HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE)

➢ Antibodies
o immunoglobulins produced by plasma
INNATE IMMUNITY cells after a progenitor B cell is activated
- involves leukocytes (mainly granulocytes), and by a specific antigen
proteins such as defensins, complement, ➢ Antigen-Presenting Proteins
lysozyme, and interferons; cytokines o Major Histocompatibility Complex
- Involves immediate non-specific actions (MHC)
including the physical barriers including the skin ▪ Class I Molecules – found on
and mucous membranes present in surfaces of all nucleated cells
gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urogenital bear fragments of their
tracts constituent proteins
- Prevents the infection or penetration of the host ▪ Class II Molecules – found only
body on the surfaces of antigen-
presenting cells (APCs)
Antimicrobial chemicals
➢ Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
o Present in stomach
o Lowers the pH (acidic) – kill or inhibit the PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
growth of pathogens o Bone Marrow for B Lymphocytes
➢ Defensins o Thymus for T lymphocytes
o short cationic polypeptides produced by
neutrophils and various epithelial cells
that kill bacteria by disrupting the cell
walls.
➢ Lysozyme
o an enzyme made by neutrophils and
cells of epithelial barriers, which
hydrolyzes bacterial cell wall
components, killing those cells.
➢ Complement
o a system of proteins in blood plasma,
mucus, and macrophages that react with
bacterial surface components to aid
removal of bacteria. SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
➢ Interferons o Lymph Nodes
o paracrine factors from leukocytes and o MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid
virus-infected cells that signal NK tissue)
(natural killer) cells to kill such cells and o Spleen
adjacent cells to resist viral infection. - Where B and T cells are often activated,
proliferate, and begin to function
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY - Contains a meshwork of reticulin produced by
fibroblastic reticular cells.
- Develops more slowly and is based on antigen
presentation to lymphocytes.
- Acquired gradually by exposure to
microorganism
- More specific than the innate immunity

Antigens and Antibodies

➢ Antigens
o Usually proteins that are recognized by
lymphocytes to elicit a specific immune
response against them. - Antigen bound to the immunoglobulin receptors
o Soluble molecules: proteins or on B cells (BCRs) is endocytosed, processed, and
polysaccharides presented on MCH class II proteins to helper T
o Intact cells: Bacteria, protozoa, or tumor cells. These then secrete IL-4 and other cytokines
cells that stimulate gene recombination and clonal
o Response to antigen: proliferation of these specific B cells. They
▪ Cellular-mediated immunity – differentiate as plasma cells producing
lymphocytes (specifically t- antibodies against the antigen that was originally
lymphocytes) are primarily in- bound and processed.
charge of eliminating the - Memory B lymphocytes – helps our body to
antigen respond more quickly to future invasions by the
▪ humoral immunity – antibodies same antigen
are the one responding to the - Plasma cells – produces antibodies which will
antigen inhibit or kill that same antigen
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Thymic Cortex
- Removal of developing T cells with nonfunctional
PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS TCRs
o Bone Marrow for B Lymphocytes - Contains a population of T lymphoblasts
o Thymus for T lymphocytes (thymocytes), macrophages, and thymic
epithelial cells (TECs)
B-Cells o TECs contains features of both epithelial
- Bursa of Fabricious – organs found in birds and reticular cells
where b-cells are initially found
- produce antibodies for humoral immunity 3 Major Types:
- B-cell Receptors (BCRs) are IgM or IgD antibodies ➢ Squamous Cells
on the cell surface o Blood-thymus barrier
o Prevents the unregulated exposure of
T-Cells thymocytes to the antigens
- function in cell-mediated immunity ➢ Stellate Epithelial Cells
o Cytoreticulum
Classes of T-Cells: o Radiating or star-like pattern which
➢ CD4+ T helper cells secretes cytokines for T cell
o Coreceptors with TCR (T-cell receptor) development
for binding MHC class II molecules ➢ Squamous Cortical Cells
➢ CD8+ cytotoxic T cells o Corticomedullary barrier
o aka killer cells or cytotoxic t-lymphocytes o Forms a sheath-like structure between
(CTLs) the cortex and the medulla
o They attach to the cell surface of the
antigen which triggers apoptosis Thymic Medulla
➢ CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cell - Pale staining
o Suppress the immune response, thereby - Contains fewer, larger, and more mature
maintaining homeostasis lymphocytes
➢ γδ T Cells - Composed of TECs same as the thymic cortex but
o contains TCR chains with different functions
o migrate to the epidermis and mucosal
epithelia (intraepithelial) Types of TECs
o do not recirculate to the secondary ➢ Stellate Epithelial Cells
lymphoid organs o Cytoreticulum
o Supports the lymphocytes and dendritic
cells (APCs present in immune system,
specifically in lymph nodes and spleen)
➢ Secondary Layer
o Barrier between the cortex and the
medulla
➢ Hassall Corpuscles (Aggregates of TEC)
o Thymic corpuscles
o Secretes cytokines

- (a) The TCR and CD4 proteins of a helper T cell

bind antigens presented on MHC class II - MALT is found in the mucosa of most tracts but
molecules and with interleukin-2 (IL-2) is concentrated in the palatine, lingual and
stimulation, the lymphocyte is activated and pharyngeal tonsils, Peyer patches (walls of
proliferates. ileum), and the appendix.
- (b) Cytotoxic T lymphocytes, or CTLs, recognize - One of the largest lymphoid organs that contains
and bind abnormal peptides on MHC class I 70% of all the body’s immune cells
molecules, and triggered by IL-2 from helper T - Most B-cells with fewer T-cells (CD4+ or helper T
cells the CTLs proliferate. cells)

THYMUS
- Bilobed organ in the mediastinum (area found in - Lymph nodes are bean-shaped, small,
the midline of the thoracic cavity surrounded by encapsulated structures, generally only 10 mm
left and right plural sacs) that is most active and by 2.5 cm in size, distributed throughout the
prominent before puberty and undergoes body along the lymphatic vessels
involution or shrinkage with less activity in the - Filters lymph
adult. - Site for B-cell activation and differentiation
- Primary organ where T Cells are produced - Facilitates antibody production
- Originates from endoderm - Contains
o valves – ensure that there is only one-
way flow of lymph
 HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE)

o Cortex – receives the lymph from - Two intermingled but functionally different
afferent lymphatic regions: white pulp and red pulp.
o Paracortex – where most of the
lymphocytes enter
o Medulla – contains sinuses (converging
at the efferent lymphatic)

White Pulp
- 20% of the spleen
- Enclosed by periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths
(PALS) of T cells

Red Pulp
- Filters blood
- Removes defective erythrocytes
Compartments of Lymph Nodes
- Recycles hemoglobin iron
➢ Outer Cortex
o point of entry of lymphocytes to the Parts of the Red Pulp
entire Lymph Node ➢ Splenic Cords (Cords of Billroth)
o Where B Cells encounter Antibodies o Theodor Billroth
o With nodes o contains macrophages, reticular cells
➢ Paracortex and fibers, other leukocytes
o High Endothelial Venules (HEVs) portal (lymphocytes)
of entry of lymphocytes to paracortex
o Lacks nodes
➢ Inner Medulla
o Draining sinusoids
o Hilum – Where blood vessels and
nerve(s) enter.
o 2 subdivisions:
▪ Medullary Cords
• Abundance of T and B
lymphocytes, and many
plasma cells ➢ Splenic Sinusoids
• Branched, cord-like o lined by unusual endothelial cells called
structure of the stave cells that are elongated and
lymphoid tissue that are aligned parallel to the blood flow
extending from the
paracortex
▪ Medullary Sinuses
• Dilated spaces lined by
discontinued
endothelium
• Separates medullary
cords

Blood flow:
➢ closed circulation: the blood flows from the
capillaries to the venous sinusoids (contains
stave cells – remove the old RBCs)
➢ open circulation: the blood flows from the
capillaries to the splenic cords (macrophages
- without a cortex/medulla structure
responsible for removal of RBCs)
- only lymphoid organ that filters the blood
- defense against bloodborne pathogens
- main site of old erythrocyte (RBCs) destruction