English Basic Writing Skill New Note-1-1-1

DILLA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND

HUMANITIES
THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND
LITERATURE
COURSE TITLE: BASIC WRITING SKILLS

COURSE INSTRUCTOR-DAWIT BIRHANU
COURSE CODE: EnLa 1012
ADDRESS-davered2010@gmail.com
CREDIT HOURS: 3
MARCH, 2014
Table Contents
Contents Pages
Table Contents................................................................................................................................................i
Unit 1: Writing Effective Sentences ..............................................................................................................1
1.1 Definition:..........................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Constituents of a sentence ................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Types of Phrases ..................................................................................................................................3

1.4 Clause ..................................................................................................................................................6
1.5 Types of Sentences and their Purpose...............................................................................................11
1.6 Kinds of Sentences According to Structure.......................................................................................12

1.7 Sentence Combination.......................................................................................................................15
1.7. 1 Coordination ..............................................................................................................................15

1.7.2 Subordination..............................................................................................................................17
1.8 Relative Clauses.................................................................................................................................18

1.9 Identifying and Correcting Faulty Sentences ....................................................................................20
1.9.1 Confused pronoun Reference .....................................................................................................20

1.9.2. Omission of necessary words ....................................................................................................20
1.9.3 Omission of article......................................................................................................................21

1.9.4 Fragments (Marking Symbol SF)...............................................................................................21
1.9.5 Run-ons (Marking Symbol RO) .................................................................................................23
1.9.5.2 Fused Sentence ........................................................................................................................26

1.9.6 Dangling Modifiers.....................................................................................................................26
1.9.7 Agreement errors ........................................................................................................................28

1.9.8 Misplaced modifiers ................................................................................................................... 29
1.9.9 Faulty parallelism .......................................................................................................................35

1.9.10 Using Faulty Punctuation marks...............................................................................................37
Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs .....................................................................................................41

2.1 What is a paragraph? .........................................................................................................................41
2.2 A topic sentence.................................................................................................................................41

2.2.1 Positions of a Topic Sentence.....................................................................................................44
i
2.3 The Body ........................................................................................................................................... 45
2.4 The Concluding Sentence ..................................................................................................................46
2.5 Elements /essentials of a Paragraph................................................................................................... 46
2.5.1 Cohesion/Coherence................................................................................................................... 47
2.5.2 Pronouns: ....................................................................................................................................50
2.5.3 Choice of Word........................................................................................................................... 51

2.6 Adequate development ......................................................................................................................51
2.7 Unity..................................................................................................................................................52
2.8 Tips for Writing a Paragraph .............................................................................................................53
2.9 Writing Paragraphs ............................................................................................................................54

2.10 Characteristics of a good paragraph ................................................................................................55
2.11 Basic types of Paragraphs: expository, descriptive, narrative, and argumentative .........................56
2.11. 1 Description/Descriptive paragraph ..........................................................................................56
2.11.2 Narration/The Narrative paragraph........................................................................................... 57
2.11.3 Argumentative/Persuasive Paragraph.......................................................................................58

2.11. 4 Expository Paragraphs.............................................................................................................58
2.12 Guided and free Writing ..................................................................................................................61

2.12.1 Guided Writing .........................................................................................................................61
2.12.2 Free Writing..............................................................................................................................62

Unit Three: Essay Writing ........................................................................................................................... 63
3.1 Definition:..........................................................................................................................................63
3.2 Writing Descriptive Essay .................................................................................................................63
3.3 Writing Argumentative Essay............................................................................................................65

3.4 Writing Narrative Essay ....................................................................................................................67
3.5 Writing Expository Essay ..................................................................................................................69
3.6 General Steps for Writing an Essay................................................................................................... 72

References....................................................................................................................................................75
ii
Basic Writing Skills EnLa 1012
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Unit 1: Writing Effective Sentences

Q1: What is sentence?
1.1 Definition:
We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period at the end and capital letter at the
beginning, but there is more to it than that. In order to be a sentence, a word group must be complete
enough to stand independently. In other words, a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete
thought.
-A sentence is usually defined us a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or group of words
so related as to convey a complete thought.
The better we understand how to form and use a sentence, therefore the more effectively we can
communicate our thoughts to others.
A sentence is effective when it is:
Clear It expresses our ideas carefully in a way that the reader can understand.
Concise It uses sufficient words to impart the message but not so many as to obscure the
meaning.
Exact It uses vocabulary correctly and follows the conventions for spelling,
punctuation, and grammar.
Appropriate It uses the correct tone for the situation and the reader.
1.2 Constituents of a sentence

Every sentence, short or long, is made of one or more units containing two main parts: Subject and
predicate.
Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a noun or pronoun with any of its
modifiers.
Predicate is the statement made about the subject. It is a verb or verb phrase, with any modifiers or words
used to complete its meaning.
Examples
Our soccer team won the state championship.
Our soccer team/ won the state championship
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Compiled by: Dawit Birhanu, Lecturer
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Subject predicate
Simple subject and simple predicate
Every sentence, we said, usually has a subject and predicate.
Example:
-Tom fights.
In this sentence, Tom the actor is, a simple subject, and fights, the action is a simple predicate.
Complete subject and complete predicate
Complete Subject
When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying words, the subject thus expanded is
called complete subject.
Example: -Flowers are blooming.
-The flowers are blooming.
-The small flowers are blooming.
-The small red-petaled flowers are blooming.
Flowers the simple subject in the first sentence has been expanded by modifiers the, small and red petaled
respectively.
Complete predicate
It is when the predicate consists of a single word or verb phrase, it is called simple predicate. When it is
expanded by the addition of other words, then the simple predicate plus its modifiers, plus any other
words that complete its meaning, are called complete predicate.
Example: -Dawit is walking.
-Dawit is walking quickly.
- Dawit is walking quickly to school
- Dawit is walking quickly to school in the morning.
quickly to school, and quickly to school in the morning.
Note: In both cases it is possible to make complete subject and complete predicate.
Compound Subject and Compound predicate
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Compound subject: A subject can be made up of two or more nouns or pronouns. In this case the
sentence has compound subject.
Example
Henok and Tola saved birr 500 a year with grocery coupons.
Compound Predicate: A sentence can have two or more verbs for the same subject. In this the sentence is
said to have a compound predicate.
Example: We chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
You should and arrive by midnight.
1.3 Types of Phrases

A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For example, He
is laughing at the joker.
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a
phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions,
phrases are divided into various types i.e.
Noun phrase, Infinite phrase,
Prepositional phrase Participle phrase and
Verb phrase Gerund phrase.
Adverb phrase, Absolute Phrase
Adjective phrase,
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which
modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence.
A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners)
which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence.
Noun Phrase = Noun + Modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)
Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
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The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)
A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

For example; The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.
Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of
adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun. An adjective phrase functions like an
adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence.
Examples
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)
A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)
Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them
with brown hair is
tive.
Prepositional phrase
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, objects of preposition (noun or pronoun) and may also
consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever
prepositional phrase ends which is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an
adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples:
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)
Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.
Examples:
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He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.
You should study for the exam.
She has been sleeping for two hours.
According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements
and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence.
Example. You should study for the exam.
Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or
other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an adverb in a
sentence.
An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Examples
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
He returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)
behaves in a good manner

phrase here.
Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words
associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a
sentence.
Examples
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
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He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)
Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the
gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.
Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)
Participle Phrase
A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -ed or
other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is
separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.
Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)
Absolute Phrase
Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun and a
participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the
entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs of
commas from the rest sentence.
Examples
He looks sad, his face expressing worry.
She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock.
John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint.
1.4 Clause
For example, he laughed.
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence) which
has both subject and predicate.
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Example
I will meet him in office.
a predicate(will
meet him). On the other han
predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a
sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.
Examples
He is sleeping. (one clause)

The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause)
The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses)
I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses)
I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology,
because he wants to become a doctor. (three clauses)
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause (also
called dependent clauses).
Types of Clauses
There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or dependant)
clause.
Main Clause and Subordinate Clause Comparison
He is buying a shirt which looks very nice.
d can alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is called

main or independent clause.
sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is called
subordinate or dependent clause.
Main or Independent Clause
Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
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She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
He became angry and smashed the vase into peaces.
In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though and can
stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a simple sentence.
Subordinate or dependent Clause
Subordinate (or independent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and depends on
another clause (main clause) to express complete thought. Subordinate clause does not express complete
Example
He likes Chinese rice which tastes good.
express complete thought.
Examples
I bought a table that costs $ 100.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses are further divided into three types,
1. Noun clauses 2. Adjective clauses 3. Adverb clauses
Types of Subordinate Clause
Functions of Subordinate Clause
A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the
basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided into following types.
Noun Clause
Adjective Clause
Adverb Clause
Noun Clause
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A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called n
performs same function like a noun in a sentence.
Example
What he did made a problem for his family.
works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with words
.
Examples
Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject)
What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject)
He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object)
Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object)
Adjective Clause
An adjective
clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a
pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.
Example
He wears a shirt which looks nice.
the sentence. An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies.
Examples.
An apple that smells bad is rotten.
The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test.
The house where I live consists of four rooms.
The person who was shouting needed help.
Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also
relative clause.
Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses
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Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or non-restrictive clause. A restrictive clause limits
the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A non-restrictive clause tells us something about preceding
noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun.
Example
The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause)
The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the test. (nonrestrictive
clause)
t information to preceding noun (student), it

means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause.
preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be several
other students in the class who had attended all the lectures.
A comma is always used before a non-restrictive clause in a sentence and also after non-restrictive clause
to introduce a non-restrictive clause.
Example
The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. (Restrictive clause)
The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (Non-restrictive clause)
Adverb Clause
like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It modifies
contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent)
The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows.
Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case
Examples
before he comes.
He takes medicine because he is ill.
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Although he tried a lot,
Unless you study for the test,
I will go to the school unless it rains.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.
1.5 Types of Sentences and their Purpose

There are five different types of sentences. Each type has a function, but a sentence only has one
function. A sentence is used to make a statement, express feeling, give a command or ask a question.
ave.
You can use fancy wording and say you want to convey a message (make a statement or express feeling),
or you can tell someone what to do
fancy or elusive about it. A sentence can only have one of
five functions.
We can, however, get a little technical and give these four types/functions a name; Declarative,
Imperative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, or Optative/wish.
A Declarative Sentence: It makes a statement or expresses opinion. It declares something and ends with
a period.
Example:
An Imperative Sentence: It has a little more responsibility; it can make a request, give a command or
direction and can end with a period or an exclamation point.
Example:
Will you please open the door. (This is considered making a request or giving direction and not a question
An Interrogative Sentence: It is like an interrogation; it asks questions and ends with a question mark- or
jail if your
being interrogative.
Example:
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Did you use a question mark?
Did you write proper sentences?
An Exclamatory Sentence: An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings of joy, sorrow and wonder.
Examples:
Hurrah! We have won the match.
Oh! Now the battery is dead.
Alas! He is dead.
An Optative Sentence: An optative sentence is used to pray or wish.
Examples:
May God bless you!
May you live long!
Would that I were your friend.
1.6 Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

A sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause) or more clauses (independent and dependent
clauses). An independent clause is also called main clause. A dependent clause is also called subordinate
clause.
On the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence, sentences come in four basic
varieties: simple, compound, complex, and compound complex.
Simple Sentence
A simple sentence has one main clause (a single subject and a single predicate), although it may be
expanded by nouns and pronouns serving as objects of the action and by modifying phrases.
A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb and it
Examples:
Profits increasedin the past year.
He laughed.
She ate an apple.
They are sleeping.
I bought a book.
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Compound Sentence
A Compound Sentence consists of at least two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions.
There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use to join
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, S . Independent clauses can also be joined by a
semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound sentence.
Examples
I like an apple but my brother likes a mango.
I helped him and he became happy.
He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.
I asked him a question; he replied correctly.
Wages have declined by 5 percent, and employee turnover has been high.
The independent clauses in a compound sentence are always separated by a comma or by a semicolon (in
which case the conjunction and, but, or is dropped).
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence expresses one main thought (the independent clause) and one or more subordinate
thoughts (dependent clauses) related to it, often separated by a comma. The subordinate thought, which
comes first in the following sentence, could not stand alone:
A Complex Sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause joined by
subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who,
which etc).
Examples
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
unless you study for it.
must admit that his research is thorough.
If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses in a
complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use after
dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example.
He is playing well although he is ill.
Although he is ill, he is playing well.
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Compound-Complex Sentence
A Compound-Complex sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more dependent
clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-complex Sentence.
Examples
He went to college and I went to a market where I bought a book.
I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biology because he wants to be a doctor.
Profits have must

admit that his research is thorough.
In
Complex-complex sentence
A complex-complex sentence has one or more independent clauses, one of which depends on the other. In
other words, one of the dependent clauses depend on the other dependent clause.
Example:
I like students who work hard when they are told.
You can see that this sentence has two dependent clauses:
Who work hard and
When they are told
clause, not on the independent (main) clause.
Nelson Mandela, who had fought against apartheid for a long time because he wanted to make his people
free, has got immense respect from the whole world.
Exercise
It's time to see what's what, who's who, and where you're at with this sentence stuff. To do so, label
each of the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, compound-complex, or Complex-
complex.
____ 1. If at first you don't succeed, destroy all evidence that you tried.
____ 2. The hardness of the butter is proportional to the softness of the bread.
____ 3. You never really learn to swear until you learn to drive.
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____ 4. It takes about half a gallon of water to cook spaghetti, and about a gallon of water to
clean the pot.
____ 5. Monday is an awful way to spend one-seventh of your life.
____ 6. Genetics explains why you look like your father and if you don't, why you should.
____ 7. To succeed in politics, it is often necessary to rise above your principles.
____ 8. Two wrongs are only the beginning.
____ 9. When oxygen is combined with anything, heat is given off, a process known as
____ 10. To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism; to steal from many is research.
Answers
1. complex 6. compound-complex
2. simple 7. complex
3. complex 8. simple
4. compound 9. compound-complex
5. simple 10. compound
1.7 Sentence Combination

Coordination
Subordination
1.7. 1 Coordination
Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In coordination,
the status of the sentence is not reduced when they are combined. In other words, when they are
combined, they still remain independent clauses.
The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are:
Coordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Adverb conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
A conjunction is a joiner; a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.

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For- a more formal word for because, this shows a result-cause relationship between two independent
clauses. It shows logical consequence; it has the same meaning as because, the reason why.
Example: I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-
consuming to make.
And- show equality between the two ideas. It shows addition; it has the same meaning as in addition to,
along with
Example: The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
Nor- shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of negative point. (Note: You must
reverse the normal subject-verb positions in the second clause when using nor)
Example: Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball
stew.
But_ shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however, except, on the
other hand
Example: Rocky, my orange tomcat loves having his head scratched but hates getting his
claws trimmed.
Or- shows alternative or choices
Example: The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
Yet- shows opposition; also shows emphasis ( a stronger but)
Example: Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German shepherd across
the street.
So- shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result, x happened, so
Y happened
Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a
spoon and ate it myself.
Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They
always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Here is a brief list of common
correlative conjunctions.
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both . . . and neither . . . nor
not only . . . but also whether . . . or
either . . . or as . . . as
Examples:
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
John said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Either go to bed early this evening or stop complaining about being tired in class.
Neither the contestant nor his sponsor was willing to attend the lecture.
Not only the man but also the woman did it.
Both Alemu and Solomon are my colleagues.
Remember that when either and neither are used without or and/or nor they act as adjectives or
pronouns.
Either movie seems to be a good choice. (Adjective)
Either seems like a good choice to me. (Pronoun)
Neither book was good. (Adjective)
Neither was good. (Pronoun)
1.7.2 Subordination
Adverb conjunction
like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It modifies
time, frequency (how often), cause and effect,
contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent)
The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows.
Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case
Examples
before he comes.
He takes medicine because he is ill.
Although he tried a lot,
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Unless you study for the test,
I will go to the school unless it rains.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.
They are also (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) come at the beginning of a
Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and
the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for
its meaning.
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below after, before, since are also
prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate the
following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after if though
although if only till
as in order that unless
as if now that until
as long as once when
as though rather than whenever
because since where
before so that whereas
even if than wherever
even though that while
1.8 Relative Clauses

Study the following examples of relative clauses.
- Uganda, which has a serious problem with AIDS, is making major efforts to reduce its
prevalence
-In Uganda AIDS, which is deadly serious illness, was first discovered around Lake
Victoria.
- Kitola is above
Use the the village in to
example which HIV/ADIS
answer prevalence
the following questions started.
- Any town which________________________________________________________________

is on a major road or water transport route is likely to have AIDS problem.
18
1. What two pieces of information are given about the first noun in each sentence?( the first noun
is the one before the relative clause in bold)
2. Does the information in each relative cluse help to define or give essential information about the
noun, or does it simply give extra information about it?
3. In which sentences can you take out the relative clause and still make sense?
4. Defining relative clauses give essential information in order to identify what/who you are talking
about. Non-defining relative clauses give extra information, not essential for identifying what
you are talking about. What rule for use can you make up about how commas are used in relative
clauses to indicate the priority of information in a sentence
Non- defining relative clauses
1. You have noticed that we use commas when we are giving two separate pieces of information
about one noun. Relative clauses that are separated by commas are called non -defining, because
they do not restrict or define the subject. We can separate the main clause from the relative clause
and the grammar of the sentence would still be correct.
e.g.
Addis, which is the largest city in Ethiopia, is a beautiful place.
Addis is a beautiful city.
It is the largest city in Ethiopia.
Furthermore, priority or main focus is given to the information in the main clause not the relative
clause.
2. In non-defining relative clauses, we use who or whom for people and which for things.
eg.
AIDS, which is a killer disease, is the object of major education program in
Ethiopia(relative pronoun as a subject)
Ephrem Negeri, who/whom everyone liked, died in car crash(relative pronoun as object)
Defining Relative Clauses
1. A defining relative clause contains important information about the person or things which is in
separable form the subject. That you can take out information in the relative clause and still make
sense. This means the priority is given to the information in the relative clause as well as in the
main clauses. No comma is used when relative clause helps us define or restrict the noun.
2. In defining relative clauses we use who or whom for people and which for things, while that can
be used for people or things. Who, which and that may be the subject, the object or the object of
preposition?
Activity 2: complete the following sentences with the correct relative pronoun and use comma if
necessary
1. Bulcha /who /which/whom / lives with HIV/ADIS always complains about the attitudes of people
towards him.
2. Our village who/ which/ that/ is at the heart of the capital of Ethiopia is known as Merkato.
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19
3. Ato Duguma is an employee/which / who/ that / whom/ everyone likes as he is congenial and
he is seriously ill now days.
4. Addis Ababa, who/ which/whom/is the capital of Ethiopia was in great risk on HIV/ADIS prevalence.
5. Jack and Barbara who/ which/ whom/that / lived with HIV/ADIS are doing their best to become
happy.
6. I have many friends whom/ which /who/they are living with HIV/AIDS.
Activity.3 Read the following model paragraph and underline the relative clauses used .then;
discuss with your partner about the type of relative clause used
Sophia, who was 27 years old when I went to visit her, was lying on the floor of her house, which was very
small. The house is in a village called Wendo, which is in Sidamo near Awassa. She has a child, whom she
has been breastfeeding. She is suffering from the disease HIV/AIDS, which has the following symptoms:
losing weight, feeling weak, skin disease, etc.
1.9 Identifying and Correcting Faulty Sentences

1.9.1 Confused pronoun Reference
A pronoun depends for its meaning up on its antecedents, the noun or other pronoun to which it refers. If
the antecedents of the pronouns in your writing will not be clear your writing will not be clear. To avoid
faulty reference of pronouns each pronoun should refer to a single antecedent. Pronouns can, ofcourse,
refer to compound antecedents in such sentences as:
Dawit and Abel both believed they had performed well.
(Here, the pronoun they refer to Dawit and Abel.) But for example:
AMBIGUOUS Solomon went with John to the air port, where he took a plane to phoenix.
[Who took the plane to phoenix, Solomon or John?]
CLEAR After going to the airport with John, Solomon took the plane to phoenix. Or
After Solomon went to the airport with him, John took the plane to phoenix.
1.9.2. Omission of necessary words

A sentence will be confusing if the writer omits words needed for clarity and accuracy.
Sometimes, of course, writer omits words through haste or carelessness. This sort of omission can
be caught with careful proof reading.
Right I admire her more than Solomon does.
Meaning I admire her more than I admire Solomon.( This was the meaning what the writer
wanted to convey)
Error I admire her more than Solomon ( ).
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20
[Because of the omission of the word does in the above example, it could be ambiguous, i.e, it is
not clear if the writer wants to mean more that Solomon admires her? Or more than the writer
admires Solomon?]
Here what we have seen was how omission of a word can affect the clarity of a sentence. Not
only omission of a word but also omission of an apostrophe can affect the clarity of a sentence.
greater
Meaning . Or
A lawyer has greater income than a doctor has.
s income is greater than a doctor. ( )
[Because of the omission of the apostrophe
comparison is illogical since it compares or seems to compare two things (income to a doctor)
that can be sensibly compared. But actually logic requires the comparison of income or of lawyer
to doctor.)
1.9.3 Omission of article

Omission of article can affect clarity of a sentence. In writing, the students should not allow even careless
omissions of an article.
Right She has a black and a white dress.

Meaning ( two dresses, different colors ( This was the meaning what the writer wanted to
convey)
Error She has a black and ( ) white dress.
Meaning (one dress, two colors)
1.9.4 Fragments (Marking Symbol SF)
The sentence fragment is just what its name implies: a partial sentence. When writing clear, effective
English, the student should use complete sentences and should not write partial sentences unless he
understands exactly what he is doing and is trying for a special effect. In most situations, however, this
major sentence structure error occurs because the student writer does not understand the difference
between a complete sentence and a partial sentence. A fragment can best be defined simply as a part of a
sentence which is written as if it were a complete sentence.
Another way to define fragment is to call it a group of words or a phrase, or even a dependent clause
which is written unintentionally as a. complete sentence. Such phrases and dependent clauses, of course,
cannot qualify as sentences since they cannot stand alone and do not express a complete idea.
There are several types of fragment errors or writing circumstances under which a sentence fragment is
likely to occur in student writing. One of the most common categories comes about because of careless or
hurried composition. The student merely forgets to complete the sentence. Others occur because various
phrases and dependent clauses are used in place of sentences or because they are punctuated as though
they were complete sentences.
The Careless Fragment Error
FRAGMENT: The best car in the race.
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SENTENCE: The best car in the race was a Lotus XKG driven by Mortimer Mulrose.
The Verbal Phrase Fragment
FRAGMENT: Being sound of lung and limb and basically an exhibitionist.
SENTENCE: Being sound of lung and limb and basically an exhibitionist,
Almaz sang and danced her way across the gymnasium.
FRAGMENT: Tom leaving the building without a sound.
SENTENCE: Tom was seen leaving the building without a sound.
The Prepositional Phrase Fragment
FRAGMENT: At the bottom of the staircase, in a calm and dignified pose.
SENTENCE: At the bottom of the staircase, in a calm and dignified pose,
Harriet stood waiting for her date to pick him up from the floor.
The Subordinate Clause Fragment
FRAGMENT: Although the hermit crab is an easily cared for pet and is currently quite popular.
SENTENCE: Although the hermit crab is an easily cared for pet and is currently quite popular, it cannot
be trained to do tricks, nor is it the least bit affectionate.
The Absolute Phrase Fragment
FRAGMENT: Spring having come early this year.
SENTENCE: Spring having come early this year, the campus swains cut classes every other day in order
to stroll with their sweet-hearts.
The phrase and dependent clause error generally occurs in student writing because the student places a
period between the dependent element (clause or phrase) and the main clause. You can see that any of the
sentences in the examples above could be made into a fragment plus a simple sentence by incorrectly
placing a period after the phrase or dependent clause.
Partial Fragments
Not understanding how to punctuate complex sentences (sentences with at least one dependent clause)
can result in full-fledged sentence fragments as noted above or in what might be termed "partial
fragments." Consider the following methods of joining a dependent clause to an independent one:
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22
CORRECT: Peter loved Hermella although she hated him.
FRAGMENT: Peter loved Hermella. Although she hated him.
PARTIAL FRAGMENT Peter loved Hermella; Although she hated him.
If a semicolon is placed between dependent and independent clauses (as in the

last example), a partial fragment occurs because a dependent clause is being
treated as though it were independent, thus being given sentence status.
Fragments often occur in compositions because the student is attempting to write in a more complex style
than he can handle or else because he is striving for a dramatic effect. This problem of the fragment in
writing is compounded by the fact that modern journalists, especially in the advertising medium, delight
in the short, snappy slogans which are often in the form of sentence fragments. In advertising they do this
in order to save space and time, both of which cost money. In some forms of journalism this device is
considered "catchy." The conscientious student writer would do well to avoid this style.
Permissible Fragments
Some expressive, exclamatory, and transitional statements are permissible even though they seem to be
fragments:
What a day!
Never again!
To summarize, one final point.
These are really elliptical sentences with "understood" parts, what a day [this was], Never again [will I do
it], To summarize [here is] one final point.
Most English teachers do not want their students to use fragments for stylistic purposes until after they
have demonstrated their understanding of sentence completeness. Others might allow their students to use
a fragment if they write "fragment" in the margin of their themes. Fragments are best avoided in situations
requiring you to demonstrate your best writing skills.
1.9.5 Run-ons (Marking Symbol RO)
A run-on sentence (sometimes called "run together" or "fused") occurs when two or more independent
clauses are written without identifying punctuation between them.
Because a sentence is a complete and independent statement, it should always be followed by a terminal
punctuation mark-a period, question mark, or exclamation point. It is not only a serious error in grammar
and sentence structure, but it is also a violation of the rhetorical principle of unity to write two complete
sentences together with no punctuation mark between them. Clarity is destroyed because the reader of
run-on sentences will not be able to tell where one full thought ends and the other begins. Consider this
statement:
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23
Mugwert enjoys listening to classical music some of his favourite selections are Stravinsky's "The
Rite of Spring," Brahms' "Fourth Symphony," and Dvorzak's "New World Symphony."
The example above contains two complete and independent statements, but it has been written as if it
were one sentence.
There are several methods that a writer can use to correct the run-on sentence error.
Use Terminal Marks
The simplest way is to put a period (or question mark or exclamation mark if appropriate) at the end of
the first statement and start a new sentence with the second statement.
RUN-ON: Osgood remained in the Marines for five years then he entered the state university in his home
town.
CORRECT: Osgood remained in the Marines for five years. Then he entered the state university in his
home town.
Use Non-terminal Marks
If the two statements which are fused or run-on are closely related in thought, they may be connected with
non-terminal marks of punctuation such as the semicolon or the colon.
CORRECT: Samson remained in Addis for five years; then he entered Bahir Dar University in his
home town.
RUN-ON: Samson remained in Addis for five years his house was around Arat Kilo.
CORRECT: Samson remained in Addis for five years; his house was around Arat Kilo.
Use Subordination
Subordinate one of the independent clauses by making it into a dependent clause or a phrase:
RUN-ON: Biruk and Dawit spent the afternoon drinking coffee in Hawassa this beautiful town is
located in the southern Ethiopia.
CORRECT: Biruk and Dawit spent the afternoon drinking coffee in Hawassa, a beautiful town located
in the southern Ethiopia.
Never correct a run-on sentence by putting a comma between the two statements. Two grammatically
complete sentences should never be "fused" or run together. However, to separate the sentences with a
comma is to be guilty of another serious error in sentence structure: the comma splice.
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1.9.5.1 Comma splices (Marking Symbol CS)
Like the sentence fragment, the comma splice can be called an error both in punctuation and in sentence
structure. No matter what classification is used, however, the error is a major one which leads to
ineffectual sentences and confused readers. Students are often guilty of writing sentences containing
comma splices because of lack of concentration and because of hurried writing. What the uninformed
writer has attempted to do in such a case is to link together or "splice" together with a comma two
independent clauses not joined by one of the coordinating conjunctions, and, or, but, nor, for, yet, or so.
There are several grammatical circumstances which can result in comma splices if the writer is not
careful: when two independent clauses contain closely related ideas, when the second of the two
independent clauses contains a personal pronoun whose antecedent is given in the first clause, and when
demonstrative adjectives or conjunctive adverbs occur between independent clauses.
Comma splices can be corrected by providing a terminal mark after the first independent clause and
beginning a new sentence, by placing a semicolon or a comma and a coordinating conjunction between
the two independent clauses, or by subordinating one or the other of the clauses.
Closely Related Ideas:
COMMA SPLICE: Homer held the flashlight, Solomon changed the tire.
CORRECT
Terminal Mark Homer held the flashlight. Solomon changed the tire.
Semicolon.- Homer held the flashlight; Solomon changed the tire.
Comma with coordinating conjunction: Homer held the flashlight, and Solomon changed the tire.
Subordination.- Homer held the flashlight while Solomon changed the tire. OR While Homer held the
flashlight, Solomon changed the tire.
Antecedent/Personal Pronoun
COMMA SPLICE: Solomon wiped his hands, he muttered sullenly about "liberation."
CORRECTION: using coordinating conj. Solomon wiped his hands, and he muttered sullenly about
."
Demonstrative Adjective or Pronoun
COMMA SPLICE: Homer hated menial tasks, those jobs required dull wits and a strong back.
CORRECT: using subordination Homer hated menial tasks because those jobs required dull wits and a
strong back.
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Conjunctive Adverb
COMMA SPLICE: He complained all through doing the dishes, however, she ignored him completely.
CORRECT: (using semicolon) He complained all through doing the dishes; however, she ignored him
completely.
1.9.5.2 Fused Sentence
Refers to error of two independent clauses put together without any separating punctuation or linking
device between them.
Example:
Faulty The witness was unwilling to testify he was afraid of the accused man.
Correct The witness was unwilling to testify. He was afraid of the accused man.
1.9.6 Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the word or words it
modifies (i.e. is placed next to).
Two notes about dangling modifiers:
Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply moving it to a

different place in a sentence.
In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence, although it can also
come at the end.
Consider this sentence:

Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the
doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to
be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling
modifier.
Now consider this sentence:

Having finished the assignment, the TV set was turned on.
Having finished is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main
clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not
been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.
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26
Examples of dangling modifiers and revisions:
dangling modifier:
After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing. (The article--the subject of the main
clause--did not read the original study.)
possible revisions:
After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.-or-
The article remains unconvincing in light of the original study.
dangling modifier:
Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax. (Your home--the
subject of the main clause--is not relieved of your responsibilities.)
possible revision:
Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Characteristics of dangling modifiers:
They most frequently occur at the beginning of sentences but can also appear at the end.
dangling modifier at end of sentence:

The experiment was a failure, having not studied the lab manual carefully. (The experiment--the subject
of the main clause--did not study the lab manual.)
possible revision:
The experiment was a failure because they had not studied the lab manual carefully.
They often have an -ing word or a to+verb phrase near the start of the sentence.
Squinting modifiers:
Related to dangling modifiers, squinting modifiers occur when the word modified is not clear or could be
more than one word. These problems can usually be solved by rearranging the elements already present in
the sentence.
squinting modifier:
The mystery has been solved after ten years of the missing portrait.
possible revisions:
After ten years, the mystery of the missing portrait has been solved. The mystery of the missing portrait
has been solved after ten years.
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27
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
dangling modifier: Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
possible revision: Having arrived late for practice, the captain of the team needed a written
excuse.
2. Name the doer of the action in the phrase that dangles:
dangling modifier: Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
possible revision: Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
dangling modifier: To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
possible revision: He improved his results by doing the experiment again.
"To modify" is to qualify or limit the meaning of a word, phrase, or clause. Thus, in grammar, a modifier
is a word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or limits other words, phrases, and clauses. A dangling
modifier describes or limits a word or words that are not stated in the sentence. Such a modifier dangles
or hangs loosely because it is not properly attached to the rest of the sentence.
1.9.7 Agreement errors
This handout gives you several guidelines to help your subjects and verbs agree.
1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and,
use a plural verb.
Example: She and her friends are at the fair.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
Example: The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor,
the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
Example: The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a
contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule
appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns,
the contraction don't should be used.
Example: He doesn't like it.
They don't like it.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the
subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
Example: One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
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The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Example: Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
Example: The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a
singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.

Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to
these things.)
Example: These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the
subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
Example: There are many questions.
There is a question.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and
take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
Example: The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
In some cases in American English, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using a
collective noun.
The crew are preparing to dock the ship.
This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg Reference
Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not
change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
Example: The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.
1.9.8 Misplaced modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies /
describes.
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29
Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or confusing.
Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.
Example
The example above suggests that a gold man owns a watch.
Misplaced modifiers can usually be corrected by moving the modifier to a more sensible place in the
sentence, generally next to the word it modifies.
Example
Now it is the watch that is gold.
There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:
1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the
intended meaning.
Example 1
Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.
Corrected
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30
Example 2
Corrected
Sentences like these are common in everyday speech and ordinarily cause their listeners no trouble.
However, they are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in your writing.
2. Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.
For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the sentence's meaning.
Just means only John was picked, no one else:
Just means that John was picked now:
Just means that John hosted only the program, nothing else:
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31
Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness depends upon what the
writer has in mind.
Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a sentence whose meaning
is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.
This sentence, for example, suggests that we brought a lunch slowly:
To repair the meaning, move the adverb slowly so that it is near ate.
Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost. They are often misplaced and cause an
unintended meaning.
This sentence, for example, means that I only contributed the money:
Repaired, however, the sentence means that I contributed only $10.00.
Like adjectives, adverbs are commonly misplaced in everyday speech, and may not cause listeners difficulty.
However, such sentences are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in your writing.
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Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make
sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced phrases that modify the wrong nouns.
To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are supposed to modify.
Example 1 (a buyer with leather seats?)
Corrected
Example 2 (a corner smoking pipes?)
Corrected
Example 3 (a house made of barbed wire?)
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Corrected
Click on the link below to complete Exercise 2.
Link to Exercise 2
4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not
make sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that modify the wrong nouns.
To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to modify.
Example 1 ( a buttered woman?)
Corrected
Example 2 (a hamper that Ralph wore?)
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Corrected
Be careful! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two possible meanings.
Example
Problem: Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on Monday?)
Correction #1 (meaning the essays will be returned on Monday)
Correction #2 (meaning that the teacher spoke on Monday)
1.9.9 Faulty parallelism

Parallelism concerns the balance of a sentence, or the similarity of words, phrases, or clauses in a list or
.
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To improve the clarity of your writing, it is important to remember the equality of your sentence
structure.
Below are THREE rules to consider when checking for Parallel Structure in your writing:
1. Parallel Structure should be used when elements are joined by coordinating conjunctions:
Faulty and how it smells.
Correct and its smell.
2. Parallel Structure should be used when writing elements in the form of a list or a series:
Faulty: The class valued respect, honesty, and being on time in a teacher.
Correct: The class valued respect, honesty, and promptness in a teacher.
3. Parallel Structure should be used when comparing or contrasting elements (A is better than
B X is less than Y):
Faulty: James enjoys reading more than to write.
Correct: James enjoys reading more than writing.
More Examples
The following sentences have parallelism of words:

Bethany enjoys baking cakes, cookies, and brownies.
This sentence does not:

Bethany enjoys baking cakes, cookies, and to make brownies.
See the difference? The parallel sentences contain a list of gerunds. The incorrect sentence sounds
awkward because it contains a mixture of two verbal nouns (gerunds) and an infinitive phrase.
This sentence contains an unparallel mixture of a gerund and a noun:
But this sentence contains two gerunds:
Parallelism is necessary in phrases, as well:

The British Museum is a wonderful place to see ancient Egyptian art, you can explore African artifacts,
and beautiful find textiles from around the world.
Now read this:

The British Museum is a wonderful place where you can find ancient Egyptian art, explore African
artifacts, and discover beautiful textiles from around the world.
Notice that each phrase has a verb and a direct object. Parallelism is necessary when a series of words,
thoughts, or ideas appears in one sentence. If you encounter a sentence that just sounds wrong or clunky,
look for conjunctions like and, or, but, and yet to determine whether the sentence is off balance.
Words in a pair or series should have parallel structure. By balancing the items in a pair or series so that
they have the same kind of structure, you will make the sentence clearer and easier to read. Notice how
the parallel sentences that follow read more smoothly than the nonparallel ones.
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1.9.10 Using Faulty Punctuation marks
Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to
make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a .
Faulty use of punctuation mark distorts the meaning of any sentence. Writers have to use the correct type
of punctuation mark in the correct position so as to avoid faulty construction of sentences. For example:
comma splice and fused sentences are occurred from incorrect use of punctuation mark.
1. Woman, without her man, is nothing

2. Woman! without her, man is nothing
The Value of Punctuation
An English teacher wrote these words on the board: woman without her man is nothing.
The teacher then asked the students to punctuate the words correctly. The men wrote the top line. The
women wrote the bottom line.
Sentence Endings
Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings. They are the period,
question mark, and exclamation point.
and other statements thought to be complete,
Jane and Jack went to the market.
abbreviation: Today is birthday.
Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence. For example:
When did Jane leave for the market?
The exclamation point/mark (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add emphasis.
1. Within dialogue:
2. To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!
1.9. 10.1 The Comma, Semicolon and Colon
The comma, semicolon and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a series.
The c
Hellen wanted the black, green, and blue shoes.
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37
Dear Uncle John,
We went to the movies, and we went to the beach.
John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.
word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an
expressions. Colons have been used throughout this article to indicate examples. Within time, it is used to
separate out the hour and minute: 12: 15 p.m.
1.9.10.2 The Dash and the Hyphen
Two kinds of dashes are used throughout written communications. They are the dash and the hyphen. A
-) used in writing or printing to connect continuing or inclusive numbers or to connect
elements of a compound adjective when either of the elements is an open compound, as 1880 - 1945 or
Princeton - New York trains.
A hyphen (-) is the same symbol as the hyphen. However, it has slightly different usage rules. Use a
hyphen
this in use include:
Mrs. Smith - Reynolds
back - to - back
The thought -ful girl brought cookies to her ailing neighbor.
1.9.10.3 Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses
Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation or are
considered a group.
Parentheses (()) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks,. However,
parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases. For example: John
and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.
Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations. For example, it uses when you
look up word definitions. At the bottom of each definition page, brackets surround a technical description
of where the word originated.
what should be contained within the same lines.
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1.9.10.4 Apostrophe, Quotation Marks, and Ellipses
The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipses.
Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in any form.
An
An issueof nat ' l importance.
Sara ' s dog bites.
' s in them.
and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word, but also to indicate meanings or
copied direct definitions from your Dictionary, quotation marks have been placed around the item. Single
The ellipses is generally represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally demonstrated with
three asterisks (***). The ellips
another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students writing research
papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipses to avoid copying lengthy text
that is not needed.
1.9.10.5 Slash ( / )
To indicate the end of a line of poetry
Example: Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough, / A Flash of wine, a Book of verse and Thou
To set off phonemic transcriptions
Example: In French the /e/ is pronounced as /A/.
To separate paired terms (use sparingly)
Example: pass/fail producer/director
Main Uses of Capital Letters Capital letters are used with:

1. First word in a sentence or direct quotation
2. Names of persons and the word I
3. Names of particular places
4. Names of days of the week, months, and holidays
5. Names of commercial products
6. Titles of books, magazines, articles, films, television shows, songs, poems, stories, papers that you
write, and the like
7. Names of companies, associations, unions, clubs, religious and political groups, and other
organizations
Each use is illustrated on the pages that follow.
First Word in a Sentence or Direct Quotation
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Our company has begun laying people off.
EXPLANATION: In the third example above, My and When are capitalized because they start new
sentences. But it is not capitalized because it is part of the first sentence.
Names of Persons and the Word I
At the picnic, I met Tony Curry and Lola Morrison.
Names of Particular Places
After graduating from Gibbs High School in Houston, I worked for a summer at a nearby Holiday on
Clairmont Boulevard. But Use small letters if the specific name of a place is not given.
After graduating from high school in my hometown, I worked for a summer at a nearby hotel on one of
the main shopping streets.
Names of Days of the Week, Months, and Holidays
This year, Memorial Day falls on the last Thursday in May. But Use small letters for the seasons
summer, fall, winter, and spring. In the early summer and fall, my hay fever bothers me.
Names of Commercial Products
chicken noodle soup. But Use small letters for the type of product (breakfast cereal, ice cream, chicken
noodle soup, and the like).
Titles of Books, Magazines, Articles, Films,
Television Shows, Songs, Poems, Stories,
Papers That You Write and the Like
My oral report was on The Diary of a Young Girl, by Anne Frank. While watching All My Children on
television, I thumbed through Cosmopolitan magazine and the New York Times
Names of Companies, Associations, Unions, Clubs, Religious and Political Groups, and Other
Organizations
A new bill before Congress is opposed by the National Rifle Association.
My wife is Jewish; I am Roman Catholic. We are both members of the Democratic Party.
My parents have life insurance with Prudential, auto insurance.
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Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
2.1 What is a paragraph?

1. A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop one main idea.
2. It is made up of , opinion, or
feeling about a subject. These sentences are:
a. Topic sentence
b. Supporting sentences
c. Concluding sentence
3. The number of sentences is unimportant in a paragraph; however, the paragraph should be long
enough to develop the main idea clearly.
4. A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as a chapter of a book or an
essay.
2.2 A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph. It tells the reader what to
expect about the information that will follow. Without the use of a topic sentence, developing a paragraph
can be difficult. It has several important functions:
A. A topic sentence should always be a complete sentence. The following are not complete sentences.
Driving on freeways.
The importance of money.
How to register for college classes.
B. A topic sentence supports the idea of the paragraph subject.
There are several advantages to growing up in a small town.
Idea of the paragraph subject
C. It directs the order of the sentences and it briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss
Most US universities require a 550 point TOEFL score for a number of reasons.
the paragraph is going to discuss
D. It is a complete sentence and has three parts:
a subject, a verb, a controlling idea

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Examples:
a. Telephones / intrude into / the privacy of our daily lives.
Subject / verb / controlling idea
b. Most adults / find / learning a foreign language difficult.
c. My roommate, John, / helps / me to speak English correctly.
NOTE: The topic sentence is to the paragraph what the thesis statement is to the essay.
Controlling Idea
The controlling idea of a topic sentence is a word or phrase that controls the information in the rest of
the paragraph. Usually, the topic comes first and the controlling idea comes second in the topic sentence.
However, the controlling idea may come first.
Violence in Turkey society has several causes.
Topic controlling idea
There are several causes of violence in Turkish society.
controlling idea Topic
A good architect is both an artist and a mathematician.
Topic Controlling idea
Artistic talent and mathematical ability are two qualities of a good architect.
Controlling idea Topic
A sample Paragraph:
Parents can help their children be successful in school by encouraging them. Children usually enjoy
playing games
Topic Controlling idea
instead of studying. Therefore, parents should take the responsibility to monitor their studying. They
should also remind their children to do their homework at home after school. Moreover, parents can
encourage them to study by buying story books with pictures, or they can buy text books or tapes that
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help children learn to spell or read. The best way to encourage children to study efficiently is to reward
my math lesson. I was very excited. As result, if parents really want their children to succeed in school,
In the paragraph above, the topic sentence is the following:
Parents can help their children be successful in school by encouraging them.
The topic of the sentence is how parents can help children succeed in school; the controlling idea is
encouraging. The reader might ask the following questions and expect the paragraph to answer them:
How can parents encourage their children?
What specific things should parents do to encourage their children?
How will this encouragement lead to success?
ntence, the
writer makes a judgment.
PRACTICE: Choose the best topic sentence.
a. Too general: My neighborhood is a nice place to live.
A good topic sentence: My neighborhood is fascinating because people from many countries live in it.
b. Too general: Sports are exciting.
Still too general: Watching a soccer game keeps me involved.
Much better: Watching 2002 the Istanbul derby between Fenerbahçeand Galatasaray kept me on the
edge of the chair.
1. Topic:
My room is a perfect place for one person to live.
2. Topic:
Watching movie influence adults, teenagers, and children.
NOTE: Ask yourself questions as you narrow down/restrict the ideas:
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2.2.1 Positions of a Topic Sentence
The topic sentence can come at the beginning, in the middle, at the end, or at the beginning and the end of
the paragraph.
(As a beginning writer, you should write your topic sentence as the first sentence of your paragraph: It
will tell the reader what you are going to say and you can look back at the topic sentence often as you
write the supporting sentences.)
Here is an example of a paragraph with a topic sentence stated at the beginning. The subject is
"The educational systems of Europe and the United States ":
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES
The educational systems of Europe and the United States are similar in a number of ways. To begin
with, elementary school classes look the same everywhere: There are about twenty to twenty-two pupils
per class, and the classes are coeducational*. Also, there is one teacher for all subjects for each grade
(except in Scandinavia), and the majority of elementary school teachers are women. In addition, the
subjects which are taught at the elementary level are basically the same everywhere: reading and writing,
mathematics, introductions to the sciences, music, sports, and art. The only major difference in the
elementary curriculum* is that most Europeans study a foreign language in elementary school, but most
American children do not.
1. Topic Sentence in the Middle of the Paragraph
Perhaps the least common placement for a topic sentence is in the medial position. Placed here, a topic
sentence can provide a transition between two kinds of details, those appearing before the topic sentence
and those appearing after it. In this paragraph structure, the controlling idea may be of a cause/effect or
comparison/contrast nature. The topic sentence, then, serves the function of linking sets of related but
different data. A paragraph of this type can be diagrammed as a diamond with details at both ends and the
broad, topic sentence in the middle.
The following is a sample paragraph with the topic sentence in the medial position:
When a camera flash is used in a low-light environment, the subject's eyes may appear red in t he finished
photograph. What is known as "red-eye" is the result of light from the flash reflecting off the pupils of the
eyes. The phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by using the red-eye reduction feature found on
many SLR cameras. This feature activates a lamp which shines a small light directly into the subject's
eyes. When this happens, the diameter of the pupil is reduced, thus tightening the opening in the iris.
Since a smaller pupil means a smaller host for the reflection, the chances of red-eye occurring are greatly
reduced.
In the above paragraph, the topic sentence is The phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by using the
red-eye reduction feature found on many SLR cameras. It serves to connect information about the
cause of red-eye (found at the beginning of the paragraph) with information about how the problem can
be alleviated (found after the topic sentence).
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2. Here is an example of a paragraph with the topic sentence found at the end. The subject
is "Cancer affects everybody":
CANCER AFFECTS EVERYBODY
My grandfather contracted* lung cancer a few months ago. The doctors now say that he only has a few
weeks to live. My family's situation is not unique. Millions of Americans are going through a similar
experience. At least three members of every extended family will contract terminal* disease before the
age of sixty. At least one out of every three nuclear families will have a member who will die of cancer
before the age of fifty. From these statistics and from personal experience it is obvious that no one is
unaffected by cancer.
3. Here is an example of a paragraph with the topic sentence found at the beginning and at
the end.
The wonder of omelets is that so many things can be put in to them. Take Cheese, for example. All
sorts of cheese, like
enhancing the texture of the eggs. And vegetables, from the predictable onions and green peppers to the
less common spinach and kohlrabi, add vital flavour. Still more lavish, for those who are not vegetarians,
might be the fruits that give it tang: raisins and avocados. Maybe someday an enterprising chef will
figure out how to mix liquor and candy with eggs to produce vodka-and-fudge omelets.
G. The topic sentence is most general statement and the main idea of the paragraph. It should not be too
general, too vague or too specific. You should narrow down your subject.
When you start to write about a very general topic, such as university,
vacations, or nuclear power, you must narrow down it down to a
limited topic that can be discussed in one paragraph. For example, there are
many specific things about university, such as classes, students, teachers, and the
campus, that you can discuss. You may narrow down the subject of college to the more specific subject
of her roommate, Murat.
Examples:
1. Topic Sentence: "Many television cartoons contain an unhealthy amount of violence."
Notice that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the paragraph is violence in television
cartoons. It also indicates that the remainder of the paragraph will discuss how much violence cartoons
typically contain, and how/why this violence is unhealthy for viewers.
2. Topic Sentence: "An increasing number of people in the world are enjoying the benefits of
organically grown fruits and vegetables."
This topic sentence indicates that the remainder of the paragraph will cover the trend in the world toward
eating organic foods. The reader can also expect learning more in this paragraph about the specific
benefits of organic foods.
2.3 The Body

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The body section of a paragraph is the part of the paragraph which provides details that refer back to the
introductory sentence. The job of proving the specific information that answers questions about the
introductory (topic) sentence is carried out by the other sentences in the paragraph. These other sentences
are usually called supporting sentences or detailed sentences
The supporting sentences can supply information about the topic in a number of ways. They may answer
the question what kind of? By defining or explaining something in the topic sentence or by offering
examples or a description of it. They may answer the question why? By giving reasons that will help the
reader to understand or agree with the idea suggested by the topic sentence.
2.4 The Concluding Sentence

In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph which
summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the concluding sentence. You can think
of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.
You can understand concluding sentences with this example.
Consider a hamburger that you can buy at a fast-food restaurant. A

hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, and other
elements in the middle of the hamburger, and a bottom bun. Note how the
top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top bun, in a way, is like
a TOPIC SENTENCE, and the bottom bun is like the CONCLUDING
SENTENCE. Both buns "hold" the meat, onions, and so on. Similarly,
the topic sentence and concluding sentence "hold" the supporting sentences
in the paragraph. Let's see how a concluding sentence (in bold font) might
look in our sample paragraph about Wheaton:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is
unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two
hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing
and make my hometown a famous place.
Notice how the concluding sentence, These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown
a famous place, summarizes the information in the paragraph. Notice also how the concluding sentence
is similar to, but not exactly the same as, the topic sentence.
Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very short.
However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence.
2.5 Elements /essentials of a Paragraph

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To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,
Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits
overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective
paragraphs.
2.5.1 Cohesion/Coherence
What does cohesion mean?
You might think of cohesion as a means of establishing connections within a text at all sorts of different
levels, e.g., section, paragraphs, sentences and even phrases.
How is cohesion different from coherence? It is difficult to separate the two. However, think of coherence
as the text making sense as a whole at an ideas level, and cohesion as rather more mechanical links at a
language level. You can imagine that it is possible for a piece of writing to contain plenty of cohesion yet
little coherence.
Cohesion is the glue (fasten, attach) that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if a paper is
cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. Cohesive devices
certainly include transitional words and phrases, such as therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that
clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough
to make writing cohesive. Repetition of key words and use of reference words are also needed for
cohesion.
Sentence Cohesion
To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the next, consider the following techniques:
1. Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A.
2. Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word, you wish to repeat.
This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'
3. Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in
language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might imagine.
4. Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a
form mentioned earlier.
5. Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one
sentence to another.
6. Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This
system has many advantages:
(a) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected,
(b) it looks formal and distinctive, and
(c) it promotes a second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below.
7. Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical
relationships.
A. Identity: Indicates sameness. that is, that is to say, in other words, ...
B. Opposition: Indicates a contrast. but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although,
whereas, in contrast, rather, ...
Example
most significant spiritual trait, yet rejects humor as a contaminating element wherever
found. America is a nation of comics and comedians; nevertheless, humor has no stature
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and is accepted only after the death of the perpetrator.
(E. B. White)
C. Addition: Indicates continuation. and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition,

besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, .
Example
In the first place, no "burning" in the sense of combustion, as in the burning of wood, occurs
in a volcano; moreover, volcanoes are not necessarily mountains; furthermore, the activity
takes place not always at the summit but more commonly on the sides or flanks; and finally,
the "smoke" is not smoke but condensed steam.
(Fred Bullard, Volcanoes in History)
D. Cause and effect: therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result,

hence, it follows that, because, since, for, ...
Example
The ideologue is often brilliant. Consequently some of us distrust brilliance when we should
distrust the ideologue.
(Clifton Fadiman)
E. Indefinites: Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. in fact, indeed, now, ..

F. Concession: Indicates a willingness to consider the other side. admittedly, I admit, true,
I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that,
once it was believed, there are those who would say, ...
G. Exemplification: Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific
or concrete idea. for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in
fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, ...
Example
With all the ingenuity involved in hiding delicacies on the body, this process automatically
excludes certain foods. For example, a turkey sandwich is welcome, but the cumbersome
cantaloupe is not.
(Steve Martin, "How to Fold Soup")
H. Comparison Transitions: by the same token, in like manner, in the same way , in
similar fashion, likewise, similarly
Example
When you start with a portrait and search for a pure form, a clear volume, through successive
eliminations, you arrive inevitably at the egg. Likewise, starting with the egg and following the
same process in reverse, one finishes with the portrait.
(Pablo Picasso)
Conclusion and Summary Transitions: and so, after all, at last, finally, in brief, in closing, in
conclusion, on the whole, to conclude, to summarize
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Example
Reporters are not paid to operate in retrospect. Because when news begins to solidify into current events
and finally
far more damaging than the ones we did.
(Anna Quindlen)
Insistence Transitions: in fact, indeed, no, yes
Example
The joy of giving is indeed
(Frank Butler, Going My Way)
Place Transitions: above, alongside, beneath, beyond, farther along, in back, in front, nearby, on top of,
to the left, to the right, under, upon
Example
What did it matter where you lay once you were dead? In a dirty sump or in a marble tower on top ofa
high hill? You were dead, you were sleeping the big sleep, you were not bothered by things like that.
(Raymond Chandler, The Big Sleep)
Time Transitions: afterward, at the same time, currently, earlier, formerly, immediately, in the
future, in the meantime, in the past, later, meanwhile, previously, simultaneously, subsequently,
then. until now
Example
At first a toy, then a mode of transportation for the rich, the automobile was designed as man's
mechanical servant. Later it became part of the pattern of living.
Coherence
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because (1) your supporting
sentences are in some kind of logical order and (2) your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate
transition signals. (3) Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a paragraph flow smoothly from
one sentence to the next sentence. With coherence, the reader has an easy time understanding the ideas
that you wish to express.
Consider the following paragraph:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many
willow* trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of
these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the town is
Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not
dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees
around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many miles away. The third
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amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six
hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place
Analyzing the paragraph:
Major Connectors
Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how they help guide the reader? For example, consider the
words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature. We can call these words major connectors. Major
connectors help organize the main parts of your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts: (1) a part
about the Wheaton River, (2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and (3) a part about the Big Old Tree. Another
way of saying this is that this paragraph has three main points which are indicated by the major
connectors. Using such major connectors is an important way of providing coherence in a paragraph.
2.5.2 Pronouns:
Definition: Pronouns (such as "he," "they," "their," "it") are used to replace nouns, and pronouns must
agree in number and person with the noun they are replacing (the words that pronouns replace are called
"antecedents"). In other words, "he" must refer to one male, and "they" must refer to two or more people
or things. Lack of pronoun agreement occurs when the pronoun does not agree in number or person with
its antecedent. Pronoun errors also occur when the writer uses a pronoun whose antecedent is missing, is
ambiguous, or is too far removed from its antecedent.
Examples:
1. When a student gets behind in the course, they have a difficult time completing all of the
assignments.*
2. Judy asked Marie if the instructor wanted to see her.*
3. When one debates an issue, he must have thorough knowledge of both sides of the issue.*
How to Correct: To correct a problem with pronoun agreement, you must identify the antecedent of the
pronoun, and then you must change the pronoun or the antecedent so that each agrees in number and
person with the other. If the antecedent may be unclear to readers, you can replace the pronoun with its
antecedent, or you might have to rewrite the sentence to clarify your meaning.
1. When a student gets behind in the course, he or she has a difficult time completing all of the
assignments, or When students get behind in the course, they have a difficult time completing all
of the assignments.
2. Judy asked Marie if the instructor wanted to see Marie.
3. When one debates an issue, one must have thorough knowledge of both sides of the issue.
Note: A common error is the use of a plural pronoun ("they" or "their") to refer to a singular indefinite
pronoun (anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, nobody, no one, one, somebody, and someone.) Each of
these indefinite pronouns is singular, meaning a singular pronoun must be used to refer to it. Also,
phrases beginning with "every" and "each" are singular, never plural. The following sentences contain
errors because of a lack of pronoun agreement:
1. Everyone is expected to bring their books to class.*

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2. No one can be blamed for their lack of experience.*
To avoid sexist language, "he or she" or "her or his" should be used instead of "he" or "his," but such
phrasing is awkward and wordy. Often, a better alternative is to change the antecedent to a plural noun
and to use a plural pronoun to refer to it.
1. Everyone is expected to bring his or her books to class.

2. Students are expected to bring their books to class.
3. No one can be blamed for her or his lack of experience.
2.5.3 Choice of Word

Choose your words carefully when you write. Always take the time to think about your word choices,
rather than simply using the first word that comes to mind. You want to develop the habit of selecting
words that are appropriate and exact for your purposes. One way you can show sensitivity to language is
by avoiding slang, clichés, inflated words, and wordiness.
Slang
We often use slang expressions when we talk because they are so vivid and colorful. However, slang is
usually out of place in formal writing. Here are some examples of slang expressions:
I heard that Dominique arm candy.
House music is sick.
Josh is too web shy.
My boss hates it when I reverse telecommute.
The Red Bull I drank to pull an all-nighter was fierce.
wow factor.
DJing was über cool.
The photos you uploaded are facebookable.
Slang expressions have a number of drawbacks. They go out of date quickly, they become tiresome if
used excessively in writing, and they may communicate clearly to some readers but not to others. Also,
specific details about D

physique, height, hair style, clothing, smile that made this person so
attractive? In general, then, you should avoid slang in your writing. If you are in doubt about whether an
expression is slang, it may help to check a recently published hardbound dictionary.
2.6 Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately.
Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should
beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not
fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:
Use examples and illustrations

Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
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Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
How do I know when to start a new paragraph?
You should start a new paragraph when:
When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you
have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should
have its own paragraph.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate,
different points in an argument, or any other difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for your
readers adding these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a break if the
paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and
concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions
have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
2.7 Unity
Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Unity means that you discuss only one
main idea in a paragraph. That is, all the sentences -- the topic, supporting sentences, the detail
sentences, and (sometimes) the concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If
your paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main topic, then we say
that the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off-topic."
Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have studied above. Does it
have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-topic:
Each of the Russian carried out space exploration projects had specific major goals. For example,
the Vostok project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer
space. For another example, the Voshkhod project was intended to find out whether people could work in
the weightless environment of space. One Voshkhod cosmonaut experimented with weightlessness by
taking a "spacewalk." That is, he floated in a spacesuit outside his Voshkhod spacecraft, connected to it
by a tether. The cosmonaut to do this was Alexei Leonov. Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was
followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White. Finally, the Soyuz project, with three cosmonauts, had
goals of testing spacecraft and space flight skills so that people could fly long missions in Earth orbit.
This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence, Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed
by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have anything to do with the major goals of the various
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Russian space projects. That is, it is an "off-topic" sentence, so we can say that the paragraph somewhat
lacks unity. In order to improve the paragraph, we should omit this sentence, even though it is historically
accurate.
PARAGRAPH TITLE
Single paragraphs do not usually have titles. Giving your practice paragraphs titles, however, may help
you to organize and limit your thoughts. For longer essays or reports, though, the use of titles will become
more necessary
2.8 Tips for Writing a Paragraph

What is the prewriting stage?
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you
begin writing.
Six Prewriting Steps:
1. Think carefully about what you are going to write.
Ask yourself:
What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay?
How can I best answer this question?
What is the most important part of my answer?
How can I make a topic sentence (or thesis statement) from the most important part of my
answer?
What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence?
How can I make this paragraph or essay interesting?
Do I need more facts on this topic?
Where can I find more facts on this topic?
2. Open your notebook.
Write out your answers to the above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time doing
this; just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your
paragraph or essay.
3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic.
Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Timesaving hint: make
sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to answer in your
paragraph or essay.
________________________________________________________________
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4. Write down your own ideas.
Ask yourself: What else do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested in this
topic? Why is this topic important?
5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay.
Choose the most important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which point is the
most important, just choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay.
6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea.
Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the
best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look at your own ideas
on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your paragraph.
Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in
the paragraph. Write down your own note set that you can use to guide yourself as you write your
paragraph or essay.
2.9 Writing Paragraphs

What is the writing stage?
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five Writing Steps:

1. Open your notebook and word processor.
2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence.
3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.
4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.
5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas.
Editing Paragraphs
What is the editing stage?

The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them.
Grammar and Spelling

3. Check your spelling. 7. See if your subjects and verbs
4. Check your grammar. agree with each other.
5. Read your essay again. 8. Check the verb tenses of each
6. Make sure each sentence has a sentence.
subject. 9. Make sure that each sentence
makes sense.
Style and Organization
1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.
2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.
3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.
4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.
5. See if your paragraph is interesting.
________________________________________________________________
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Publishing Paragraphs
What is the publishing stage?

The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your paragraph to hand in.
Three Publishing Steps:

1. Make a paper copy of your paragraph.
2. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.
3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.
2.10 Characteristics of a good paragraph

Topic sentence, which includes the topic and a controlling idea.
Supporting ideas (usually 3 - 6), which support the topic sentence
Reasons, examples, names, numbers, and senses give details for and further explain the supporting
ideas.
Optional concluding sentence, which leaves the reading with something to think about and may
summarize the supporting ideas if the paragraph is long.
Unity, which means that all sentences in the paragraph directly support the topic sentence.
o Coherence, which means that all the information of the paragraph is well-organized, logically
ordered and easy to follow.
Process of Writing a Paragraph:
1. Compose your topic sentence. Think of a topic and a controlling idea that will narrow the topic
enough to support it well in one paragraph.
2. Brainstorm supporting ideas. Choose 2 - 6 supporting ideas that do a good job supporting your topic
sentence.
3. Write your paragraph in topic outline form as follows. Don't actuall y write sentences in the outline,
except for the topic sentence.
4. Put your supporting ideas in a logical order.
5. For each supporting idea, think of reasons, examples, names, numbers, and senses that further explain
the idea. For balance, each supporting idea should have about the same amount of reasons, examples,
names, numbers, and senses. Think of a concluding sentence. Write your paragraph using sentences. Use
the coherence strategies to make your paragraph easy to follow. Here is an example: We came up with a
good topic sentence and supporting ideas:
6. Topic sentence: Choosing a college or university can be difficult.
Supporting ideas: 1. Good Location, 2. Affordable, 3. Good preparation for major
We decided to order these supporting ideas according to importance as shown in the outline below.
Now we put this information into outline form and added some reasons, examples, names, numbers, and
senses for each supporting idea.
Topic sentence: Choosing a college or university can be difficult.
A. Good preparation for your major
1. Hard curriculum
2. Qualified professors

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B. Affordable
1. be able to pay tuition and living expenses

2. Possibility of scholarships
C. Good Location
1. Study environment
2. Possibilities of part-time job in your major
Concluding sentence: You should consider these points carefully so you can choose the most appropriate
college or university for you.
Finally, we wrote the paragraph using sentences and trying to make the paragraph coherent using different
coherence strategies.
CHOOSING A COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY
Choosing a college or university can be difficult. The most difficult part is finding a university that
prepares you well for your future career. In order to get a good job, the curriculum that is taught must be
thorough and up-to-date. In addition, the professors must be highly qualified and respected in their fields.
Another difficulty in choosing a university or college is affordability. You need to be able to pay the
tuition fees and living expenses. Some institutions might be able to offer you scholarships if you cannot
afford the fees. A good location is also very important when choosing a school. The environment should
be safe and quiet to facilitate studying. Moreover, there should be possibilities near the school for part-
time or summer jobs in your major, so you can get some practical work experience. You should consider
all of these points carefully so you can choose the most appropriate college or university for you.
2.11 Basic types of Paragraphs: expository, descriptive,

narrative, and argumentative
2.11. 1 Description/Descriptive paragraph
As the name suggests, describes, people, item, scene, event, place, and object, etc in the real world or
perceptions, such as smell and sight. A writer using this form of discourse typically tries to paint a mental
image, or verbal picture for a reader that allows him or her to more closely connect to what is describe.
Adjective to describe physical appearance
Forehead: High, low
Build: tall, short, plump, fat, over-weight , under-weight, frail, skinny, stocky, slim, slender thin, skinny,
well-built, muscular
Age: toddler, young, elderly, middle-aged, old, teenager, in early/mid/late 20s, 30s,
Face: round, oval, square, with scares, wrinkles, freckles, sun-tanned, pale
Eyes: Big, round, blue, brown, large, small, bright, narrow
Hair: bald, straight, curly, spiky, wavy, grey, plaited, short, long,

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Clothes: casual, scruffy, shabby, smart, tidy, messy, cotton, woolen, leather, traditional
Adjectives to describe personality: careful, hard-working, worried, cheerful, broadminded, active,

curious, secretive, dull, boring, imaginative, ambitious, crafty, sensitive, gentle, naïve, aggressive, tough,
careless, practical, sensible, independent, strong-minded, stupid, generous, loyal, self-controlled, moody,
trusting, modest, tolerant, friendly, energetic, confident, selfish, shy, stubborn, reliable, clumsy,
intelligent
Example:
Best Friends Forever

As a child at the age of two, my sister and I had pictures taken together. My sister and I are ten months
and three weeks apart. In this special family picture was look identical. Our big, dark blue and brown eyes
and smile resemble two calm little girls, enjoying the moment with peaceful smiles on our faces. In our
long, dark red and blue dresses we sit straight up in front of a warn red fireplace surrounded by green
plants. Our dark brown, wavy hair even matched. We both had baby pink bows off to the side of our
heads that resemble a blooming flower. Growing up our family consisted of our father, my sister, and I.
my sister and reveals how close we are in age and through this paragraph it also reveals how close we are
when it comes to love and friendship.
~(c) Amy Neill 2005~
2.11.2 Narration/The Narrative paragraph

Narrative written discourse typically refers to a piece of work that is created as a story. It is concerned
with describing series of events, happenings or incidents which may be either real or imaginary that lead
to a conclusion. It is the kind of writing most people habitually turn to recreation, it is found in Short
stories and novels as well as in news stories and essays. These works often has a fairly well established
structure to them, which presents information and events as they happen through one of several different
perspectives. Various characters are often included in this type of written discourse, and events commonly
unfold to a satisfactory conclusion. Such works can be fictional or non-fictional, which means they are
either invented works or narratives with a basis in real events and people.
Example
The Climb
This excerpt from the climb also captures your attention right away by creating a sense of mystery. The
reader announces that he or she has "this fear" and you want to read on to see what that fear is.
nearby. As thoughts of certain death run through my mind, the world appears a precious, treasured place.
I imagine my own funeral, then shrink back at the implications of where my thoughts are taking me. My
stomach feels strange. My palms are clammy. I am terrified of heights. Of course, i
being in a high place. Rather, it is the view of a long way to fall, of rocks far below me and no firm wall
between me and the edge. My sense of security is screamingly absent. There are no guardrails, flimsy
though I picture them, or other safety devices. I can rely only on my own surefootedness or lack

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2.11.3 Argumentative/Persuasive Paragraph
attempt to argue a point. Political propaganda and literature is often written in this type of form to present
an argument to a reader in order to make him or her think differently. Persuasive works are frequently
written in a similar way, though they may be less clearly confrontational in nature and instead present a
subtler argument. These types of written works are often created by a writer to persuade the reader into a
certain mode of thinking, usually through the presentation of information from a particular perspective.
Example
Argument Paragraph
Year- Because students have multiple breaks
throughout the year, they experience less academic burnout. They have frequent opportunities to refresh
and restart their learning experience. Year-round schools have lower drop-out rates (2%) than traditional
schools (5%) (StatisticBrain.com). In addition, one study of six elementary schools, three on traditional
calendars and three on year-round schedules, found positive effects of year-round education. The sample
of students in the year-round schools posted overall test-scores that were higher than students at the
schools with traditional calendars (Education Week). Not only do students at year-round schools do better
throughout the year, but they also retain more of their knowledge and skills over the summer. I forgot
fewer of my math skills over the summer because my summer break was so short thanks to year-round
school. The experts agree. A review of 39 studies confirmed summertime learning loss in students who
attend schools with traditional calendars: test scores drop over summer vacation (Cooper, et al., 1996).
2.11. 4 Expository Paragraphs

Expository is a kind of writing that explains, defines or interprets. The purpose of exposition is simply to
make clear to the order that how something works, how something is made, or how something happened.
information about people, places, things or ideas. There are different types of expository essay
developments. These include:
1. Comparison and Contrast 4. Classification

2. Cause/effect 5. Problem/Solution
3. Definition 6. Illustration/Exemplification
1. Comparison and Contrast
The compare-and-contrast format explores attributes of two or more topics. This essay features
two main elements of content. Comparison is the section that emphasizes similarities. Contrast
focuses on differences. This writing style can be presented in two different organizational
formats. The point-by-point format includes multiple sections devoted to subcategories that
explore attributes of each topic. For example, in an essay about cats and dogs as pets,
subcategories may include size, disposition, nutritional needs and cleanliness. The second format,
known as block or subject-by-subject, includes one section per topic. This essay would feature a
paragraph addressing all attributes of the dog and likewise a separate paragraph describing the
cat.
Example
Right Brain / Left Brain

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The left and right sides of your brain process information in different ways. The left side is logical,
rational, linear, and verbal. The right side, on the other hand, processes information intuitively,
emotionally, creatively, and visually. Left brains think in words, whereas right brains think in pictures.
People who depend more on the left side of their brain are list makers and analysts. They are detailed,
careful, and organized. In contrast, right-brained people are visual, intuitive, and sensual. When a left-
brained person has to make an important decision, he or she makes a mental list of all the factors involved
and arrives at a decision only after careful analysis. When a right-brained person has to make the same
decision, on the other hand, he or she is more likely to base it on intuition and feelings. For example, a
left-
right-brained shopper bases a decision on how shiny the chrome is, how soft the seats are, and how
smoothly the car drives. Of course, no one is 100 percent left-brained or 100 percent right-brained.
Although one side may be stronger, both sides normally work together.
2. Cause and Effect
A cause and effect essay could be simply a cause effect relationship where there is one cause and one
effect. It would also be many causes resulting in one effect (complex cause). At times it could also be one
cause resulting in many effects (complex effect). There could also be one cause resulting in an effect
which in turn results in other effects (chain of cause and effect).
Example
Air Pollution
Air pollution comes into picture due to the accumulation of hazardous substances into the atmosphere that
danger human life and other living matter. The most dominant player responsible for pollution is
automobiles; apart from that the other causes are Combustion of coal, Acid rain, Manufacturing buildings,
Tobacco smoke, Paint fumes, Aerosol sprays, Nuclear weapons and wild fires. As far as effect of air
pollution is concerned, respiratory diseases tops the chart of health problems. The second one is heart
diseases, it caused due to increased level of carbon monoxide in the air. In addition to that you can avoid a
risk of Asthma, Eye Irritation and a range of bronchial disease due to air pollution. If statistics is to be
believed, this year air population segment will count for 80% of premature deaths.
3. Definition
Definition is a method of restricting or identifying the meaning of a word, a phrase or a concept. Most
definitions are given briefly, usually in sentences or less and usually given in fulfilling other purpose(s).
However, depending on the purpose a definition may require a paragraph or even an essay to illustrate
clearly the meaning that the writer intends.
Example
Paradigms
In nursing research, paradigms are essential to help to place the research into a broader context.
According to Polit and Hungler (1997) paradigms constitute a worldview or a general perspective on the
complexities of the real world. More specifically, paradigms for human inquiry are often characterized in
terms of the way in which they respond to basic philosophical question .In this sense of the term, then;
paradigms are more than typical examples or models. Rather, they demonstrate relationships between
ideas and provide a basis for a methodology or a theory, and as such, they are useful as lenses for viewing
and interpreting significant, substantive issues to the discipline. Thus, paradigms that are often used for

59
nursing research, such as empiricist, interpretive and critical social paradigms, provide frames that hold
the vocabulary, theories, principles, presuppositions and values related to an inquiry.
(Adapted from an essay by Mary Ratsensperger)
4. Classification
Classification gives an order to things by bringing them together or dividing them because of one or
more characteristics. It explains how several different things are really similar because of one or more
characteristics they have in common, or it discusses how things differ or divide from each other on the
basis of one or more distinction.
Example1
Friendships
Although friendship is something that most people enjoy, friendships are not all the same. Some
friendships are forged from a long-term familiarity with one another, and other friendships can spring up
just by spending one fun evening together. Not all friendships result in daily or even weekly time spent
together; long-term friendships can be kept afloat using communication tools like the Internet and
telephone, while other friendships result in sporadic get-togethers sometimes months or even years apart.
People seek different things in friendship, meaning certain friendships result around trips to a diner or
video games while other friendships may occur due to a work relationship or general common interests.
Example 2
Dogs
Dogs are domesticated animals that have been living with humans for generations. Dogs can be classified
in a number of different ways. For example, they can be classified by breed. Examples of different breeds
include beagles, basset hounds, poodles and countless others as defined by the American Kennel Club
(AKC). They can also be classified by their role in the lives of their masters and the work they do. For
example, a dog might be a family pet, a working dog, a show dog, or a hunting dog. In many cases, dogs
are defined both by their breed and their roll. For example, a dog could be a beagle that is a family pet.
5. Problem/solution
Problem/solution and procedural discourse are common in science classes and text. Problem/solution
discourse poses a problem that may be resolved with one or more possible solutions. Procedural discourse
lists steps on how to do or make something. For example, students must follow a certain set of directions
in order to conduct a science experiment. Procedural statements are common in home classes as well.
Example
Legends record that about 2640 BC a Chinese Empress, Si-Ling-Chi watched the little silk worms spin
cocoons in the mulberry trees. She unwound one of the threads from a cocoon. It was one very long
strand of shiny thread. Silk has the longest strand of any natural plant or animal fibre. The challenge was
to develop some kind of winding devise so that the silk thread could be made into cloth. No one knows
for sure when the Chinese first developed silk winding machines. However, there is mention of such
devices in Chinese dictionaries in the 2nd century AD. Actual spinning wheels, however, came much
cloth.
6. Illustration/Exemplification
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An Illustration/Exemplification paragraph is one that uses specific examples to illustrate a point made in
the writing. An example can be a fact, a historical example, a statistics, an event or behaviour.
Example
Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different functions to users. The
programs most often used are word processors. These programs can produce letters, reports, articles
announcements as well as other documents. Another kind of computer program is the data base, which
allows users to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. You might put on a database a library
catalogue, all the business products in inventory or all the names and addresses of students attending a
school. Another kind of program is the communications program, which allows the user to connect to the
internet and to send e-mail to others. If you can access the internet, you can search thousands of
databases, files and websites for information. You can access University libraries, Company websites, and
government information agencies. The computer offers many kinds of programs for users, each with a
distinct function or benefits to the others.
2.12 Guided and free Writing

2.12.1 Guided Writing
Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task. The aims of the task
are based on what they have previously been learning about the writing process. Guided writing aims to
support learners in a psychologically and cognitively difficult activity.
Example
The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and compare ideas. They are now
writing a short discursive essay on the subject of animal experimentation. The teacher is working with the
groups to guide them in the correct use of the target language.
In the classroom
Guided writing can be fully exploited by providing learners with the language they need to complete the
a good idea -
to say...?').
How to use guided writing
Guided writing serves as a scaffold to independent writing. Teachers discuss and model writing strategies
with students. These can include using acronyms, templates, and writing frames. More or less support can
be provided depending on the needs of students.
The benefits of guided writing
An effective way of modelling the structure and language of a range of text types.
Supports students to sequence and structure their ideas to meet the purpose of the writing task.
Differentiated support can easily be provided by giving more or fewer prompts/starters.
As students become familiar with the form, less support can be given.

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Text frame
How to use a text frame
This strategy is used for creative writing. The teacher asks a series of questions designed to encourage
students to imagine such things as a place, time, sounds, and sights. Students write short responses. The
teacher gives the students a writing frame which enables students to expand on their ideas.
The benefits of text frames
Useful for modelling text language and structure.

Allows for creativity within a supportive structure.
2.12.2 Free Writing

Free writing is a simple process that is the basis for other discovery techniques. Basic free writing follows
these guidelines:
Write nonstop for a set period of time (10 20 minutes).

Do not make corrections as you write.
Keep writing, even if you have to write something like, "I don't know what to write."
Write whatever comes into your mind.
Do not judge or censor what you are writing.
"Then free writing results in a mess?"
Yes, it certainly can. In fact, if your free writing is neat and coherent, you probably haven't loosened up
enough. However, remember that you can't fail in free writing. The point of doing free writing is the
process, not the end result. If you follow the guidelines, your free writing is successful.
Free writing has these benefits:
It makes you more comfortable with the act of writing.

It helps you bypass the "inner critic" who tells you can't write.
It can be a valve to release inner tensions.
It can help you discover things to write about.
It can indirectly improve your formal writing.
It can be fun.
Some final suggestions for free writing:
Use the writing tool that is most comfortable for you pencil, computer, or whatever.
Don't cross anything out: Write the new idea down; leave the old one.
Drop all punctuation. That can make your free writing faster and more fluent.
Exercise
Write your own paragraphs on the following paragraph development types.

Write Definition, Exemplification/illustration, comparison/contrast, Classification, cause-
effect, Problem/solution, classification paragraphs.
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Unit Three: Essay Writing
3.1 Definition:
An essay is s nonfictional, analytic, descriptive, or interpretive piece of literary or journalistic prose
dealing with a specific topic, especially from a personal and unsystematic viewpoint. It
is literary composition devoted to the presentation of the writer's own ideas on a topic and generally
addressing a particular aspect of the subject. Often brief in scope and informal in style, the essay differs
from such formal expository forms as the thesis, dissertation, or treatise.
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 199 3-2008 Microsoft Corporation.
There are many ways to write an essay. However, the standard essay form follows the same basic patterns
as discussed in this 'how to'. Most essays take a repetitive form sometimes known as the "hamburger
essay". What this means is that the introductory and concluding paragraphs are very similar, whereas the
most important information is found in the body of the essay. Think of a hamburger: The buns cover the
top and the bottom - the introduction and conclusion - and provide a nice covering for the most important
part of the meal the burger.
3.2 Writing Descriptive Essay

Steps to Write a Descriptive Essay
Step1
1. Pick a topic. Descriptive essays generally focus on a person, a place, an event, or a thing. Writers
manner.
Showing and not telling means that you paint a picture for your reader.
2. Create a thesis statement. A thesis statement is the idea that governs the whole essay. It states
the purpose of the paper and governs all of the information that is in the paper.
An example of a descriptive thesis statement is: My backyard is like a jungle.
This thesis statement does not mean that your backyard is literally a jungle, but that the different aspects
of your backyard make it seem like a jungle.
3. Draw five columns on a piece of paper with each column labeled one of the five senses.
These include taste, touch, sight, sound, and smell. This list will help you keep your thoughts
straight when describing your essay.
Using your five senses, write down sensations and feelings you associate with your topic.
4. Review your list and choose the most dominant details to write about. These details should
be the items that best support your thesis and are the most interesting.
These details will be made into your body paragraphs.

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5. Create an outline that lists what each paragraph of your essay is going to discuss. Typically,
middle and high schoolers writing descriptive essays will be asked to write a 5 paragraph essay.
College level students and above have more free-reign regarding how long to make their essays.
5 paragraph essays are structured to include an introductory paragraph that includes a
thesis statement, three body paragraphs proving your thesis statement, and a concluding
paragraph that summarizes what you have said in the rest of your essay.
Step 2
1. Structure your essay in a way that makes sense for your topic. If you are writing about an
event, give your paragraphs a chronological order. If you are writing about a place or thing, try
ordering your paragraphs so that they go from general to specific.
Example: First paragraph: The things you notice when you look at a house from the
outside. Second paragraph: The sights, sounds, smells, tastes, feelings etc. that you
experience when you are inside the house. Third paragraph: A description of your
favourite section of the house.
2. Write your introductory paragraph. The introductory paragraph establishes the main ideas
of the essay and sets the tone. This paragraph should include an introduction to your topic
followed by your thesis statement.
3. Create a topic sentence at the beginning of each body paragraph. This sentence lets your
reader know what the paragraph is going to be about. It should be clear and concise. Each
topic sentence should relate back to the thesis statement.
Example: Thesis statement: My backyard is like a jungle that I love to explore. Topic
Sentence: When I climb a tree in my backyard, I feel like I am climbing a tall jungle
tree.
4. Write your body paragraphs based on your topic sentences. Body paragraphs are where
you get to prove that your thesis is true. Always keep in my mind that everything you write in
your body paragraph should relate to your topic sentence and your thesis.[3]
Example: The trees in my backyard are filled with the music of birds. Emeralds
leaves sway in sun-filled breeze. Etc.
5. Provide sensory details that support your thesis. Use literary tools like descriptive
adjectives, similes, metaphors and personification.[4]
pretty to look
6. Write your conclusion. Your conclusion should summarize everything you have written in
your essay. It should also restate your thesis. It is important to have a well-written conclusion
because it is the last thing the reader will read, and will stay in his or her mind the longest.
Step3 (Finalizing your essay)

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7. Take a break from working after you have finished writing. Stepping away from your
writing helps you to clear your head. You will be able to look at your essay the way your
reader would look at it once you have taken a break from working on it.
8. Read your essay with the reader in mind. Ask yourself: Does the essay unfold in a way that
helps the reader understand the subject? Are any of the paragraphs more confusing than
descriptive?
Does the word choice and figurative language convey what you are trying to express
about the topic?
Are there enough details to give the reader a complete picture?
Do the details in the essay help the reader understand what the topic means to the
writer?
9. Read your essay out loud. By reading out loud, you can more easily locate sections of the
essay that might be awkward or confusing.
10. Get someone else to read your essay. Does it make sense to them? Do they think you should
add or delete anything?
11. Proofread your essay for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Delete clichés.
Sample Descriptive Essay
The Old Fence
The old fence stands weathered and tired. It has been holding cattle in the field ever since the
farmer put it up. The cows have occasionally tried to break through, but they have lost their
battles; only the small yearlings have been able to squeeze under the fence.
The poles stand rotten and weary; they are lined up in a sporadic order. The spaces between are not
always equal and their heights differ greatly. Some have pulled loose from their holes, and they are
held up only by the line of barbed wire that clings to their hide. The line of fence looks much like a
parade of weary, beaten soldiers who have been defeated in battle and are lining up for their last
breath of honor before they are shot and killed.
In several places on the fence the barbed wire has been cut or bent out of shape. But neither the
rain and rust nor the cattle's fury has made the wire calm or dangerous. Sharp, erect pins still show
their warning of power; many times they have acted as a catalyst between the cows and their
angered emotions.
Even though the fence is old and historical, it will not last very long because there is a new owner.
He is a man of power and wealth who has big plans, a man too high to care for the cattle or the
soil, a man whose only dream is riches.
3.3 Writing Argumentative Essay

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Understanding how to structure and write an argumentative essay is a useful skill. Strong argumentative
essays present relevant evidence that supports an argument and convinces the audience of a particular
stance.
Steps to write an Argumentative Essay
Select a topic. Choose a topic that is relevant and important to you, as you will need to spend time
researching evidence to support your argument.
Research your topic. Conduct thorough research on your topic. Collecting evidence and information that
supports both your argument and the opposition view will strengthen your essay.
Understand your audience. If your aim is to persuade a specific person or group with your essay, it is
key structure your argument with their view in mind.
Test Your Argument. Find a peer (preferably one that holds an oppositional view) to discuss your
argument with. This process will help you refine your thinking and develop new ideas to support your
judgement.
Write a Title. Developing a creative, original title is a fantastic opportunity to look reader into reading
more.
Write the introduction. This section should briefly explain the essay topic and include relevant
background information to familiarise the reader with the topic. Add a transition sentence at the end of the
introduction that transitions the reader to your argument.
Write the conclusion. The aimof this section is to reassert your argument and persuade the audience to
support your claim. Try to connect the essay topic to the interests and values of the audience.
Tips
Use basic writing techniques to write the essay. Sentence should logicall flow and have a specific
a purpose.
Try to make each paragraph about a different aspect.
Depending on the topic, your essay should be between 4 and 10 paragraphs.
Inc -topic.
Warning
It is important to respect different view and to only use information, not insults, to support your claim
Example
Breaking the Rule
College and high school students often look for short cut to make their work easier. To achieve a good
grade, students are sometimes tempted to cheat. One of the most frequent ways of cheating is to buy
essays off the Internet. This may result in a good grade. However, plagiarism is responsible from a social
and academic stand point.
66
First, plagiarism is social unacceptable. Students are expected by teachers and their classmates to do their
own work. If a student plagiarizes, he or she violates that trust. This may damage the relationship between
the student and the teacher, as well as the relationship with classmates. I remember once when a student
was discovered to have plagiarized his essay. We were mad that our classmate had lied to us. It was an
embarrassment for everyone- the institution, the instructor and student- to discover that he had been
cheating all along.
Plagiarism is also wrong because it is against academic policy. Even though buying essays and presenting
them as your own may save time initially, this practice is against university rules. In fact, universities
have ways to prove if students have plagiarized. Instructors can use software that compares a student
essay and material on Internet. This way, instructors can detect if a particular essay was copied. The
consequences are very serious. I remember when one of my classmates started buying essays to prove that
he was an excellent student. After the fin al exam, our instructor found his essay on a website and the
student was expelled.
It is true that many students at community college have busy schedules and may argue have trouble
completing their assignments on time. Some students may argue that because of their situation, they
sometimes have no choice but to buy essays off the Internet. However, buying essays off the Internet
should never be the solution. Instead, students might try to negotiate the deadline with the instructor.
Furthermore, while writing may be a struggle for some students who feel that their writing is not good
enough to receive an A, it is crucial that they do their own work. They may go to writing center for help.
Otherwise, if they plagiarize, they will not develop their own writing skills. As a result, they may not be
prepared to pass their final exams. In the end, pla
I believe that university authorities should discourage plagiarism by making students more aware of the
problem it causes. Plagiarism damages classroom relationships. It also violates school policies and
prevents students from realizing their own potential. If we do not stop plagiarism, many students will lose
out on their education.
(Effective Academic Writing 3 by Jason Davis and Rhonda Liss)
3.4 Writing Narrative Essay

There's nothing like reading a great narrative. Whether in novel or essay form, a narrative piece of writing
transports readers into the time and space of the world portrayed by the writing.
There's also nothing like writing a great narrative. Through reflecting upon an event, and through
recreating the experience for other readers, writing a narrative essay can enable you to develop new,
subtle, and rewarding perspectives.
Basic qualities of a narrative essay:
A narrative essay is a piece of writing that recreates an experience through time.

A narrative essay can be based on one of your own experiences, either past or present, or it can be
based on the experiences of someone else.
In addition to telling a story, a narrative essay also communicates a main idea or a lesson learned.
First steps for writing a narrative essay:

67
Identify the experience that you want to write about.
Think about why the experience is significant.
Spend a good deal of time drafting your recollections about the details of the experience.
Create an outline of the basic parts of your narrative.
Writing about the experience:
Using your outline, describe each part of your narrative.

Rather than telling your readers what happened, use vivid details and descriptions to actually
recreate the experience for your readers.
Think like your readers. Try to remember that the information you present is the only information
your readers have about the experiences.
Always keep in mind that all of the small and seemingly unimportant details known to you are
not necessarily known to your readers.
Communicating the significance of the experience:
It's often effective to begin your narrative with a paragraph that introduces the experience and
communicates the significance. This technique guarantees that your readers will understand the
significance of the experience as they progress through the narrative.
Another effective technique is to begin the essay by jumping directly into the narrative and then
ending the essay with a paragraph communicating the significance of the experience. This
approach allows your readers to develop their own understanding of the experience through the
body of the essay and then more deeply connect to your expression of the significance at the end.
You might also consider introducing the experience in the first paragraph but delaying your
expression of the significance of the experience until the end of the essay. This approach
heightens your readers' sensitivity to the significance of the narrative.
Revising your narrative essay:
After spending time away from the draft of your narrative essay, read through the essay and think
about whether the writing effectively recreates the experience for your readers.
Ask other people to read through the essay and offer their impressions.
Identify where more details and descriptions are needed.
Identify and consider removing any information that seems to distract from the focus and main
narrative of the essay.
Think about whether you've presented information in the most effective order.
Example
An Embarrassing Incident
Where I grew up, the rules for family life are strict. I had five brothers and five sisters, and we spent a lot
of time with our relatives. My parents taught us we should respect grandparents more than anyone in the
world because grandparents had lived the longest. They had more knowledge about life, and no matter
68
what they said, even if it did not make sense, they were right. We were taught that no hug or kiss
grandparents was disrespectful and that we should greet them by kissing their hands. I was young, and I
thought that everyone lived and thought just as I did. Well, I soon found out this is not true.
One day, an American friend invited me to her birthday party. I was very exited but at the same time very
nervous. I wanted her family to like me, and I wanted to use my best manners. Slowly, I walked up to the
house and rang the bell. My friend came running out with a big smile, telling me she was happy that I
came. Then she let me in and introduced me to her parents. They smiled and said hello. Later she said
was sitting. She introduced us, and he reached out his hand. He was going to shake hands, but I thought
he was expecting me to kiss his hands, so did I. He pulled his hand away and looked at me in a strange
way as if he did not like what I had done. Everyone else in the room looked at me, and my friend started
laughing. I was confused. I sat down and tried to figure out what had happened. Just then, a little boy ran
because the room became very silent and all eyes were on me.
boy to get away from his grandfather. I explained my customs to her and she explained hers to me.
Finally, I learned that good manners are not always the same in different countries. Fortunately, my friend
and I stayed very good friends.
(Effective Academic Writing 2, by Alice Savage and Patricia Mayer)
3.5 Writing Expository Essay

Tips on Writing an Expository Essay
The purpose of the expository essay is to explain a topic in a logical and straightforward manner. Without
bells and whistles, expository essays present a fair and balanced analysis of a subject based on facts
otions.
opinion or argument on whether or no
The Five-Step Writing Process for Expository Essays
Expository writing is a life skill. More than any other type of writing, expository writing is a daily
requirement of most careers. Understanding and following the proven steps of the writing process helps
all writers, including students, master the expository essay.
Expository Essay Structure
Usually, the expository essay is composed of five paragraphs. The introductory paragraph contains the
thesis or main idea. The next three paragraphs, or body of the essay, provide details in support of the
thesis. The concluding paragraph restates the main idea and ties together the major points of essay.

69
Here are expository essay tips for each part of the essay structure and writing process:
1. Prewriting for the Expository Essay

In the prewriting phase of writing an expository essay, students should take time to brainstorm about the
topic and main idea. Next, do research and take notes. Create an outline showing the information to be
presented in each paragraph, organized in a logical sequence.
2. drafting the Expository Essay

when creating the initial draft of an expository essay, consider the following suggestions:
The most important sentence in the introductory paragraph is the topic sentence, which states the thesis
or main idea of the essay. The thesis should be clearly stated without giving an opinion or taking a
position. A good thesis is well defined, with a manageable scope that can be adequately addressed
within a five-paragraph essay.
sentences of e
The concluding paragraph should reinforce the thesis and the main supporting ideas. Do not introduce
new material in the conclusion.
Since an expository essay discusses an event, situation, or the views of others, and not a personal
sentences.
3. Revising the Expository Essay

In the revision phase, students review, modify, and reorganize their work with the goal of making it the
best it can be. Keep these considerations in mind:
Does the essay give an unbiased analysis that unfolds logically, using relevant facts and examples?
Has the information been clearly and effectively communicated to the reader?
by introducing unnecessary details.

Is the sentence structure varied? Is the word choice precise?
Do the transitions between sente
Does the concluding paragraph communicate the value and meaning of the thesis and key supporting
ideas?
If the essay is still missing the mark, take another look at the topic sentence. A solid thesis statement leads
to a solid essay. Once the thesis works, the rest of the essay falls into place more easily.
4. Editing the Expository Essay

Next, proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics, and edit to improve style and clarity.
While an expository essay should be clear and concise, it can also be lively and engaging. Having a friend
read the essay helps writers edit with a fresh perspective.
5. Publishing the Expository Essay

Sharing an expository essay with the rest of the class can be both exciting and intimidating. Remember,
from the experience and use the feedback to make the next essay better.

70
Essay Variations
Essay writing is a huge part of a education today. Most students must learn to write various kinds of
essays during their academic careers, including different types of expository essay writing:
Definition essays explain the meaning of a word, term, or concept. The topic can be a concrete subject
such as an animal or tree, or it can be an abstract term, such as freedom or love. This type of essay
associations that a word usually brings to mind.

Classification essays break down a broad subject or idea into categories and groups. The writer
organizes the essay by starting with the most general category and then defines and gives examples of
each specific classification.
Compare and contrast essays describe the similarities and differences between two or more people,
places, or things. Comparison tells how things are alike and contrast shows how they are different.
Cause and effect essays explain how things affect each other and depend on each other. The writer
identifies a clear relationship between two subjects, focusing on why things happen (causes) and/or
what happens as a result (effects).
sometimes called process essays, explain a procedure, step-by-step process, or how
to do something with the goal of instructing the reader.
Tip: in writing an Expository Essay, avoid using the first-person pronoun ("I"). Rather, use second-person
pronouns.
Example:
Many teenagers spend a lot of time contemplating what they want to do when they graduate from high
school. I am fortunate in that I already know; I decided to become a veterinarian when I was two or three
years old. Just like humans, animals need people to treat them with the respect and dignity they deserve,
and I want to be one of those people. Because of this, I am doing all I can at Reavis to lay the groundwork
for my success in college. Then, once I am in college, I will study and learn about all species of animals.
Finally, I will find happiness in my career as a veterinarian because when animals need my assistance, I
know that I will be able to help them.
First, as a freshman at Reavis High School, I keep in mind my lifelong dream of becoming a veterinarian.
I have been taking my education here very seriously, because I know that a person needs to be not only
knowledgeable, but also extremely disciplined in order to become a veterinarian. Because of this, I work
hard to earn good grades, I take pride in my work, and I have learned to manage my time properly. These
skills will be particularly valuable when I enter college.
After leaving Reavis, I must attend college because it is definitely a requirement for becoming a
program. One
must also possess excellent communication, leadership, public speaking, and organizational skills. I have
put a lot of thought and consideration into college, and I have decided that I would like to go to the
University of Illinois. It is a wonderful school, and they even have a graduate program designed for
students who want to become veterinarians.
Once I have completed a veterinarian program, I will be able to pursue my dream career. This career
provides numerous benefits, the first of which is salary. The average veterinarian salary is $60,000 a year,
a salary that would definitely allow me to live a comfortable life. Secondly, it is a rewarding job. This job
would provide me with the satisfaction of knowing that I am helping or saving an
becoming a veterinarian would assure me a lifetime of happiness. I know I would love going to my job
every day, because I would be working with what I love most: animals.

71
In summary, when I graduate from Reavis, I plan to go to college to become a veterinarian. I love animals
and I want to do anything that I can to help them. I know I am only a freshman, but I also know that I am
3.6 General Steps for Writing an Essay

1. Select the topic of your essay.
2. Choose the central idea, or thesis, of your essay. For example: Information technology has
revolutionized the way we work.
3. Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.
4. The introductory paragraph begins with an interesting sentence. For example: Home workers
have grown from 150,000 to over 12 million in the past 5 years thanks to the wonders of the
computer. There are a number of types of introductions: Interesting statistics, a quote from a
famous person, or a rhetorical question such as "Did you know that ...".
5. After this first sentence, add your thesis statement from above. The thesis clearly outlines what
you hope to express in the essay.
6. Use one sentence to introduce every paragraph to follow. This linking to ideas you will develop
further in your body paragraphs provides structure to your essay.
7. Finish the introductory paragraph with a short summary or goal statement. For example:
Technological innovation has thus made the traditional workplace obsolete.
8. In each of the body paragraphs (usually two or three) the ideas first presented in the introductory
paragraph are developed. Remember that referring to ideas first introduced in the initial paragraph
provides structure to your essay.
9. Develop your body paragraphs by giving detailed information and examples. For example: When
the Internet was first introduced it was used primarily by scientists, now it is common in every
classroom.
10. Body paragraphs should develop the central idea and finish with a summary of that idea. There
should be at least two examples or facts in each body paragraph to support the central idea.
11. The summary paragraph summarizes your essay and is often a reverse of the introductory
paragraph.
12. Begin the summary paragraph by quickly restating the principal ideas of your body paragraphs.
For example: The Internet in the home, benefits and ease of use of modern computer systems...
13. The penultimate sentence should restate your basic thesis of the essay. For example: We have
now passed from the industrial revolution to the information revolution.
14. Your final statement can be a future prediction based on what you have shown in the essay. For
example: The next step: The complete disappearance of the workplace.
Tips:
1. Use strong verbs and avoid modals to state your opinion. It is better to write: The workplace has
evolved than The workplace seems to have evolved
2. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your opinion.
3. Do not translate from your mother tongue. It will quickly get you into trouble!
Use this Sample Basic Essay as a Model
The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The different parts of the essay have
been labeled. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics, and each main point is
72
underlined. When you write your own essay, of course, you will not need to mark these parts of the essay
unless your teacher has asked you to do so. They are marked here just so that you can more easily identify
them.
"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only
animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite
what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets as they are good companions, they are
civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.
In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will snuggle
up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they're not feeling
affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything
dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game.
Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a
cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!
In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make
other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also
don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it
without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and
will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post
in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last
resort, of course, cats can be declawed.
Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as house pets is their ease of care. Cats do not have to
be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the litter
box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming.
Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats
are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for
a few hours without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone.
They are content to go about their usual activities until their owners return.
Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or less time for
pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty of space
and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal
house pet.
Writing practice Exercises
You have ever learnt about sentences, paragraphs and Essays so far. Now it is time for you to practice
writing essays.
1. Write Descriptive Essays on the following topics:

2. Describe your dorm
3. Describe Dilla University, Samara Compass.
4. Describe your father/ mother/grandpa/grandma
5. Describe any famous person
6. Describe any animal that you like.
2. Write Argumentative Essays on the following topics:

73
1. Playing computer games is very important
2. People should have the right to owe dun.
3. Having Laptop is better than having desktop computer.
4. Radio is more valuable than TV.
3. Write Narrative Essays on the following topics:
Potential prompt for your narrative essay:
A childhood event. Think of an experience when you learned something for the first time, or
when you realized how important someone was for you.
Achieving a goal. Think about a particularly meaningful achievement in your life. This could be
something as seemingly minor as achieving a good grade on a difficult assignment, or this could
be something with more long-lasting effects, like getting the job you desired or getting into the
best school to which you applied.
A failure. Think about a time when you did not perform as well as you had wanted. Focusing on
an experience like this can result in rewarding reflections about the positive emerging from the
negative.
A good or bad deed. Think about a time when you did or did not stand up for yourself or
someone else in the face of adversity or challenge.
A change in your life. Think about a time when something significant changed in your life. This
could be anything from a move across town to a major change in a relationship to the birth or
death of a loved one.
A realization. Think about a time when you experienced a realization. This could be anything
from understanding a complicated math equation to gaining a deeper understanding of a
philosophical issue or life situation.
Write about your first journey from your home place to Dilla University.
Write an autobiography.
Write a biography about any person you like.
4. Write an Expository Essay on any Topic you like

74
References
Davis,J and R,Liss(2005). Effective Academic Writing 3 The Essay. Oxford University Press.
Langan,J (2005). College Writing Skills. sixth Edition. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill).
Mc Crimmon( 1976). Writing with Purpose. Sixth edition. Florida State University.
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993

-2008 Microsoft Corporation.
Olson,M.W.&Gee,T.C.( 1991). Content Reading instruction in the primary grades: Perceptions and
Strategies. Reading Teacher, 45,298-307.
Peter Elbow (1981).Writing with Power, Oxford University Press.
Peter Elbow (1998).Writing with Power, Oxford University Press.
Rorabacher ,L (1976). A Concise Guide to Composition (3rd Ed). London Harper and Row publishers A
Guided Writing to Composition
Savage, A.and M. Shafiei (2007). Effective Academic Writing 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Savage, A.and P. Mayer(2005). Effective Academic Writing 2 Mcgraw-Hill. Oxford University Press.
Tyler, Robin( 2001) English for Ethiopia. Secondary English course. Grade 11- 1 EMPDE
Tyner,Thomas E.(1987). College writing Basics, Wads Worth Publishing Company,California.
Wiener, Harvey S. (1984). Creating composition, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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DILLA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND

COURSE TITLE: BASIC WRITING SKILLS

1.3 Types of Phrases ..................................................................................................................................3

1.5 Types of Sentences and their Purpose...............................................................................................11

1.6 Kinds of Sentences According to Structure.......................................................................................12

1.7. 1 Coordination ..............................................................................................................................15

1.8 Relative Clauses.................................................................................................................................18

1.9.1 Confused pronoun Reference .....................................................................................................20

1.9.3 Omission of article......................................................................................................................21

1.9.5 Run-ons (Marking Symbol RO) .................................................................................................23

1.9.5.2 Fused Sentence ........................................................................................................................26

1.9.7 Agreement errors ........................................................................................................................28

1.9.9 Faulty parallelism .......................................................................................................................35

Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs .....................................................................................................41

2.2 A topic sentence.................................................................................................................................41

2.5 Elements /essentials of a Paragraph................................................................................................... 46

2.5.3 Choice of Word........................................................................................................................... 51

2.9 Writing Paragraphs ............................................................................................................................54

2.11.2 Narration/The Narrative paragraph........................................................................................... 57

2.11.3 Argumentative/Persuasive Paragraph.......................................................................................58

2.12 Guided and free Writing ..................................................................................................................61

2.12.2 Free Writing..............................................................................................................................62

3.3 Writing Argumentative Essay............................................................................................................65

3.5 Writing Expository Essay ..................................................................................................................69

3.6 General Steps for Writing an Essay................................................................................................... 72

Unit 1: Writing Effective Sentences

A sentence is effective when it is:

1.2 Constituents of a sentence

Our soccer team won the state championship.

Our soccer team/ won the state championship

Simple subject and simple predicate

Every sentence, we said, usually has a subject and predicate.

Complete subject and complete predicate

Example: -Flowers are blooming.

-The flowers are blooming.

-The small flowers are blooming.

-The small red-petaled flowers are blooming.

Example: -Dawit is walking.

-Dawit is walking quickly.

- Dawit is walking quickly to school

- Dawit is walking quickly to school in the morning.

quickly to school, and quickly to school in the morning.

Compound Subject and Compound predicate

You should and arrive by midnight.

1.3 Types of Phrases

Noun phrase, Infinite phrase,

Prepositional phrase Participle phrase and

Verb phrase Gerund phrase.

Adverb phrase, Absolute Phrase

A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)

The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)

He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)

A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)

She has finished her work.

You should study for the exam.

She has been sleeping for two hours.

He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)