Survey Record Full Merged 1 &2

Survey Laboratory Record
Expt. No.1A
INTRODUCTION TO CONVENTIONAL SURVEYING
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath
the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction
and elevation. It also includes the method of establishing a point on a plane or a map in
the field by means of predetermined angular and linear measurements. Every engineering
project such aswater supply, irrigation scheme, rail, road and transmission lines, bridges
and buildings etc. inevitably require surveys.
OBJECT OF SURVEY
The primary object of survey is to prepare plan or map so that it may represent the area
on a horizontal plane. A plan or a map is the projection of a region on a horizontal plane
and shows only the horizontal distances among points on the region. The representation
is called a map, ifthe scale is small, while it is called a plan if the scale is large
PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
The basic principles of surveying are
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference

The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by
measurementfrom atleast two points of reference, the positions of which is already
fixed. It may be done by means of measurement such as two distances, one
perpendicular distance and distance to the foot of the perpendicular, one distance
and angle to that distance, two angles, one distance and angle to the other distance
P P
R
Q
R Q
Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 1


P P R
Q Q
Fig.1 Locating a point
2. Working from whole to part.

The idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control
andlocalize minor errors, which otherwise would magnify to greater magnitudes.
PRIMARY DIVISION OF SURVEYING
Surveying is divided into two general classes – Plane and Geodetic surveying
In Plane surveying, the mean surface of earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal
shape of earth is neglected. All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane
triangles.
In Geodetic surveying, the shape of the earth is taken into account and all the lines in the
surface are curved ones and the triangles are spherical triangles. Hence, it uses the
principles of spherical trigonometry.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY
Survey may be classified as follows based on different criteria.


Classification based on the nature of field survey

1. Topographical survey is made to determine the natural features such as rivers,
streams, lakes, woods, hills etc. and artificial features such as roads, railways,
canals, towns and villages of a region or a country.
2. Cadastral survey is made for fixing the property lines, calculation of land area
or the transfer of one property from one owner to another. It is carried out to
fix the boundaries of municipalities, and of state and federal jurisdictions.
3. City survey is carried out in connection with the construction of streets, water
supply systems, sewers and other works.
4. Marine or hydrographic survey deals with the bodies of water for the purpose
of navigation, water supply, harbour works or for determination of mean sea
level.
5. Astronomical survey is used for determining the absolute position of any point
with reference to heavenly bodies such as sun or any other fixed star.
Classification based on the object of survey
1. Engineering survey is carried out to determine and supply sufficient data for
the designof engineering works such as roads, reservoirs, water supply and
sewerage systems.
2. Military survey is made for establishing the points of strategic importance.
3.Mine survey is used for exploring the mineral wealth.
4.Geological survey is carried out to determine the different strata in earth's crust.
5.Archaeological survey is used for unearthing the relics of antiquity.
Classification based on instruments used

1. Chain survey
2. Theodolite survey
3. Traverse survey
4. Triangulation survey
5. Tacheometric survey
6. Plane table survey
7. Photographic survey
8. Aerial survey

Fig.2 Details of a Metric Chain
Fig. 3 A 30 m metric chain

CHAIN SURVEYING
Chain Surveying is a type of surveying in which only linear measurements are taken
from thefield. This type of surveying is suitable for surveys of small extent to secure data
for exact description of boundaries of a land or to take simple details. The principle of
chain survey (Chain triangulation) is to provide a framework consisting of a number of
connected triangles, as triangle is the only simple figure that can be plotted by the length
measurements from the field.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING
Chain
Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at the
ends and joined to each other by three circular or oval wire rings. These rings offer
flexibility to the chain. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handle at each end
with swivel joint, so that the chain can be turned without twisting. The length of a link is
the distance between the centers of two consecutive middle rings, while the length of the
chain is measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of the other handle. For
unfolding the chain, one has to hold both handles in left hand and throw the rest with the
right hand. One man has to move with one handle while the other man holds the other
handle in the same position.
Different types of chains like metric chain, surveyor’s chain, Engineer’s chain, revenue
chain etc. are available, of which metric chain is normally used. Metric chains are
generally available in lengths of 20 m and 30 m. IS 1492-1970 covers the requirements
of surveying chains. To help the reading of fractions of a chain, different types of tallies
are provided at every 1 m, 5m and 10 m.
Tape:
Tapes are used for more accurate measurement and are classified according to the material
of the tape such as cloth, metallic, steel and invar tapes(alloy of nickel 36% and steel), of
which invar tape is used where high degree of precision is required, as in the case of
baseline measurement,as the coefficient of thermal expansion of invar tape is very low.


Steel tape is generally superior to metallic or cloth tapes. Cloth tapes are not used owing
to its several drawbacks.
Arrow
Arrows are inserted into the ground to indicate the end of chain length. They are made of
good quality, hardened and tempered steel wire of 4 mm diameter. The length of arrow
may vary from 25 to 50 cm. One end of the arrow is made sharp and the other end
is bent into a loop foreasiness in carrying.
Peg
Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the stations or terminal points of a
survey line.They are made of stout timber, generally 2.5 cm or 3 cm square and 15 cm
long, tapered at the end. They are driven in the ground with the help of wooden hammer
and kept about 4cmprojecting above ground.
Ranging rod
Ranging rods have a length of either 2 m or 3 m, and a diameter of 2 cm. Sharp edged
shoes is provided at one end. They are painted in alternate red and white bands in
succession, each band being 20 cm deep so that it could be used for rough measurements.
Ranging rods are used to locate some intermediate points on a survey line.
Offset rod
Offset rod is used for measuring offsets. They are usually of 3m long, provided with black
and white bands, each of 2 cm depth.

Fig. 4 Prismatic compass

COMPASS SURVEYING
In compass surveying the direction of survey lines is determined by measuring the angles
made with the magnetic meridian using compass. Chaining and offsetting are done as in
chain surveying.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN COMPASS SURVEYING
Compass
A compass consists of a magnetic needle, a graduated circle and a line of sight. When the
line of sight is directed towards a line, the graduated circle reads the angle, which the
line makes withthe magnetic meridian. There are two types of compass:
Prismatic compass
It is a valuable instrument used for rough surveys where speed, not accuracy is the main
consideration. It consists of a cylindrical metal box in the centre, of which a pivot carrying
a magnetic needle which is already attached to an aluminium ring graduated in W.C.B
(whole circle bearing) system. A reflecting prism is used for reading the graduation,
which can be made clearly visible by adjusting the prism and diametrically opposite is
the object vane carrying vertical hair. If the bearings of very high or low objects are to
be taken, the reflecting mirror, which slides on the object vane, is tilted and the image
obtained in it is bisected by the vertical hair. A pair of object glasses is interposed
between the slit and the coloured vane when the sun or other luminous objects are
bisected.
Working of the prismatic compass involves the following 3 steps:
1. Centering the compass over the station point by dropping a small piece of stone
below its centre so that it falls on the top of the peg.
2. Levelling is done so that graduated ring swings quite freely.
3. Observing the bearing: Raise or lower the prism until the graduations on the
ring are clearly visible when looked through the prism. Sighting of the object
and reading of the graduation ring is to be done simultaneously.


Surveyor’s compass
It is similar to prismatic compass, but the ring graduated in the Q.B (Quadrantal bearing)
systemis directly attached to the box and not with the needle. Also it has another plane
sight having a narrow vertical slit in place of the prism and it carries an edge bar
needle. While working withthe surveyors’ compass, it has to be supported on a tripod.
TERMS USED
Bearing of a line: It is the horizontal angle which the line makes with the meridian, which
may be any one of the following:
True Meridian: True Meridian through a point is the line in which a plane, passing that
point and the north and south poles, intersects with the surface of the earth. The horizontal
angle between the line and the true meridian is called the true bearing of the line.
Magnetic Meridian: is the direction indicated by a freely suspended magnetic needle

unaffected by local attraction. The horizontal angle between a line and this meridian is
called magnetic bearing of the line.
Arbitrary Meridian: is any convenient direction towards a permanent and prominent

mark or signal.
DESIGNATION OF BEARING:
The common systems of notation of bearings are:
1. Whole circle Bearing: of a line is the horizontal angle, which the line
makes with
the magnetic north, measured in clockwise direction.
2. Quadrantal Bearing: is the horizontal angle, which the line makes with
north or south meridian, measured in the clockwise or counter-clockwise
direction towards east or west.
Reduced Bearing: When the whole circle bearing exceeds 90º, it should be reduced into
the corresponding quadrantal bearing, which is called reduced bearing.


Fore bearing and Back bearing: The bearing of a line taken in the direction of progress
of the survey is the fore or forward bearing of the line; while its bearing taken in the
reverse direction is called reverse or back bearing.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
(Sample figure and field book)
Sl. No. Figure Chainage (m) Offset (m) Area (m²)
Total area of the polygon/ traverse =

Expt. No. 1B
CHAIN SURVEYING – PLOTTING A TRAVERSE USING BASE LINE
GENERAL
Chain surveying is still being used in survey.
AIM
To plot and measure the area of a given traverse.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Chain, arrows, tape, ranging rods, offset rods
PRINCIPLE
Position of a point with reference to a line can be established by the length of perpendicular and
distance to the foot of the perpendicular.
PROCEDURE
1. Fix two points A and B as starting and end points of the base line by means of ranging rods so
that the perpendicular distance to the corners of the traverse are as minimum as possible.
2. Record the north direction with respect to the base line.
3. Draw the rough sketch indicating the north direction, base line and the relative positions of
corner of the polygon.
4. Stretch out the chain in the direction of base line AB.
5. If the distance AB is greater than one chain length, range an intermediate point such that the
stretched chain is in line with AB.
6. Mark the end of the chain by using an arrow.
7. Measure the perpendicular distance to corners of the traverse from the base line by means of
an offset rod or tape.
8. Record the perpendicular distances and corresponding chainages at which the perpendicular
offsets are made in to the field book.
9. Make measurement to all the corners of the traverse.
10. Plotting of the traverse is carried out as follows:
• Mark the north direction.
• With reference to the north direction, draw the base line AB by choosing a suitable
scale.


• Mark the foot of the perpendicular to the first corner of the polygon using chainage
value.
• Draw a perpendicular and mark the corner point by using perpendicular distance.
• Mark all the corner points in the same manner and join them to form a closed traverse.
11. Measure the area by dividing the traverse area in to convenient triangles.
RESULT
1. Plotting of the traverse has been carried out.
2. Area of the traverse =

(key plan)
Instrument at Station Bearing Distance (m)
C= √𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
Area = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) =

Expt. No. 1C
COMPASS SURVEY – PLOTTING A TRAVERSE
GENERAL
Though the compass surveying is rarely used nowadays it is essential to understand the principle
behind it.
AIM
To plot and measure the area of a given traverse.
APPARATUS
Prismatic compass, arrow, tape, ranging rods.
PROCEDURE
1. Draw a rough sketch indicating the north direction and the relative positions of corner points
of the traverse and plot the traverse.
2. Set up the prismatic compass over a station O, approximately at the centre of the plot and
perform station adjustments.
The following station adjustments are to be done at each station where the compass is set up.
A. Centering- It is the process of keeping the prismatic compass exactly over the station point.
Centering will be done by moving the legs of the tripod suitably. Centering is checked by dropping
a stone so that it falls on the top of the peg.
B. Levelling- It is the process of making the compass exactly horizontal. Levelling is done by
means of a ball and socket arrangement. When the compass is levelled, the aluminum ring swings
freely.
C. Focussing: To adjust the height of the prism so that the observations can be read clearly.
3. Rotate the compass till the line of sight bisects the object at first corner point of the traverse
‘A’.
4. Read the graduated ring through prism. The reading directly gives the magnetic bearing of line
‘OA’ in whole circle bearing system.
5. Measure the distance OA using tape.
6. Follow the same procedure to observe the magnetic bearings of all lines joining the station
point and the corner points of the traverse and measure the respective distances. Record the
bearings of lines and the respective distances.

Polygon Dimension Side sS = Area (𝑚 )

a (m) b (m) (degrees) c (m)
Total area of the plot/ traverse =

7. The polygon is divided into triangles and calculate the area of each triangle and their sum will
give the area of the traverse.
RESULT
1. Plotting of the traverse has been carried out.
2. Area of the traverse =

Fig. 5 Dumpy Level

Expt. No. 2A
LEVELLING - STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS
Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is (1) to find the elevations of
given points with respect to a given datum and (2) to establish points at a given elevation
or atdifferent elevation with respect to a given datum.
INSTRUMENTS USED
1. Level: To provide a horizontal line of sight. It consists of:

(a) A Telescope to provide line of sight.
(b) A Level Tube to make the line of sight horizontal
(c) A Levelling Head to bring the bubble in its centre of run
(d) A Tripod to support the instrument
Dumpy level: It consists of the following parts:

Levelling head: It consists of a tribrach plate having arms carrying levelling screw in the
ball and socket arrangement and an outer hollow vertical axis into which fits the inner
solid vertical axisof the upper works. The upper and lower works are connected together
by a clamping screw.
Magnetic compass plate: of the prismatic type is usually provided.
Telescope consists of the body, the object glass, the eye-piece and the diaphragm. There
are two types of telescopes: (i) External focusing type (which was much used in the
older type of levels) (ii) Internal focusing type.
Bubble or Level tube: It is attached to the top of the telescope.
Tripod stand: Apparatus on which the level is supported when in use.
2. Levelling staff: It is a straight rod having graduations, the foot of the staff
representing zero reading. It is used to determine the amount by which the
station is above or belowthe line of sight and is of two classes (i) self-reading
staff (ii) Target staff.

Fig. 6 Levelling Staff

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A LEVEL:
1. Setting up the level: This includes (a) fixing the instrument on the stand (b)
levelling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment.
2. Levelling up: It is done with the help of foot screws to make the vertical axis
truly vertical.
(a) Three screw head: Turn the instrument until the longitudinal axis of the plate
level is roughly parallel to any pair of levelling screws. Bring the bubble to the
center of its run by turning both screws either inwards or outwards. Turn the
upper plate through 90° until the axis of level passes through over the position of
third levelling screw. Turn this screw until the bubble is central. Repeat this until
the bubble is central throughout, when the instrument is rotated about the vertical
axis.
(b) Four screw head: Turn the upper plate and bring the plate level parallel to the
line joining two diagonally opposite foot screws; make the bubble central by
means of thispair of screws. Bring the plate level parallel to the other two foot
screws and make the bubble central. Repeat until the bubble comes to the centre
of its run at any position.
3. Elimination of parallax: Parallax can be eliminated in two steps (i) by

focusing theeye piece for distinct vision of cross hairs, and (ii) by focusing the
objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross hairs.
TERMS USED IN LEVELLING:
Level Surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
Level line: It is a line lying in a level surface.
Datum: It is any surface to which the elevations are referred.
Elevation: Elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below the datum.
Bench Mark (B.M): It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation

with respect to some assumed datum is known.


Reduced level (R.L.): It is the height or depth of a point above or below datum.
Height of the instrument (H.I.): It is the elevation of line of sight with respect to
theassumed datum.
Change Point (C.P.): It is an intermediate staff station taken for the purpose of
changingthe position of the instrument.
Back sight (B.S): It is a staff reading taken on a point of known R.L. as, on B.M.
or achange point. It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up at a
station.
Intermediate sight (I.S): It is a staff reading that is neither back sight nor fore sight
Fore sight (F.S): It is a staff reading taken on a point whose RL is to be

determined. It isthe last staff reading taken before shifting the instrument.


Expt. No. 2B
SIMPLE LEVELLING
AIM
To determine the reduced levels of given points using Height of Instrument or Height of
Collimation method and to find the relative level difference between the given points.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Dumpy level, Levelling staff, Tripod, Arrows, Pegs
PRINCIPLE
Height of Instrument = Reduced Level of Bench Mark + Back Sight
i.e., H.I. = R.L. of B.M. + B.S.
Reduced Level = Height of Instrument – Intermediate Sight/ Fore Sight
i.e., R.L. = H.I. – I.S./ F.S.
If the arithmetic calculations are correct, difference between the sum of back sights and
fore sights should be equal to difference between reduced levels of last and first points.
i.e.,  B.S. –  F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
PROCEDURE
1. Firstly, fix the Temporary Bench Mark (TBM) at an appropriate point and assume any
suitable value of reduced level, say 100.00m.
2. Set up the dumpy level at a suitable place such that the T.B.M. and all the given points
are visible.
3. Level the instrument using foot screws. Adjust the eyepiece and the objective so that
parallax error is eliminated.
4. Take a back sight staff reading by keeping a levelling staff at the benchmark, so as to
calculate the height of instrument.
5. Take intermediate sights to various given points and fore sight to the closing (last) point
of the current set up.
6. Establish the reduced level of all given points and calculate the relative level difference
between them.

Instrume Sight to Back Intermediate Fore Height of Reduced Remarks

nt at Sight Sight Sight Instrument Level (m)
A BM
B
O
C
D
CHECK
 B.S. –  F.S. =
Last R.L. – First R.L.=
Therefore,  B.S. –  F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
Hence verified.

RESULT
1. Reduced levels of all given points have been obtained using height of instrument method.
Reduced level of B =
Reduced level of C =
Reduced level of D =
2. Relative level differences between the points are established.

Relative level difference between A and B =
Relative level difference between B and C =
Relative level difference between C and D =
Relative level difference between D and A =


Expt. No. 2C
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
AIM
To determine the reduced levels of given points using Height of Instrument or Collimation method
and Rise and fall method. Also, to find the level difference between the two points.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Dumpy level, Levelling staff, Tripod, Arrows, Pegs
PRINCIPLE
Differential levelling also known as compound levelling or continuous levelling is used to find
elevation of the non-intervisible points and is adopted when:
(i) the points are at a great distance apart
(ii) the difference of elevation between points is large
(iii) there are obstacles between the points
Height of Collimation Method
i.e., H.I. = R.L. of B.M. + B.S.
Reduced Level = Height of Instrument – Intermediate Sight/ Fore Sight
i.e., R.L. = H.I. – I.S./ F.S.
If the arithmetic calculations are correct, difference between the sum of back sights and fore sights
should be equal to difference between reduced levels of last and first points.
Rise and Fall Method
The difference in elevation between any two successive points (say A and B) can be calculated
as:
Elevation difference between A and B = First reading at A – Second reading at B
For any two successive staff readings:
(i) Second reading smaller than first reading represents a rise (the sign of elevation
difference is positive).
(ii) Second reading greater than first reading represents a fall (the sign of elevation
difference is negative).


Height of Instrument Method
Station Back Intermediate Fore Height of Reduced Remarks
Sight Sight Sight Instrument Level (m)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
CHECK
 B.S. –  F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

If the elevation of the first point is known, then the elevation of the second point can be calculated
as:
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + Rise (in case of rise)
or R.L. of B = R.L. of A – Fall (in case of fall)
should be equal to difference between the sum of rise and fall and that should be equal to
difference between reduced levels of last and first points.
i.e.,  B.S. –  F.S. =  Rise –  Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.
PROCEDURE
1. Firstly, fix the Temporary Bench Mark (TBM) at an appropriate point and assume any suitable
value, say 100.000 m.
2. Set up the dumpy level at a suitable place such that the T.B.M. and maximum number of given
points are visible.
3. Level the instrument using foot screws. Adjust the eyepiece and the objective so that parallax
error is eliminated.
4. Take a back sight staff reading by keeping a levelling staff at the benchmark, so as to calculate
the height of instrument.
5. Take intermediate sights to all possible points of the current set up.
6. Select a change point so as to cover the remaining points in the next setting up of the
instrument and take fore sight to that change point.
7. By keeping the levelling staff at same position (at the change point), shift the dumpy level to
a new position so as to cover the remaining number of required points.
8. Take a back sight staff reading to the change point to establish the new height of instrument.
9. Repeat steps 5 to 8 until the entire area is covered and the staff readings of all given points
are noted.
10. Establish the reduced level of all given points using height of instrument method and rise and
fall method, and compare the results.
11. Find the level difference between the two given points.


Station Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks
Sight Sight Sight Level (m)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
CHECK
 B.S. –  F.S. =  Rise –  Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

RESULT
1. Reduced levels of all given points have been obtained using height of instrument method, and
rise and fall method.
Reduced level of A =
Reduced level of E =
Reduced level of F =
Reduced level of G =
2. Level difference between A and G =


Expt. No. 2D
FLY LEVELLING
AIM
To determine the reduced levels of given points using Height of Instrument or Collimation method
and Rise and fall method and to check the accuracy of work.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Dumpy level, Levelling staff, Tripod, Arrows, Pegs.
PRINCIPLE
When differential levelling is done in order to connect a bench mark to the starting point or to any
intermediate point of the alignment of any project, it is called fly levelling. Fly levelling is done
for checking the accuracy of the work. Only back sight and fore sight readings are taken at every
set up of the level and no distances are measured along the direction of levelling.
Height of Collimation Method

i.e., H.I. = R.L. of B.M. + B.S.
Reduced Level = Height of Instrument – Fore Sight
i.e., R.L. = H.I. – F.S.
should be equal to difference between reduced levels of last and first points.

The difference in elevation between any two successive points (say A and B) can be calculated
as:
Elevation difference between A and B = First reading at A – Second reading at B
For any two successive staff readings:
(i) Second reading smaller than first reading represents a rise (the sign of elevation
difference is positive).
(ii) Second reading greater than first reading represents a fall (the sign of elevation
difference is negative).

Height of Instrument Method
Station Back Sight Fore Sight Height of Reduced Level Remarks

Instrument (m)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
CHECK

If the elevation of the first point is known, then the elevation of second point can be calculated
as:
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + Rise (in case of rise)
or R.L. of B = R.L. of A – Fall (in case of fall)
should be equal to difference between the sum of rise and fall and that should be equal to
difference between reduced levels of last and first points.
i.e.,  B.S. –  F.S. =  Rise –  Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.
PROCEDURE
1. Firstly, fix the Temporary Bench Mark (TBM) at an appropriate point and assume any suitable
value, say 100.000 m.
2. Set up the dumpy level at a suitable place such that the T.B.M. and another one point is visible.
3. Level the instrument using foot screws. Adjust the eyepiece and the objective so that parallax
error is eliminated.
4. Take a back sight staff reading by keeping a levelling staff at the benchmark, so as to calculate
the height of instrument.
5. Select a change point so that the other point in the next setting up of the instrument is visible
and take fore sight to that change point.
6. By keeping the levelling staff at same position (at the change point), shift the dumpy level to
a new position.
7. Take a back sight staff reading to the change point to establish the new height of instrument.
8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 until the entire area is covered and the staff readings of all given points
are noted.
9. Connect bench mark to any point to check the accuracy of work.
10. Establish the reduced level of all given points using height of instrument method and rise and
fall method, and compare the results.

Station Back Sight Fore Sight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

Level (m)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
CHECK
 B.S. –  F.S. =  Rise –  Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

RESULT
Reduced levels of all given points have been obtained using height of instrument method, and rise
and fall method.
Reduced level of A =
Reduced level of E =
Reduced level of F =
Reduced level of G =
Reduced level of H =


Distance (m)
Instrument at
Intermediate
Back Sight
Fore Sight
Sight to
Reduced
Sight
Height of Level Remarks
Left Chainage Right Instrument (m)

Expt. No. 2E
PROFILE LEVELLING AND CROSS SECTIONING
GENERAL
Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of points at short measured intervals
along a fixed line such as the center line of railway, road, sewer or canal. The fixed line need not
be a single straight line but be composed of succession of straight line. Normally profile is plotted
with larger vertical scale than horizontal scale.
Cross sections are run at right angles to longitudinal profile and on either side of it for the purpose
of lateral outline (levels of) ground surface. Cross sections are essential data in the computation
of volume of earth work.
AIM
To prepare the longitudinal section and cross sections at required chainages of the given
alignment.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Dumpy level, Levelling staff, Tripod, Chain, Tape, Ranging Rod, Cross staff, Arrows
PRINCIPLE
The principle is same as that of differential levelling except that staff reading are taken along the
centre line of the profile.
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the dumpy level near the beginning of the profile, preferably on one side of the profile.
2. Take a back sight staff reading to benchmark so as to get the height of instrument. (Fly
levelling from the existing near benchmark may be carried out to establish a new benchmark
near the beginning of profile).
3. Take an intermediate sight to zero chainage (the beginning) of the profile and establish the
level of that point.
4. Take intermediate sights (as many as possible with required interval) to various points on the
profile. Measure the corresponding chainage of these points and record them in tabular form.

Distance (m)
Instrument at
Intermediate
Back Sight
Fore Sight
Sight to
Reduced
Sight

5. Once all the intermediate sights possible from the present set up of the instrument are taken,
fix a change point and shift the instrument to a new position, preferably on the other side of
the profile.
6. Take a back sight to change point and establish the height of instrument.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 6 till the end of the profile is reached.
8. Select suitable intervals on the profile line, where cross sections is to be taken.
9. Run a line through the point perpendicular to the profile line and establish as many points as
required on either side to obtain the cross section.
10. Measure the distance of these selected points on the cross section from the profile line towards
right and left.
11. Measure the staff readings corresponding to the selected points and record it in the respective
columns of the tabular form.
12. Repeat steps 8 to 11 throughout the entire profile of line so as to get maximum required
number of cross sections from the present set up of level.
13. Plot the profile line (longitudinal section) and cross sections as per the standard form.


Distance (m)
Instrument at
Intermediate
Back Sight
Fore Sight
Sight to Reduced
Sight
CHECK
(Sample Interpolation Calculation)

RESULT
1. Plotted the profile line (longitudinal section).

2. Plotted the cross sections at regular intervals.


Expt. No. 2F
CONTOURING
GENERAL
A contour is an imaginary line on ground joining the points of equal elevation. It is a line in which
the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface. The vertical distance between any two
consecutive contours is called Contour Interval.
Contour Interval = .
(metres)
The horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours is called Horizontal Equivalent.
The line lying throughout on the surface of the ground and preserving a constant inclination to
horizontal is called Contour gradient.
Contour Gradient =
Methods of locating contours are:

1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
a) By Square method (Spot levelling)
b) By method of cross section
c) By tacheometric or radial line method
AIM
To prepare contour map of the area by method of squares.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Dumpy level, Levelling staff, Tripod, Chain, Tape, Ranging Rod, Cross staff, Arrows
PRINCIPLE
Suitable guide points are selected along a system of straight lines and their elevations are found.
The plotted guide points, serve as basis for interpolation. While interpolating, it is assumed that
slope between two adjacent guide points is uniform.


PROCEDURE
1. Area to be surveyed is divided into a number of squares or rectangles with sizes varying from
5 to 20m depending on the nature of contours and contour interval.
2. Mark the grid points of the map to the field.
3. Set up a levelling instrument so as to command maximum number of points.
4. Determine the height of instrument by taking a back sight to the temporary bench mark.
5. Take intermediate sights to determine the levels of grid points (corners of squares or
rectangles).
6. Once all the intermediate sights possible from the present set up of the instrument are taken,
fix a change point and shift the instrument to a new position, such that it covers maximum
area.
7. Take a back sight to change point and establish the height of instrument.
8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 cover the entire area for which the contour is to be prepared.
9. Interpolation is carried out with help of levels of grid points to trace out individual contour.
RESULT
Contour map of the area is prepared by method of squares.


Expt. No. 3A
THEODOLITE SURVEYING-STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS
THE THEODOLITE
Theodolite is one of the most accurate instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles. It can be used for prolonging the survey lines, locating points on a straight line,
finding level difference, establishing grades etc. Theodolite is primarily classified as:
1) Transit Type in which telescope can be transited about its horizontal axis in the
vertical plane.
2) Non-Transit Type in which telescope cannot be transited.
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A THEODOLITE
Levelling head supports the main parts of the instrument. It consists of two parts. 1)
Tribrach plate fitted with levelling screws 2) Centre shifting arrangement for
centering the instrument.
Two spindles or axes one inside the other such that they are co axial. Outer spindle
which is hollow carries lower plate while inner spindle which is solid and conical
carries upper plate.
Lower plate or scale plate carries a horizontal circle graduated from 0o to 360o.
Lower plate is locked to levelling head and moves relatively by means of lower
clamp and tangent screws.
Upper plate or vernier plate carries two verniers A and B which reads accurately up
to 20o. Clamp and tangent screws are provided to clamp upper plate to lower plate.
Also carries a level tube and two vertical standards for supporting telescope and
vertical circle.
Telescope may be external focusing or internal focusing type, the latter being used in
modern instruments. It is mounted on a horizontal axis perpendicular to main
longitudinal axis of the telescope.

Fig. 7 Essential parts of a transit theodolite

Vertical circle is rigidly attached to horizontal axis of the telescope and moves with
it. It is divided into 4 quadrants graduated from 0o to 90o and has two verniers C and
D.
T Frame or Index Frame is centered on horizontal axis of the telescope in front of

the vertical circle. C and D verniers are provided at the ends of the horizontal arms
called index arm. Clipping arm (vertical leg) is provided with a fork and two clipping
screws at its lower extremity. Index and clipping arm together form T frame. At its
top is attached the altitude bubble tube.
Plumb bob is used for centering the instrument.
Tripod is a stand with three legs on which theodolite is supported.
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A THEODOLITE
1. Centering is the process of bringing the vertical axis of theodolite immediately

over the station point. This is done by adjusting the legs laterally or radially, keeping
the instrument at a convenient height.
2. Levelling is the process of making vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical.
It is carried out as follows, based on the number of foot screws of the instrument.
a) Three screw head: turn the upper plate until longitudinal axis of the plate level is
parallel to any pair of levelling screws. Bring the bubble to the center of its run by
turning both screws either inwards or outwards. Turn the upper plate through 90°
until the axis of level passes through over the position of third levelling screw. Turn
this screw until the bubble is central. Repeat this until the bubble is central
throughout when the instrument is rotated about the vertical axis.
b) Four screw head: turn the upper plate and bring the plate level parallel to the line
joining two diagonally opposite screws; make the bubble central by means of this
pair of screws. Bring the plate level parallel to the other two screws and make the
bubble central. Repeat until bubble comes to the centre of its run at any position.
3. Elimination of parallax for accurate sighting has two steps
1) Focusing the eyepiece for distinct vision of cross hairs.
2) Focusing the objective for bringing the image in the plane of cross hairs.

Face Left Right Swing Face Right Left Swing
Average
Horizontal angle No. Mean Horizontal angle Mean Horizontal
of Horizontal No. of Horizontal angle
A B Mean repet angle/3 A B Mean repetition angle/3
ition s
Instrum ent at
Sight to
⁰ ʹ ʺ ʹ ʺ ⁰ ʹ ʺ s ⁰ ʹ ʺ ⁰ ʹ ʺ ʹ ʺ ⁰ ʹ ʺ ⁰ ʹ ʺ ⁰ ʹ ʺ
A
1 1
O B
2 2
B
Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur

A
3 3
B
Page 60
Expt. No. 3B
THEODOLITE SURVEY-DISTANCE BETWEEN ACCESSIBLE

POINTS (HORIZONTAL ANGLE)
GENERAL
This experiment is conducted in theodolite survey when the points to be plotted are
intervisible and accessible from a single instrument station. Accessible point is a point
whose distance from the observation point can be measured directly using a chain or
a tape.
AIM:
To find the horizontal distance between two accessible points using theodolite survey
repetition method.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Transit theodolite, tripod, plumb bob, ranging rod, pegs and tape.
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the theodolite at the station point O and level it. Keep the instrument in face
left position.
2. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent screw, turn the telescope to make the A
vernier reading as 0°.
3. Tighting the upper clamp, release the lower clamp, rotate the telescope and direct
towards the peg at point A. Bisect the bottom of the nail exactly using the lower
tangent screws.
4. Release the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise (face left right swing) to
sight and bisect the nail at point B exactly.
5. Read the verniers A and B and their mean gives the approximate value of angle
AOB.
6. Using the lower clamp and lower tangent screw, turn the telescope in clockwise
direction and sight to the point A again. Then releasing the upper clamp, sight the

OA =
OB =

point B and note the A and B vernier readings.
7. Again, turn the telescope to sight the points A and B successively. Now the angle
AOB is repeated 3 times. Note the vernier readings which gives thrice the required
angle, from which horizontal angle AOB is obtained.
8. Repeat the same procedure by changing the face of the instrument. The average
horizontal angle AOB is obtained by taking the average of the angles from both faces.
9. Measure the distances OA and OB using tape. Finally, solve the triangle AOB and
obtain the horizontal distance AB.
RESULT
The horizontal distance between A and B =

P and Q are inaccessible

Expt. No. 3C
THEODOLITE SURVEY-DISTANCE BETWEEN

INACCESSIBLE POINTS (HORIZONTAL ANGLE)
GENERAL
This method is adopted when the points to be plotted are intervisible but inaccessible.
Inaccessible point indicates a point whose distance from the observation point cannot
be directly measured using a tape or chain.
AIM
To find the horizontal distance between two inaccessible points using theodolite
survey reiteration method.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Transit theodolite, tripod, plumb bob, ranging rod, pegs, arrows, tape.
THEORY
In order to determine the length between two inaccessible points P and Q, it is

required to select two points A and B near and approximately parallel to P and Q.
Setting the theodolite at A and B, and sighting to P and Q, the required angles are
to be measured. Finally, the unknown distance PQ can be arrived by applying Sine
and Cosine rule.
= =
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
Cos α = 2𝑎𝑏
PRINCIPLE
1. Select two points A and B suitably and set up the theodolite at the station point A.
Keep the instrument in face left position.
2. Using the upper clamp, turn the telescope to set 0° on vernier A. Note the reading
on vernier B. Using the lower clamp, turn the telescope to sight P exactly.
TABULATION & CALCULATIONS

3. Release the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to sight point Q exactly.
Read both the verniers A and B, mean of which gives the value of horizontal angle
PAQ.
4. Again, turn the telescope clockwise to bisect B exactly. Read both verniers A and
B, and their mean gives the horizontal angle QAB.
5. Finally close the horizon by directing the telescope towards P. The vernier A should
now read 360°.
6. If not 360°, note down the error. This error occurs due to slip etc. This error is
equally distributed among the several angles.
7. Now change the face of the instrument and the same procedure is repeated turning
the telescope anticlockwise. 8. Shift the instrument to the station point B. Direct the
telescope towards point A, setting A vernier to read 0° or 360°.
9. Sight to P, Q and A successively. Simultaneously note down the A and B vernier
readings. Deduce the corresponding angular measurements. Distribute the error
equally.
10. The average values from the two faces gives the mean horizontal angles.
11. Measure the distance AB. Solve the triangles PAB, QAB and PBQ, so as to obtain
the distance PQ.
RESULT
The horizontal distance between the two inaccessible points P and Q =


Expt. No. 3D
TANGENTIAL TACHEOMETRY: HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

AND LEVEL DIFFERENCE
AIM
To determine the horizontal distance and level difference between the station points
P and Q by using tangential tacheometry.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Tacheometer, stadia rod or ranging rod with 2 vanes (targets), pegs etc.
PRINCIPLE
This method is generally used when the telescope does not have stadia hairs. The
horizontal and vertical distances of the staff stations from the instrument station may
be computed from the observation taken to two vanes or targets on the ranging rod at
a known distance, S apart.
In tangential tacheometry, 3 cases arise.
1) When both the angles are angles of elevation:D = S / (tan θ1- tan θ2) and V= D tan
θ2
2) When both the observed angles are angles of depression: D = S / (tan θ2 - tan θ1)
and V= D tan θ2
3) When one observed angles is an angle of elevation and the other is an angle of
depression.
D = S / (tan θ1 + tan θ2) and V= D tan θ2
Where
D = Horizontal distance from the vertical axis of the instrument to the station.S = the
distance between the upper and lower targets = 1.00 m.
V= the vertical distance from the instrument axis to the ground point.
Ref Figure:
θ1 is the vertical angle to the upper target/ vane, PU.
θ2 is the vertical angle to the lower target/ vane, PL.

ELEVATION
PLAN
CALCULATION
Face left given, S =

Distance OP, D1= S/(tanθ1 + tanθ2) =
Distance OQ, D2= S/(tanθ4 + tanθ5) =

θ4 is the vertical angle to the upper target/ vane, QU.

θ5 is the vertical angle to the lower target/ vane, QL.
θ3 are θ6 are the vertical angles to the ground station points P and Q respectively.
Then V1 and V2, the vertical distances from the instrument horizontal axis to the
ground station points P and Q are given by:
V1 = D1 tanθ3
V2 = D2 tanθ6
Where D1= Horizontal distance between the instrument station and the staff station P.
D2= Horizontal distance between the instrument station and the staff station Q.
The level difference between P and Q is obtained using the equation
1) Level difference = (V2 + V1), if one angle is angle of depression and the other is
angle of elevation.
2) Or Level difference = numerical difference of V2 and V1, if both are angles of
elevation or both are angles of depression.
From D1 and D2, the horizontal distance PQ is found out using the equation
PQ2 = D12 + D2 2 – 2D1 D2 cos α, solving the triangle POQ.
PROCEDURE
1) Select the instrument station O such that the stations P and Q are visible from
station O and the included angle is not too acute.
2) Setup and level the instrument at station O with face left position.
3) The vernier A is set to read zero and clamp the upper plate.
4) The target point P is a ranging rod with two targets, the upper target PU and the
lower target PL. Similarly, Q is a point with two targets, the upper target QU and the
lower target QL.
5) Direct the telescope to bisect the upper target PU and clamp the lower plate. Note
the C and D vernier readings and obtain the vertical angle θ1.
6) Then direct the telescope to bisect the lower target PL. Note the C and D vernier
readings and obtain the vertical angle θ2.


7) Further direct the telescope to bisect the ground point (peg point) of P to note down
the C and D vernier readings. Hence obtain the vertical angle θ3.
8) Unclamp the upper plate and turn to sight the station Q with right swing. Direct the
telescope to bisect QU and QL successively and note down the respective C and D
vernier readings. Hence obtain the vertical angles θ4 and θ5. Bisect the ground point
Q to note down the readings of verniers A, B, C and D. Hence obtain the vertical
angle θ6 and the horizontal angle POQ.
9) Repeat the procedure for face right position also.
10) Then calculate the horizontal distances D1, D2, from which the horizontal distance
PQ is obtained. Also calculate the level difference between P and Q.
RESULT
Horizontal distance, PQ =
Level difference between P and Q =


Expt. No. 3E
THEODOLITE SURVEY: LEVEL DIFFERENCE

(VERTICAL ANGLE)
AIM
To determine the horizontal distance and level difference between two points given
on the field using theodolite survey. Hence find the gradient.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Transit theodolite, tripod, plumb bob, ranging rod, pegs and tape.
PRINCIPLE
In simple geometry, the horizontal distance between two points of a triangle can be
obtained simply by solving the triangle. Provided the distance of these points from
the third point as well as the horizontal angle at the third point is known. This method
is generally used when the telescope does not have stadia hairs.
If θ1 is the vertical angle to the ground point at station P and θ2 is the vertical angle to
the ground point at station Q. Then V the vertical distance from the instrument axis
to the ground point P and Q is given by
V1 = D1 tanθ1
V2 = D2 tanθ2
Where D1= Horizontal distance from the vertical axis of the instrument to the staff
at P.
D2= Horizontal distance from the vertical axis of the instrument to the staff
at Q.
The level difference between P and Q is found out using the equation:
1) Level difference = (V2 + V1), if one angle is angle of depression and the other is angle
of elevation.
2) Or Level difference = numerical difference of V2 and V1, if both are angles of
elevation or both are angles of depression.
From D1 and D2, the horizontal distance PQ is found out using the equation:
PQ2 = D1 2 + D2 2 – 2D1 D2 cos α, solving the triangle POQ.

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the theodolite at the instrument station O and level it accurately.

2. Keep the instrument in face left position.
3. Using upper clamp and upper tangent screw, set the A vernier to 0°.
4. Releasing the lower clamp and vertical clamping screw, direct the telescope towards
the peg at point P. Bisect the bottom of nail accurately using lower tangent screw.
5. Note the C and D vernier readings on the vertical circle. Mean of the two vernier
readings gives the vertical angle at P.
6. Release the upper clamp and vertical clamping screw, turn the telescope clockwise to
sight the peg at point Q. This is face left right swing.
7. Note the A and B vernier readings, mean of which gives the horizontal angle POQ.
Note C and D vernier readings, mean of which gives the vertical angle at Q.
8. Change the face of the instrument and repeat the process. The mean values at the two
faces give the horizontal angles and vertical angles respectively.
9. Measure distance OP and OQ using tape. From triangle POQ, calculate horizontal
distance between P and Q. Also find the level difference (vertical distance) between
P and Q. Then the gradient of line PQ is calculated as the ratio of vertical distance to
horizontal distance.
RESULT
Horizontal distance PQ=

Level difference between P and Q=


Expt. No. 3F
THEODOLITE SURVEY: HEIGHT OF BUILDING

(Vertical angle)
AIM
To find the height of an inaccessible building w.r.t benchmark by single plane vertical
angle method.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Theodolite, levelling staff and tape.
PROCEDURE
1) Choose the stations A and B suitable on a fairly level ground, so that they lie in a
vertical plane passing through the object in line with the object and measure the
distance between them accurately
2) The instrument is set up over the station A with face left and level it accurately
3) With the altitude bubble central, and with the vertical vernier reading zero, take a
reading on the staff held on the BM or reference point
4) Bisect the top of building say, P and read both vertical verniers. Change the face,
again sight P and read both verniers. Take the mean to get the correct value of the
vertical angle
5) Shift the instrument to B and take similar observations as at station A
Let,
α = the angle of elevation observed at A
β = the angle of elevation observed at B
b = the horizontal distance between the instrument Stations A and B
D = the distance of the object from the near station
h = height of the object P above instrument axis at A
ha= height from staff reading at the BM when the instrument is at A
hb = height from staff reading at the BM when the instrument is at B
hd = the level difference between the two positions of the instrument axis
= ha - hb

Fig. 8(a) - The farther instrument station B is higher than nearer instrument station A
Fig. 8(b) -The farther instrument station B is lower than nearer instrument station A

a) When the instrument at farther station B is higher than that at the near station A
h = D tan α -----------(i)
h - hd =( D + b) tan β------------(ii)
putting h from (i) in (ii)
D tan α - hd = (D+b) tanβ= D tan β + b tan β
D tan α- D tan β = b tan β + hd
D= ( )
Putting D in (i)
h=( )
tan 𝛼
Height of the object above the BM , H = h + ha
b) when the instrument at the farther station B is lower than that at the near station A
h = D tan α -----------(i)
h + hd =( D + b) tan β------------(ii)
D= ( )
then, h = ( )
tan 𝛼
H = h + ha
RESULT
Height of the inaccessible building w.r.t benchmark =

Fig. 9 Parts of a Total Station

Expt. No. 4A
TOTAL STATION SURVEY- STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
A total station is a combination of electronic theodolite and electronic distance

measuring device. This combination makes it possible to determine the coordinates
of a reflector by aligning the instruments crosshair on the reflector and simultaneously
measuring the horizontal and vertical angles along with slope distances.
PRINCIPLE
The electronic distance meter sense out an infrared beam, which is reflected back
to the unit byreflector at the target and the unit calculates the distance traveled by
the beam in two methods.
(1) Time pulse method

If an electromagnetic wave that moves at a constant speed ‘v’ over a
straight distance ‘L’ gets reflected and comes back to the unit in a time interval ‘L't’,
then
L= v (L't)/2 = (c/n) L't/2
c = speed of light
n = refractive index of the earth’s atmosphere
(2) Phase difference method
Modulated wave leaves EDM, then reflected to the EDM covers double
distance. The reflected signal phase is compared to the reference signal phase to
calculate phase difference (partial wave length). Partial wave (fraction of a
wavelength) can be measured from the corresponding phase angle θ.
L = (m+p) λ /2
m = an integer number of whole wavelength
p = fraction of a wavelength
λ = wavelength
λ = v/f = (c/n)/f

The electronic transit provides a digital read out of angles instead of a scale. The
read out iscontinuous; hence angles can be checked at any time.
PARTS OF A TOTAL STATION
• Keyboard • Collimator
• Digital display • Telescope
• Spirit level • Eyepiece focusing screw
• Tribrach • Objective focusing screw
• Foot or leveling screws • Horizontal clamping screw
• Plummet • Vertical clamping screw
FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
1) The rotation of the instrument’s optical axis from the instrument
north in a horizontal plane.
2) The inclination at the optical axis from the local vertical i.e., vertical
angle.
3) The distance between the instrument and the target i.e., slope
distance.
All the members that may be provided by the total station are derived from these
three fundamental measurements.

1. Page Button
2. Function Button
3. User Key 1
4. User Key 2
5. Soft Keys F1, F2, F3 and F4
6. Escape Key
7. Navigation Key
8. Enter Key
9. Alpha Numeric Key Board
10. Power Button
11. Trigger Key
Fig. 10 Various keys in the keyboard of Leica Total station

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS
 Setting up the instrument and the tripod
 Centering and Leveling of the Instrument
1. Adjust the tripod legs so that a height suitable for observation is obtained when the
instrumentis set on the tripod.
2. Hang the plumb bob on the hook of the tripod, and coarse centre over the station
on theground. Or else, use the optical plummet to centre the instrument station. Or
else, switch on the laser button to activate the laser plummet. Adjust the instrument
till the laser mark coincides with ground mark. At this time, set the tripod and fix the
metal shoes firmly into the ground so that the tripod head is as levelled as possible.
3. If the tripod head is mis-levelled by the action of fixing the metal shoes into the
ground,correct the level by extending or retracting each leg of the tripod.
Levelling with circular vial
1. Tripod is adjusted according to the following points by extending or

contracting the legsso that the bubble of the Circular vial goes to the centre of the
circle.
2. Shorten the leg at the side of the bubble or extend the leg opposite of the bubble
to position the bubble in the centre of the vial circle.
3. All three legs are extended or contracted until the bubble is in the centre.
4. During this process, the foot is not placed on the tripod leg point and the
position of thetripod points do not change.
Levelling with the plate vial
1. Rotate instrument horizontally and make two Leveling screws arbitrarily chosen
parallel to thedisplay.
2. Turn on the Electronic vial function by pushing the Laser key.
 Put the bubble of the Circular vial in the center of the circle when the
display shows “TILTOVER”.
3. Turn two Leveling screws arbitrarily chosen in an opposite direction mutually and
put the vial of the horizontal Electronic vial in the center.
4. Put the bubble of the lengthwise electronic vial in the center by operating the
Leveling screw of one remainder.


Eyepiece adjustment
The eyepiece adjustment is performed before target sighting.
1. Remove the telescope lens cap.
2. Point the telescope at a bright object, and rotate the eyepiece ring full counter
clockwise.
3. Look through the eyepiece, and rotate the eyepiece ring clockwise until the reticle
appears at its maximum sharpness.
Target sighting
1. Loosen the telescope clamp and horizontal clamp screws.
2. Point the telescope at the target using a collimator.
3. Tighten the above two screws.
4. Adjust the eyepiece.
5. Look through the telescope and then rotate the Focus ring and stop it where the
target can be clearly seen and the target image does not move in relation to reticle
even if your eye is verticallyand horizontally moved.
6. Align the reticle accurately on the target using telescope and horizontal tangent
screws
RESULT
The parts of total station & its working are studied.

Fig. 11 Various options used in the screen

Expt. No. 4B
TOTAL STATION SURVEY- HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES
AIM
To determine the distance and height of various points using total station.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Total station with tripod, prism with pole, tape
PROCEDURE
1. Select an appropriate point as the station point.

2. Do the temporary adjustments like centering and levelling.
3. To find the distance between the instrument station and target point, select
“Surveying” from program menu.
4. Complete the application pre-settings.
5. Press “All”.
6. Note down the required distance.
7. Press “Esc” to exit the application.
8. To find the distance between two target points, select “Tie distance” from
Program menu.
10. Select polygonal or radial method.
11. After completing the required measurements, the tie distance result screen will
appear.
12. Note down the required distance.
13. To find the height of the building, select “Remote height” from the program
menu.
15. Now put the prism on the base point and sight it and Press “All”.
16. Now move the telescope and focus the top point whose elevation is to be found.
17. The remote height will be displayed.
18. Press “OK” to save the measurement and record the calculated co-ordinates.
19. Press “Esc” to exit the application.


RESULT
Horizontal distance from the instrument station to the target point =

The distance between two target points =
Height of the building from the ground =

Fig. 12 Options used in the keyboard

Expt. No. 4C
TOTAL STATION SURVEY- AREA COMPUTATION

AIM
To calculate the area of a given closed traverse.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Total station with tripod, prism with pole, tape
PROCEDURE
1. Select the appropriate point as the station point.

2. Do the temporary adjustments like centering, levelling and orientation.
3. Select “Area” from “Program menu” (Program  Area from second page)
4. Press “F2” to start the work.
5. Enter target points like P1, P2 etc.
6. Set the reflector height (normally 1.300m).
7. Hold the prism on the first target point and focus on it. Use internal focusing to
get clear vision of the cross hair and external focusing to get clear vision of the
object.
8. Press “F1” to measure distance between the station point and the target point.
9. Hold the prism on the next target points and repeat the same procedure.
10. After measuring the last target point distance, select “calc” to calculate the area
included within the closed traverse. The result will be shown on the display and note
the value.
RESULT
Area of the given closed traverse =


Expt. No. 4D
TOTAL STATION SURVEY- CONTOURING
AIM
To prepare the contour map for a given terrain using total station.
INSTRUMENTS USED
Leica Total Station, AutoCAD Software, SW_DTM Software, Microsoft Excel
PROCEDURE
1. Set the tripod and mount the total station.

2. Centre the instrument by using the laser pointer. Level the instrument
using the aid of the bubble tube. Adjust the level at first by changing the height of
the tripod legs and then by the levelling screws. Once the centering and levelling
is over, create a job and perform the station set up. Select station orientation by
angle and enter the station data. Name the station (eg. S1) and enter the Easting,
Northing, Height (E, N,H) as 1000,1000,100. Once the total station prompts to
sight target station, turn the total station towards North and enter Hz (Horizontal
angle) as 0 and ‘set’ it. This will complete the station set up and the orientation.
3. Start sighting and recording the points on the ground. Turn on the laser
pointer and prism mode in the total station. Fix the height of the prism staff and
enter it into the total station. To record different points on the ground, place the
prism staff on the ground point and sight the total station to it. Using the guides
on the top of the telescope, sight the prism approximately and then using the side
screws, get exact sight on to the prism. Once the laser is pointed at the centre of
the prism, press “Measure”. The total station will record the point and prompt for
the next point. Record as many points as possible for drawing the contour map.
Make sure to record points of the plot boundary.
4. Once the points are recorded, plug in a USB drive into the total station. In the
menu, select “transfer” option and the select “export”. Select the file type as
CSV_E_N_H. Press enter. Download the exported file to the computer. Convert
the file to an excel sheet. The data should be in five columns in the following

order: Point ID, Easting, Northing, Height, Code.

5. Open AutoCAD and create a new file. Open SW_DTM.
Click on Point>>Import points from file>> Import Points>> Select Files.
The points would now be transferred to AutoCAD.
On SW_DTM, click on Triangles>>Triangulate.
Click OK on successful prompts.

Click on Contour>>Draw Round Contours.
Select the contour intervals and press “draw”.


Interpolated Contour lines will be automatically drawn on the AutoCAD drawing. Add
borders and title box.
RESULT
Contour map for the given traverse is prepared.

Fig. 13 Downloading procedure

Expt. No. 4E
TOTAL STATION SURVEY- DOWNLOADING
AIM
To download data from total station
INSTRUMENT USED
Total station, USB stick
PROCEDURE
1. Switch on the instrument and press “continue”.

2. Level the instrument and press “continue”.
3. Select transfer from the LCD panel and then select export.
4. Now, select the way to which you need to transfer the data (USB stick).
5. After that insert the USB in the port on the side of the device.
6. Press “continue”.
7. Select ‘MEASUREMENT’ to specify the measurement type and then select the
job to export from the job list.
8. Press “continue.
9. Select the format for the file to be explored. Select it as “DXF”.
10. Press “continue”. Now the file has been successfully exported to the USB stick.
RESULT
The data has been downloaded into the USB drive in DXF format.

Fig. 14 Automatic level
Fig. 15 Internal compensator mechanism in automatic level (a swinging prism)

Expt. No. 5
STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS
AIM
To familiarize with the instruments - Automatic Level, Digital Level & Handheld
GPS
1. AUTOMATIC LEVEL
An automatic level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify points in the

same horizontal plane in a process known as levelling and is used in conjunction with
a levelling staff to establish the relative heights levels of objects or marks. It is widely
used in surveying and construction to measure height differences and to transfer,
measure, and set heights of known objects or marks. Auto Levels set up fast, are easy
to use, and save time and money on every job. An automatic level, self-levelling level,
or builder's auto level includes an internal compensator mechanism (a swinging
prism) that, when set close to level, automatically removes any remaining variation.
This reduces the need to set the instrument base truly level, as with a dumpy level.
It operates on the principle of establishing a visual level relationship between two or
more points, for which an inbuilt telescope and a highly accurate bubble level are used
to achieve the necessary accuracy. It is usually used by contractors, builders, land
surveying professionals, or the engineer who demands accurate levelling every time.
Basic Principle of automatic level
The automatic level has a compensator mechanism that uses a combination of fixed
prisms or mirrors and a moving prism suspended on a pendulum to give a horizontal
reference. When correctly set up the compensator will ensure that the ray of light
through the centre of the reticule is exactly horizontal. Design of the compensator
mechanism varies with each manufacturer, so the diagram shows the principle of the
method, not a specific instrument.
Not shown in the diagram is a damping mechanism to stop the pendulum from
continuing to swing when the instrument moves. The quality of the damping
mechanism is very important; too little damping will give an unsteady image which
may blur in windy conditions, but too much damping may lead to errors if the
pendulum does not respond to slight movements of the instrument.

Fig. 16 Parts of Automatic level
Fig. 17 A Circular level

The reticule is a glass plate with fine cross hairs engraved to provide the height
reference. The eye piece should be adjusted to bring the reticule into sharp focus. The
internal focusing lens is then controlled by the focusing screw on the side of the
instrument to bring the staff image in to focus on the reticule.
Parts of an Automatic Level
An auto level consists of a telescope with various screws to adjust the line of sight. A
tripod is also used to mount and adjust the auto level.
a) Telescope: It holds the lenses that magnify objects in the sight.
b) Objective Lens: It catches the object being sighted and magnifies the object.
c) Eyepiece: It is located at the viewing end of the telescope, it can be turned to bring
the crosshairs into focus.
d) Focusing Knob: It can be turned to make objects appear crisp and clear.
e) Levelling Screws: It allows adjustments to be made to ensure the instrument is level.
f) Base Plate: It is the area to which the automatic level attaches on the tripod.
g) Horizontal Tangent Screw: It can be adjusted to make the instrument move left or
right on the horizontal plate. It is also known as ‘slow motion knob’.
h) Tripod: A tripod is a three-legged stand, important in providing the foundation for
auto levels and other levelling instruments. It is usually made up of Aluminium for
the sake of lightness.
i) Crosshairs: It is a diaphragm consisting of horizontal hair and vertical hair fitted in
the Telescopic Tube of the Level. Staff is bisected at the intersection of the crosshairs
to take the reading.
j) Circular Level: It is mounted on the automatic level. It ensures that the instrument is
at a true level point.
Initial Adjustments:
(a) Setting up the Instrument:

1. Spread the tripod legs so that the leg tips form a regular triangle on the
ground.
2. Make sure that the tripod head is approximately level. Fix the tripod shoes
firmly into the ground.
3. Hold the instrument on the tripod head and tighten the centering screw.


4. Adjust the levelling screws until the bubble is exactly centred in the centre
circle.
(b) Focusing and Sighting Adjustments:
1. Sight a bright, featureless background.
2. Turn the eyepiece fully clockwise and focus the reticule by gradually turning
the eyepiece anti clockwise while looking through the telescope. Stop turning just
before the reticule image becomes blurred.
3. Align the instrument on the staff using the peep sight and turn the horizontal
fine motion screw to centre the staff in the field of view. Turn the focusing knob
to eliminate parallax between the staff and the reticule.
Procedure:
(i) Measurement of Height Difference:
1. Set up the instrument at a point approximately halfway between points A & B.

For more accurate measurement, set the instrument as close to halfway as possible,
to eliminate errors due to sighting axis misalignment.
2. Position the staff vertically at point A. Take the reading a (backsight) on the
staff at point A.
3. Then sight the staff at point B and obtain the reading b (foresight).
4. The difference a - b is the height difference h of B from A.
(ii) Measurement of Horizontal Angle:

1. Set up the instrument directly above the surveying point.
2. Sight point A, and set the horizontal circle to 0° by turning the horizontal circle
positioning ring.
3. Sight point B, take the angle reading of point B.

Fig. 18 Digital level with bar coded levelling staff

2. DIGITAL LEVEL
Digital Levels are levelling instruments used for precise levelling. Theire
operation is based on the digital processing of video indications of a coded staff.
Digital levels read a bar-code staff electronically and display the data. Some
digital levels also record the measurements automatically, removing the need to
write down the measurements and reducing the chance of human error.
Components of digital level:
Main components of digital level consist of two parts:

1. Hardware (Digital level and levelling staff) and
2. Software
Digital level and associated staff are manufactured so that they can be used for
both conventional and digital operations. Digital level has the same features as
automatic levels, namely the eyepiece, the focusing knob, the compensator, the
circular level bubble, tangent screw, the levelling screws and objective. In
addition, it has certain special features like built-in solid-state camera, a storage
module, a microprocessor, a display register and a control panel.
Digital levelling staves have dual marking. One side is binary bar-coded for digital
recording and the other side is marked as the conventional staff for conventional
staff reading. The staff is made from a glass-fiber-strengthened synthetic material
with low coefficient of thermal expansion for high accuracy. For highest precision
work, Invar bar coded staves are also available.
Data from digital levels is stored onboard and can be transferred to computer for
further processing.

Fig. 19 Parts of a Digital Level
Fig. 20 Levelling staff (One side bar coded and other side conventional)

Initial adjustments:
1. Set up the tripod. Extend the legs to a suitable length and ensure that the triopd
head is approximately level. Insert the tripod shoes firmly into the ground.
2. Mount the instrument on the tripod by screwing the tripod screw on to the base
of the instrument.
3. Use the three levelling foot screws to centre the circular bubble in order to level
the instrument.
4. Eye piece adjustment: Point the telescope to a uniform light surface such as a
wall or a piece of paper. Turn the eyepiece until the cross hairs are sharp or
distinct.
5. Target image focusing: Use the gun sight to aim the objective lens at the staff.
Turn the horizontal fine motion screw until the staff is nearly centered in the field
of view and then turn the focusing knob to focus the staff until the staff image and
reticle are sharp or distinct.
Procedure
1. Press the power button to switch on the instrument.

2. Aim at the centre of barcode staff and focus the staff image.
3. Press the measurement key (red button) to activate measurement. The height
and distance measurements will be displayed.
4. Download the data stored in the instrument to a PC using a software and get the
final results(Optional).
The instrument can be operated in three ways as described below.
Method 1 (Simplest): Read Vertical and Horizontal Distances without Recording

This works just like a standard optical level. At the main screen, with the unit
focused on the staff (barcode side), press the red measure button and wait for the
values to display. It will eventually show the vertical and horizontal distance
values. The displayed values may be noted down for calculation.
Method 2: Using Memory to Record Values

In this method, we can record values and download them later to a computer using
the serial cable. The data will need to be processed later with a spreadsheet.


1. Start by going to the menu, and turn on Recording and select Memory.
2. Now the main screen will show a new field: PtID, which will initially be set to 1.
This point ID value may be changed using the menu and it can include alphabetics
as well as numerics. The id will be automatically incremented numerically. For
example:
5 increments to 6, etc.
C1 increments to C2, etc.
C increments to C1, etc.
3. At the main screen, with the unit focused on the staff (barcode side), press the red
measure button and wait for the values to display. The screen will eventually
disply the PtID, vertical and horizontal distance values (with vertical from the base
of the staff, and horizontal distance to the staff). If the work is starting at a
benchmark, we want to give it a special ptID, so that it can be processed later.
4. Repeat the procedure for other measurements.
Method 3: Using built-in Line Leveling
This method make use of built-in computations thereby avoiding the computation
later in a spreadsheet. The advantage is the removal of data entry errors when
moving the instrument and re-establishing the backsight. Most of the procedure is
the same as Method 2. The differences are:
1. In Menu: go to Line Leveling, and select the BIF method (Backsight,
Intermediate, Foresight). Another method is the BF, apparently for simple line
leveling where the instrument is moved between each staff location.
2. The first reading is the backsight to a benchmark (known elevation). We can go
to the menu to change the PtID and RL (reduced level: known elevation of the
benchmark). When the reading is complete, press Enter (MENU) button to
Accept.
3. In BIF mode, the next reading is shown as F, but we want to use this to enter
intermediate points. Go to the menu to turn Intermediate Sight On. Then back at
the measurement screen, we will see the 'I' highlighted. We can now collect a
sequence of intermediate points. For each reading you are asked to Accept the
reading.

4. When intermediate sightings are finished, to read a foresight to a turning point,

use the menu to turn Intermediate Sight Off and then shoot the foresight. Now the
RL will change to this new value.
Data Transfer to PC:
1. Connect the USB cable with phone jab to the connector port and USB jab to the
USB port at the PC.
2. Power ON the instrument. Wait for the double beeps and USB icon will be
shown on the LCD of the instrument.
3. Start the DataLoader.
4. Left click on 'USB Connect' button in the DataLoader and all information
relevant to the instrument will be displayed.
5. Left click on 'Data Listing'/'Field book' button in the Data export window to
download the data from the instrument to PC in Windows MS Excel.

Fig. 21 Survey grade GPS
Fig. 22 Recreation/Commercial grade GPS Fig. 23Mapping/Differential grade GPS

3. Handheld GPS
(The study of Field Survey Using Handheld GPS Receivers was created with
reference to Garmin Montana 650 GPS receivers. Hence, the features and interface
may vary from other GPS receivers. BaseCampTM is also the recommended file
transfer software for Garmin GPS receivers.)
Handheld GPS is a device that uses the Global Positioning System, combining
modern geographic technology with a portable user-friendly device for everyday
use. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system
made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of
Defense. GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and
transmit signal information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use
trilateration to calculate the user's exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver
compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was
received. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is.
With distance measurements from a few more satellites, the receiver can
determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map.
The accuracy of the system depends on many factors including the following:
a. Type of receiver - i.e. recreational/commercial, mapping/differential, and survey
grade
b. Sources of errors - i.e. atmospheric effects and obstruction.
Types of GPS receivers
1. Recreational/Commercial grade
These receivers are available from commercial retailers and are designed for general
navigation and simple waypoint marking. The accuracy of this type of unit is usually
greater than or equal to 3 meters.
2. Mapping/differential grade
Mapping grade receivers incorporate higher quality antennas and implement
corrections that improves the accuracy of the location. Its maximum accuracy can
range up to less than one meter.


3. Survey grade
Survey grade receivers are the most accurate and expensive. These are often used by
professional surveyors and excel in high accuracy measurements of fixed positions.
The accuracy is within centimetres.
Terms used
Waypoint: These are fixed locations with a specified longitude and latitude that
can be saved to the receiver. Waypoints can mark a destination, a point along the
way to a destination, or a point of reference. We can edit saved waypoints with
unique names and descriptive icons to help to identify the waypoint from a list or
on the map.
Map screen: It will be the screen which is most commonly displayed when the
handheld GPS is switched on. The Map screen can be displayed in two modes,
Navigate and Pan. In Navigate Mode the current location is displayed along with
a graphical indication of where you’ve travelled (track) and information about
where you are going (route). In Pan Mode you can ‘pan’ around the map looking
for places to go or places to create a waypoint.
Four Corner Menu: It is the menu which will appear when we tap any portion of
the visible map on the Map screen. It provides access to the Dashboard, OneTouch
menu, Main Menu and Map Options.
Dashboard: It is an optional navigation screen that can be used in conjunction

with the Map screen. There are eight different dashboard styles that can be
selected. To access the Dashboard,
From the Map screen, tap any portion of the visible map.
Tap on the Dashboard icon in the upper left corner of the display.
OneTouch Menu: It gives quick and easy access to common destinations, searches
or tools that we define. To access One Touch Menu,
Tap on the OneTouch icon in the upper right corner of the display.
Main Menu: It provides access to waypoint tools, track tools, geocaches, available

Fig. 24 Four Corner Menu Fig. 25 Options Menu
Fig. 26 Main Menu Fig. 27 One Touch Menu

maps, route tools, address book, POI and media tools. The Main Menu also
provides access to Tools and settings. To Access the Main Menu
Tap on the Main Menu icon in the lower left corner of the display.
Options Menu: It provides quick access to the most commonly used functions
associated with the screen being displayed. The Options Menu can be found in the
lower right corner of the display. To access the Map Options Menu
Tap on the Options Menu icon in the lower right corner of the display.
Procedure:
1. Install the batteries in the battery cabin, Press and hold the Power button (top
left
of the receiver) for 2 seconds.
2.With the receiver ON and the Map screen displayed, tap on the map screen.
The Four Corner Menu screen, (which provides access to the Dashboard, One
Touch menu, Main Menu and Map Options) will be displayed.
To Capture a Point:
Option 1: Just press the short key provided on the left side top.
Option 2: To save a point with a specified name
1. Tap on the map screen once. The four-corner menu will appear.
2. Click on the options menu and click on ‘Add Way point’.
3. Click on the name already shown (say WP1) and can edit it to change the name.
4. Click on the tick button and save.
To view the co-ordinates of waypoints:
1.Tap on the map screen once.

2. Click on the Main Menu.
3. Click on ‘Waypoints’. It will display already saved waypoints.
4. Click on the waypoint whose co-ordinates are to be viewed.


To delete Waypoints:
1.Tap on the map screen once.

2. Click on the Main Menu.
3. Click on ‘Waypoints’. It will display already saved waypoints.
4. Select the waypoint to be deleted.
5. Click on the right side down icon and click 'Delete'.
RESULT
Familiarised with the parts & working principles of the instruments - Automatic
level, digital level & handheld GPS.

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Survey Laboratory Record

INTRODUCTION TO CONVENTIONAL SURVEYING

The basic principles of surveying are

1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 1

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 2

Fig.1 Locating a point

2. Working from whole to part.

PRIMARY DIVISION OF SURVEYING

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 3

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 4

Classification based on the nature of field survey

Classification based on the object of survey

Classification based on instruments used

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 5

Fig.2 Details of a Metric Chain

Fig. 3 A 30 m metric chain

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 6

INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

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Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 8

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 9

Fig. 4 Prismatic compass

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 10

INSTRUMENTS USED IN COMPASS SURVEYING

Working of the prismatic compass involves the following 3 steps:

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 11

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 12

Magnetic Meridian: is the direction indicated by a freely suspended magnetic needle

Arbitrary Meridian: is any convenient direction towards a permanent and prominent

The common systems of notation of bearings are:

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 13

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 14

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 15

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(Sample figure and field book)

Sl. No. Figure Chainage (m) Offset (m) Area (m²)

Total area of the polygon/ traverse =

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 16

CHAIN SURVEYING – PLOTTING A TRAVERSE USING BASE LINE

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Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 18

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 19

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Instrument at Station Bearing Distance (m)

Area = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) =

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 20

COMPASS SURVEY – PLOTTING A TRAVERSE

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 21

Polygon Dimension Side sS = Area (𝑚 )

Total area of the plot/ traverse =

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Fig. 5 Dumpy Level

Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Engineering College, Thrissur Page 24

LEVELLING - STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS

1. Level: To provide a horizontal line of sight. It consists of:

Dumpy level: It consists of the following parts:

Tripod stand: Apparatus on which the level is supported when in use.