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UNIT-6
Differenes between hot working and cold working :-

Hot working Cold working

1. it is carried out above the recrystalisation temp 1. it is carried out below the recrystalisation temp.
but below the melting point. Hence deformation there is no applicable recovery during
of metal and recovery takes place simultaneuously deformation.
2. no internal or residual stresses developped in 2. internal and residual stresses are developped.
the metal.
3.due to recrystalisation and recovery very 3. since this process is done below the
negligible hardening of metal takes place. recrystalisation temp. the work is hard.
4. due to high deformation temp is used the 4. the stresses required to deformation much
stresses required for effecting deformation is less. higher.
5. hot working retines metal grains resultins is 5. most of the sold working processes less to
improve the mechanical properties. distortion of grains.
6. surface finish is poor. 6. surface finish is better.
7. closer dimensional tolerances cannot be 7. dimensional tolerances can be maintained.
maintained.
8. promates diffusion of crystalisation alloys. 8. uniformly of materials is lost and the properties
are effected.
9.impurities are squeezed into fibers and 9. there is no such problem.
distributed throughout the mass.
10. cranks and blow holes are welded. 10. possibility of crank formation and its
propagation is great.
11. no need of intermediate annealing. 11. required intermediate annealing.
12.experiment measurements are difficult to 12. experiment measurements can be carried out
make. easily in cold rolling.

Cold working:-

1. different effect on the structure properties of the metals.

2. does not produce an applicable ruduction in size and distorli the grain structure.

3.higher pressure is required.

4. recrystalisation does not takes place.

5. its strength and hardness are decreased. This hardness is called strain harding.

6.its extent of cold working depends on ductility.

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7.residual stresses are developped which are undesired hence heat treatment is required to restre the
metal to original strecture.

Advantages and limitations:-

1. better dimensional control than hot working because reduction size is not much.

2. surface finish of the metal is better because no oxidation takes place during the process.

3. strength and hardness are decreased.

4. it is an ideal method to increase hardness of those metals which donot respond to heat treatment.

5. only ductale metals can be shaped through cold working.

6. over working of metals results in brittleness and it has to be anneal to the same.

7. heat treatment is essential to remove the residual stresses.

Cold working processes :-

1. cold rolling 2. Cold drawing 3. Cold bending 4. Cold spinning 5. Cold extrusion 6. Cold squezing.

1.cold rolling:-

Cold rolling is done to get a smooth and bright surface finish to the previously hot rolled steel. It is also
used to get good surface finish to the rolled components and to improve toughness and hardness. Bars,
rods, sheets, plates and wire are cold rolled.

The hot rolled anticles are first in mersed in a wease solution of H2So4 to removes coles and
woshed in woter and then dried. This procedure of cleaning the articles is known as pickling. The
cleaned articles are passed through rolling mills which are similar to that used in hot rolles mills.

2. cold drawing :-

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Seamless welded tubes produced by hot working are further cold drawn to attain good surface finish,
better dimensional accuracy and inprove mechanical properties. Cold drawn tubes are much bore than
hot drawn tubes. The hot drawn tubes are pickled and washed before being put to cold drawing to clean
thin surfaces from scoles.

The drawing equipment consists of a draw bench and a die. The end of the tube reduced in dia. By
suraging operotion, by passing through the die, is grippped by the jaws of the carriage to the chain of
the drawn bench.

The other side of the tube is gripped in tongs. The tube is pulled through the die over a fixed mandrel.
The out side die meter of tube is contrelled by opening of dies ans the inside is contrued by mandrel.

Cold squeezing:-

It is a quich forming process. Squeezing, cold heading, thread rolling and shot peaning will come under
cold squeezing.

Cold heading:-

It is extensively used for making bolts, rivets and other similar parts. Thus is done on a cold header m/c.
dies are used to get the required shape by forming. The rod is fed in to the m/c upto stops through
straightening rolls, cut to size and pushed into the header die. The rod is gripped in the die and punch
twice or thice by appling pressure and forme the heoel. It is repositioed in angther die, for final shaped
and sizing . thread rolling is done to cut threads.

Thread rolling :-

Thread rolling is a mass production process to produce external threads by squezing action without
machinis. The die consists of plane threads rolls on their faces straight projections flutes having the
profile are pitch of the thread are the desined helix angle of the screw. The blance where threads are to
be formed held between the dies. Resulting the displacement of metal from the regian be pitch circle
are thus the threads are formed as sume blansh.

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Wire drawing :-

The cross section of a conical drawing die is shown in figure. The entrace of the die is shaped so that the
wire entering the die will draw lubricant with it. The shaped of the die causes the hydrostatic pressure to
increase and promotes the flow of lubricant into the die.

The approach angle is the section of the die where the actual reduction in diameter occures. The half die
angle is an improtant process parameter. The bearing region does not cause reduction, but it does
produce a frictional drag on the wire. The chief funtion of the bearing region is to permit the conical
approach surface to be refinished without changing the dimensions of the die exit.

The back relief allows the metal to expand slightly as the wire leaves the die. It also minimizes the
possibility of abrasion taking place. If the drawing stops or the die is misaligned. Most drawing dies are
cemented carbide or industrial diamond. The die nib is encased for protection in a thick steel casting.

Strech forming:-

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The process is used for curved cantour parts having double curvature on the same surface. The two ends
of the metal sheets are firmly gripped by the two jaws which are openoted by hydraulic cylinders. The
two edges are stretched by the jaws, by placing the metal over a fixed form blach.

Cold bending :-

In this process straight length is transformed into a curved length by this process the sheets may be
transformed into curved channels, bars, rods, wires, tubes and sheets metal are bent to many shapes in
cold condition thriugh dies.

Flat metal strip is fed length wire between one or more pairs or mating forming rolls. The sepairs of rolls
are mounted on stauls in a straight line lisea a cantinuous rolling mill. The pairs of forming rolls straight
section in to cold rolling forming.

Cold bending:-

By this methods metal plates and strips are bend to cylindrical shapes. This m/c is made up of three rolls
of the same dies two of them being held in a fixed position and one being adjustable. As the metal plate
enters and goes through the rolls, the final diameters is deter mined by the position of the adjustable
roll. The adjustable rolles closer the smaller will be the diameter.

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Cold spinning:-

It is operation of shaping very thin metal by pressing it against a form while it is rotating. The process
cold spinning is similar to hot spinning except the metal is worked at room temp.

Aluminium and other soft metals are best suited for cold spinning. The commanly used spun articles
made of minimum are colling utusils, liquid container, light retlcetory etc. non- ferrous metals are spun
in to tyhicol shapes.

Cold extrusion :-

It is similar to hot extrusion. Impact cold extrusion is commanly used. This operation is performed with
the help of a punch and a die. The raw material cold extrusion used in slug form having been turned
from a bar or punched out of strip. The prepared slug is placed in die. The punch is struck from top by a
punch operating at high pressure and speed.

This process is limited to soft metals like lead, tin, aluminium, zine, and some other soft alloys. The
etrems produced by other items which can be made by impact extrusion.

Types of presses :-

Presses may be classified as :

(a) manually operated (fly press)

(b) power operated presses.

Power presses may further be classified as follows

1. on the basis of source of power using

(i) electric motor (ii) pneumatic system (iii) hydraulicsystem

2. on the basis of design of press frame.

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(i) inclined (ii) inclin able (iii) gap (iv) arch (v) straight side (vi) horm.

3.on the basis of drive mechanism:

(i) crank (ii) eccentric (iii) rack and gear (iv) hydroulic (v) knecckle joint (vi) toggle drive (vii) screw.

4. on the basis of no of slides :

(i) single acting press (using gone slide only) (ii) double action presses (iii) trible action presses.

5. on the basis of the intended use of the press :

(i) shearing press (ii) brake press (iii) punching (iv) straightening (v) coining (vi) transter (vii) stretching
(viii) extruding.

Power press:-

Different types of presses used is sheet metal are

(1)fly press (2)power press (3)gap press (4)horn press (5)pillar press (6)adjustable press

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The working of power press is similar to fly press,but the hand. Apuding the type of working
mechanism, power press are classified as mechanical pressed and hydraulic press. The mechanical press
operated by crank and connecting rod mechanism . To the end of ram, a punch is fixed and die is
attached to the bolster plate. The crank shaft is drives the fly wheel which stores the energy and
supplies a constant speed to ram where the steel metal is pressed between die and punch.

FLY PRESS:-

HYDRALLIC PRESS:-

It consists of a piston of a cylinder assembly in to which compressed liquid is passed which helps in
sliding action.

Construction: press consists of a cylinder and piston ram is attached to a piston with the help of piston
rod. Cylinder has two opening through which liquid is supplied and also made to come out as shown.

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Working:-

let the piston be at BDC initially now

1. Liquid is compressed and forced through the inlet B.

2. As the liquid below the piston in croses the piston reaches TDC.
3. A long with the piston ram is also made to raise as the piston and ram are inter connected.
4. Liquid is now forced through inlet ‘A’ which forces the piston down at the same time ram moves
down and liquid below the piston goes out through outlet ‘B’.

Advantages of hydraulic press:-

1. Smooth working and noise less.

2. No vibrations to m/c.
3. Wear and tear mechanical parts are nill.
4. Possible to give high pressure to ram.
5. No.of strocks per minute are high.

BLANKING:-

Blanking is the operations of cutting a shape ram a metal strip. The piece detached ram strip is know as
blank and is used for further operations the remaing metal is scrop. Work beaing per formed at one
stroke of the press.

A blanking die must have clearance other wise the blank may stroke.

Punching:-

BLANKING AND PUNCHING IS ALSO BASIC DIE CUTTING OPERATION.

PUNCHING IS THE CUTTING OF A SLAG from the metal to produce a hole. The metal with the
hole is the required product and the slag is waste.
In blanking blank is the useful product where as in punching the left out strip is waste.

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PIERCING:-

PIERCING is a punching operation .piercing is a pointed hole making process characterized

by the scrop from the hole. In piercing process pointed bullet shaped punch is forced
through the sheet metal to produce a hole with a rough flange around the hole.

FORMING:-

It is a metal working process in which the shape of the die is directly reproduced in the
metalwith little orno metal flow.

The purpose of forming:-

(1).to strengthen the edges of the part and add rigidity.

(2).to remove shape edges produced during the cutting operation.
(3).to incrose sale appeal or apperance.

Couning:-

It is a closed die squerzing (cold forging)operation is which all surface of the work
are continued or restrained.
Shallo configurations on the surfaces of that objects such as coins ,badges or
metals are produced by this method
Since coining requires very robust tools and the use of a powerful press , the
processes is limited to fairly soft alloys
In coining method thickness is changed depends on the internal stracture of the
work piece . A closed die is used to continue the method. The work piece will be an
accuarate reproduction of the die cavity

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STRAIN HEADING:-

It is a phenomenon that results is all increase air strength and hardness of a metal
subjected to placti deformation (cold worming) at a temp. lower than its

1. Strain hardening reduce ductility and plasticity

2. all cold worked parts get strain hardened during one or two initial operations and is
further cold working is continued part may get erased and fail
3. Components require more operations for during processed need be subjected to
enabling after every or two cold working operation to restore there destility further cold
working

CUTTING FORCES:-

The formulae for calculating the force required to cut sheet metal in a die are as follows
General formulae, F=S×P×T
For rectangular cuts, F=S×2(L+W)×T
For circular cuts, F=S×PI×D×T

Where F is the cutting force, KG

S is the shear strength
T is the thickness of the shat metal
P is the perimeter of cut, CM
L is the length of the cut, CM
W is the width of the cut, CM
D is the diameter of cut
EX:-
A 25 MM square hole is to be cut in sheet metal 0.75 MM thick .the shear strength of
the material is 2860 KG/ CM2. Calculate the cutting force.
F=S×(L+W)×T
=2860×2(25+25)×(0.75/10) KGS
=2145 KGS.

The cutting force may be reduced to 50% approximately by grinding the force of the punch or die at a
small shear angle there by reducing the area in shear at any one time.

NIBBING:-

operation used for only small quantities of components which is designed for cutting out flat parts from
shear metal . The flat parts range from simple to complex contours. This operation is substuted for
blanking . This part is usually moved and guided by hand as the continuousely operated punch cuts away
at the edge of the desired contour.

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DISTINGUISH B/W OPEN FRAME AND CLOSED FRAME:-

OPEN FRAME:-

1. Open denoted C shaped process are available in their as rigid or inclinable.

2. Open fronted frames provide adequate working clearance for the tools.
3. Open fronted frames press may be approached from three sides.
4. It is generally consists of a single column at the back of work table.
5. Open frame facilitates ejecting of finished parts by gravity.
6. Open frame press equipped with mechanical feeds for rapid automatic production and
frame is in over hang position.
7. Open frame press suited for blanking, piereing and shallow drawing operations.
8. Open frame press is suited for production of small and medium size parts.

CLOSED FRAME:-

1. Closed frame process are available in fabricoatedstrees control form.

2. Closed frame process do not provide much clearance for the tools.

3. Closed frame press not permitted to approach from all sides at a time.
4. It consists of double column at the sides of work table.
5. Closed frame press not familor for gravity ejecting parts.
6. Closed frame press is a rigid gap frame press in which single piece feeding is allowed.
7. Closed frame press suited for bending , stamping operations.
8. Closed frame press suited for production of large size parts.

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plastics

Processing of plastics- Types of plastics-properties- Applications & their processing methods &
equipment (Blow & injection moulding):-

1 Thermosetting resins
2 Thermo plastic resins

Plastic mouldings are highly economical since machining, fitting, assembling & finishing
operations can be minimized or eliminated.

Plastics are strong, light, highly dielectric, workable, corrosive & chemical resistant &
durable.

CONCEPT:-

i Plastics are moldable organic resins.

ii Plastics consists of large molecules.
iii Plastics are synthetic resins.
iv Plastics generally are organic high polymers.
v Plastics are very attractive organic engineering materials & find extensive applications in
industries such as automotive, electrical appliances, communication & house hold
goods.

TYPES OF PLASTICS:

i Thermo setting resins:

1 Phenol-formaldehyde resins.
2 Urea-formaldehyde resins.
3 Melamine-formaldehyde resins.
4 Polyster resins.
5 Epoxy resins.
6 Silicon resins.
ii Thermo plastic, amorphous:
1 Polystyrene.
2 A.B.S (acrylonitrite- butadiene- styrene).

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3 Methacrylate.
4 P.V.C (poly vinyl chloride).
5 Poly carbonate.
6 Polychloroacetal.
7 Fluorinated polymers…..etc.
iii Thermo plastic, crystalline:
1 Polyethylene.
2 Poly propylene.
3 Polyamides.
4 Polyacetal…….etc.

THERMO SETTING RESINS:-

By the application of heat & pressure required for forming, change into
a hard & rigid substance. Once done cannot be softened by the application of heat.

The reason for the above phenomenon is that the thermo setting plastics
consists of linear, relatively low molecular weight thermo plastic polymer chains with cross links
which bond the chains together with primary valence bonds. Such three dimensional polymers,
once cross linked, will not soften when heated (but may decompose – dis ritegrate at high
temp.) because this process is an irreversible chemical reaction & the entire structure
becomes essentially a single molecule.

Thermo plastic resins can be resoftened & remolded by application of heat &
pressure. They are composed of linear or long chain molecules.

Properties of plastics:

1 They are less brittle than glass, yet they can be made equally transparent &
smooth.
2 They are light in weight & at the same time posses good strength & rigidity.
3 They possess good toughness.
4 Their high dielectric strength makes them suitable for electric insulation.
5 They resist corrosion & the action of chemicals.
6 Wrappers & bags can be mass produced.
7 Low moisture absorption.
8 Can be easily molded to desired shapes.
9 Ability to resist weather changes.
10 Colorability.

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11 Heat resistance.
12 Deformability.
13 Damping characteristics.

Thermo setting resins Thermo plastic resins

1. Ones hardened & set, they do not soften 1 They can be repeatedly softened by
with the application of heat & pressure. heat & hardened by cooling.
2. They are more harder & stronger than 2 Comparatively softer & less strong.
thermo plastic resins.
3. Objects made by this process can be 3 Cannot be used at comparatively
used at comparitively higher temp. without higher temps. As they will tend to
damage. soften under heat
4. They are usually supplied in monometric or 4 They are usually supplied as granular
partially polymerized form in which they are material.
either liquids or partially thermo plasic solids.
5. Applications: Telephone receivers, electric 5 Applications: Toys, combs, toilet
plugs, radio TV cabinets, camera bodies, goods, photographic films, insulating
automobile parts, circuit breaker switch panels. tapes, hoses, electric insulation…..etc

Forming & fabricating:-

1 Thermo setting plastics can be formed by

i Compression or transfer molding.

ii Casting.

2 Thermo plastics can be formed by

i Injection molding

ii Blow molding

iii Extrusion.

iv Calendaring.

v Thermo forming.

vi Casting.

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Thermo setting plastics can be joined with the help of

i Mechanical fasteners.

ii Adhesive bonding.

Thermo plastics can be joined with the help of

i Solvents.

ii Welding.

iii Mechanical fasteners.

iv Adhesive bonding.

Injection moulding:-

It is successful and widely used method for moulding thermo plastics granulated material is
fed from a hopper, in measured amounts, to the heating chamber where it attains a fluid
consistency. The softened plastic is then injected in to the dies by means of a plunger(or
screw). These dies are water cooled to solidify the molten plastic material into final shape.
Pressure on the material is maintained until it has solidified.

After a short cooling period, the dies open and eject the completed solidified piece.

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Temp of the heating section – 150-300

Molding pressure 100N/mm2-150N/mm2

Advantages:-

1.less material loss, gates and runners can be reused .

2. high thermal efficiency , the heating chamber and mold remains at constant temperature.

3. Fast manufacturing ratio.

4.wide range of shapes and plastic materials can be moulded.

5.large number of accurate parts can be produced automatically or manually.

6. More than one material may be used at the same time when utilizing co-Injection Molding.

Disadvantages:-

The molding process has several disadvantages to other molding processes. The
following is a short list of some of the disadvantages to Injection Molding.

1. This is not a preferred method of manufacturing for short production runs. This is
mainly due to the cost of tooling and the cost of operation. However B.J. Molding can
handle smaller runs than most shops.

2. Design and development of parts that will work well with Injection Molding often takes a
very long time. Many parts are just not suited to the process.

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Blow moulding:-

1. it is used for making plastic bottles, toys, doll bodies and so many items.

2. the blow moulding commences with the extrusion of the(heated) tubular piece of plastic,
know as parison, which transferred to the two piece mold.

3. the parison is gripped in the two piece mold and its bottom end is sealed.

4. air is injected into the parison to force the plastic against the walls of the water cooled
mold. Air pressure ranges from 0.7 to 10 Kg/cm2

5.as the parts thus formed, cools the mould is opened and the part is removed.

Advantages:-

1.parts of re entrant curves (i.e., the walls are designed, which turn inwards and towards the
centre).

2. components of complex shapes can be made.

3.due low pressure of mouldings, less internal stresses are formed(i.e., tensile, compressive
etc).

4.low production cost.

Processing of plastics:-

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The polymers and additives (like stabilizers and plasticizers, colorants, lubricants, fillers which
may be solids or liquids of varying viscosity) are mixed in rotating drum with stirring
arrangement ( for power and low viscosity plastic) are in blenders with heating and cooling
provisions and compounded in heated roll mills. In the case of thermosetting plastics, hardness
catalyst fillers and reinforces are also added after milling, mixing and compounding the linear
polymers and additives.

Fillers :-

Fillers are used to improve mechanical strength, stiffness, electrical resistance and thermal
resistance of the final plastic product. It is also used to reduce material cost. A filler which is
the increases the mechanical strength is called as a reinforcing filler.

Commonly used fillers are wood flour, cellulose, cotton flock, silica sand, powdered metal,
paper, mica.

Wood flour is a general purpose filler which lowers the cost and also improve the strength of
the plastics. Mica also imparts electrical properties to plastics and results in low moisture
adsorption. Some other materials link fabric, chipped-wool, moulding compound wood vanear,
textile or glass fibres are used as filler materials.

Stabilizers:-

These are used to improve the thermal stability during processing that is to prevent the
deterioration of plastics due to the action of the light and heat. For example, zinc soap is
used to vinyls and phenyls to the styrenes.

Plasticizers:-

Plasticizers are liquids of high boiling point and low molecular weight which are added to
improve the plastic behaviour of the polymers. The plasticizers are added to plastics to make
them soft, to improve toughness and flexibility of final product. These added plasticizers
separate the macromolecules and descreses the intermolecular forces and there by providing
relative movements between the molecules of the polymer. These plasticizers are generally oily
in nature. The commonly used plasticizers are camphor, paraffins, napthalene, phosphates,
organic solvents, resin and water.

Catalysts:-

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The catalyst in each compound serves as the reaction controller with the type and quantity of
catalyst acting to either accelerate or inhibit the curing rate in both the production and the
moulding phase.

Solvents:-

Solvents are used for dissolving plasticizers or fillers and to improve the flowability of the
plastic in the mould during manufacturing. For example, alcohol is added in cellulose nitrate
plastics to dissolve camphor.

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