Natural and Step Responses of RLC Circuit

Introduction to the Natural Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit

The first step in finding the natural response of the circuit shown in Fig. 8.1 is to derive the differential
equation that the voltage v must satisfy. We choose to find the voltage first, because it is the same for
each component. After that, a branch current can be found by using the current-voltage relationship for
the branch component. We easily obtain the differential equation for the voltage by summing the
currents away from the top node, where each current is expressed as a function of the unknown voltage
v:

We eliminate the integral in Eq. 8.1 by differentiating once with respect to t, and, because 𝐼0 is a
constant, we get

We divide everything by 𝐶 and arrange the derivatives in descending order (Eq 8.3):

Equation 8.3 is an ordinary, second-order differential equation with constant coefficients. Circuits in this
chapter contain both inductors and capacitors, so the differential equation describing these circuits is of
the second order. Therefore, we sometimes call such circuits second-order circuits.

The General Solution of the Second-Order Differential Equation

We can't solve Eq. 8.3 by separating the variables and integrating as we were able to do with the first-
order equations in Chapter 7. The classical approach to solving Eq. 8.3 is to assume that the solution is of
exponential form, that is, to assume that the voltage is of the form (Eq 8.4)

where A and s are unknown constants.

Before showing how this assumption leads to the solution of Eq. 8.3, we need to show that it is rational.
The strongest argument we can make in favor of Eq. 8.4 is to note from Eq. 8.3 that the second
derivative of the solution, plus a constant times the first derivative, plus a constant times the solution
itself, must sum to zero for all values of t. This can occur only if higher order derivatives of the solution
have the same form as the solution.
The exponential function satisfies this criterion. A second argument in favor of Eq. 8.4 is that the
solutions of all the first-order equations we derived in Chapter 7 were exponential. It seems reasonable
to assume that the solution of the second-order equation also involves the exponential function.

If Eq. 8.4 is a solution of Eq. 8.3, it must satisfy Eq. 8.3 for all values of t. Substituting Eq. 8.4 into Eq. 8.3
generates the expression (Eq 8.5)

or

which can be satisfied for all values of t only if A is zero or the parenthetical term is zero, because 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 ≠
0 for any finite values of st. We cannot use 𝐴 = 0 as a general solution because to do so implies that
the voltage is zero for all time —a physical impossibility if energy is stored in either the inductor or
capacitor. Therefore, in order for Eq. 8.4 to be a solution of Eq. 8.3, the parenthetical term in Eq. 8.5
must be zero, or

Equation 8.6 is called the characteristic equation of the differential equation because the roots of this
quadratic equation determine the mathematical character of 𝑣(𝑡).

The two roots of Eq. 8.6 are

If either of the roots is substituted into Eq. 8.4, the assumed solution satisfies the given differential
equation, that is, Eq. 8.3. Note from Eq. 8.5 that this result holds regardless of the value of 𝐴. Therefore,
both

satisfy Eq. 8.3. Denoting these two solutions 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 , respectively, we can show that their sum also is a
solution. Specifically, if we let (Eq 8.9)

then (Eq. 8.10-8.11)

Substituting Eqs. 8.9-8.11 into Eq. 8.3 gives

But each parenthetical term is zero because by definition 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are roots of the characteristic
equation. Hence the natural response of the parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. 8.1 is of the form (Eq. 8.13)

Equation 8.13 is a repeat of the assumption made in Eq. 8.9. We have shown that 𝑣1 is a solution, 𝑣2 is a
solution, and 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 is a solution. Therefore, the general solution of Eq. 8.3 has the form given in Eq.
8.13. The roots of the characteristic equation (𝑠1 and 𝑠2 ) are determined by the circuit parameters 𝑅, 𝐿,
and 𝐶. The initial conditions determine the values of the constants 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 . Note that the form of Eq.
8.13 must be modified if the two roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are equal. We discuss this modification when we turn to
the critically damped voltage response in Section 8.2.

The behavior of 𝑣(𝑡) depends on the values of 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 . Therefore the first step in finding the natural
response is to determine the roots of the characteristic equation. We return to Eqs. 8.7 and 8.8 and
rewrite them using a notation widely used in the literature:

where

These results are summarized in Table 8.1.

The exponent of e must be dimensionless, so both 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 (and hence 𝛼 and 𝜔0 ) must have the
dimension of the reciprocal of time, or frequency. To distinguish among the frequencies 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝛼 and 𝜔0 ,
we use the following terminology: 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are referred to as complex frequencies, 𝛼 is called the neper
frequency, and 𝜔0 is the resonant radian frequency. The full significance of this terminology unfolds as
we move through the remaining chapters of this book. All these frequencies have the dimension of
angular frequency per time. For complex frequencies, the neper frequency, and the resonant radian
frequency, we specify values using the unit radians per second (rad/s). The nature of the roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2
depends on the values of 𝛼 and 𝜔0 .

There are three possible outcomes: First, if 𝜔02 < 𝛼 2 , both roots will be real and distinct. For reasons to
be discussed later, the voltage response is said to be overdamped in this case. Second, if 𝜔02 > 𝛼 2 , both
𝑠1 and 𝑠2 will be complex and, in addition, will be conjugates of each other. In this situation, the voltage
response is said to be underdamped. The third possible outcome is that 𝜔02 = 𝛼 2 . In this case, 𝑠1 and 𝑠2
will be real and equal. Here the voltage response is said to be critically damped. As we shall see,
damping affects the way the voltage response reaches its final (or steady-state) value. We discuss each
case separately in Section 8.2.

Example 8.1 illustrates how the numerical values of 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are determined by the values of R, L, and C.

Example 8.1

The Forms of the Natural Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit

So far we have seen that the behavior of a second-order RLC circuit depends on the values of 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 ,
which in turn depend on the circuit parameters R, L, and C. Therefore, the first step in finding the natural
response is to calculate these values and, relatedly, determine whether the response is over-, under-, or
critically damped.

Completing the description of the natural response requires finding two unknown coefficients, such as
𝐴1 and 𝐴2 in Eq. 8.13. The method used to do this is based on matching the solution for the natural
response to the initial conditions imposed by the circuit, which are the initial value of the current (or
voltage) and the initial value of the first derivative of the current (or voltage). Note that these same
initial conditions, plus the final value of the variable, will also be needed when finding the step response
of a second-order circuit.

In this section, we analyze the natural response form for each of the three types of damping, beginning
with the overdamped response. As we will see, the response equations, as well as the equations for
evaluating the unknown coefficients, are slightly different for each of the three damping configurations.
This is why we want to determine at the outset of the problem whether the response is over-, under-, or
critically damped.

1) The Overdamped Voltage Response

When the roots of the characteristic equation are real and distinct, the voltage response of a parallel RLC
circuit is said to be overdamped. The solution for the voltage is of the form (Eq. 8.18)
where 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are the roots of the characteristic equation. The constants 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are determined by
the initial conditions, specifically from the values of 𝑣(0+ ) and 𝑑𝑣(0+ )/𝑑𝑡, which in turn are determined
from the initial voltage on the capacitor, 𝑉0 and the initial current in the inductor, 𝐼0 .

Next, we show how to use the initial voltage on the capacitor and the initial current in the inductor to
find 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 . First we note from Eq. 8.18 that

With 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 known, the task of finding 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 reduces to finding 𝑣(0+ ) and 𝑑𝑣(0+ )/𝑑𝑡. The value
of 𝑣(0+ ) is the initial voltage on the capacitor 𝑉0 . We get the initial value of 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 by first finding the
current in the capacitor branch at 𝑡 = 0+ . Then (Eq. 8.21),

We use Kirchhoff’s current law to find the initial current in the capacitor branch. We know that the sum
of the three branch currents at 𝑡 = 0+ must be zero. The current in the resistive branch at 𝑡 = 0+ is the
initial voltage 𝑉0 divided by the resistance, and the current in the inductive branch is 𝐼0 . Using the
reference system depicted in Fig. 8.5, we obtain (Eq. 8.22)

After finding the numerical value of 𝑖𝐶 (0+ ), we use Eq. 8.21 to find the initial value of 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡.

We can summarize the process for finding the overdamped response, 𝑣(𝑡), as follows:

1. Find the roots of the characteristic equation, 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 , using the values of 𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶.

2. Find 𝑣(0+ ) and 𝑑𝑣(0+ )/𝑑𝑡 using circuit analysis.

3. Find the values of 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 by solving Eqs. 8.23 and 8.24 simultaneously:

4. Substitute the values for 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝐴1 , and 𝐴2 into Eq. 8.18 to determine the expression for 𝑣(𝑡) for 𝑡 ≥
0. Examples 8.2 and 8.3 illustrate how to find the overdamped response of a parallel RLC circuit.

Example 8.2

Example 8.3
2) The Underdamped Voltage Response

When 𝜔02 > 𝛼 2, the roots of the characteristic equation are complex, and the response is underdamped.
For convenience, we express the roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 as

where

The term 𝜔𝑑 is called the damped radian frequency. We explain later the reason for this terminology.

The underdamped voltage response of a parallel RLC circuit is (Eq. 8.28)

which follows from Eq. 8.18. In making the transition from Eq. 8.18 to Eq. 8.28, we use the Euler identity:

Thus,

At this point in the transition from Eq. 8.18 to 8.28, replace the arbitrary constants 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 and 𝑗(𝐴1 −
𝐴2 ) with new arbitrary constants denoted 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 to get

The constants 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are real, not complex, because the voltage is a real function. Don't be misled by
the fact that 𝐵2 = 𝑗(𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ). In this underdamped case, 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are complex conjugates, and thus
𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are real. The reason for defining the underdamped response in terms of the coefficients 𝐵1
and 𝐵2 is that it yields a simpler expression for the voltage, 𝑣. We determine 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 by the initial
energy stored in the circuit, in the same way that we found 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 for the overdamped response: by
evaluating 𝑣 at 𝑡 = 0+ and its derivative at 𝑡 = 0+ . As with 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 , 𝛼 and 𝜔𝑑 are fixed by the circuit
parameters R, L, and C.

For the underdamped response, the two simultaneous equations that determine 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are (Eq.
8.30-8.31)

Let's look at the general nature of the underdamped response. First, the trigonometric functions indicate
that this response is oscillatory; that is, the voltage alternates between positive and negative values. The
rate at which the voltage oscillates is fixed by 𝜔𝑑 . Second, the amplitude of the oscillation decreases
exponentially. The rate at which the amplitude falls off is determined by a. Because 𝛼 determines how
quickly the oscillations subside, it is also referred to as the damping factor or damping coefficient. That
explains why 𝜔𝑑 is called the damped radian frequency. If there is no damping, 𝛼 = 0 and the
frequency of oscillation is 𝜔0 . Whenever there is a dissipative element, 𝑅, in the circuit, 𝛼 is not zero and
the frequency of oscillation, 𝜔𝑑 , is less than 𝜔0 . Thus when 𝛼 is not zero, the frequency of oscillation is
said to be damped.

The oscillatory behavior is possible because of the two types of energy-storage elements in the circuit:
the inductor and the capacitor. (A mechanical analogy of this electric circuit is that of a mass suspended
on a spring, where oscillation is possible because energy can be stored in both the spring and the moving
mass.). In summary, note that the overall process for finding the underdamped response is the same as
that for the overdamped response, although the response equations and the simultaneous equations
used to find the constants are slightly different.

Example 8.4

Characteristics of the Underdamped Response

The underdamped response has several important characteristics. First, as the dissipative losses in the
circuit decrease, the persistence of the oscillations increases, and the frequency of the oscillations
approaches w0. In other words, as 𝑅 → ∞, the dissipation in the circuit above approaches zero because
𝑝 = 𝑣 2 /𝑅. As 𝑅 → ∞, 𝛼 → 0, which tells us that 𝜔𝑑 → 𝜔0 . When 𝛼 = 0, the maximum amplitude of the
voltage remains constant; thus the oscillation at 𝜔0 is sustained. In Example 8.4, if R were increased to
infinity, the solution for 𝑣(𝑡) would become

Thus, in this case the oscillation is sustained, the maximum amplitude of the voltage is 98 V, and the
frequency of oscillation is 1000 rad/s. We may now describe qualitatively the difference between an
underdamped and an overdamped response. In an underdamped system, the response oscillates, or
"bounces," about its final value. This oscillation is also referred to as ringing. In an overdamped system,
the response approaches its final value without ringing or in what is sometimes described as a "sluggish"
manner. When specifying the desired response of a second order system, you may want to reach the
final value in the shortest time possible, and you may not be concerned with small oscillations about that
final value. If so, you would design the system components to achieve an underdamped response. On
the other hand, you may be concerned that the response not exceed its final value, perhaps to ensure
that components are not damaged. In such a case, you would design the system components to achieve
an overdamped response, and you would have to accept a relatively slow rise to the final value.

3) The Critically Damped Voltage Response

The second-order circuit in Fig. 8.8 is critically damped when 𝜔02 = 𝛼 2 , or 𝜔0 = 𝛼. When a circuit is
critically damped, the response is on the verge of oscillating. In addition, the two roots of the
characteristic equation are real and equal; that is,

When this occurs, the solution for the voltage no longer takes the form of Eq. 8.18. This equation breaks
down because if 𝑠1 = 𝑠2 = −𝛼 , it predicts that (Eq. 8.33)

where 𝐴0 is an arbitrary constant. Equation 8.33 cannot satisfy two independent initial conditions (𝑉0 , 𝐼0)
with only one arbitrary constant, 𝐴0 . Recall that the circuit parameters 𝑅 and 𝐶 fix 𝛼.

We can trace this dilemma back to the assumption that the solution takes the form of Eq. 8.18. When
the roots of the characteristic equation are equal, the solution for the differential equation takes a
different form, namely (Eq. 8.34)

Thus in the case of a repeated root, the solution involves a simple exponential term plus the product of a
linear and an exponential term. The justification of Eq. 8.34 is left for an introductory course in
differential equations. Finding the solution involves obtaining 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 by following the same pattern
set in the overdamped and underdamped cases: We use the initial values of the voltage and the
derivative of the voltage with respect to time to write two equations containing 𝐷1 and/or 𝐷2.

From Eq. 8.34, the two simultaneous equations needed to determine 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 are

As we can see, in the case of a critically damped response, both the equation for 𝑣(𝑡) and the
simultaneous equations for the constants 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 differ from those for over- and underdamped
responses, but the general approach is the same. You will rarely encounter critically damped systems
in practice, largely because 𝜔0 must equal 𝛼 exactly. Both of these quantities depend on circuit
parameters, and in a real circuit it is very difficult to choose component values that satisfy an exact
equality relationship.

Example 8.5 illustrates the approach for finding the critically damped response of a parallel RLC circuit.

Example 8.5

A Summary of the Results

We conclude our discussion of the parallel RLC circuit's natural response with a brief summary of the
results. The first step in finding the natural response is to calculate the roots of the characteristic
equation. You then know immediately whether the response is overdamped, underdamped, or critically
damped. If the roots are real and distinct (𝜔02 < 𝛼 2 ), the response is overdamped and the voltage is

where

The values of 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are determined by solving the following simultaneous equations:

If the roots are complex 𝜔02 > 𝛼 2 the response is underdamped and the voltage is

where

The values of 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are found by solving the following simultaneous equations:

If the roots of the characteristic equation are real and equal (𝜔02 = 𝛼 2 ), the voltage response is
where 𝛼 is as in the other solution forms. To determine values for the constants 𝐷1 and 𝐷2, solve the
following simultaneous equations:

The Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit

Finding the step response of a parallel RLC circuit involves finding the voltage across the parallel
branches or the current in the individual branches as a result of the sudden application of a dc current
source. There may or may not be energy stored in the circuit when the current source is applied. The
task is represented by the circuit shown above. To develop a general approach to finding the step
response of a second-order circuit, we focus on finding the current in the inductive branch (𝑖𝐿 ). This
current is of particular interest because it does not approach zero as 𝑡 increases. Rather, after the switch
has been open for a long time, the inductor current equals the dc source current 𝐼. Because we want to
focus on the technique for finding the step response, we assume that the initial energy stored in the
circuit is zero. This assumption simplifies the calculations and doesn't alter the basic process involved.

To find the inductor current 𝑖𝐿 , we must solve a second-order differential equation equated to the
forcing function 𝐼, which we derive as follows. From Kirchhoff’s current law, we have

or (Eq. 8.37)

Because

we get

Substituting Eqs. 8.38 and 8.39 into Eq. 8.37 gives

For convenience, we divide through by LC and rearrange terms (Eq. 8.41):

Comparing Eq. 8.41 with Eq. 8.3 reveals that the presence of a nonzero term on the right-hand side of
the equation alters the task. Before showing how to solve Eq. 8.41 directly, we obtain the solution
indirectly. When we know the solution of Eq. 8.41, explaining the direct approach will be easier.

The Indirect Approach

We can solve for 𝑖𝐿 indirectly by first finding the voltage 𝑣. We do this with the techniques introduced in
Section 8.2, because the differential equation that 𝑣 must satisfy is identical to Eq. 8.3. To see this, we
simply return to Eq. 8.37 and express 𝑖𝐿 L as a function of 𝑣; thus (Eq. 8.42)

Differentiating Eq. 8.42 once with respect to 𝑡 reduces the right-hand side to zero because 𝐼 is a
constant. Thus

or

As discussed in Section 8.2, the solution for 𝑣 depends on the roots of the characteristic equation. Thus
the three possible solutions are (Eq. 8.44-8.46)

A word of caution: Because there is a source in the circuit for t > 0, you must take into account the value
of the source current at 𝑡 = 0+ when you evaluate the coefficients in Eqs. 8.44-8.46. To find the three
possible solutions for 𝑖𝐿 , we substitute Eqs. 8.44-8.46 into Eq. 8.37. You should be able to verify, when
this has been done, that the three solutions for 𝑖𝐿 will be (Eq. 8.47-8.49)
where 𝐴1′ , 𝐴′2 , 𝐵1′ , 𝐵2′ , 𝐷1′ and 𝐷2′, are arbitrary constants. In each case, the primed constants can be found
indirectly in terms of the arbitrary constants associated with the voltage solution. However, this
approach is cumbersome.

The Direct Approach

It is much easier to find the primed constants directly in terms of the initial values of the response
function. For the circuit being discussed, we would find the primed constants from 𝑖𝐿 (0) and 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (0)/𝑑𝑡.
The solution for a second-order differential equation with a constant forcing function equals the forced
response plus a response function identical in form to the natural response. Thus we can always write
the solution for the step response in the form (Eq. 8.50 – 8.51)

where 𝐼𝑓 and 𝑉𝑓 represent the final value of the response function. The final value may be zero, as was,
for example, the case with the voltage 𝑣 in the circuit in Fig. 8.8.

Examples 8.6-8.10 illustrate the technique of finding the step response of a parallel RLC circuit using the
direct approach.

Example 8.6

Example 8.7

Example 8.8

Example 8.9

Example 8.10

The Natural and Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit

The procedures for finding the natural or step responses of a series RLC circuit are the same as those
used to find the natural or step responses of a parallel RLC circuit, because both circuits are described by
differential equations that have the same form. We begin by summing the voltages around the closed
path in the circuit shown in Fig. 8.14.
Thus (eq. 8.52)

We now differentiate Eq. 8.52 once with respect to t to get

which we can rearrange as

Comparing Eq. 8.54 with Eq. 8.3 reveals that they have the same form. Therefore, to find the solution of
Eq. 8.54, we follow the same process that led us to the solution of Eq. 8.3.

From Eq. 8.54, the characteristic equation for the series RLC circuit is

The roots of the characteristic equation are

or

The neper frequency (𝛼) for the series RLC circuit is

and the expression for the resonant radian frequency is

Note that the equation for neper frequency of the series RLC circuit differs from that of the parallel RLC
circuit, but the equations for resonant and damped radian frequencies are the same.

The current response will be overdamped, underdamped, or critically damped according to whether
𝜔02 < 𝛼 2 , 𝜔02 > 𝛼 2 , or 𝜔02 = 𝛼 2, respectively. Thus the three possible solutions for the current are as
follows:

When you have obtained the natural current response, you can find the natural voltage response across
any circuit element. To verify that the procedure for finding the step response of a series RLC circuit is
the same as that for a parallel RLC circuit, we show that the differential equation that describes the
capacitor voltage in Fig. 8.15 has the same form as the differential equation that describes the inductor
current in Fig. 8.11.

For convenience, we assume that zero energy is stored in the circuit at the instant the switch is closed.
Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law to the circuit shown in Fig. 8.15 gives (Eq. 8.63)

The current (𝑖) is related to the capacitor voltage (𝑣𝑐 ) by the expression (Eq. 8.64)

from which (Eq. 8.65)

Substitute Eqs. 8.64 and 8.65 into Eq. 8.63 and write the resulting expression as (Eq. 8.66)
Equation 8.66 has the same form as Eq. 8.41; therefore the procedure for finding 𝑣𝐶 parallels that for
finding 𝑖𝐿 . The three possible solutions for 𝑣𝐶 are as follows:

where 𝑉𝑓 is the final value of 𝑣𝐶 . Hence, from the circuit shown in Fig. 8.15, the final value of 𝑣𝐶 is the dc
source voltage 𝑉. Examples 8.11 and 8.12 illustrate the mechanics of finding the natural and step
responses of a series RLC circuit.

Example 8.11

Example 8.12

Summary