EMS 223: MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 3: Metal Forming and Metal

Cutting
Metalworking and Bulk Deformation
Processes
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing
 Metal Forming
• Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed
the yield strength of the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of
the die
• Forming, or metal forming, is the metal working process
of fashioning metal parts and objects through mechanical
deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without adding
or removing material, and its mass remains unchanged
Stresses in Metal Forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses
Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:
– Low yield strength
– High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary
interest because material is plastically
deformed
Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working
Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
– These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
 Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• No heating of work required
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of
scale and dirt
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount
of forming that can be done
– In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further
deformation
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold
worked
Warm Working
• Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm
working often expressed in terms of melting
point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal
Advantages of Warm Working
Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half
of melting point on absolute scale
– In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above
0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this
level
Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of
the metal ‑ far more than possible with cold
working or warm working
• Why?
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room
temperature
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
 Advantages of Hot Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be
hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
– Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently
processed by cold forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy
• Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
• Shorter tool life
 Basic Types of Deformation Processes

1. Bulk deformation
– Rolling
– Forging
– Extrusion
– Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
– Bending
– Deep drawing
– Cutting
 Bulk Deformation Processes
• Bulk deformation processes are generally characterized
by significant deformations and massive (heavy or
large) shape changes
• Metal forming operations which cause significant
shape change by deforming metal parts whose initial
form is bulk rather than sheet
• "Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively low surface
area‑to‑volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical bar/billets and
rectangular bars
Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between

opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die
opening, thereby taking the shape of the
opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar
is reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Rolling
• A deformation process in which work thickness is reduced
by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

Figure: The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

 The Rolls

• Rotating rolls perform two main

functions:
– Pull the work into the gap between them
by friction between workpiece and rolls
– Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section
Types of Rolling
• Based on workpiece geometry :
– Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross section
– Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I‑beam
• Based on work temperature :
– Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount
of deformation required
– Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
Rolled Products Made of Steel

Figure: Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

Diagram of Flat Rolling

Figure: Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
 Simple analysis of flat strip rolling
• In flat rolling, the plate thickness is reduced by squeezing
between two rolls. The thickness reduction is quantified by
draft which is given by,
d = t0 – tf
– here t0 and tf are initial thickness and final thickness of the sheet
used for rolling
• Draft is also defined as, r = d / t0 . Here r is reduction.
• During rolling, the workpiece width increases which is termed
as spreading. It will be large when we have low width to
thickness ratio and low friction coefficient.
 Shape Rolling
• Work is deformed into a contoured cross
section rather than flat (rectangular)
– Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape
• Products include:
– Construction shapes such as I‑beams, L‑beams,
and U‑channels
– Rails for railroad tracks
– Round and square bars and rods
Shape Rolling
• A rolling mill for hot
flat rolling.
• The steel plate is
seen as the glowing
strip in lower left
corner
 Rolling Mills
• Equipment is massive and expensive
• Rolling mill configurations:
1. Two-high – two opposing rolls
2. Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
3. Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work
rolls
4. Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller
rolls
5. Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high
mills
Two-High Rolling Mill
Three-High Rolling Mill
Four-High Rolling Mill
 Cluster Mill
• Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll
diameters
Tandem Rolling Mill

• A series of rolling stands in sequence

 Thread Rolling (line/filament)
• Bulk deformation process used to form
threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them
between two dies
– Important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
– Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
– Higher production rates
– Better material utilization
– Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to
work hardening
 Thread Rolling

Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2)
end of cycle.
 Ring Rolling
• Deformation process in which a thick‑walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin‑walled ring of larger
diameter
– As thick‑walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates,
causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
– Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for
smaller rings
• Applications:
– ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and
rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
• Advantages:
– material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through
cold working
 Ring Rolling

• Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and

increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2)
completion of process.
Forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: (b) forging

 Forging
• A deformation process in which work is compressed
between two dies
– Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000
BC
• Components made by forging:
– engine crankshafts,
– connecting rods,
– gears,
– aircraft structural components,
– jet engine turbine parts
• Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic
form of large parts that are subsequently machined to
final shape and size
ENGINE CRANKSHAFT

CONNECTING ROD
Classification of Forging Operations
• Cold vs. hot forging:
– Hot or warm forging
• most common, due to the significant deformation and the
need to reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal
– Cold forging
• Advantage: increases strength that results from strain
hardening
• Impact vs. press forging:
– Forge hammer
• Applies an impact load
– Forge press
• Applies gradual pressure
Types of Forging Dies
• Open‑die forging - work is compressed between
two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with
minimum constraint
• Impression‑die forging - die contains cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpiece
– Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
• Flashless forging - workpiece is completely
constrained in die
– No excess flash is created
Open-Die Forging
Impression-Die Forging
Flashless Forging
 Open‑Die Forging
Compression of workpiece between two
flat dies
• Similar to compression test when
workpiece has cylindrical cross section
and is compressed along its axis
– Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
– Common names include upsetting or upset
forging
 Impression‑Die Forging
• Compression of workpiece by dies with
inverse of desired part shape
– Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die
cavity into small gap between die plates
– Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an
important function during compression:
• As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap,
constraining material to fill die cavity
• In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling
against die plates
 Impression-Die Forging

• Sequence in impression‑die forging: (1) just prior to initial

contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3)
final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of impression-die forging compared
to machining from solid stock:
– Higher production rates
– Less waste of metal
– Greater strength
– Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
– Not capable of close tolerances
– Secondary Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed
 Flashless Forging
• Compression of work in punch and die
tooling whose cavity does not allow for flash
– Starting workpiece volume must equal die
cavity volume within very close tolerance
– Process control more demanding than
impression‑die forging
– Best suited to part geometries that are simple
and symmetrical
– Often classified as a precision forging process
 Flashless Forging

• Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
Upsetting and Heading
• A forging process used to form heads
on nails, bolts, and similar hardware
products
– Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines
called headers or formers
– Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is
headed, then piece is cut to required length
– For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then
used to form threads
 Upset Forging

• An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar

hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the
stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is
retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the
head.
Heading (Upset Forging)

Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a

nail using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch, (c) and (d)
two common head styles for screws formed by die, (e) carriage
bolt head formed by punch and die.
 Trimming
• A Cutting operation to remove flash
from workpiece in impression‑die
forging
– Usually done while work is still hot, so a
separate trimming press is included at the
forging station
– Trimming can also be done by alternative
methods, such as grinding or sawing
Trimming After Impression-Die
Forging

Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the

flash after impression‑die forging.
 Extrusion
• A Compression forming process in which work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross‑sectional shape
– Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
– In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross sections
• Two basic types:
– Direct extrusion
– Indirect extrusion
 Extrusion

Figure: Basic bulk deformation processes

Several types of extrusion process
Direct Extrusion:
– A metal billet is located into a container, and a ram compresses
the material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in
a die at the opposite end of the container.
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

Figure: (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi‑hollow

cross sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi‑hollow cross sections.
Indirect Extrusion

Figure: Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and

(b) a hollow cross section.
Comments on Indirect Extrusion
• Also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion
• One advantage of the indirect extrusion
process is that there is no friction, during the
process, between the billet and the
container liner.
• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed
by
– Lower rigidity of hollow ram
– Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die
 Advantages of Extrusion
• Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
– Limitation: part cross section must be uniform throughout
length
• Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
• Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
• In some operations, little or no waste of material
 Hot Extrusion
• Hot extrusion - prior Material Temperature [°C (°F)]
heating of billet to
Magnesium 350-450 (650-850)
above its
recrystallization Aluminium 350-500 (650-900)
temperature
Copper 600-1100 (1200-2000)
– Reduces strength
and increases Steel 1200-1300 (2200–2400)
ductility of the
Titanium 700-1200 (1300-2100)
metal, permitting
more size reductions Nickel 1000-1200 (1900–2200)
and more complex
Refractory alloys up to 2000 (4000)
shapes
Warm and Cold Extrusion
• Warm extrusion is done above room
temperature, but below the recrystallization
temperature of the material the temperatures

• Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or

near room temperature.
Complex Cross Section

Figure: A complex extruded cross section for a heat sink

 Extrusion

Extruded aluminium with several hollow

cavities; slots allow bars to be joined with
special connectors.
Extrusion of a round blank through a die.
Wire and Bar Drawing

Figure: Basic bulk deformation processes

 Wire Drawing
• Continuous drawing machines consisting of
multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12)
separated by accumulating drums
– Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw
wire stock through upstream die
– Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total
reduction is achieved by the series
– Annealing sometimes required between dies to
relieve work hardening
Continuous Wire Drawing

Figure: Continuous drawing of wire.

 Casting
• Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally
molten metal is poured into a mold cavity having
the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal
assumes the shape of the mold but experiences
some shrinkage.
• Casting techniques are employed when
1. The finished shape is so large or complicated that any
other method would be impractical,
2. A particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by
either hot or cold working would be difficult, and
3. In comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is
the most economical
 Sand Casting
• With sand casting, probably the most common
method, ordinary sand is used as the mold material.
– A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern that has the shape of the intended casting.
– Furthermore, a gating system is usually incorporated into
the mold to expedite the flow of molten metal into the
cavity and to minimize internal casting defects.
• Sand-cast parts include:
– Automotive cylinder blocks,
– fire hydrants, and
– large pipe fittings
Die Casting
• In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under
pressure and at a relatively high velocity, and allowed to
solidify with the pressure maintained.
– A two-piece permanent steel mold or die is employed; when
clamped together, the two pieces form the desired shape.
– When complete solidification has been achieved, the die pieces
are opened and the cast piece is ejected.
– Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive
method;
– Furthermore, a single set of dies may be used for thousands of
castings.
– However, this technique lends itself only to relatively small
pieces and to alloys of zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, which
have low melting temperatures.
Investment Casting
• For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the
pattern is made from a wax or plastic that has a low
melting temperature.
– Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to
form a solid mold or investment; plaster of paris is usually
used.
– The mold is then heated, so that the pattern melts and is
burned out, leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired
shape.
– This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy,
reproduction of fine detail, and an excellent finish are
required
• In jewelry and dental crowns and inlays.
• blades for gas turbines and jet engine impellers are investment cast
 Lost Foam Casting
• A variation of investment casting is lost foam (or expendable pattern)
casting.
– Here the expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing
polystyrene beads into the desired shape and then bonding them together by
heating.
– Alternatively, pattern shapes can be cut from sheets and assembled with glue.
– Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the mold.
– As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern, which
vaporizes.
– The compacted sand remains in place and, upon solidification, the metal
assumes the shape of the mold.
• With lost foam casting, complex geometries and tight tolerances are
possible.
• Metal alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and
aluminum alloys; applications include automobile engine blocks,
cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine blocks, and electric motor
 Continuous Casting
• At the conclusion of extraction processes, many
molten metals are solidified by casting into large
ingot molds.
– The ingots are normally subjected to a primary hot-
rolling operation, the product of which is a flat sheet
or slab;
– these are more convenient shapes as starting points
for subsequent secondary metal-forming operations
(i.e., forging, extrusion, drawing)
– Eg: production of steel billets
Sheet Metal Cutting Operations
Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between 2
sharp cutting edges.

1) Just before the punch

contacts the work.
Symbols :

v and F indicate motion

and applied force,
respectively,

t = work thickness,
c = clearance
2) Punch begins to
push into work,
causing plastic
deformation.
3) Punch compresses
and penetrates into
work causing a smooth
cut surface.
Penetration zone is
generally about one-
third the thickness of
the sheet.
4) Fracture is initiated at the
opposing cutting edges that
separate the sheet.
If the clearance between the
punch and die is correct, the 2
fracture lines meet, resulting
in a clean separation of the
work into 2 pieces.
Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

There are three principal operations in pressworking that cut metal

by the shearing mechanism just described :
1. shearing
2. blanking
3. punching
 Shearing
• Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along
a straight line between 2 cutting edges – typically
used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for
subsequent pressworking operations.
• A machine used to perform this operation is
called a power shears, or squaring shears. The
upper blade of the power shears is often inclined
in order to reduce the required cutting force.
Shearing operation :
(a) side view of the shearing operation;
(b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting
blade. Symbol v indicates motion.

83
Typical Shearing machine
 Blanking
• Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal
along a closed outline in a single step to separate
the piece from the surrounding stock. The part
that is cut out is the desired product in the
operation – the blank.
• Punching is similar to blanking except that the
piece that is cut out is scrap – the slug. The
remaining stock is the desired part.
 Bending of metals
The metal is plastically
deformed so that the
bend takes a
permanent set upon
removal of the stresses
that caused it.

During bending, the metal on the

inside of the neutral plane is
compressed, while the metal on the
outside of the neutral plane is
stretched.
V-Bending
In V-Bending the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped
punch and die ; included angles ranging from very obtuse
to very acute .
Edge Bending
• Edge Bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal.
• A pressure pad is used to hold the base of the part against the die,
while the punch forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of
the die.

In the setup shown above, edge bending is limited to bends of 90 o or less.

However, more complicated wiping dies can be designed for bend angles greater
than 90o.
Other Bending and Related Forming Operations

(a) channel bending (b) U-bending (c) air bending

Other Bending and Related Forming Operations

(d) offset bending (e) corrugating (f) tube forming