the final step, there is a discussion of

the solutions. The teacher accepts student solutions without evaluation.
Students justify and evaluate their results and methods. Teaching Tips
14.2 provides some problem-solving examples.

Teaching Tips 14.2 Some Problem-Solving Examples

1. Ask the students to view a pair of items, such as 5-2=3 and 8-5=3 . Next, ask
the students to explain how 2 different number combinations result in the
 same answer. For example, you arrived at the same answer because the
answer represents the difference between the numbers in each combination
(Cawley & Foley, 2001).

2. Ask students to compare the fractions 6 8 and 4 5 . then ask which fraction is
larger. (Assume that the students have not been taught about common
denominators.) One student answered, “I know that 4 5 is the same as 8 10
and that is 2 10 away from a whole. Because tenths are smaller than eighths,
8 10 must be closer to a whole, so 4 5 is larger” (Van de Walle, 2004).

3. Ask students how the number 7 can be broken into different amounts. Then
ask the students to draw pictures showing ways in which the number 7 can be
broken into different amounts (Van de Walle, 2004).

Professional Resource Download

Did You Get It?

Which strategy is not recommended in a comprehensive, instructive

mathematics curriculum?

a. theory trumping actuality

b. real-life application

c. much manipulation

d. action oriented

14.7 Assessing Mathematics Achievement

Information about a student’s proficiency in mathematics can be
gathered through

1. formal tests and

2. informal measures.

Formal tests include standardized survey tests, group survey tests,

individually administered achievement tests, and diagnostic math tests.
Informal measures include informal inventories, analyzing mathematics
errors, and curriculum-based assessment.
14.7a Formal Tests
Formal mathematics tests include standardized survey tests; some are
designed for group administration, and some are individually
administered achievement tests. There are also diagnostic mathematics
tests. It is important to check the validity, reliability, and
standardization procedures of tests before using them (Salvia,
Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2013).

Standardized Survey Tests Survey tests provide information on

the general level of a student’s mathematics performance.

Group Survey Tests Group survey tests are designed for group
administration. Usually, data are available on a test’s reliability, validity,
and standardization procedures. Often there are accompanying manuals
with tables for various kinds of score interpretations, including grade
scores, age scores, standard scores, and percentiles. Most survey tests in
mathematics are part of a general achievement test battery. Some of the
most widely used tests are listed in Table 14.2.

Table 14.2 Formal Tests of Mathematics

Test Grade or Age

Group Standardized Survey Tests

• California Achievement Tests, CTB/McGraw-Hill Grades K‒12

http://www.ctb.com

• Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Riverside Publishing Grades K–12

http://www.riverpub.com

• Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Harcourt Grades K–12

Assessment http://www.harcourtassessment.com

Individually Administered Achievement Tests

• Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills Grades K–9

—Revised, Curriculum Associates
http://www.curriculumassociates.com

• Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Essential Skills, Grades 6–Adult

Curriculum Associates
http://www.curriculumassociates.com
Test Grade or Age

• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement— Grades K–12

Normative Upgrade (K-TEA-NU), AGS
http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

• Peabody Individual Achievement Test—Revised Grades K–12

(PIAT -R), AGS http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

• Wide-Range Achievement Test—4(WRAT -4), PAR Age 5–Adult

Inc. http://www3.parinc.com

• Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery— Grades K–12

III, Riverside Publishing http://www.riverpub.com

Diagnostic Math Tests

• Key Math-Revised: A Diagnostic Inventory of Grades K–6

Essential Mathematics, AGS
http://ags.pearsonassessments.com

• Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test 4, Harcourt Grades K–12

Assessment http://www.harcourtassessment.com

• Test of Mathematical Abilities—2, Pro-Ed Grades 3–12

http://www.proedinc.com

© Cengage Learning

The standardized achievement tests are useful as screening instruments

because they identify those students whose performance scores are
below expected levels (Salvia, Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2013). The major test
batteries are well constructed, generally have excellent technical
characteristics, and cover most items in the mathematics curriculum.
However, because they are paper-and-pencil tests that rely on multiple-
choice responses, the diagnostic information that can be obtained from
them is limited. The group survey tests can also be given to individuals.

Individually Administered Achievement Tests These tests

are designed for individual assessment. They can yield more diagnostic
information than the group survey tests, providing information on
specific areas of mathematics difficulty and more clues for planning
instruction.

In addition, a number of commonly used criterion-referenced measures

are available, such as the Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic
Skills—Revised, which provides extensive information about math
 achievement patterns. Table 14.2 lists some of the widely used
individual tests.

Diagnostic Math Tests Diagnostic math tests are available for

both group and individual administration. Group tests serve 2 purposes:

1. to provide diagnostic information for student program planning

and

2. to assist in program evaluation for administrative purposes.

Individual tests generally are used to evaluate patterns of strength and

weakness or skills in mathematics that have been mastered and skills
that have not been mastered.

14.7b Informal Measures

Informal measures offer another option for obtaining information about
a student’s performance and abilities in mathematics. Observations of a
student’s daily behavior in mathematics class and performance on
homework assignments and on teacher-made tests or tests that
accompany the textbook can provide information about the student’s
mathematics skills (Spinelli, 2006). Informal measures to assess
mathematics include:

1. informal inventories,

2. analysis of mathematics errors, and

3. curriculum-based assessment.

Informal Inventories Informal tests can be devised by teachers to

assess the student’s mathematics skills (Bryant & Rivera, 1997). Once
the general area of difficulty is determined, a more extensive diagnostic
test of that area can be given. A sample informal arithmetic test appears
in Figure 14.3. Teachers can easily construct informal tests to assess the
student’s achievement in a specific mathematics skill or in a sequence of
mathematics skills. The informal test can be tailored for an individual
student.

Figure 14.3 Informal Inventory of Arithmetic Skills

 © Cengage Learning

Analyzing Mathematics Errors Teachers should be able to

detect the types of errors a student with mathematics difficulty is
making so that instruction can be directed toward correcting those
errors (Ashlock, 2006). This information is obtained by examining the
students’ work or by asking the student to explain how he or she went
about solving a problem. When teachers observe the methods used by a
student, they can deduce the thought processes the student is using. The
four most common types of calculation errors are

1. place value,

2. computation facts,

3. using the wrong process, and

4. working from left to right.

The following list shows examples of these common errors.

Place value. Place value is the aspect of the number system that
assigns specific significance to the position a digit holds in a
 numeral. Students who make this error do not understand the
concepts of place value, regrouping, carrying, or borrowing and
might make errors such as those shown here.

These students need concrete practice in the place value of 1s, 10s,
100s, and 1,000s. Effective tools for such practice are an abacus
and a place-value box or chart with compartments. Students can
sort objects such as sticks, straws, or chips into compartments to
show place value.

Computation facts. Students who make errors in basic adding,

subtracting, multiplying, and dividing need more practice and
drill. For example:

A handy multiplication chart, like the one shown in Figure 14.4,

might be useful in checking their work.

Figure 14.4 Multiplication Chart

© Cengage Learning
Professional Resource Download
 Using the wrong process. Some students make errors because
they use the wrong mathematical process. For example:

These students need work in recognizing symbols and signs.

Working from left to right. Some students reverse the

direction of calculations and work from left to right. For example:

These students need work in place value.

In addition, poor writing skills cause many math errors. When students
cannot read their own writing or fail to align their numbers in columns,
they may not understand what to do.

Curriculum-Based Assessment The procedure of curriculum-

based assessment or progress monitoring (see Chapter 2, “Assessment
and the IEP Process”) provides a useful way to measure mathematics
progress. Curriculum-based assessment closely links assessment to the
material that is being taught in the mathematics curriculum. The
procedure may involve teacher-constructed tests that measure student
progress on curricular objectives. In relation to mathematics,
curriculum-based assessment consists of four steps (Baroody &
Ginsburg, 1991; Shinn & Hubbard, 1992):

1. Identify target skills. For example, the skill might be math

computation, such as adding two-digit numbers.

2. Determine the objectives to be met. For example, in a period

of 4 weeks, the student will be able to write the answers to 20 two-
digit addition problems correctly in 5 minutes.

3. Develop test items to sample each skill. Assemble a

collection of two-digit number problems.
 4. Develop criteria to measure achievement. The student will
write answers without errors to 20 randomly selected two-digit
math problems in a 5-minute period.

Did You Get It?

A teacher who is paying particular attention to a student’s homework, a quiz

he just took, and his behaviors and performance as he works through several
assigned problems in class is conducting what form of testing?

a. informal measures

b. an informal inventory test

c. an individually administered achievement test

d. a standardized survey test

14.8 Teaching Strategies to Improve

Mathematics Difficulties
The “Teaching Strategies” section of this chapter highlights:

1. mathematics strategies for the general education classroom,

2. the mathematics curriculum,

3. principles of instruction for students with mathematics

difficulties,

4. activities for teaching mathematics, and

5. assistive and instructional technology for mathematics

instruction.

14.9 Mathematics Strategies for the General

Education Classroom
Many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
who have mathematics difficulties receive their instruction in general
 education classrooms. General education teachers are therefore
responsible for their instruction. General education teachers may not
have enough training or background to address the mathematics
difficulties of these students. Including Students in General Education
14.1, “Mathematics Strategies,” provides several strategies for teaching
mathematics to students with mathematics difficulties in the general
education classroom.

Including Students in General Education 4.1 Mathematics

Strategies

Determine the students’ basic computational skills in addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division.

Have students use manipulatives to help them understand a concept.

Teach the students mathematics vocabulary.

Use visuals and graphics to illustrate concepts to the students.

Have students make up their own word story problems.

Teach students how to use a calculator.

Teach money concepts by using either real money or play money.

Teach time by using manipulative clocks.

Provide many opportunities for practice and review.

(For additional information on teaching students with math difficulties in the

general education classroom, see LD Online at
http://www.ldonline.org/indepth/math.)

Professional Resource Download

Additional math strategies for teaching students with math difficulties

in the general education classroom can be found on the following
websites:

Schrockguide,
http://www.school.discoveryeducation.com/schrockguide/math.h
tml

PBS Teacher Source, http://www.pbs.org/teachers

Illuminations, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,

http://www.illuminations.nctm.org
 Teacher Resources for the Classroom,
http://www.mathgoodies.com

Stuart Murphy http://www.stuartmurphy.com

K–3 Teaching Resources, http://www.k-3teachingresources.com

National Literacy of Virtual Manipulatives,

http://www.nationalibraryofvirtualmanipulatives.com

Cool Math 4 Kids, http://www.coolmath4kids.com

Did You Get It?

What is not a legitimate practice in a general education classroom?

a. the use of calculators

b. teaching about time constraints and limitations

c. the use of visuals to teach and reinforce concepts

d. performing work for a frustrated student

14.10 The Mathematics Curriculum

Both general education teachers and special education teachers should
have a basic picture of the overall mathematics curriculum. It is
important to know what the student has already learned in the
mathematics curriculum and what mathematics learning lies ahead.

14.10a The Sequence of Mathematics: Grades

K–8
Mathematics is a naturally cumulative subject typically taught in a
sequence that introduces certain skills at each grade level. For example,
learning multiplication depends on knowing addition. The major topics
that are covered in the mathematics curriculum from kindergarten
through grade 8 include numbers and numeration; whole numbers—
 addition and subtraction; whole numbers—multiplication and division;
decimals; fractions; measurement; geometry; and computer education,
a subject that is beginning to show up in many mathematics programs.

Although the sequence may vary somewhat in different programs, the

general timetables of instruction are as follows:

Kindergarten Basic number meanings, counting, classification,

seriation or order, recognition of numerals, and the writing of numbers

Grade 1 Addition through 20, subtraction through 20, place value of

1s and 10s, time to the half hour, money, and simple measurement

Grade 2 Addition through 100, subtraction through 100, counting

from 0 to 100, skip-counting by 2s, place value of 100, and regrouping
for adding and subtracting

Grade 3 Multiplication through 9s, odd or even skip-counting, place

value of 1,000s, two- and three-place numbers for addition and
subtraction, and telling time

Grade 4 Division facts, extended use of multiplication facts and

related division facts through 9s, and two-place multipliers

Grade 5 Fractions, addition and subtraction of fractions, mixed

numbers, long division, two-place division, and decimals

Grade 6 Percentages, three-place multipliers, two-place division,

addition and subtraction of decimals and mixed decimals,
multiplication and division of decimals, and mixed decimals by whole
numbers

Grade 7 Geometry, rounding, ratios, and simple probability

Grade 8 Scientific notation, using graphs, complex fractions,

complex applications, and word problems

14.10b The Secondary Mathematics Curriculum

 The Common Core Standards at the secondary level

(Grades 9 through 12) include these areas. (Common Core State

Standards Initiative, 2010). These can be found at:
http://www.corestandards.org.

Number and Quantity

Algebra

Functions

Modeling

Geometry

Statistics and Probability

Remember that the mathematical practices that were discussed earlier

in the elementary standards are also in place in the secondary set of
standards. (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2010).

Did You Get It?

The math curriculum is heavily standardized, cumulative, and age specific

concerning the grade when concepts are introduced, when assessment is
done, and when students are expected to complete objectives. Multiplication
through the “9s” is a task that your mathematics students should be tackling,
and hopefully mastering, in which grade?

a. first

b. third

c. fourth

d. seventh

14.11 Principles of Instruction for Students

With Mathematics Disabilities
Several principles of mathematics learning offer a guide for effective
mathematics instruction. The principles discussed here include
 1. early number learning,

2. progressing from the concrete to the abstract,

3. providing opportunity for practice and review,

4. generalizing the concepts and skills that have been learned, and

5. teaching mathematics vocabulary.

14.11a Early Number Learning

It is important to check into the previously acquired early number
learning to ensure that the student is ready for what needs to be
learned. Time and effort invested in building a firm foundation can
prevent many later difficulties as the student tries to move on to more
advanced and more abstract mathematics processes (Jordan et al.,
2007). Table 14.3 gives descriptions of the essential basic early number-
learning abilities. If they are lacking, they must be taught.

Table 14.3 Early Number Learning

Ability Description

Matching Grouping similar objects together

Recognizing groups of objects Recognizing a group of 3 objects without

counting

Counting Matching numerals to objects

Naming a number that comes after a Stating what number comes after 7
given number

Writing numerals from 0 to 10 Knowing the right sequence

Measuring and pairing One-to-one correspondence, estimating,

fitting objects

Sequential values Arranging like objects in order by

quantitative differences (e.g., by size)

Operations Manipulation of the number facts to 10

without reference to concrete objects

Professional Resource Download

© Cengage Learning
14.11b Progressing From the Concrete to the
Abstract
Pupils can best understand a mathematics concept when teaching
progresses from the concrete to the abstract. A teacher should plan
three instructional stages: concrete, semiconcrete, and abstract (Miller
& Hudson, 2007; Cass et al., 2003; Witzel Et al., 2003).

1. In the concrete instruction stage, the student manipulates real

objects in learning the skill. For example, the student could see,
hold, and move 2 blocks and 3 blocks to learn that they equal 5
blocks.

□□+□□□=5

2. In the semiconcrete instruction stage, a graphic

representation is substituted for actual objects. In the following
example, circles represent objects in an illustration from a
worksheet:

○○+○○○=5

3. At the abstract instruction stage, numerals finally replace the

graphic symbols:

2+3=5

14.11c Provide Opportunity for Practice and

Review
Students need many opportunities for review, drill, and practice to over-
learn the math concepts because they must be able to use computation
facts almost automatically. There are many ways to provide this
practice, and teachers should vary the method as often as possible. Such
techniques can include worksheets, flash cards, games, behavior
management techniques (such as rewards for work completed), and
 computer practice (special software programs that give immediate
feedback).

14.11d Teach Students to Generalize to New

Situations
Students must learn to generalize a skill to many situations. For
example, students can practice computation facts with many story
problems that the teacher or students create and then exchange with
each other. The goal is to gain skill in recognizing computational
operations and applying them to various new situations.

14.11e Teach Mathematics Vocabulary

The vocabulary and concepts of mathematics are new to students and
must be learned. The student may know the operation, but may not
know the precise term applied to the operation. Table 14.4 shows the
vocabulary for basic mathematics operations.

Table 14.4 Mathematics Vocabulary for Basic Operations

© Cengage Learning
 Did You Get It?

If a teacher substitutes sticks for numbers to illustrate the process of

addition, she is providing instruction.

a. semiconcrete

b. semiabstract

c. abstract

d. quasi-inferential

14.12 Activities for Teaching Mathematics

The instruction activities in this section are grouped into three areas:

1. teaching early number skills,

2. teaching computation skills, and

3. teaching word story problems.

14.12a Teaching Early Number Skills

Classification and Grouping

1. Sorting games. Give students objects that differ in only one

attribute, such as color or texture, and ask them to sort the objects
into two different boxes. For example, if the objects differ by color,
have students put red items in one box and blue items in another
box. At a more advanced level, increase the complexity of the
classification of the attributes, asking students to sort, for
example, movable objects from stationary objects. Another
variation is to use objects that have several overlapping attributes,
such as shape, color, and size. You might present the students with
cutouts of triangles, circles, and squares in three colors (e.g., blue,
yellow, and red) and two sizes (e.g., small and large). Ask the
students to sort them according to shape and then according to
color. Then ask the students to discover a third way of sorting.
 2. Matching and sorting. A first step in the development of
number concepts is the ability to focus on and to recognize a single
object or shape. Have the student search through a collection of
assorted objects to find a particular type of object. For example,
the student might look in a box of colored beads or blocks for a red
one, search through a collection of various kinds of coins for all
the pennies, choose the forks from a box of silverware, look in a
box of buttons for the oval ones, sort a bagful of cardboard shapes
to pick out the circles, or look in a container of nuts and bolts for
the square pieces.

3. Recognition of groups of objects. Domino games, playing

cards, concrete objects, felt boards, magnetic boards, and cards
with colored disks all provide excellent materials for developing
concepts of groups.

Ordering

1. Serial order and relationships. When teaching the concept of

ordering, ask the student to tell the number that comes after 6 or
before 5 or between 2 and 4. Also, ask the student to indicate the
first, last, or third of a series of objects. Other measured quantities
can be arranged by other dimensions, such as size, weight,
intensity, color, or volume.

2. Number lines. A number line is a sequence of numbers forming

a straight line that allows the student to manipulate computation
directly. Number lines and number blocks for the students to walk
on are helpful in understanding the symbols and their
relationships to one another.

3. Arranging by size and length. Have the student compare and

contrast objects of different size, formulating concepts of smaller,
bigger, taller, and shorter. Make cardboard objects, such as circles,
trees, houses, and so forth; or collect objects, such as washers,
paper clips, and screws. Have the student arrange the objects by
size and then estimate the size of the objects by guessing whether
certain objects would fit into certain spaces.

4. One-to-one correspondence: Pairing. One-to-one

correspondence is a relationship in which one element of a set is
paired with one, and only one, element of a second set. Pairing
 provides a foundation for counting. Activities designed to match
or align one object with another are useful. Have the student
arrange a row of pegs in a Peg-Board to match a prearranged row,
or set a table and place one cookie on each dish, or plan the
allocation of materials to the group so that each person receives
one object.

Counting

1. Motor activities for counting. Some students learn to count

verbally, but they do not attain the concept that each number
corresponds to one object. Such students are helped by making
strong motor and tactile responses along with the counting.
Looking at visual stimuli or pointing to the objects may not be
enough because such students will count erratically, skipping
objects or saying 2 numbers for one object. Motor activities to help
students establish the counting principle include placing a peg in a
hole, clipping clothespins on a line, stringing beads onto a pipe
cleaner, clapping 3 times, jumping 4 times, and tapping on the
table 2 times. Use the auditory modality to reinforce visual
counting by having students listen to the counts of a drumbeat
with their eyes closed. The students may make a mark for each
sound and then count the marks.

2. Counting cups. Take a set of containers, such as cups, and

designate each with a numeral. Have the students fill each
container with the correct number of items, using objects such as
bottle caps, chips, buttons, screws, or washers.

Recognition of Numbers

1. Visual recognition of numbers. Students must learn to

recognize both the printed numbers (7, 8, 3) and the words
expressing these numbers (seven, eight, three). They must also
learn to integrate the written forms with the spoken symbols. If
students confuse one written number with another, color cues
may help them to recognize the symbol. You might make, for
example, the top of the number 3 green and the bottom of the
number 3 red. Another activity is to have the students match the
correct number with the correct set of objects; felt, cardboard, or
sandpaper symbols or groups of objects can be used.

2. Parking lot poster. Draw a “parking lot” on a poster,

numbering parking spaces with dots instead of numerals. Paint
numerals on small cars and have the students park the cars in the
correct spaces.
14.12b Teaching Computation Skills
The following list gives some strategies for teaching computation skills.

1. Part–whole concepts. The “big concept” idea is that addition

and subtraction have a part–whole relationship; you add to find
the whole or total of two or more parts, and you subtract from the
whole to find the missing part. Use Figure 14.5 to help students
see the part–whole relationship. Use counters or put the figure on
an overhead projector to demonstrate the part–whole relationship
to the entire group. Students can use counters to demonstrate the
part–whole relationship.

Figure 14.5 Part–Whole Relationships

© Cengage Learning

2. Basic computation skills. Many problems in mathematics are

due to deficiencies in basic computation skills. To help students to
overcome these deficiencies, teach the basic mathematics
computation skills that the students lack: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, fractions, decimals, and percentages. An
inexpensive way to teach many mathematics computation skills is
to obtain mathematics games and materials from a dollar store.
Online dollar stores also can be a good source. At a dollar store,
you can often get large stickers of multiplication tables. Students
can put them on their file folder for math. (The online dollar store,
 Oriental Trading, is at http://www.OrientalTrading.com.)
Mathematics games on CDs are also helpful for teaching
computation skills. (Some games and CDs can be found at Planet
CD Rom at http://www.planetcdrom.com.) A collection of these
games and activities can be placed on a mathematics activities
table.

3. Addition. Knowledge of addition facts provides the foundation

for all other computational skills. Addition is a short method of
counting, and students should know that they can resort to
counting when all else fails. Addition can be thought of as “part
plus part equals whole.” Important symbols to learn are + (plus, or
“put together”) and 5 (equals, or “the same as”). As with the other
areas, begin by using concrete objects, then use cards with sets
that represent numbers, and finally use the number sentence with
the numbers alone: 3+2=□ . From this, the students can also learn
that 2+3=□ ; □+2=5 ; and 3+□=5 .

Teaching addition using sums between 10 and 20 is more difficult.

There are several approaches. It is easier to start with doubles,
such as 8+8=16 . Then ask what 9+8 equals: one more than 16.

Another way is to “make a 10.” For example, in 7+5 , the pupil

takes 3 of the 5, and adds the 3 to the 7 to make 10. Now the
students can see that 10+ the remaining 2=12 . Use movable
objects so that the students can actually experience the process:

The number line provides another way to teach addition. With a

number line, the students can visually perceive the addition
process.

4. Subtraction. After the students have a firm basis in addition,

introduce subtraction. An important new symbol is − (minus, or
“take away”). A student places a set of objects on the desk and
then takes away certain objects. How many are left? 6-2=□ . Then
use cards with sets on them. Find 6 by using a card with a set of 2
and a card with a set of 4. Tell the students you have a set of 6
when the cards are joined. Take away the set of 2 and ask the
students what is left.

The number line is also useful in subtraction.

 Regrouping is an important concept that is introduced in
subtraction, along with the ideas of “1s,” “10s,” and “100s.”

5. Multiplication. Many students with a mathematics disability do

not know multiplication facts (refer to Figure 14.4). Those
students will be unable to learn division until they master
multiplication facts.

Multiplication is a short method of adding. Instead of adding

2+2+2+2 , the students can learn 2×4=8 . Subtraction is not a
prerequisite of multiplication, and a student having difficulty with
subtraction may do better with multiplication. The symbol to learn
is × (times).

There are several ways of explaining multiplication. One way is the

multiplication sentence. How much are 3 sets of 2? Using sets of
objects, the students can find the total either by counting objects
or by adding equal addends.

The concept of reversals (turn-around) can also be introduced.

The sentence 3×5=□ does not change in the form 5×3=□ .

In the equal addend approach, ask the students to show that

3×5=5+5+5,or15

In the number line approach, students who can use number lines
for addition will probably also do well in using them for
multiplication. The student adds a unit of 5 three times on the
line, to end up at the 15 on the line.

The rectangular array approach contains an equal number of

objects in each row. For example, 3×5 is shown as

6. Division. This computational skill is considered the most

difficult to learn and to teach. As mentioned earlier, basic division
facts come from knowledge of multiplication facts. Long division
requires many operations, and students must be able to do all the
steps before they can put them together. The new symbol is ÷
(divide).

There are a number of ways to approach division. Sets can be

used: 6÷3=□ . Draw a set of 6 and enclose 3 equal sets. The
 missing factor is seen as 2:

How many subsets are there? How many objects are there in each
set? The number line can also be used. By jumping back a unit of
3, how many jumps are needed?

The missing factors approach uses known multiplication facts and

reverses the process: 3×□=12 . Then change to a division sentence:
12÷3=□ .

7. Fractions. Geometric shapes are commonly used to introduce

fractional numbers. The new symbol is shown next:

Start with halves, then with quarters and then eighths. Cut shapes
out of flannel or paper plates. Figure 14.6 illustrates common
fractions.

Figure 14.6 Some Common Fractions

© Cengage Learning

8. Learning the computational facts. Once the concepts behind

the facts are known, the students must memorize the facts
themselves. Many different learning opportunities are needed.
Students can write the facts, say them, play games with facts, take
speed tests, and so forth. Also helpful are flash cards, rolling dice,
 playing cards, or learning a fact a day. A wide variety of methods
should be used.

To learn computational skills, students with mathematics

difficulties require much experience with concrete and
manipulative materials before moving to the abstract and
symbolic level of numbers. Objects and materials that can be
physically taken apart and put back together help the students to
observe visually the relationship of the fractional parts of the
whole.

There are 56 basic number facts to be mastered in each mode of

arithmetic computation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division), if the facts involving the 1s ( 3+1=4 ) and doubles
( 3×3=9 ) are not included. Examples of number facts are 3+4=7 ;
9-5=4 ; 3×7=21 ; 18÷6=3 . In the computational skill of addition,
for example, there are 81 separate facts involved in the span from
1+1=2 to 9+9=18 .

Few students have trouble with the 1s ( 5+1=6 ) or with the

doubles ( 2+2=4 ) . Therefore, if these facts are omitted, there are
56 basic addition facts to be mastered. Similarly, without the 1s
and doubles, there are 56 facts to be mastered in each of the other
computation areas−subtraction, multiplication, and division.

9. The 2-weeks facts: 7+7 . Students circle 2 full calendar weeks

and count the number of days in each week, as shown in Figure
14.7, to learn that 7+7=14 .

Figure 14.7 Calendar for Learning Facts

10. Subtraction of 9s from teen numbers. One useful technique

to help students learn subtraction of 9s from the teen numbers is
to have students consider the following problem: 16-9=□ . Adding
the 1 and 6 gives the correct answer of 7. This technique works
with subtracting 9s from all teen numbers.

11. Arrangements. Present students with arrangement problems.

For example, give students the numbers 1, 2, 3. Ask them in how
many ways they can be arranged: 1-2-3; 1-3-2; 2-1-3; 2-3-1; 3-1-2;
3-2-1 (or 3×2×1=6 ). Another example: If 4 children sit around a
 square table, in how many ways can they arrange themselves?
( 4×3×2×1=24 ) .

12. Puzzle cards of combinations. Make cardboard cards on

which problems of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division are worked. Cut each card in 2 so that the problem is on
one part and the answer is on the other. Each card must be cut
uniquely so that when the students try to assemble the puzzle,
only the correct answer will fit.

13. Playing cards. An ordinary deck of cards becomes a versatile

tool for teaching number concepts. Some activities are arranging
suits in sequential order by number, matching sets of numbers,
adding and subtracting with individual cards, and quickly
recognizing the number in a set.

Computer spreadsheets and charts are an essential part

of the mathematics curriculum, and the National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics recommends their use.

Annie Griffiths Belt/Corbis

14.12c Teaching Word Story Problems

The goal of mathematics instruction is to apply the concepts and skills
in problem solving. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(2000) calls for more emphasis on problem solving at all levels. Some
suggestions for teaching word story problems are provided in the
following list.

1. Word story problems. Use word story problems that are of

interest to the students and within their experience.

2. Posing problems orally. This method is especially important

for students with reading problems.

3. Visual reinforcements. Use concrete objects, drawings,

graphs, or other visual reinforcements to clarify the problem,
demonstrate solutions, and verify the answers. Have students act
out the problem.

4. Simplifying. Have students substitute smaller and easier

numbers for problems with larger or more complex numbers so
that they can understand the problems and verify the solutions
more readily.

5. Restating. Have students restate the problems in their own

words. This verbalization helps the students to structure the
problems for themselves and also shows whether they understand
the problems.

6. Supplementary problems. Supplement textbook problems

with your own, which could deal with classroom experiences.
Including students’ names makes the problem more realistic.

7. Time for thinking. Allow students enough time to think. Ask for
alternative methods for solving the problems. Try to understand
how the students thought about the problem and went about
solving the problem.

8. Steps in solving word problems. Many students with learning

disabilities have difficulty with word problems. Although
problems in reading may be a factor, the difficulty is often in
thinking through the math problems. Students tend to begin doing
computations as soon as they see the numbers in the problems.
The following steps are helpful in teaching word problem
applications:

a. Seeing the situations. Have the students first read the

word problem and then relate the setting of the problem.
The students do not need paper and pencil for this task.
They should simply describe the setting or situation.

b. Determining the question. Have the students decide

what is to be discovered—What is the problem to be solved?
 c. Gathering data. The word problem often gives much data
—some relevant, some not relevant to the solution. Ask the
students to read the problem aloud, or silently, and then list
the relevant and irrelevant data.

d. Analyzing relationships. Help the students analyze the

relationships among the data. For example, if the problem
states that the down payment on an automobile costing
$2,000 is 25%, the students must see the relationship
between these two facts. Seeing relationships is a reasoning
skill that students with mathematics disabilities often find
difficult.

e. Deciding on a process. Students must decide which

computational process should be used to solve the problem.
Students should be alert to key words, such as total or in all,
which suggest addition, and is left or remains, which suggest
subtraction. They should next put the problem into
mathematical sentences.

f. Estimating answers. Have the students practice

estimating what a reasonable answer might be. If the
students understand the reasoning behind the problem, they
should be able to estimate answers.

g. Practice and generalization. After students have

thought through and worked out one type of problem, the
teacher can give similar problems with different numbers.

9. Time. Time concepts involve a difficult dimension for many

students with mathematics disabilities to grasp, so they may
require specific instructions to learn how to tell time. Real clocks
or teacher-made clocks are needed to teach this skill. A teacher-
made clock can be created by using a paper fastener to attach
cardboard hands to a paper plate. A sequence for teaching time
might be the hour (1:00), the half hour (4:30), the quarter hour
(7:15), 5-minute intervals (2:25), before and after the hour, minute
intervals, and seconds. Use television schedules of programs or
classroom activities and relate them to clock time.

10. Money. The use of real money and lifelike situations is an

effective way to teach number facts to some students. Have them
play store, make change, or order a meal from a restaurant menu
and then add up the cost and pay for it. All of these situations
provide concrete and meaningful practice for learning arithmetic.
14.12d Secondary Mathematics Strategies
Teaching Algebra Through Active Learning High school
students used algebra to analyze variable pricing of local cell phone
plans. They used advertisements from cell phone companies to sell
monthly charges and they also looked at additional charges, such as
texting charges, to fund the real cost of the phone plan. They created an
algebraic equation to reflect the real cost. They then compared various
cell phone costs. They created electronic presentations, using charts,
graphs, and PowerPoint to show their results to parents and fellow
students (Boss, 2009).

Word Problems STAR is a strategy for word problems for students

with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities (Maccini &
Hughes, 2000).

S- Search the word problem. Read the problem, ask yourself

questions, and write down facts.

T- Translate the words into an equation. For example, identify the

operation, representing the equation through manipulative objects or
drawings.

A- Answer the problem.

R- Review the solution and check that the solution is reasonable.

Order of Operations Strategy Knowing the order of operations

is an important prerequisite for learning algebra. The ORDER strategy
helps students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
remember the order of operations (Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003).

O- Observe the problem. Read the problem and look for multiple
operation signs.

R- Read the signs. Look at each sign and identify the operation it
represents.

D- Decide which operation to do first. Operations must be performed

in a particular order.

E- Execute the rules of order. The phrase “many Dogs are Smelly”
reminds students that multiplication and division come before
addition and subtraction.

R- Relax. You are done.

 Did You Get It?

What basic skillset serves as the foundation for all other mathematical
computational skills?

a. ordering

b. sorting

c. addition

d. matching

14.13 Using Technology for Mathematics

Instruction
14.13a Calculators
Students must be required to learn the computation facts, but there are
times for using the calculator as well. Calculators are available as stand
alone low cost products but are also a part of an iPhone, iPad, or
computers. Students in school should be taught how to make efficient
use of the calculator. In doing a mathematics-reasoning problem,
students often become so bogged down in computation that they never
get to the reasoning aspects of the lesson. By using calculators, students
can put their energies into understanding the mathematical concept
rather than on performing the underlying calculation process (Center
for Implementing Technology in Education, 2007).

A low-cost pocket calculator is easily accessible and handy. It can be

used to compute basic facts, as well as more complicated math
processes, and it is also useful for self-checking. Because it is more
socially acceptable than other counting systems, it is particularly helpful
for adults who have not memorized basic computation facts. Students
do need instruction in the proper way to use a calculator, so lessons
must be designed to teach calculation skills.
 Students with mathematics difficulties may find talking calculators
useful. The talking calculator is a calculator with a speech synthesizer.
When a number, symbol, or operation is pressed, it is vocalized by the
speech synthesizer. The user gets auditory feedback and can double-
check the answers.

Secondary students and adults are likely to need programmable

calculators to perform more complex math functions.

14.13b Computers
The rapid pace of change in computer applications has made computer
technology especially useful for teaching mathematics.

Beyond calculators and computer games, teachers today have the

opportunity to utilize virtual manipulatives as discussed previously.
Interactive whiteboards are also found in many of today’s schools and
can be used very effectively to build math skills.

There are a number of math apps that are available for the iPad. Aronin
and Floyd (2013) provide some examples of apps for preschoolers.

Monkey Math School Sunshine

My First Tangrams

When selecting apps for math, it is important to match children’s

preferences, strengths, specific needs, and developmental levels with
appropriate levels (Aronin and Floyd, 2013).

Now there is increased emphasis on STEM (science, technology,

engineering, and mathematics). The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (http://www.nasa.gov/) has many resources available
for free. These lesson plans and resources provide an array of integrated
activities for science, technology, engineering, and math. Other websites
that might be helpful include:

Math Fact Fluency—www.reflexmath.com

 Online Math Learning—www.onlinemathlearning.com

TeachSource Video Case Activity

© Cengage Learning 2015

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Using Technology to Promote

Discovery Learning: High School Geometry Class.”

In this video, Gary Simons, the geometry teacher, uses “discovery learning” to help
students learn how to make conjectures in geometry class. They use a technology
tool called “sketchpad” to study angles in geometry. The geometry teacher explains
that discovery learning is an essential part of the teacher’s repertoire. He also
points out that “traditional mathematics” teaching is also a part of the teacher’s
repertoire.

Questions
1. What is “discovery learning” in geometry?

2. How does “traditional mathematics” teaching differ from “discovery

learning”?

Many mathematics software programs, although not specifically

designed for students with mathematics disabilities, may be useful.
Computers motivate students, and the mathematics software programs
can individualize, provide feedback, and offer repetition Belson, 2003;
Lewis, 1998; Raskind & Higgins, 1998a). These programs should have
as little clutter as possible and should offer concise, clear directions,
moving from simple and concrete directions to longer and more
 complex ones. The programs should question the student frequently
(asking, for example, “Are you sure? Do you want to change your
answer?”). They should also provide immediate feedback to the student.

Mathematics programs range from drill-and-practice programs to

problem-solving programs. A good source for mathematics software
programs for students with learning disabilities is Closing the Gap’s
Resource Directory. The website for Closing the Gap is at
http://www.closingthegap.com.

14.13c Spreadsheets
Computer spreadsheets are an essential part of the mathematics
curriculum, and their use is recommended by the (National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Moreover, students with learning
disabilities often do very well with spreadsheet applications, possibly
because spreadsheets are a visual task, rather than a linguistic task. A
spreadsheet displays numeric information through a grid of columns
and rows. The intersection of a column and a row is called a cell. When
numbers are placed in the cells, they can be used in mathematics
computations or in mathematics formulas, such as averages. Charts and
graphs, such as pie charts, bar graphs, or line graphs, are electronically
made, based on the numbers in the spreadsheets (see Figure 14.8).

Figure 14.8 Spreadsheet, Pie Chart, and Bar Graph

 © Cengage Learning

A pie chart is a circular chart cut into segments illustrating

magnitudes or frequencies. A bar graph is a type of chart in which
different values are represented by rectangular bars. A wide variety of
student activities can be accomplished with spreadsheets, such as
planning a budget, keeping records of grades, compiling an inventory of
items used in a hobby, or tracking election results.

In one activity, students noted their favorite foods. These foods were
then listed on a chalkboard and each student voted for his or her
favorite food. The class votes were tallied (e.g., pizza, 10 votes; hot dogs,
5 votes). The favorite foods and votes were then put into Columns A and
B on a spreadsheet, and the students made pie charts and bar graphs
from their spreadsheets. Figure 14.8 shows the spreadsheet, pie chart,
and bar graph that resulted from this activity.

Did You Get It?

Spreadsheets, a valuable and effective tool for teaching mathematical

computation, are helpful because they are visual. The use of spreadsheets in
mathematics is

a. mandated by CORE.

b. recommended by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

c. frowned upon by the National Education Association.

 d. mandated by No Child Left Behind Act.

I Have a Kid Who… SAM: A Student Who Has Difficulty in Algebra

Sam is age 14 years 8 months, he is in the ninth grade, and he is identified through
his IEP as a student with learning disabilities. Sam enjoys reading and does well in
English, but he has encountered difficulty in mathematics since his elementary
years.

Sam is in the general education algebra class. At the beginning of the school year,
Mr. Zero, Sam’s algebra teacher, reviewed some of the basic concepts of basic pre-
algebra that the students had been taught the previous year in eighth grade. After a
quick review, most students were ready to move on to more advanced algebra
concepts. Sam, however, was still having difficulty with the basic algebra concepts.
Mr. Zero realizes these early algebra concepts must be mastered before moving on
to more advanced concepts. He collaborates with the special education teacher and
they both work with Sam to teach him basic pre-algebra skills. They will teach Sam
to solve the following types of algebra problems:

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems involving

integers. For example: 4+6 ; 4+-6 ; 4×5 ; -18÷-3 .

Simplify addition, subtraction, and division equations. For example:

( 2x+6 )+( 4x+7 )=6x+13 .

Solve expressions with variables. For example: 3x=-24 .

Solve two-step equations. For example: 3x-4=2 .

Solve multi-step equations. For example: 5x-4=2x+5 .

Questions
1. How is the strategy of collaboration being used for Sam?

2. Do you think that other students in the algebra class would benefit from this
collaborative teaching?

Source: Adapted from Source: Adapted from The Iris Center for Faculty Enhancement, Case Study
Unit, Algebra (Part 1), http://www.iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu.

Chapter Review
Chapter Summary
Some students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities have severe difficulty in learning mathematics. For
others, mathematics seems to be an area of strength.

Dyscalculia is a severe disability in learning and using

mathematics that is associated with a neurological dysfunction.

Early number learning in young children includes abilities in

spatial relations, visualmotor and visual-perception processing,
and concepts of time and direction.

Characteristics of mathematics disabilities are related to

information-processing difficulties, language and reading abilities,
and math anxiety.

Views about teaching mathematics have changed over the years in

response to national concerns. Today’s approach is to require high
standards and annual testing.

There are several learning theories of mathematics instruction for

students with mathematics disabilities, which include the
progression from concrete learning to abstract learning, direct
instruction, learning strategies instruction, and problem-solving
approaches.

Students’ mathematics skills can be assessed through formal tests

and informal measures. Each provides a different kind of
information about mathematics performance.

The content of the mathematics curriculum is sequential and

cumulative. Different elements of mathematics are taught at
different grade levels.

Principles of instruction in mathematics stress that the students

should have early number learning. Instruction should progress
from the concrete to the abstract, with ample opportunity for
practice and review. The students must learn to generalize
concepts that have been learned, and they should also know the
vocabulary for basic mathematics operations.

Students should learn basic computational facts, but they should

be allowed to use calculators for some purposes in the classroom.
Calculator use should be part of the mathematics curriculum.

Computers have many useful applications in teaching

mathematics to students with learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities.
 Chapter Review

Questions for Discussion and Reflection

1. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA-2004)
recognizes 2 areas in which students can have mathematics disabilities. Identify
these 2 areas and discuss the implications for services.

2. Characteristics of learning disabilities and related mild disabilities can affect the
learning of mathematics. Select two characteristics of students with mathematics
disabilities, and describe how these characteristics can affect mathematics
learning.

3. Do you think calculators should be used in mathematics instruction? Why or why

not? Discuss how they could be used.

4. How can computers be used in the teaching of mathematics?

5. Describe how students can be instructed to go from concrete learning to abstract

learning.

Chapter Review

Key Terms
abstract instruction

bar graph

concrete instruction

direct instruction

dyscalculia

early number learning

math anxiety

mathematics computation

mathematics difficulties

mathematics learning disabilities

number lines

one-to-one correspondence

part-whole relationship
pie chart

place value

problem solving

semiconcrete instruction

spatial relationships

spreadsheet

time concepts