Chapter One : Basic Principles of Physics

1.1 General Definition Physics:

The branch of science concerned with the properties of matter and energy and th
e relationshipsbetween them. It is based on mathematics and traditionally includ
es mechanics, optics, electricity and magnetism,acoustics, and heat. Modern phy
s-ics, based on quantum theory, includes atomic, nuclear, particle, and solid-
state
studies. It can also embrace applied fields such as geophysics and meteorology

1.1.1 General concepts :

1.2 Position, Displacement, Average Velocity and Acceleration

1.2.1 Position:
The position x of a particle on an x axis locates the particle with respect to the

origin, or zero point, of the axis.

Figure 1.1 Position is determined on an axis that is marked in units of length

(here meters) and that extends indefinitely in opposite directions. The axis name,
here x, is always on the positive side of the origin.

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1.2.2 Displacement
A change from position x1 to position x2 is called a displacement ∆x, where:
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

1.2.3 Average Velocity :

The average velocity vavg is the ratio of the displacement ∆x that occurs during a
particular time interval ∆t to that interval:
∆x 𝑥2−𝑥1
vavg = =
∆t 𝑡2−𝑡1

The notation means that the position is x1 at time t1 and then x2 at time t2. A
common unit for vavg is the meter per second (m/s).
1.2.4 Average speed:
Average speed savg is a different way of describing “how fast” a particle moves.
Whereas the average velocity involves the particle’s displacement x, the average
speed involves the total distance covered (for example, the number of meters
moved), independent of direction; that is,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
savg =
∆t

1.2.5 Average acceleration

Average acceleration is the ratio of a change in velocity ∆v to the time interval
∆t in which the change occurs:
∆v v2−v1
aavg= =
∆t t2−t1

These are not valid when the acceleration is not constant.

1. 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
1
2. 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑣 2 0 + 2𝑎( 𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
1
4. 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
1
5. 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2

2
Where:
v0 is the velocity at time t = 0
v is the velocity at any later time t
a is the constant acceleration.
x0 is the position of the particle at t = 0
x is the position of the particle at any time
Ex1: You drive a beat-up pickup truck along a straight road for 8.4km at
70 km/h, at which point the truck runs out of gasoline and stops. Over the next
30 min, you walk another 2.0km farther along the road to a gasoline station.

(a) What is your overall displacement from the beginning of your drive to your
arrival at the station?

Assume, for convenience, that you move in the positive direction of an X axis,
from a first position of X1= 0 to a second position of X2 at the station. That
second position must be at

X2= 8.4+ 2 =10.4 km. Then your displacement ∆X long the X axis is the second
position minus the first position.

∆X = X2 – X1

∆X =10.4 – 0 = 10.4 km (Answer)

(b) What is the time interval ∆t from the beginning of your drive to your arrival
at the station?
∆x ∆x
Vavg,dr. = ∆t =
∆t Vavg,dr
8.4 km
∆tdr. = = 0.12 h
70 km/h

So ∆t = ∆tdr + ∆twlk
= 0.12 + 0.5 = 0.62 h (Answer)

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(c) What is your average velocity Vavg from the beginning of your drive to your
arrival at the station?

∆x 10.4 km
Vavg. = =
∆t 0.62 h

= 16.8 km/h ≈ 17 km/h (Answer)

(d) Suppose that to pump the gasoline, pay for it, and walk back to the truck
takes you another 45 min. What is your average speed from the beginning of
your drive to your return to the truck with the gasoline?

Total Distance = 8.4 + 2 + 2 = 12.4 km

Total time = 0.12 + 0.5 + 0.75 = 1.37 h

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
savg. =
∆t
12.4 𝑘𝑚
= = 9.1 km/h (Answer)
1.37 h

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1.3 Energy

The term energy is so broad that a clear definition is difficult to write.

Technically , energy is a scalar quantity associated with the state (or condition)
of one or more objects. However, this definition is too vague to be of help to us
now.

A looser definition might at least get us started. Energy is a number that we

associate with a system of one or more
objects. If a force changes one of the objects
by, say, making it move, then the energy
number changes. After countless
experiments, scientists and engineers
realized that if the scheme by which we
assign energy numbers is planned carefully,
the numbers can be used to predict the
outcomes of experiments and, even more important, to build machines, such as
flying machines. This success is based on a wonderful property of our universe:
Energy can be transformed from one type to another and transferred from one
object to another, but the total amount is always the same (energy is conserved).
No exception to this principle of energy conservation has ever been found.

A simpler definition : Energy is the body's ability to accomplish a work and is

measured by the joule unit

1.3.1 different types of energy

Types of energy can be categorised into two broad categories – kinetic energy
(the energy of moving objects) and potential energy (energy that is stored).
These are the two basic forms of energy. The different types of energy include
thermal energy, radiant energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy, electrical
energy, motion energy, sound energy, elastic energy and gravitational energy.

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 Radiation Energy Thermal Energy Chemical Energy

Nuclear Energy Electrical Energy Gravitational Energy

1.4 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy K is energy associated with the state of motion of an object. The
faster the object moves, the greater is its kinetic energy. When the object is
stationary, its kinetic energy is zero.

For an object of mass m whose speed v is well below the speed of light
𝟏
𝑲= 𝒎 𝒗𝟐
𝟐
1joule = 1 J = 1kg.m2/s2
.

For example, a 3.0 kg duck flying past us at 2.0 m/s , find Kinetic Energy
𝟏 𝟏
𝑲= 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 ×𝟑×𝟒 K= 6.0 kg.m2/s2
𝟐 𝟐

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Ex1) If a rocket with attached had a combined mass of 2.9×10 5 kg and reached
a speed of 11.2 km/s, how much kinetic energy would it then have ?

Sol)

V= 11.2 km/s × 1000 = 11200 m/s

1
𝐾= 𝑚 𝑣2
2
1
𝐾= × (2.9 × 105 ) 112002 = 1.8 × 1013 J
2

Ex2) In 1896 in Waco, Texas, William Crush parked two locomotives at

opposite ends of a 6.4-km-long track, fired them up, tied their throttles open, and
then allowed them to crash head-on at full speed (Fig. 7-1) in front of 30,000
spectators. Hundreds of people were hurt by flying debris; several were killed.
Assuming each locomotive weighed 1.2×106 N and its acceleration was a
constant 0.26 m/s2 , what was the total kinetic energy of the two locomotives
just before the collision?

Sol)

V2= Vo2 +2 a (X - Xo)

With V0= 0 and X - Xo= 3.2 ×103 m (half the initial separation), this yields

V2= 0+2(0.26)( 3.2 ×103)

V= 40.8 m/s .

We can find the mass of each locomotive by dividing its given weight by
Ground acceleration of g:
1.2 ×106
m= = 1.22 × 105 kg.
9.8 𝑚/𝑠2

we find the total kinetic energy of the two locomotives just before the collision
as:
𝟏
𝑲= 𝒎 𝒗𝟐
𝟐
K = 0.5 × (1.22 × 105 ) × 40.8 = 1×108 J
And for find the total of Kinetic Energy for two locomotives
KTotal= 2(1×108) = 2×108

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1.5 Work

If you accelerate an object to a greater speed by applying a force to the object

you increase the kinetic energy of the object. Similarly, if you decelerate the
object to a lesser speed by applying a force, you decrease the kinetic energy of
the object. We account for these changes in kinetic energy by saying that your
force has transferred energy to the object from yourself or from the object to
yourself. In such a transfer of energy via a force, workwise said to be done on
the object by the force .More formally, we define work as follows:

Work is the energy transfer that takes place when a force causes an object to
move.

work done = force applied × distance moved in direction of force

W=F×d
Where :

 W= work done is measured in joules (J)

 F = force is measured in newton's (N)
 S= distance is measured in meters (m)

1 J = 1 Kg.m2/s2 = 1 N .m

EX1)

A box is pushed across a floor by a constant force of 100 N What is the work
done by the force to move the box 5 m?

Sol)

W = F×d
W = 100 × 5
= 500 J

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If the floor is smooth, where does this energy go?

✓ The box accelerates and gains kinetic energy.

If the floor is rough, where does the energy go?

✓ Some or all of the energy is lost as heat and sound

1.5.1 Work done by a force at an angle

The same box is now dragged by a rope, which is raised at an angle θ to the
horizontal.

This time, the box moves in a different direction to the direction of the applied
force. How does this affect the work done? Can you think of any suggestions?

Calculating work done at an angle

When calculating the work done by a force acting at an angle, it is useful to

break the force down into components.

The tension in the rope can be broken down

into a horizontal and a vertical component .

The vertical component does no work

because the box does not move in that
direction.

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So to calculate work done by a force at an angle:

work done = force in direction of movement × distance moved

W = F×s×cosθ
EX2)

A toy car is pulled along by a piece of string which is at 30° to the horizontal.
Calculate the work done in pulling the toy if the tension in the string is 10 N,
and it is pulled along 5 m

Sol)

W = F×s×cosθ

= 10 × 5 × cos30°

= 43.3 J

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1.5.2 Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem:

In the following equations relates the change in kinetic energy of the bead (from
an initial (Ki = 0.5 m 𝑣°2 to a later Kf = 0.5 m v2 ) to the work (W=Fx ×d) done
on the bead. For such particle-like objects, we can generalize that equation. Let
∆K be the change in the kinetic energy of the object, and let W be the net work
done on it. Then

∆K = Kf – Ki = W
which says that:

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(change in the kinetic (net work done on
=
energy of a particle) the particle)

We can also write:

Kf =Ki +W
which says that:

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ex) The only force acting on a 2.0 kg canister that is moving in an xy plane has
a magnitude of 5.0 N. The canister initially has a velocity of 4.0 m/s in the
positive x direction and sometime later has a velocity of 6.0 m/s in the positive y
direction. How much work is done on the canister by the 5.0 N force during this
time?

W = Kf – K i
1 1
= ( m v2 f ) – ( m v2 i )
2 2

1 1
= × 2 (62)- × 2( 42)
2 2

= 20 J

Ex3/ In the Figure below shows two industrial spies sliding an initially
stationary 225 kg floor safe a displacement S of magnitude 8.5 m . The push of
spy 001 is 12.0 N at an angle of 30.0° downward from the horizontal; the pull of
spy 002 is 10.0N at 40.0° above the horizontal. The magnitudes and directions
of these forces do not change as the safe moves, and the floor and safe make
frictionless contact.

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a) What is the net work done on the safe by forces and during the displacement ?

W1 = F1×s×cosθ

= 12 × 8.5 × cos30.0°

= 88.33 J

W2 = F2×s×cosθ

= 10 × 8.5 × cos40.0°

= 65.11 J

W= W1+ W2

=88.33 + 65.11

= 153.4 J

b) The safe is initially stationary. What is its speed vf at the end of the 8.50 m
displacement?

W = Kf – K i
1 1
= ( m v2 f ) – ( m v2 i )
2 2

The initial speed vi is zero, and we now know that the work done is 153.4 J.
Solving for vf and then substituting known data, we find that

2𝑊 2(153.4)
vf = √ 𝑚 = √ 225

= 1.17 m/s

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1.5.2 Work is a scalar:

Work = positive

When the distance moved direction with the force direction

Work = negative

When the distance moved direction opposite the force direction

Work = Zero

When the distance moved direction perpendicular with the force direction

1.6 General Definition

Net Work: When two or more forces act on an object, the net work done on

the object is the sum of the works done by the individual forces.

We can calculate the net work by find the work done by each force and then
sum those works.

When work is done, energy is transferred. That energy might be:

 gravitational potential energy :e.g. when an object changes height within a

gravitational field
 kinetic energy – e.g. when an object changes speed
 light energy – e.g. when a light bulb is switched on
 heat and sound – e.g. when a car brakes sharply.

1.7 Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy (GPE, Ep or E grav.) is the energy of an object due

to its position in a gravitational field. The Ep gained by a mass is proportional to
the force used to lift it, and the distance it is lifted:

gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field strength × height

GPE = mgh

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It is often talked about in terms of a change in an object’s (Ep) due to a change in
its height:

GPE = Energy (in Joules)

m = mass (in kilograms(

g = gravitational acceleration of the earth (9.8 m/sec2)

h = height above earth's surface (in meters)

EX1/ A crane lifts a 75kg mass a height of 8 m. Calculate the gravitational

potential energy gained by the mass (g = 9.8 N/kg).

GPE = mgh
= 75 × 9.8 × 8
= 5880 J

EX2/A ball with a mass of 500g is lifted onto a shelf which is 1.5m above the
ground. Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by the ball (g = 9.8
N/kg).

m = (500/1000) = 0.5 kg

GPE = mgh

= 0.5 × 9.8 × 1.5

= 7.35 J

1.7.1 Work Done Against Gravity

Climbing stairs and lifting objects is work in both the scientific and everyday
sense —it is work done against the gravitational force. When there is work,
there is a transformation of energy. The work done against the gravitational
force goes into an important form of stored energy that we will explore in this
section.

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 The work done to lift the weight is stored in the mass-Earth system as
gravitational potential energy. As the weight moves downward, this
gravitational potential energy is transferred to the cuckoo clock

EX/ Calculate the change in gravitational potential gravity for book with a
mass ( 3 kg) at the surface of the earth and at a height of 2 m (g = 9.8 N/kg).

GPE 1= mgh

= 3×9.8×0

=0J

GPE 2= mgh

= 3×9.8×2

= 58.8 J

∆ GPE = GPE 2 - GPE 1

= 58.8 – 0 = 58.8 J

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1.8 Work Done by a Spring Force

We next want to examine the work done on a particle-like object by a particular

type of variable force—namely, a spring force, the force from a spring. Many
forces in nature have the same mathematical form as the spring force. Thus, by
examining this one force, you can gain an understanding of many others.

Figure as shows a spring in its relaxed

state—that is, neither compressed nor
extended. One end is fixed, and a
particle-like object — a block, say — is
attached to the other, free end. If we
stretch the spring by pulling the block to
the right as in Fig. (b), the spring pulls
on the block toward the left. (Because a
spring force acts to restore the relaxed
state, it is sometimes said to be a
restoring force.) If we compress the
spring by pushing the block to the left as in Fig. (c), the spring now pushes on
the block toward the right.

𝟏
W s = 𝟐 𝑲 × 𝑿𝟐

Where:

K=spring constant in (N/m)

X= change in displacement of spring length in (m)

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EX/A metal spring the spring constant equal (130 N/m ) and change in
displacement of spring length after exposure the force is (30 cm) what the work
done effect on the spring ?

𝟏
W s = 𝟐 𝑲 × 𝑿𝟐

𝟏
= × 𝟏𝟑𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐
𝟐

= 19.5 J

❖ The previous paragraph was explained (1.5.2) Work–Kinetic Energy

Theorem:

Ws = ∆ k

EX/A metal spring the spring constant equal (200 N/m ) One end is fixed by a
vertical wall and the other end bind in body with mass (2 kg) squeeze on the
spring for displacement (0.2 m) what the maximum velocity of body acquires
when removing force.

𝟏
W s = 𝟐 𝑲 × 𝑿𝟐

𝟏
= × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐
𝟐

=4J

Ws = ∆ k
1 1
4 = ( m v2 f ) – ( m v2 i )
2 2

1
4= ( × 2 ×v2)
2

V = 2 m/s

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1.9 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

- The mechanical energy (Emech.) can be transformed from one shape to another
so that the total amount of energy is constant:

Emech = GPE + K
The mechanical energy in initial position = The mechanical energy in final position

(K)i + (GPE)I = (K)f + (GPE)f

In an isolated system where only conservative forces cause energy changes,

the kinetic energy and potential energy can change, but their sum, the
mechanical energy Emech of the system, cannot change

EX/ Ball of mass 5-kilogram sliding on some path start from stopped in point
(a) this path is frictions careless compute the velocity in point (b & c)

Sol/

1- compute the velocity in point (b) , depend on point (a)

(K)b + (GPE)b = (K)a + (GPE)a
1 1
( m v2b ) + (mgh)b = ( m v2c ) + (mgh)c
2 2
1 1
( × 5 × v2b ) + (5×9.8×3.2) = ( × 5 × 0) + (5×9.8×5)
2 2

v2b = 36
vb = 6 m/s (velocity in point b)
2- compute the velocity in point (c) , depend on point (b)
(K)c + (GPE)c = (K)b + (GPE)b
1 1
( m v2c ) + (mgh)c = ( m v2b ) + (mgh)b
2 2
1 1
( × 5 × v2c ) + (5×9.8×3.2) = ( × 5 × 0) + (5×9.8×5)
2 2

v2c = 60.0005
vb = 7.746 m/s (velocity in point b)
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