Lesson 2 Major Theories of Human Development

Intended Learning Outcome:

By the end of this lesson, student should be able to:
1. Explain the issue on development; and
2. Explain the main theories of human development; and

Discussion:

LESSON 2.1:
ISSUES ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

1. Nature vs. Nurture Issue

- Involves the extent to which development is influenced
by nature and nurture. The “nature” proponents claim
that biological inheritance is the most important influence
on development; the “nurture” proponents claim that
environmental experiences are the most important.
From:
https://static.wixstatic.com/media/935b38_cded4465901a490891f8e039ecc82133~mv2_d_2000_2000_s_2.
png/v1/fill/w_1000,h_1000,al_c,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/935b38_cded4465901a490891f8e039ecc82133~mv2
_d_2000_2000_s_2.png

2. Stability vs. Change Issue

- Involves the degree to which early traits and
characteristics persist through life or change.
From: https://www.reference.com/content/375408/b65fca8ecf7775a338527da5fb762a7d_mob.jpg

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

- The issue regarding whether development involves gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages
(discontinuity).
From: https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTo1zZ05DDYp_9uHfvzWjxsPKF4fM7IWwTjYsHMTuiB31EYa-
ZeZLwBJjbNz2utuXW9KOU&usqp=CAU

From: https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSEDkeuEO7Zc4ALgUAKjDgpeUbNCy7RDystKNdplMBCpBlUe4QIsq63fl
_V0EVX8p3KIrk&usqp=CAU

Theory
- It is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain
phenomena and make predictions

24
LESSON 2.2:
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF SIGMUND FREUD

- Sigismund (Sigmund) Freud was born either on

March 6 or May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia,
which is now part of the Czech Republic.
- Died in London on September 23, 1939 at the age
of 83.
- Eldest among the eight children of Jacob and
Amalie Nathanson Freud, but has two elder
brothers- Emanuel and Philipp.
- He was serious-minded and do not have a close
relationship with any of his younger siblings, yet
enjoyed a warm, indulgent relationship with his
mother.
From: https://cdn.britannica.com/29/59229-050-F6C36BC9/Portrait-Sigmund-Freud-1921.jpg

SIGMUND FREUD

- Freud is the most popular, and perhaps the most controversial theorist of human
development and of personality.
- Studied medicine at the University of Vienna Medical School with no intension of
practicing medicine. Instead he preferred teaching and doing research in physiology.
- Physiologist by nature
- Worked for 3 years in the General Hospital of Vienna, becoming familiar of the various
branches of medicine, including psychiatry and nervous diseases.
- Had worked with famous people of his time: Jean-Martin Charcot (hysteria) and Josef
Breuer (catharsis). Had avid followers such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler.
- Famous also for his techniques such as free association and dream analysis,
- His theory of psychosexual development states that a person goes through the sequence
of these five stages and along the way; there are needs to be met.
- The gratification of these needs determined whether a person will have a healthy
personality or not.
- The theory captivated interest due to its distinct erogenous zones. Erogenous zones are
“pleasure areas” that becomes the focal area for a particular stage.
- Fixation occurs when the needs are not gratified along the way. As a result, the
behaviors, in relation to the erogenous zones, will manifest.
-
Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months old)
- The erogenous zone is the mouth.
- During this stage the child is focused on oral
pleasures (sucking)
- Too little or too much gratification will lead to Oral
Fixation or Oral Personality.
- This personality may be oral receptive; strong
tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, etc. This
From:
type of personality is may become too dependent to http://psychparty.weebly.com/uploads/4/5/8/1/45813949/30698
others, easily fooled and lack leadership. On the 95.jpg?228

25
 other hand oral aggressive; high tendency to use or curse word or gossip. This type may
become pessimistic and aggressive towards others.

2. Anal Stage (18 months old to 3 y/o)

- The erogenous zone for this stage is the anus.
- The child finds pleasure in elimination or retaining
his feces.
- The child and his parents need to work on toilet
training on this stage. It is the urge to defecate until
he had reached the designated place to do so.
- Fixation on this stage may result to anal retentive,
an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and
control, or anal expulsive where the person may
become messy and disorganized.
From: https://ecowarriorprincess.net/wp-
content/uploads/2020/04/A-Guide-to-Eco-Friendly-Potty-
Training-Tips-Tricks-Accessories.jpg

3. Phallic Stage (3 y/o to 6 y/o)

- The erogenous zone for this stage is the genitals
- During the preschool stage, children become
interested in what makes boys and girls different.
Children at this age will sometimes be seen fondling
with their genitals.
- The studies lead Freud to believe that this stage
leads boys to develop unconscious sexual desires
for their mother. Boys then seen their father as their
rival for their mother’s affection. Boys may fear
that their father will punish them for these feelings,
thus leading to castration anxiety. These feelings
comprise the Male Oedipus Complex.
- Freud also believes that girls also have the same From: https://s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/atg-storage-
s3/assets/Frontend/images/article_image/article-
attraction towards their father and treats their 114700000020181637990141.jpg
mothers as a rival. This feelings comprises the
Female Oedipus Complex
- Due to castration anxiety, boys eventually decide to identify with their father and develop
masculine characteristics. They tend also to identify themselves as males and repress their
sexual feelings toward their mother.
- A fixation on this stage could result to sexual deviances (both overindulging and avoidance)
and weak or confused sexual identity.

4. Latency Stage (6 y/o to puberty)

- During this stage, sexual urges are still repressed.
- The children’s focus is on the acquisition of physical and academic skills.
- Boys relate more with more boys and girls with girls on this stage.

26
5. Genital Stage (Puberty onwards)
- The stage when sexual urges are reawakened.
- Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the
opposite sex peers, with pleasure centered on the
genitals.

From:
https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads
/photo/3608129/image/1d4afeab0209907523b8baafd987be
Freud’s Personality Components 34

1. Id
- A child is born only with the id
- Operates the pleasure principle
- Focuses on the gratification of needs and pleasure
with no consideration for the reality, logicality,
and practicality.

2. Ego
- As the baby becomes a toddler or a preschooler,
the ego slowly emerges.
- Operates the reality principle
- Being aware that others also have needs to be
met.
- Knows that being impulsive and selfish has
negative consequences later, so it reasons and
considers the best response to situation
- The deciding agent of personality
- One of its functions is to help the id meet its From:
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/c3/3f/26/c33f26b7d3d7d8626367eae523
needs, however, it takes into account the reality b719fb.png

and the situation.

3. Superego
- Develops near the end of preschool years or the end of the phallic stage.
- Operates the moral principle.
- Develops from what the teacher, parents and other persons who exert influence impart to
be good or moral.
- Acts like the conscience because it influences on what one considers right and wrong.

Freud’s Level of Consciousness

1. Unconscious- Hidden desires, motives, urges, animalistic instincts, drives
2. Preconscious/ Subconscious- information that we are not currently aware as of the
moment but can easily be recalled
3. Conscious- what we are currently aware of

27
LESSON 2.3:
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF ERIK ERIKSON

- Also coined as Erikson’s model, Erikson’s

biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory, Erikson’s
human development cycle or life cycle.
- Erikson’s theory was greatly influenced by the work of
Freud but he extended the theory by incorporating
cultural and social aspects in Freud’s sexually-
oriented theory. The theory includes eight stages of
human development. Each stage consists of a unique
developmental task that conforms individuals with a
crisis that must be resolved.
From: https://miro.medium.com/max/420/1*uWsAx6LjaLomLpO5Iv1U_g.jpeg

- He said that people develop psychosocial stages, rather

than psychosexual. ERIK ERIKSON
- As to Freud, the primary motivation for human
behavior is sexual in nature. However, Erickson insisted that our desire to affiliate
with other people.
- Followers of this work believes that the theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-
awareness, managing, and coaching, dealing with conflicts, and generally for
understanding ourselves and as well as others.
- Epigenetic Principle states that “ we develop through a predetermined unfolding of
our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stages is in part
determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little the
unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order, which
nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of
development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the
development of the entire flower.”
- Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. The
helpful term Erikson used for these opposing forces is contrary dispositions. Each
crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges.
- If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychological strength
which will help us through the rest of our lives.
- Successfully passing through each crisis involves achieving healthy ratio or balance
between the two opposing dispositions.

Psychosocial Stages

Stage 1
Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
On set age: 1- 1 ½ years old
Significant Relations:
 Mother or Primary care givers- if they
can give the infant a sense of familiarity,
consistency, and continuity, then the baby
will develop a sense that the world is a safe From: https://it3psychproject.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/collage2.jpg
place to be, that the people are reliable and
loving. However, if they are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject or harm the child

28
 and don’t satisfy the needs, the infant will develop mistrust. He will also be suspicious
around people.

Stage 2
Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
On set age: 18 months- 4 years old
Significant Relations:
Parents- If they permit the child to explore and
manipulate his environment, the child will develop
a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents
should not discourage the child nor push. It is
advisable for parents at this stage to be “Firm but
tolerant” to have a balance. This way, the child
will develop self-control and self-esteem. On the
other hand, if the parents will not allow the child to From:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Autonomyvs.ShameandDoubt.jpg?ezi
explore and be independent, the child will soon mgfmt=rs:555x367/rscb26/ng:webp/ngcb26
give up with a belief that he/ she cannot and should
not act on his/her own. Be reminded that even laughing at the toddlers’ efforts can lead him to
feel deeply ashamed and doubt his abilities. Being impatient, giving unrestricted freedom and
helping a child do what they should learn to do with themselves gives them an impression that
these things are difficult to learn.

Stage 3
Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt
On set age: 3 or 4 to 5 or 6 years old
Significant Relations:
- Family- They can encourage initiative, which
means taking the world’s challenges positively, by
encouraging the child to try his idea. We should
accept and encourage fantasy, curiosity and
imagination. At this stage the child is now capable,
as never before, of imagining a future situation.
Initiative is the attempt to make the non-reality to
From: https://www.simplypsychology.org/children-
reality. A child on this stage can imagine the future, playing.jpg?ezimgfmt=rs:448x300/rscb26/ng:webp/ngcb26
can plan, can be responsible, and also be guilty.
- If a two year child flushes down a watch on the
toilet, we can assume that he meant no “evil intensions”. It was just a matter of a shiny object
going round and round and down. But it is different if it is a five year old child because they
are capable of moral judgment.
- The responsibility of the family is to encourage the child to “grow up” for they are not babies
anymore. But the process should not be harsh and too abrupt or the child might feel guilty about
his feelings.

Stage 4
Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority
On set age: 6-12 years old
Significant Relations:
- Community and School- Time to children “tame imagination” and dedicate themselves to
education and to learning the social skills their society requires them. Parents, family members,
teachers, peers and other member of the community all contribute to this stage. Parents must

29
 encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept. Children ate this stage must learn that there
is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
success, whether in school or in play.
- One way of telling whether a child is on this stage is when he is at play. A four year old child
may love games, but they have vague understanding of rules, which may be changed at any
moment during the game or even unlikely to finish it. However, a child on this stage, usually
starting at 7 years old, is dedicated to rules and considers them sacred. They are more likely to
get upset if the game did not end on a desired outcome.
- If a child is only allowed too little success because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers, he is
more likely to develop as sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional source of inferiority
is discrimination.

Stage 5
Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion
On set age: Puberty to 20 years old
Significant Relations:
- Peer groups/ Role models-this stage, teens tend to
know their selves better and learning how to fit in
to the rest of the society. It requires the m to take all
they’ve learned about life and mold it into a unified
image, one that community finds meaningful
- To make things easier, having a mainstream adult From: https://www.simplypsychology.org/Identityvs.RoleConfusion.jpg?ezimgf
culture that is worthy of the adolescents’ respect, mt=rs:555x291/rscb26/ng:webp/ngcb26
one with good adult role models and open lines of
communication
- Furthermore, the society must provide a clear rites of passage, certain accomplishment and
rituals that help distinguish the adult form the child.
- Without these things, we are more likely to be confused or uncertain about our place in te
society and the world. When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, he/ she is suffering
from identity crisis. The common question they asked on this stage is “who am I?”
- Psychosocial Moratorium- taking a little “time out”. Take time to know yourself.

Stage 6
Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation
On set age: 20- 30 years old
Significant Relations:
Partner/ friends- intimacy is the ability to be close
with others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant
to the society. Since you have a clear sense of
yourself, you are no longer need to fear “losing”
yourself. The “fear of commitment” at this stage is
a sense of immaturity at this stage. From: https://memegenerator.net/img/images/72733165.jpg

Stage 7
Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation
On set age: 30’s- late 50’s (age of raising children)
Significant Relations:
Household/ Workmates- In this stage, a person somehow extends his love to the future
generations. The individual, like a parent, does not expect payment for the love that he gives

30
to his children, at least not as strong. Teaching is also another kind of love and concerns that
extend to future generations. This stage satisfies the “need to be needed”.

Stage 8
Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair
On set age: 60 onwards (after the kids are gone)
Significant Relations:
Mankind- this stage seems to be the most difficult of
all since you will be detached to the society. Some
retire from their jobs they held for years. Others find
their duties as parents coming to a close; there is a
sense of biological uselessness. However, ego
integrity means coming to term with your life, and
hereby coming to terms with the end of life. If you are
able to look back and accept the course of events, the
choices you made, your life as lived it, as being From: http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2010/02/15/article-1251258-
0023E9DF00000258-570_468x343.jpg
necessary, then you needn’t fear death.

LESSON 2.4:
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF JEAN PIAGET

- Jean Piaget’s prominent work is his theory on the four

stages of cognitive development. Piaget believed that
the child plays an active role in the growth of
intelligence and learns by doing. He regarded the
child as a philosopher who perceives the world only
as he has experienced it.
- The theory of cognitive development focuses on
mental processes such as perceiving, remembering,
believing, and reasoning. Reasoning is the essence of
intelligence, and reasoning is what Piaget studied in

From: data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/2wCEAAoHCBYWFRg
WFRUYGBgaGBocGhoZGhgaGBgaGhgaGhoaGhgcIS4lHB4rHxwYJjgmKy8xNTU1GiQ7QDs0Py4
0NTEBDAwMBgYGEAYGEDEdFh0xMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMT
ExMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMTExMf/AABEIAOEA4QMBIgACEQEDEQH/xAAcAAABBQ
order to discover “how we come to know” (Singer &
EBAQAAAAAAAAAAAAADAAECBAUGBwj/xAA9EAACAQIDBAcHAgUEAgMAAAABAgA JEAN PIAGET
DEQQhMRJBUWEFBiJxgZHwBxMyobHB0VLhQnKCkvEUM6KyU2IWI0P/xAAUAQEAAAAAA
Revenson, 1997, p. 13).
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/8QAFBEBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAP/aAAwDAQACEQMR
- He explained that these stages unfold over time, and all children will pass through them
AD8A9UKxbMmRFaALZjFYfZkCsCuySJSWSshswKzJI+7lkrIlIFVkjGlLezFsQM9qUG1GaTJG2F3
kfeBjvRERwh4ZTTdkXdf6j7wKdJKTYDd67oFAYU8JBsPymq2KN8lGvrPy85CliA99pcwfP0IGT7i
all in order to achieve an adult level of intellectual functioning. The later stages evolve
P/p5ujCKR63wVTC20gYrYflGGHmo1ORNMQMtsPykGocpq+7g2pQMpqMGaU1HpwLUYGY9G
CejNRqUrukDNenKtSjNZ6UrPTgZuzFL/ALoRQPUCIwEmRIkQEI2zCKI1oArRFYbZkbQAlY2zC2
from and are built on earlier ones.
jbMAWzB4hwikmWLTketOL2392rZIBtBddokZE7ha3mYE8T0xtmykWva2eZ7ja/jHSoctq9+A1HnK
vReEzzRRpnYFs7X1OQmwcMANMzw1gQpsGFze3Py+wj08Nnfnp4SwlID7+vKTECQpiOiC/gLxg
JIJvgWVknS8rKSIZGgV6mH4QTU5plbiAdIFAU5EpLjJIFYFFqcGacvFIMpAovTlZ0mmyQL0YGY
9OBelNRqfKCelAzPdR5f9yeEaB25WKOFitAiBHIiAktmBEiIrJWitAGwkbQpWRtAzul8Z7mi76kDs
Basic Cognitive Concepts
/zE2H1nneDxJdviLdo7Ttpta2F/iIzuQM503tDxJWiiBrbb3JF9rZXhbQ3IznD0qwSygbrKpvkBqDuty8
TqBA7rotwAM7i2vHu/M0MSSLEeOc5nAYg5Fj2mztoBlYEAbju5ToKma3v8Iy74CWtD0jeZNJ8+A
mlRe0C+qQmzAJUhlMBisnSXORJjo2cC1aDdZO8i0AJWQZIdhGtArFINklorIFIFTZkDTlspI7ECka
Schema cg6S6yQZSBR2Ipa2BFA6O0VpK0UCBijkSIgSEeMDHJgRIkZK0iRA4XrtU2qyIDbZQk2Bv2juPcJz

- Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals
a9Gm9lGyo1LZkai+/duF/tNLpnpENiKhvftld5yTsiwG7L5xV+mCEzXatyJYEfpCna4a84FBK5pEb9
wbPO5tcDWwHHmZ0uBqs4NiNm2p07/257p57j+mEVmdixsb7Og7yI+G6+hbK6lV3gC7ch37yNMx

intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.

A7elX7VsrXmpSqXAvynnh6erP28NhHZMs2ZAPvK9brVjWqCgoFJ7qQqFSCpUltuo1yluybrbInxD1
R6+yLkhf5iFHzgx0mv60PMMCPkZ5tjaWEYFauKqYitntU8LTNVQbm4DMMxfK7EHlOXxuAr4V
- It is in an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.
9tadamDYqXRVvnfZqbPZOmhzzge8DFXzGkx63WaijEbe0RcWUgm+mQ7/AEZ5z0NhOk8ZQY08
QVQkkK1QIG1BChVJtfLMgc4/QPVnEVkasGos4dwaVdahG0G7ZcrkG3gEHWB6dhutF1LLh6jJnZ
- Plural, schemata.
xsEHgLBr38IPBde8K9RKV3V3YJ2lyDHQNnlexnHdH4c0cSgxOFoU9q5WphmZad1K3D0yQpN9k
Zjflz7r/R0/8AU4RxTTaKOdoAA9lOz5bRtwgdEYjJARrQI7MiVk7RWgCKyLJD2kbQK5WQKS0R
BOIFfYMUJfnFA241oo8CJEiVhBFAGBHteIiKAorRXigeHrtlyjZBna9hd2K7ZI8r7tZkYzriQrI3R1JF
N7Fldao1z2iM2Gs73rTgxhsZTrul6Duwdtye8WxPKzG/dKPWLqy1dno3u4IdL5Aqf4gfCB5bh3Wow
22smp0uTu11na0sPga9AItJVdVI2wBtk6bTNq3wgm/HKcUvQdU1atFV2np3JQakKwUkX7we4iF6G
qOjbWdjl5XgaBwOPwjFKAd0a7B6aMwItnpfZ7jwEtdCdWWdExNV1KPWNOoNpgRcHtPbPZLZH
vE2+hemWQgE3HoSy7VcM9Q06JxGEr9qoigl6bmxOzY5DfofDIwOwweBq0lFNEpoosBs5KBxCA
X8PnMzrsgTAur9t3amKSgAE1C67OyOOt9ZXwXSWNZQuGo4kINDXWipAz0dsz5SpjsGyVEqYv
EbdXPYp7QKJ/7E2F2ANxYAaawNLql0ccOqUiblVs1swWPaa3K5+UDi8IKOJcOzpSq2dWRmGxU
ACuWUZFGGxckEA66yGF6xYenUANRTfmDnbSafS+Pw1Z0RmN2a9NkbZdDaxZTw3G9wd8BY 31
nEYT3RR69FwVIuz0mIvpZV523c5tdCo1V1xDCyLSCU8iNq+yXqWOgNrDkTOU6W6FqrTYpXV
yQLF6aK9rWYbaDXTdPRcFR2KaJvVFX+1QIBFEe0cR7QIWj2kgI5EAZEgRDbMbZgCZYNhDsI
NhABsRScUDUiiigKKKKA1orR4oEbRWkoxgV8XhUqKUdFdDkVYAg+Ey26MVNgLlsf7ZJJKjeh
JzK8N/lNqAxNAOhVhkwsfyCNDzgeb9deqRdqmPoOaVZEBKqRsOEXtZjPaIA5HZnnHQtmvtZ9on
dvzv957rWxPulNOvfY2SoqbJ2HU/qIyU7iD3jgPAtsUsTVRGui1HVTxVXIX5WgaZoFXsN+YnYdE
VbKM87aTBosrqGuLi1/MGavR75ADLnaB1dHG7K/QcT6tBdOdW0xdJEZ2Rw5fbWxJJFiCDkRa3
Assimilation
- This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema.

Accommodation
- This is the process of creating a new schema.

Equilibration
- Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand how the world works
and to find order, structure, and predictability in our life.
- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
- When our experiences do not match our schemata or cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy between what
is perceived and what is understood.

*Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms

of assimilation and accommodation.

Example:
You know a dog to be furry, medium in stature, and it
barks. That is the schema that you know about a dog.
However, when you visited your friend, you
encountered 2 animals. One that is not that furry,
small, bit barks. The other one is furry, medium in
stature, however does not bark, and has horns.
Applying the concept of Piaget, those 2 animals did
not match any of your schemas. Confused, you asked
your friend about those animals. “The first one is a From: http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2010/02/15/article-1251258-
0023E9DF00000258-570_468x343.jpg
shitzu, a different breed of dog, and the second on is a
goat” replied by your friend. Internally your mind
reorganizes the new information that you can across
through: realizing that not all dogs are small, and not
all that is medium in stature and furry is a dog.”
Schema: previous knowledge on dogs: furry, medium
in stature, and it barks.
Cognitive Disequilibrium: confusion about the
animals
Assimilation: Realizing that not all dogs are medium
From: https://politics.com.ph/wp-
in stature. (Additional information about dogs) content/uploads/2019/03/politiko_goat.jpg

Accommodation: Knowing about a goat, which is

new to you.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

Stage 1. Sensory-motor Stage: 0-2

- During this stage senses, reflexes, and motor abilities develop rapidly.
- This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and
reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity.
- The term sensor-motor focus on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world.
32
 - Object permanence, this is the ability of the
child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight. This ability is attained in the
sensory motor stage.
From:
https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/2HdM6RQE6x8iwbGNd2oWvfhf7OY=/1955x1466
/smart/filters:no_upscale()/ObjectPermanence-5bce9ce6c9e77c0051a903ce.jpg

Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage: 2-7

- The child in the preoperational stage is not yet able to think logically.
- With the acquisition of language, the child is able to represent the world through mental
images and symbols, but in this stage, these symbols depend on his own perception and
his intuition.
- The preoperational child is completely egocentric. Although he is beginning to take
greater interest in objects and people around him, he sees them from only one point of
view: his own.
- This stage may be the age of curiosity; preschoolers are always questioning and
investigating new things. Since they know the world only from their limited experience,
they make up explanations when they do not have one.
- Symbolic Function, this is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a
thing that represents something else.
- Egocentrism, tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others.

From: https://www.massey.ac.nz/~wwpapajl/evolution/assign2/CG/conserv4.gif

- Centration refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on the aspect of a thing or
event and exclude other aspects.
- Irreversibility, pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
- Animism, tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to
inanimate objects.
Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage: 8-11
- The stage of concrete operations begins when the child is able to perform mental
operations.

33
 - Decentering, ability of the child to perceive different
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child
focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This
allows the child to be more logical when dealing with
concrete objects and situations.
- Reversibility, during the stage of concrete operations,
the child can now follow that certain operations can be
done in reverse.
- Conservation, ability to know that certain properties of
objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not
change even if there is a change in appearance. Because
of the development of the child’s ability of decentering
and also reversibility, the concrete operational child can From:
now judge right. http://etec512jpiaget.weebly.com/uploads/5/8/1/3/
5813917/827911928.jpg
- Seriation refers to the ability to order or arrange things
in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage: 12-15
- Thinking becomes more logical.
- The child in the concrete operational stage deals with the present, the here and now; the
child who can use formal operational thought can think about the future, the abstract,
the hypothetical.
- Hypothetical reasoning, ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem
and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment. This can be
done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with “what if”
questions.
- Analogical reasoning, ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use
the relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or
problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy.
- Deductive reasoning, ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.

From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive
development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage
learners and require adaptation.
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or
mental operations for a child of given age, avoid asking students to perform tasks that
are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

LESSON 2.5:
SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF LEV VYGOTSKY
- Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896. His work began when he was studying
learning and development to improve his own teaching.
- The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important
role to cognitive development

34
 - He believed that individual development could not be
understood without looking into the social and cultural
context within which development happens.
- Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate
assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner
accomplishes a task.
- When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under
a teacher who used the Socratic Method. This experience,
together with his interest in literature and his work as a
teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and
language. His theory became known as the Socio-
cultural theory of development.
From: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7e/Lev_Vygotsky.jpg
LEV VYGOTSKY

Social Interaction

- Social environment or the community takes on a major role in one’s development.

- Vygotsky emphasized that the effective learning happens through participation in social
activities, making the social contexts of learning crucial.
- Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners’ environment all contribute to the
process.

Cultural Factors

- Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages
of cognitive development that allows him to move from simple to explorations with
senses and muscles to complex reasoning.

Language

- Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
- Learners can use language to know and understand the world and solve problems.
- It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
- For Vygotsky, “talking-to-oneself” will lead to private speech. Private speech is a form
of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
- Children learn best through hands-on activities that when listening passively.

Zone of Proximal Development

- When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient
at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to this as the
zone of actual development. However with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can perform a
higher level of competency.
- The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of another is referred also to zone of proximal
development.
- The zone represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a
teacher or a more advanced peer can assist the child’s development.

35
 - The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish
independently is called scaffolding.
- The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the gap is bridged between the
learner’s current skill levels and the desired skills. As learners become more proficient,
able to complete task on their own that they could not initially do without assistance,
the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade-away technique.

A- Zone of Actual Development B- More knowledgeable other C- Scaffolding

D- Zone of Proximal Development E- Fade Away

The illustration tries to explain the Sociocultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky. Before learning
happens, a child has less or no idea a particular skill, example is playing basketball. The only
knowledge that the child has is the goal of shooting the ball in the ring. That base-line
knowledge of the child is the Zone of Actual Development. Now, if someone who is
knowledgeable on the sport guides the child, that person is what we refer as the More
Knowledgeable Other, in this case the child’s other brother teaches him. The whole process,
of teaching and guiding the child on how to play the sports is the scaffolding process.
Eventually, the child learned the proper play of the sport and little by little, his brother let goes
of the child since he saw that his younger brother learned, the lessening of instruction and
guidance from his older brother is the fade away. Lastly, the whole process, from the start of
the scaffolding process up the point when the child learned is the Zone of Proximal
Development.

Comparison between the works of Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920’s
and 1930’s but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive development.

Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in focus. More social in focus.

Believed that there are universal changes Did not propose stages but emphasized on
of cognitive development. cultural factors in cognitive development.

Did not give much emphasis on language. Stressed the role of language in cognitive
development.

36
LESSON 2.6:
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG
- Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget’s
work, and set the groundwork for the present debate
within psychology on moral development.
- Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of
thinking through their experiences which include
understandings of moral concepts such as justice,
rights, equality, and human welfare.
From: data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/2wCEAAoHCBYWFRgVFRYZ
GBgaHBgeGhgZHBgcHB4aGhgaGhoYGhgcIS4lHB4rIRgYJzgmKy8xNTU1GiQ7QDs0Py40NTEBDA
wMDw8PEREPETEdGB0xMTE0PzExMTE/MT80MTExMTExMTQ/MTExMTExNDExMTExMTEx
MTExMTExMTExMTExMf/AABEIAQEAxAMBIgACEQEDEQH/xAAcAAABBQEBAQAAAAAAA
AAAAAAEAgMFBgcAAQj/xAA/EAACAQIDBQUGBAQGAQUAAAABAgADEQQSIQUxQVFhBiJ
- Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
xgZEHEzKhscEUUtHwQmJy4SM0gpKisnMVM0OD8f/EABYBAQEBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
ABAv/EABgRAQEBAQEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABEQJB/9oADAMBAAIRAxEAPwCs4VxD1qiQ
and extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out
FKvaPDFzSJs1BG2qCRP4uJOKgSrOIhnEjhip5+JgSOaeM8j/AMT1nhxEGjGeNV3gprxp60GpTZm+W/
that the process of attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget
ArpKlsQXAPW0veAokJex1+x3QpF5wXpD/cBbMzadd0QWW1h68OfpCArTiIagUDLYXMRk7puNfT
T92gCWhFKeJQvuvca2844iEaHfAIWOiNCOLAdWOKI0pjqwH0jgMaX9/sR0Qp286JnQMOpYMmen
had thought.
BmWLD4YWimw4hFbOFM8OGk69EQWpTECL9zOFKFsBGGcQGjSjZSOPVEZesIV4yTylQLsFXeY
n31zYb5f+zGzFo0872942ouB3Rz8YQjYOxAiKKoAffYMT68BJnF4rIAAG04nUQdMaqKTcnebk2N/E
- If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive
6GRWJrPXY94gcbG8B2riWckhx4HMNfCKCVAL3FtNAQNLcRe5hBpe7QMiWA33tc+F4Ctdn0y7hex
P0tALTFBd72HzH6z1tq5O6+o58weUisTTDjQW6fpITHq4yqSbD6CDGg7P2lScEgnfuvrYcesJYC9xex
development of children. Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). He
58JlmH2sUca5bakcNeA8pd9jbbWpa2+32vrAnljiwSlilJtDFgKWOrGl5x1YD1OOiM04iviwsA2/WdIX8
was interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
e06BWaa6RFSPIukHqwB6zQKoITVMEcwBqiwGsJI1TI7EboEdVe0GZ45iG5/KMZYErsBLvmtmK/C
mtmPC5/KOMl61TGVavfcKTuRFJAHQAwTsy4RKjWJbQDlrf5yb7P13AN2Ck3FgAP7wojAbLxLv31
- From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three
J62uT5fwwulScOEsQwPeBB0A47tSekv8A2fogIvO3nJR6Ck3Kg9SIRRn2W9S19eAH62nJ2fdbMR0l4R
FTcLRT2MCnNsYEHgd9+O/dAcRsYHU6c+vKXd6WkFr0QRugZR2i7Jae8p/FbUcOkh+zWdHseoI+us
major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral reasoning
1fFILEHlrM425gzRqhlHcf6wJbE4hqbkjcdR6SZ2ZtMPK3iqoNBXOpDZTr0uLwDAY7I4sdCYGnJuuI6
pgOzK2ZfKHlrawGsVXCiRdStxMZxmLux10EjsTi7+EA18TrvnSD/F9Z0CRG6MVI/bSMusAGrBHEO
or perspective of this person.
qLA3GsAWqJG4iSdWRuJECIq74Ts/C5zaOoo1kj2ZpI9bvsVpoCzsoubXAsOpJgH4DBKgybi7DXkAN
Y9TwuWoHBJBP00kn2nweHGHOIw9Zio0C3761CRvI1tYGVXYm0sUXtRpmsRqAVvax8YG1bI0Re
VtJNIpMzFe2WLpkLUw1NO6GDVi9JSbaoragsNeV5K4PttinQMcGi31s1YKbf0kQL37oRLUwJTh26K
Developmental Stages
f+/hnReLoUqIPHKb28pLYTtHRq2KOrg8QftwgSjrBMReKOMW17j1ifxAa/78oETiBo/hYSn9rUHu1a1
8treMvuOpjLcTOO2WIsltNYFfdm/C3vvqE28FAkMmIIItzl0GAyYFA28guf8AV/aUejqwHWBrHZasW
QeAkvtLEBEMiuzFPKgPISL7V7St3QYAtbF5mNjANoYrLpeDYStxkPtXEktvgSlPE6TpCpX03zoNaS
N0Qyxd4hzAEqiB1E5Qys0FqOLdftAAr85FOC7hBvY2khjXsJGYB71QeUA7aezBTp5t394X2M2cKhq
Pre conventional Level
IDqyLryGcXMA7U4piEUaDfH/Z3jcuJCE6Ojr8s32gTO1KdIVbIxse7lG420BPOTWytgGk+ZBluotb5wr
- Moral reasoning is based on the consequences/result of the act, not on whether the act
DbDRcQlYgNRGqHeGY7r+F5ZcGLmBTe1Lsy0VZSUFen3bEjTMRp1IkbiMVVB0w5QG/ecd4+A4T
Qu0Ox/fUHFMhagKvTLaD3lNg6AnkStvAyHTFLiRlSqquPjouAGRuK2Jva+47jAouKrVQGApOrDjay
itself is good or bad.
keINpDYZcQMQi4S/vKgJyDmN55cL3mkbTwS00LVqiKoGvEnoBxMZ7A7CY12xzoUBGSgjXDBOL
sOBPLrAqu1drbRw2RMQirnuF3a23m43WjNPH1qrAGuxPJHKDy4nxJl49p9JWOGZhcLV1PR1K69M
2WVI7KU3XVHDaMDb9iAatZ0C5MTWQkbnZaik+Y3ecgNtVHZyld6RyAMpvkLg62VbHvaWt1lgTZ
Stage 1: Punishment/ Obedience
1iA13XqePAnrANqbNWrigpLKtNVzFBqXNiEv0FtesCX7QoxTIot3E0/LdQbeIvaUbAbOf3yqRoDe/nL
+mLZ3dWUBQM1ybsTe1yZ7svCIXvxvAlsPTyUeWky/tFjSztrxmo7cqBKJ6DhMWxDl6hPWBJU61kk
- One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid punishment.
XialyYRXawteAZ+EBweU6InSjWCIh44RGqkgCrmBVG1MLr74E8CNx5vBtnUTnvDK41nuEYAwEb
awzMubpILZWNNCulX8jq3kDqPS80sYIPS3X0mc7V2eyMdNIG5VsXSakHosoRgCBwGYg3HI6x2k5
- Whatever leads to punishment is wrong.
WYJs3HujIgdgmdLrfT4hNxxlbKLjr+9YEumNW1jbrKzt7B4R7vW4cjZh5jWRtfab3NgPnIxahrMAzWu
dLn5wJLs8+GOIVKNDItmb39Yl204JnNlJvNGwmJVtAwa3GVOtsFGwz000JX4uIO8G8oGC2jisK+Q
OxUE/EL/OBp/aiilRClRM6sCLXsdeRG434yoLiHRRek2IRdBUTLnFtMtRD/EN1xvnn/q2JrEZsttNbG/l
Stage 2: Mutual Benefit
GfxTUK1we5UJzD+ccfOAdRxDuCadEpfc1QqAOpVSSfCMJRak2XV73zuR8Tsbljy/QCSwxQOoguMr
5EZ7cNL89wAHEwAsVi0pKSSMx0tx0/vIfY22T72x3E6XgdWizksxJMaXC2YNfUQLt2mxOahYcZm
- One is motivated to act by the benefit the one may obtain later. You scratch my back,
D0crEy41MSXQLylYxa6mBE4h7mDC8dxG+NhYC806ItOga84g1cwx1gtYQI2sIG3GH1hA6rAAwI2tJ
XZ2CCsumZ2tpv9BIxyL36yRpbdSnUVgCQLXb9BA0bZ+xXKaqBpu//ACQXaLsmzKe5ffuhuA9pWG
I’ll scratch yours.
ACvnXqVNvlLJgu1GGrDuVFbzH0gfPeN2NUpvbKRY31moVcaHROTKD6jlLpjNnYeqNVU+koPa3Z
5wzIU+BtAfysOB5XEBzCorGzcQZGYzs5Uch8PVyPuysO6bcjwiMDUJYG/rLdhqLMlt1wdf0gVegm0
- The right way to behave is the way that is rewarded.
6KZmdiACWIsy9Bccx0iX2lUcqKtAOxF7rofMCTGIxmKoMTbOnPcbcoOdu03P+JSCt+bKPqIAVXbG
QZjSKoBe/C3OBYzHpiKZKXJFipsfiBh9SnTqdxETKeGp+vCSPu0QABQAosAAALwI5A6gXNtNYzt
PaGcKi/CvzMb2zjMoy37zb/CQv4rWBIlxGWYQNqxi6ZJ4wJWnZUJlT2hihmPjwk1i6xVCOkqNZrsfG
Conventional Level
AuvU10vY898YDRWYmeFCN8Dp06dA0mvtlRxkdX21fdIN3tGs94Es+0SYM+KJgoeNvUgPPUJ4wZ2
4zx6k8e7bgfIaQEVl5XEHOZdVuDzF7wxMM7fCjehhdLZNRtGAXxtAHwPaTE0vgqt4E3Hzl72Bj62O
- Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or norms of society. This may include
w1Z6wGRMi317ztwHIgWPnKlT2Oi/E2Y8QAB5Xmj9n8KE2YmUZVqVmJ8D3QT5gQKSHek5XfY+s
tWwO0iZcr90jgZE7awhPeA1BkE6AnXfA2Cjtik4tdTfw+cExeFotchFv0AmUCo6neRre46SSpbddQAST
approval of others, law and order.
5GBbHCITYAHjI7EYnMwUc/wBkyEqbSdtLHXhzhqYVvw2IrNcFabkHlyAgVnFYou7MTvJt4A6fKM
LcmdQf3i5lGo+JR9R0j1EQpJNobhKefjaAYkxunUKnQwiTx1Cw33lVxCWYy7LlNPU3Mq+0cPbWB
HJv/WOFiYkU+cQdTbSAq86I1nQJSpU1jiA6DiYKh5y19ntnqAKrkZj8APAczABp7CqsATZRyJ19IWv
Stage 3: Social Approval
Z9B8bk+EmKta58oLVqbvSAMmDopfKmY821PpHqfdGlvDhGs+vhEvU5DSAutXsCWNh9fCDCuW3

- One is motivated by what other expects in behavior – good boy, good girl. The person
DKPmYM1Ys2vD5dY4HznS4/mge13AHKbPg9kXwCYfcfdpY8nsGv6zG8NQz1aVIamo6C/S4v8AK8+
gaaWFhw09IKyrHBtVcWcaMOolWxVDvG2hmrdrthZx7+mO+o76j+JRxH8wmZ4tdb7+sAMYZ+Y+s
XTwrHfClqgDWTmytjvWsbFE/MRqR/KD9YVHbF2SXawFzvPK3U8BJvtsq0Nn1UB1fKt91yxA9AL6
acts because he/she values how he/she appears to others. He/she gives importance on
S04XApRTKgsOfEnqZnvtYx9lo0L6sWdh0Ayr9TCM0w2IZGzKSD0k5htoo/x90n+IDS/WV6Og6eflAn
what people will think or say.
MRTIsd4PEbvWMVTYQTCY900B0O8HUeYhjOlTS+Ruuq/qID2zMRnNoVj6Mb2Rs10fvDTgRqD5w
7aKWgV58ObGAPTIMn1AIkZjEsYAN50d91PZRI7Kw2dwNwGpPSW2pXGigfCBK5sZgisx0zaeXOP/
- Behaving in ways that conform to good behavior.
iSCbm9uPOQTFSp/eBVat9Bv1g1TFHXhxtBPxdtOJvrAkQ45xp8UQbBL20uTaDI99+n6xxCPnAdQAEt
ZbnTS8dJ8eMZTW9uduFuk6rUyqTCrj7NNle+xL4hvhoDKun/AMj/AKD6zVhUC5rmwGpJ3Acbyoeyv
CZMFnIs1R2c338APkJPbbGZGQfxAX8OUJVH7bdvK6owwaqq8arC72/MinQDqbmVvCbXSqAMSqo
7fFVSyqb7mI3a8dJN7Q2WSSgF76EHcQecz2phRQerSc2ZGIt03j5QNb2R2LSnZ6jCqx1Bt3ADqLDiess
gpZddPtKP7Le0TVKL4Z2JNKxQnfkJ+HrY/Iy4OS+8+UBLsWO/QX8NOMwbtdtT8Tiqji+UHIn9KXA
PnqZue33FDCVqh4Ix+VgPW0+dCDa/71gJCxVp5HEQHSAhY6h1iGAuba6z2m2sCwbJ2iyd06j98IXjX
zqSJBYcgNLHRxSMmXjIIBKpXSJrMDrHcfTymA3uJQ5lnkRmnkolKylQoFhYb4nBnMTfhvjeMr6Feu
kbwT2Rj1kDmJqgnfAi2vxel/vPKz3N4yYEhhnJZRe9rm2vAQ6mdwJ8uvKAYClvY8jJBG+30ggiklrfMf
2jVe7uiBSST8I323xxX0JPKWf2Z7OFbE1HYXWmmnLMxA+gMK1rZJX3KZBZcq6braaj1nuOS9gNx
37
Ivpw4mPYamFuALC+6OtCI47MQkm0xb2lYemMdUKC/cQWuB3guvjwmz7VosUY5sqqCSTcWAF5g
fax8zh73vv5wLb2MwCYepQK3LVEAcncM63t11tNMoIBvFrfsSM2Hsr/DptcGyJrbiFHGTnubeA4f3hV
D9rGOyYMJfvVHUH+ka2+UxRxNK9ruIzVKKcgzkdPhH3mbsohDYHP6zteBtFER0EenHrAbFuXpFI
m+IL3v4x+mDu3EeHpAJopqCZKYF0G/8AfWRlMGwMeap08/vAO2oisLiVxrg2kslW4A5/vdE1qKk8
AYAyWtPI/wDhDOgCYlrsZ7eyAecQ7XM9d9ekBuKRNYi8doDUQJCmdDrraE01O8nXlzgtPj0I+cLRd
Stage 4: Law and Order
- One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order. The person will follow the
law because it is the law.
- Importance of doing one’s duty.

Post Conventional Level

- Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just recognizing
the law, but the principles behind the law.

Stage 5: Social Contract

- Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act according to social justice and the
common good.
- Difference between moral and legal right. Recognition that rules should sometimes be
broken.

Stage 6: Universal Principles.

- This is associated with the development of one’s conscience. Having a set of standards
that drives one to possess moral responsibility to make societal changes regardless of
consequences to oneself.

LESSON 2.7:
BIOECOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF URIE BRONFENBRENNER
- Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the
Bioecological Systems theory presents child
development within the context of relationship
systems that compromise the child’s development.
It describes multipart layers of environment that has
an effect on the development of the child.
- The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s
own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in
one’s development.
From: https://time.graphics/uploadedFiles/500/d8/f1/d8f1f23378a0852fe82ac4296c4a74ad.jpg

URIE BRONFENBRENNER

The Role of Schools and Teachers

- Bronfenbrenner’s co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early childhood program
in the US. He concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of family life is the
most destructive force to a child’s development”. Researchers tell us that absence or
lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects
on their development. Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace the lack in the
home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment that
welcomes and nurtures families.
- Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work done on behalf of children
at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work
supervisors, legislators

38
The Five Environmental Systems
- The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments
throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These
systems include the micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system,
and the chronosystem.

https://o.quizlet.com/wkip0gpXLU8DLC2XNAKEbQ_b.jpg

Microsystem
- The microsystem's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family,
friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact
with you are included in your micro system.
- The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when
socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing
to the construction of such environment.

Mesosystem
- The mesosystem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life.
This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience.
- For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of
developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in
the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.

Exosystem
- The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the
person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively
participating.
- Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad
to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child's

39
 social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between
the mother and the child.

Macrosystem
- The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts
involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race
and living in a still developing or a third world country.
- For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.

Chronosystem
- The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also
involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person.
- One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not
only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority
of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next
years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family

References:

Papalia, D. E., & Martorell, G. (2015). Experience Human Development, Thirteenth Ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-Span Development, Seventeenth Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill
Education.

Ciccarelli K., White, J.N., (2015) Psychology: Fourth Edition. Pearson Education. Inc. USA

40
 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/ Fax No: (047) 811- 1683

CRITIQUE PAPER
Name:
Section:

Direction: Among the discussed theories of human development, choose 1 theory which you
would like to analyze further. You may compare and contrast it with the other theories
discussed or cite scientific studies proving or disproving the theory. Your answer will be graded
based on rubric attached:

41
 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/ Fax No: (047) 811- 1683

SCORING RUBRICS

LEVEL DESCRIPTION

Well written and very organized.

Excellent grammar mechanics.
5 - Outstanding Clear and concise statements.
Excellent effort and presentation with detail.
Demonstrates a thorough understanding of the topic.

Writes fairly clear.

Good grammar mechanics.
4 - Good
Good presentation and organization.
Sufficient effort and detail.

Minimal effort.
Minimal grammar mechanics.
3 - Fair
Fair presentation.
Few supporting details

Somewhat unclear.
Shows little effort.
2 - Poor Poor grammar mechanics.
Confusing and choppy, incomplete sentences.
No organization of thoughts.

Very poor grammar mechanics.

Very unclear.
1 - Very Poor
Does not address topic.
Limited attempt.

42