Blood Group

Biology
Project Report
On
“Blood Groups”
Session: 2022-23”
Submitted to:- Submitted by
Mrs. Nidhi Mehta Devanshi Verma

Lecturer in Biology Roll No.
Class XII (Medical)
D.A.V. Public School,

Kurukshetra
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the investigatory project entitled “Blood Group” was

carried out in Biology by Devanshi Verma, a student of XII (Medical), D.A.V.
Public School, Kurukshetra as a partial fulfilment of the practical work
conducted by the Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi.
Mrs. Nidhi Mehta

Lecturer in Biology
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to thank and express my sincere gratitude to
Mrs. Nidhi Mehta, Lecturer in Biology who guided me for this project and
without whose efforts; this project would not have been completed. I put my
sincere efforts to make this project interesting. I fully consulted all the
available books on this subject and I am thankful to esteemed authors.
In the end, I am thankful to all those who took interest in the successful
completion of the project.
Devanshi Verma
XII (Medical)
Roll No. ................................
CONTENTS
 History
 Composition of blood
 Types of Blood group
 Rh blood grouping
 Testing of blood groups
 Blood compatibility
History
 Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of
blood or blood components into a person's blood
stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years.
 Many patients have died and it was not until 1901,

when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered
human blood groups, that blood transfusions became
safer.
 Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood

clumping or agglutination.
 The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic

reactions.
 This can have fatal consequences.
 Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was

an immunological reaction which occurs when the
receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies
against the donor blood cells.
 Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to

determine blood groups and thus paved the way for
blood transfusions to be carried out safely.
 For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.
What is Blood made up of ?

An adult human has about 4–6 liters of blood circulating
in the body. Among other things, blood transports oxygen
to various parts of the body.
Composition of Blood
Blood contains a nonliving fluid matrix (plasma) in which

living cells(formed elements) are suspended. Blood
contains 55% plasma and 45% formed elements.
Plasma is over 90% water. It also contains electrolytes (salts),

plasma proteins, and substances transported by blood
(i.e. nutrients, hormones, etc.).
The three types of formed elements are erythrocytes (RBCs),

leukocytes (WBCs), and platelets.
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
 The most numerous of blood cells.

 Produced in the bone marrow.
 Anucleate (lacking a nucleus) when mature and circulating. This
results in them being unable to reproduce or repair
damage.
 Life span is 100-120 days after which they fragment and are
destroyed in the spleen mainly.
 Function – transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Leukocytes (WBCs)
 Formed in the bone marrow.

 Nucleated cells that function in defence and immunity. They are
pathogen-destroying cells that are transported in the

blood or lymph.
 Ability to move in and out of blood vessels, diapedesis, and can
wander through tissues by amoeboid motion.
Two Major Groups:
Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm and

lobed nuclei.
 Neutrophils are phagocytes. Their numbers increase

exponentially
during acute infections.
 Eosinophils attack parasitic worms and lessen allergy attacks.

The
nucleus is figure 8 or bilobed in shape.
 Basophils have a large U- or S- shaped nucleus. They release
antihistamines and contain heparin.
Agranulocytes contain no visible cytoplasmic granules.

Their nuclei
are spherical, oval, or kidney shaped.
Lymphocytes act via antibodies or direct cell attack.

Monocytes convert to macrophages once in tissues.
Platelets
 Formed in bone marrow and are instrumental in blood clotting.
 Thrombocytopenia is a disorder where there are not enough
platelets in the blood.

Blood Types
ABO Blood Grouping System
 There are four different types of blood

A, B, AB, O
 They are determined by the protein (antigen) found

on the RBC
 Type A, has protein (antigen) A on the RBC
 Type B, has protein (antigen) B on the RBC
 Type AB, has both protein (antigen) A and B on the

RBC
 Type O, has neither protein (antigen) on the RBC
 Type A would have B agglutinins (antibody) in the

plasma.
 Type B would have A agglutinins (antibody) in the
plasma.
 Type AB would not have agglutinins (antibody) in the

plasma.
 Type O would have A and B agglutinins (antibody)

in the plasma.
Rh factor blood grouping system
 Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the
red blood cell's surface.
 It was first obtained from Rhesus Monkey, hence

called Rh.
 This is also an antigen and those who have it are

called Rh+.
 Those who haven't are called Rh-.
A person with Rh- blood does not have Rh

antibodies naturally in the blood plasma (as one can
have A or B antibodies, for instance).
 But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh

antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives
blood from a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh
antigens can trigger the production of Rh antibodies.
 A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a

person with Rh- blood without any problems.
A Case of Rh factor Incompatiblity
If Father--Rh+ blood and Mother is Rh– ,then Child

could be Rh +.
st
1 pregnancy--if the baby is rh +, then there are
no complications.
However, the mother will start to develop

antibodies against the
Rh factor
Second pregnancy, if the child is +, the mother’s

antibodies can
cross the placenta and start to attack the fetus’

blood cells,
causing hemolysis.
This is called erythroblastosis foetalis,can cause
severe anemia,
Jaundice and possibly death.
how do you find out to which blood group

someone belongs?
1. You mix the blood with three different reagents
including either of the three different antibodies, A,
B or Rh antibodies.
2. Then you take a look at what has happened. In
which mixtures
has agglutination occurred? The agglutination
indicates that the blood has reacted with a certain
antibody and therefore is not compatible with blood
containing that kind of antibody. If the blood does
not agglutinate, it indicates that the blood does not
have the antigens binding the special antibody in
the reagent.
3. If you know which antigens are in the person's
blood, it's easy to figure out which blood group he
or she belongs to!
What happens when blood clumps or

agglutinates?
 For a blood transfusion to be successful A, B, O
and Rh blood groups must be compatible between
the donor blood and the receipients blood.
 If they are not, the red blood cells from the donated
blood will clump or agglutinate.
 The agglutinated red cells can clog blood vessels

and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts
of the body.
 The agglutinated red blood cells also crack and its

contents leak out in the body.
 The red blood cells contain hemoglobin which

becomes toxic when outside the cell.
This can have fatal consequences for the

patient.
 The A antigen and the A antibodies can bind to

each other in the same way that the B antigens can
bind to the B antibodies.
 This is what would happen if, for instance, a B

blood person receives blood from an A blood
person.
 The red blood cells will be linked together, like

bunches of grapes, by the antibodies.
As mentioned earlier, this clumping could lead to
death.

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Biology

Submitted to:- Submitted by

Mrs. Nidhi Mehta Devanshi Verma

D.A.V. Public School,

Certified that the investigatory project entitled “Blood Group” was

Mrs. Nidhi Mehta

 Types of Blood group

 Testing of blood groups

 Many patients have died and it was not until 1901,

 Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood

 The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic

 This can have fatal consequences.

 Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was

 Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to

What is Blood made up of ?

Blood contains a nonliving fluid matrix (plasma) in which

Plasma is over 90% water. It also contains electrolytes (salts),

The three types of formed elements are erythrocytes (RBCs),

 The most numerous of blood cells.

destroyed in the spleen mainly.

 Function – transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

 Formed in the bone marrow.

pathogen-destroying cells that are transported in the

 Ability to move in and out of blood vessels, diapedesis, and can

wander through tissues by amoeboid motion.

Two Major Groups:

Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm and

 Neutrophils are phagocytes. Their numbers increase

during acute infections.

 Eosinophils attack parasitic worms and lessen allergy attacks.

 Basophils have a large U- or S- shaped nucleus. They release

antihistamines and contain heparin.

Agranulocytes contain no visible cytoplasmic granules.

are spherical, oval, or kidney shaped.

Lymphocytes act via antibodies or direct cell attack.

platelets in the blood.

 There are four different types of blood

 They are determined by the protein (antigen) found

 Type A, has protein (antigen) A on the RBC

 Type B, has protein (antigen) B on the RBC

 Type AB, has both protein (antigen) A and B on the

 Type O, has neither protein (antigen) on the RBC

 Type A would have B agglutinins (antibody) in the

 Type AB would not have agglutinins (antibody) in the

 Type O would have A and B agglutinins (antibody)

 It was first obtained from Rhesus Monkey, hence

 This is also an antigen and those who have it are

 Those who haven't are called Rh-.

A person with Rh- blood does not have Rh

 But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh

 A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a

If Father--Rh+ blood and Mother is Rh– ,then Child

However, the mother will start to develop

Second pregnancy, if the child is +, the mother’s

cross the placenta and start to attack the fetus’

Jaundice and possibly death.

how do you find out to which blood group

What happens when blood clumps or

 The agglutinated red cells can clog blood vessels

 The agglutinated red blood cells also crack and its