Astronomy - Moon Atlas (Photogr)

Photographic Moon Book
Alan Chu
Version 2.1
1
In memory of Galileo and Hevelius …
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) is the first

man to apply telescopes in astronomical
observations. His telescopes showed the
Moon’s surface to be irregular, not smooth
and perfect as believed by other scholars of
his times. Galileo’s moon sketches in 1609 ~ 1610
An early lunar map with details, published in

“Selenographia” (after Selene, the Greek
goddess of the Moon) by Hevelius in 1647.
Johannes Hevelius (1611 - 1687) and He also discovered the Moon’s libration, as
his home observatory in Gdansk, Poland. indicated by the offset circle in this map.
2
Contents
Page
About This Book 4
1: Overview 5
2: Lunar Features and Events 21
Map 1: Mare, Sinus, Lacus, Palus and Montes
Other maps:
3. Farside of the Moon 154
4. Moon Landing Map 159

5. Methods of Imaging 160
Appendix 1: Data of Lunar Images 168
Appendix 2: Data of the Moon 171
Appendix 3: Glossary 173
Appendix 4: References 175
Index 176
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About This Book
The present volume is the first attempt in Hong Kong to compile a moon book from
observational records. It is intended as an observer’s guide, also as a complement to the classic
“Hatfield” Photographic Lunar Atlas and the cartographic “Antonín Rükl” Atlas of the Moon.
This book collects over 200 photographs and illustrations. Many of them are the author’s original
works since April 2000. It meets the following criteria:
z All lunar images are selenographic south up unless otherwise noted. They resemble the
eyepiece view in a Newtonian reflector.
z The date, time, Moon age and equipment used during an exposure are given together with a
brief description of the lunar features.
z An Overview to cover the Moon basics prior to observation.
z A section on the Methods of Imaging.
z In general, images are sequenced in regional MAP s from east to west, e.g. Mare Crisium
and Petavius come first, finally Grimaldi and Schickard. Lunar events are described in the
EVENT pages.
z The bilingual index and the key map at the back of the book facilitate the search of 700
named features. The glossary explains lunar terms in simple language.
A CD version is available by post. It contains additional full-sized images and video clips. The
full-sized images can be rotated or flipped to user’s preference.
It is suggested to print the entire book for handy reference.
I would like to thank Mr. Joseph H. C. Liu (廖慶齊先生) who constantly shares with me many of
his photographic masterpieces, and Mr. Thomas A. Dobbins who has refreshed me with a batch
of interesting lunar features. I am also grateful to the local moon observers who have given
additional help and advice.
朱永鴻
(Alan W. H. Chu)
email address: mca@netvigator.com
Last updated: 2005 January 28
4
Overview
1. Overview
Our natural satellite, the Moon, is a fascinating object. It is a little more than a quarter of the
Earth diameter, about 1.3 light-seconds away. Virtually it has no atmosphere, no surface water
and no observed volcanism. Lots of surface features can be studied through telescopes as small
as 6 cm (2.4-inch) aperture, and they change in view under different angles of sunlight.
Lunar features are traditionally classified in Latin as
Mare (sea, plural: maria) (海)

Oceanus (ocean) (洋)
Sinus (bay) (灣)
Lacus (lake) (湖)
Palus (marsh) (沼)
Mons (mountain) (山)
Montes (mountain ranges) (山脈)
Vallis (valley) (谷)
Promontorium (promontory / cape) (岬 / 海角)
Rima (rille / cleft, plural: rimae) (溪 / 溝紋)
Rupes (scarp / cliff / fault) (懸崖 / 峭壁 / 斷層)
Dorsum (wrinkle ridge, plural: dorsa) (皺脊)
Catena (crater chain, plural: catenae) (環形山串)
while craters (環形山) are named after mythic legends or individuals who contributed in science,
technology, philosophy, mathematics or expedition. Crater is a generic term for circular
depression, typically a ring mountain or a walled plain. A ring mountain looks smaller in
diameter but relatively deeper than a walled plain. There are 33,000 craters greater than one-km
diameter on the visible side of the Moon, about 800 of them bear names and 5,400 are identified
by letters added to the name of a nearby prominent crater, e.g. Gassendi A. The largest crater
visible from Earth is Bailly near the south limb. It is a walled plain, outer diameter 300 km.
Dozens of craters are also centers of bright rays (輻射紋). In some regions of the maria, small
rounded low hills called domes (拱形小山) can be spotted under higher magnifications.
Lunar features are best seen when they are near the terminator, the border line between light and
shadow. Their positions are defined by the selenographic coordinates in which the 00 longitude
and 00 latitude are within a small mare named Sinus Medii (Central Bay). This sinus is visible in
binoculars, see next page. The lunar hemisphere permanently facing Earth is termed the nearside;
it ranges from 900 E to 900 W through the 00 longitude. When the south pole of the nearside is
positioned at top, the east limb is at the left-hand side, the west limb is at the right-hand side.
Surface features of the nearside are depicted under Map 1

to Map 33 with the selenographic south at top. Lunar
phenomena about libration, terminator, crescents, eclipse
and occultation are illustrated under Event 1 to Event 4 .
A map of the Farside that opposes the nearside is also
given.
Selenographic Coordinates 月面座標 Î
5
Landmarks on the Moon
Mare Crisium, Grimaldi, Tycho and Plato form a cross; Copernicus, Kepler and Aristarchus form a triangle. Sinus Medii
is almost at the center of the disc. The thumbnail is the mirror-reverse image through a star diagonal fitted on refractor
or Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope. N, S, E, W are selenographic directions as seen by an astronaut on the Moon; they
are similar to the geographic directions on Earth but opposite to the celestial east and west in a conventional star map.
T040A
S
View in Newtonian
telescopes Tycho
第谷
Sinus Medii
Grimaldi
中央灣格里馬第
In telescope with
star diagonal
E W
Mare Crisium 2
危海 1
4
Plato
拍拉圖
1. Copernicus 哥白尼
N 2. Kepler 開普勒
3. Aristarchus 亞利斯塔克
N 4. Sinus Iridum 虹灣
View in binoculars
( = view in Newtonian Plato
o
but rotated by 180 ) 拍拉圖
4
Mare Crisium
3 危海
2 1
W E
Grimaldi Sinus Medii

格里馬第中央灣
Tycho
第谷
S
2001.10.02 19:06 UT CP990-DSCN9823
6
The Moon in small telescopes
This Moon crescent was photographed with a digital camera one hour after sunset through a 3-inch (8 cm) refractor.
South is up. It represents a typical view of the Moon from a small telescope at low magnification. Although the
telescope is small, it shows plenty of lunar features such as craters, valleys and mountains. Small telescopes are easy
to carry and less sensitive to atmospheric turbulences. Even owners of big instruments enjoy the use of smaller
telescopes in field work and poor-seeing nights. The original parts of this image are cropped and shown in the inlets.
T056A 1. Janssen
2. Fabricius
3. Metius
4. Brenner
36 5. Vallis Rheita
6. Vallis Snellius
7. Snellius
8. Stevinus
9. Wrottesley
10. Furnerius
35 11. Petavius
36 12. Vendelinus
13. Langrenus
2 1 14. Lamé
15. Santbech
5 16. Colombo
17. Gutenberg
10 3 4 18. Fracastorius
8 19. Capella
20. Taruntius
7 21. Proclus
22. Cleomedes
11 23. Geminus
6 24. Messala
9 5 25. Macrobius
15 18 26. Römer
27. Atlas
28. Hercules
12 16 29. Endymion
14
A
13
19
17 34
20
34 25
21 30
Mare
Crisium C
25
30 26 31
22 B
32
31
B
32
23
33 33
24
27 28
30. Plutarch
31. Hahn
29 32. Berosus
33. Gauss
34. Condorcet
35. Vlacq
36. Boussingault
2001.09.22 11:27 UT Age 5 days A. Montes Pyrenaeus
Kenko ED 8 cm f/8 + Or18 + CP990 B. Montes Taurus
C. Lacus Bonitatis (Lake of Goodness)
7
The Moon and its Terminator
The terminator is the border line between light and shadow. It looks irregular because of different height and albedo
(reflectivity) of surface features. Features away from the terminator are often too bright (e.g. No. 62) or hidden in
darkness (e.g. No. 15), yet they become distinctive when the bright margin of the terminator passes over them.
1. Tycho
T078 2. Maginus
3. Clavius (in shadow)
72 4. Deslandres
5. Walter
6. Purbach
3 7. Arzachel
8. Alphonsus
9. Ptolemaeus
2 10. Davy
69 70 71 11. Albategnius
1 12. Hipparchus
46 13. Hind
14. Guericke
47 15. Fra Mauro
16. Birt, Straight Wall
5 4 17. Eratosthenes
18. Archimedes
57 58
68 19. Autolycus
48 20. Aristillus
59 6 21. Conon
49 16 22. Timocharis
23. Eudoxus
50 7
24. Aristoteles
25. Cassini
60 53 26. Plato
45
8 27. Anaxagoras
52 10 14 28. Godin
11
61 9
29. Rimae Triesnecker
51 13 30. Rima Hyginus
31. Dionysius
12 15 32. Julius Caesar
62 33. Vallis Alpes
54 34. Manilius
35. Menelaus
56 Sinus Medii 36. Bessel
31 28 29 37. Plinius
55 38. le Monnier
39. Posidonius
63 40. Bürg
32 67 66 41. Atlas
30
42. Hercules
17 43. Endymion
34 44. Thales
37 35 45. Abulfeda
A 46. Janssen
64 21 47. Vallis Rheita
36 48. Piccolomini
49. Rupes Altai
22 50. Fracastorius
38 51. Theophilus
18 52. Cyrillus
65 19 53. Catharina
39 54. Capella
20
55. Sabine
B 56. Messier
57. Furnerius
25 58. Stevinus
59. Snellius
23 C 60. Petavius
41 42 40 61. Vendelinus
24 26 62. Langrenus
63. Taruntius
43 33 64. Proclus
65. Cleomedes
66. Pallas
67. Murchison
44 68. Regiomontanus
69. Maurolycus
27 70. Faraday
71. Stöfler
72. Moretus
A. Montes Apenninus
B. Montes Caucasus
2000.11.05 13:22 UT Moon age 9 days. FS128 + Or25 + Casio QV2300 1/74 sec. C. Montes Alpes
8
The Moon at full brightness
This photograph shows the western half of a full moon. The terminator has gone completely. Crater
Tycho, Copernicus, Kepler and Aristarchus (No. 1, 16, 20 & 23) radiate extensive bright rays that
overwhelm large areas of the surface. Other landscapes lose their contrast too, though recognizable.
The full moon is not a favorable time to spot lunar details.
1. Tycho
T048A 2. Alphonsus
3. Ptolemaeus
4. Archimedes
5. Timocharis
6. Anaxagoras
55 7. Philolaus
8. Plato
54 9. Mons Pico
10. Montes Recti
1 53 11. Sinus Iridum
12. Mairan
36 13. Mons Gruithuisen Gamma
37
14. Mons Rümker
40 38 15. Pytheas
69 16. Copernicus
41 17. Gambart
34 18. Fra Mauro
42 35 19. Guericke
44 39 20. Kepler
43 50 21. Encke
45 22. Reiner Gamma
33 51
23. Aristarchus
2 24. Herodotus
47 52
25. Seleucus
19 26. Eddington
49 27. Olbers A
3 31 28. Riccioli
46 48
29. Grimaldi
18 30. Flamsteed P
32
Sinus Medii 29 31. Montes Riphaeus
56 32. Euclides
17 33. Bullialdus
30 34. Mercator
21 28 35. Campanus
57
36. Capuanus
37. Ramsden
20 22 38. Vitello
16 39. Hippalus
27
67 40. Wurzelbauer
41. Pitatus
D 42. Hesiodus
58 43. Wolf
44. Birt
A 15 45. Gassendi
25
46. Letronne
59 23 24 47. Billy
60 26 48. Mons Hansteen
68 5 49. Sirsalis
4 50. Byrgius A
51. Darwin
52. Crüger
53. Schickard
B 54. Schiller
13 55. Zucchius
56. Lansberg
57. Reinhold
C 9 11 58. T. Mayer
10 12 14 59. Euler
60. Lambert
8 65 66 61. Meton
62. Carpenter
63. J. Herschel
64 64. Pythagoras
63 65. Harpalus
66. Sinus Roris
67. Sinus Aestuum
61 62 68. Palus Putredinis
6 7 69. Palus Epidemiarum
A. Montes Apenninus
B. Montes Caucasus
C. Montes Alpes
2003.09.11 16:11 UT Age 15 days FS128 + PL25 + CP995 1/416 sec DSCN9883 80% resized. D. Montes Carpatus
9
The Moon and its “Evening” Terminator
The terminator is designated “evening” because the places under it are experiencing sunset. If a moon man stands now
on the floor of crater No.23, he will see the setting Sun and anticipate nighttime as the terminator crosses the crater from
east to west (from left to right of the frame). Compare this photograph with T078 in previous page which was taken 6 days
before full moon. T078 shows the “morning” terminator implying the Sun is rising over that part of the Moon. In T117, note
also the highland region, around 2~3 o’clock position of the west limb. It is even brighter than full moon because the Sun
is illuminating it at high angles (hence appears white and featureless).
1. Tycho
T117 2. Maginus
3. Clavis
4. Moretus
4 6 5. Longomontanus
6. Bailly
7. Schiller
3 8. Schickard
7 9. Hainzel
10. Deslandres
2 5 11. Gauricus
8 12. Pitatus
13. Walter
1
9 14. Regiomontanus
15. Purbach
16. Thebit
64 17. Birt
11 18. Arzachel
13 10 19. Alpetragius
12 62 20. Alphonsus
14 63 21. Ptolemaeus
61 22. Albategnius
15 23. Hipparchus
17 24. Herschel
16 25. Flammarion
60 65 26. Triesnecker
18 27. Murchison
19 28. Pallas
20 66
29. Mösting
31 32` 67 30. Schröter
22 31. Davy
21 59 58
33 32. Guericke
34 33. Parry
23 24 34. Fra Mauro
36 35. Gambart
25 36. Lalande
29 57
Sinus 37. Montes Apenninus
Medii 30 35 56 38. Montes Alpes
69 39. Archimedes
26 55 40. Autolycus
68 41. Aristillus
54 42. Timocharis
27 28 48 70 43. Cassini
44. Mons Pico
45. Plato
47 49 46. Sinus Iridum
47. Eratosthenes
48. Copernicus
50
72 49. Montes Carpatus
53 71 50. Pytheas
37 51. Lambert
51
52. Mons La Hire
42 52 53. Euler
40 39 54. Milichius
55. Hortensius
56. Reinhold
Mare Imbrium 57. Lansberg
41
58. Euclides
43 59. Montes Riphaeus
60. Bullialdus
46 61. Kies
38 44
62. Mercator
63. Campanus
45 64. Vitello
65. Gassendi
66. Letronne
67. Grimaldi
68. Kepler
69. Reiner Gamma
70. Marius
73 71. Aristarchus
72. Herodotus
73. Anaxagoras
10
It must be aware that lunar nomenclature is not always exact. For instance, today’s selenographic
coordinates make Mare Orientale (Eastern Sea, Farside Map ) confusingly at the “west” side of
the Moon. Vallis Rheita in Map 4 is likely not a true valley but a chain of overlapping craters.
Grimaldi in Map 26 appears like a lava-filled basin more than a crater. The Straight Wall (Rupes
Recta) in Map 12 is not a narrow wall but a fault where its eastern side is higher than the western
side by 300 m. Many lunar views in ground-based telescopes are dramatically different from the
scenes on the Moon’s surface and from the images taken in space. Below are some comparisons.
The Straight Wall 直壁

P001
Standing at the foot of the 300-m high Straight Wall

(Sketch from Perelman’s Astronomy For Entertainment, Moscow, 1958.)
View in telescope, Map12
P002
Crater Coper nicus 哥白尼環形山
Central mountains
Floor
For an astronaut standing on the central floor of Copernicus,

his horizon distance is 2.5 km only. He cannot see the
Surrounding walls, surrounding walls unless he climbs the central mountains to a
93 km in diameter height over 600 m. This picture simulates the astronaut’s view
at 800 m above the crater floor.
(Sketch from Perelman’s Astronomy For Entertainment, Moscow, 1958.)
View in telescope, Map19
NASA 005
Rima Hyginus 海金努斯月溪
Rima Hyginus from Lunar Orbiter 3 probe that orbited

around the Moon’s equator in 1967. This closeup
shows numerous craterlets on the lunar surface not
resolvable by any observatory telescopes.
View in telescope, Map 13
11
Prom. Heraclides 赫拉克萊特海角 NASA 006
maiden
View in telescope, Map 18. Poor seeing creates

Closeup image of Promontorium Heraclides from the
illusion which makes Promontorium Heraclides to
Lunar Orbiter mapping. Here it is rotated with south up.
resemble a maiden’s face with waving hair.
Mare Crisium 危海 NASA 001A
Two views of Mare Crisium in telescope, Map 2. They differ

slightly in aspect ratio (north-south : east-west diameter)
due to libration 天平動. Libration is the apparent vertical or This image from Apollo 11 spacecraft shows
the direct view of Mare Crisium. Its east-west
horizontal rocking motion of the Moon as it orbits around the
diameter is longer than the north-south by
Earth. It distorts the surface features seen near the Moon’s
33 %.
limb, or even makes them temporarily out of sight. Libration
is detailed in Event 1 pages.
Resolving Power of Telescopes

NASA 024
Left: The Moon rock looks big to the Apollo astronaut, but
it is not detectable by any observatory optics. Even the
Hubble Space Telescope, with its 2.4-m mirror, is unable
to spot moon rocks smaller than about 80 m. At best night,
a 20-cm (8-inch) amateur telescope resolves to 0.5 ~ 0.6
arcsecond, or lunar craters of about 1 km in diameter.
Right: A 25-cm (10-inch)

Another
telescope resolves round craterlet
objects greater than 800 m
on the Moon. It can be tested
by resolving the twin craterlets
on Mons Gruithuisen Gamma,
Map 23 .
900-m craterlet on Mons Gruithuisen Gamma
12
In telescopes, a crater close to the lunar terminator looks like deep hollow because the shadow on
it exaggerates the impression of depth. Actually the floor of a lunar crater is not deep against its
diameter. For example, Tycho (figure below) is 85 km in diameter, 5 km deep at most. The
depth-diameter ratio is 1 : 17, rather shallow by terrestrial norm. During the full moon, the
exaggerated depth of Tycho will vanish, and the crater looks almost flat with a dark halo.
3 / 4 Tycho in shadow Half of Tycho in shadow No shadow (at full moon)
The shadow effect, together with the global curvature of the Moon, also
play trick to the appearance of lunar mountains. In the right figure which
shows the telescopic view of Mons Pico, an isolated mountain in Map 16,
it has the appearance of a steep cliff, exaggerated by the triangular shadow
under low Sun illumination. However, an astronaut on the Moon would
find its slope quite gradual, roughly 200 ~ 300. This is because the global
curvature of the Moon is greater than the Earth’s; the short horizon
distance of the astronaut (2.5 km) makes him or her to perceive Mons Pico
not as steep as the shadowed view in telescopes.
NASA 010
The above mosaic shows the landing site of Apollo 15 (1971 July). The mountain is Hadley Delta at the
foothills of Montes Apenninus Map 14. Astronauts called it a “featureless mountain” (quite true in this
picture). They found lunar scenery almost white or black. They also reported that distances on the Moon
were hard to estimate, partly because the Moon’s surface curves more sharply than the Earth’s and
hence the horizon is closer, partly because there is no atmosphere and hence no softening of shadows.
Note that on the airless Moon, the sky is dark even at daytime. (NASA Image)
Although the Moon is physically a barren world compared to our vivid Earth, yet there are lots
of surface features visible in telescopes. See these funny highlights:
13
Funny Features on the Moon
Under certain illuminating conditions, the lunar features may look conspicuous and funny in
telescopes. Below are the glimpses of them. Their details are traceable from the MAP pages.
Age of the Moon

The age is the number of days that has elapsed since the last new moon. In average, the new moon repeats every
29.53 days; this period is called synodic month or one lunation. Because the Moon’s orbital speed is not consistent,
the first quarter, the full moon and the last quarter may occur slightly earlier or later than the indicated age. It is also
possible to have two full moons in a calendar month, e.g. 2001 December and then 2004 August. (once every 33 months)
Sunlight
(Not to scale) Sun
1
one lunation
first quarter last quarter
(Binocular view)
2 4
Earth
Earth’s orbit
1 1 3
2
Lunar orbit
with respect to the Earth
2
4
Earth 4 1. new moon (age = 0 days) 農曆初一
2. first quarter (age ≈ 7.4 days) 初七或初八
Lunar orbit 3. full moon (age ≈ 14.8 days) 十五或十六
with respect to the Sun
3 4. last quarter (age ≈ 22.1 days) 廿二或廿三
14
Perigee and Apogee
The angular diameter of the Moon is about 0.5 0, equivalent to viewing a pencil thickness at an arm’s length.
It is not constant but changes according to the instantaneous Moon-observer distance. Thus the Moon
appears about 1.5 % bigger at zenith (overhead) than at horizon, though this change is quite small. To an
observer on the Earth’s equator, the Moon’s angular diameter can vary up to 34.1 arcminutes at perigee
(closet to Earth) and down to 29.8 arcminutes at apogee (farthest from Earth), a total change of 14 %. The
average is 31.6 arcminutes, when the Moon is 378,000 km (30 times Earth’s diameter) from the observer. A
lunar crater of 2 km diameter and facing Earth gives a visual angle of about 1 arcsecond.
Greatest high tide, also called perigean spring tide, will occur when the Moon is at perigee and when the
Sun, the Earth and the Moon (whether full moon or new moon) are aligned to reinforce gravitational
interactions. Such high tides are not uncommon and can be observed at some coastal spots in Hong Kong,
e.g. on few days around 2004 June 4 and July 3. At these days, the Moon was about full and at perigee
(~ 357,000 km from the Earth’s center); the high tides rose to exceed 2.5 m or twice of the average.
Moon’s elliptical orbit Tycho is about 45 arcseconds.
14 %
356,375 km 406,712 km
on 1912 Jan 4 on 1984 Mar 2
Perigee Apogee
近地點遠地點
EARTH
Minimum and maximum

(The Moon’s orbit is slightly elliptical; here it is exaggerated to show its perigee and apogee.) angular diameter of the Moon
The Earth-Moon System

Actually the Earth and the Moon move in slightly elliptical orbits about the center of mass of the system
which acts as if all the mass were concentrated there. The Earth and the Moon are always in opposite
sides of the center of mass.
The center of mass is nearly 2000 km below the Earth’s surface when the Moon is at extreme perigee,
and 1400 km below the Earth’s surface when the Moon is at extreme apogee.
The focus of the Moon’s elliptical orbit is the center of mass rather than the exact center of the Earth.
Because the Moon’s orbit is an ellipse, the center of mass also moves to describe an ellipse in space.
Over time, the gravitational interactions between the Earth and the Moon cause the Earth’s rotation to
slow down gradually and the Moon to move away from the Earth at average of 3.8 cm per year. However,
the Moon remains with the same face (nearside) permanently locked towards Earth. The Moon’s distance
shall not increase forever. It will settle down billion years later, probably at 560,000 km. By that time, one
rotation period of Earth = one lunation = 1330 hours (rotation slowed down 55 times !).
EARTH
Diameter = 12756 km
center of mass
MOON
Diameter = 3476 km
(Not to scale) Mass = 1/81 Earth’s
15
Moonrise and Harvest Moon
Between apogee and perigee, the Moon moves 12 ~ 15 degrees per day eastward among the star
background. As a result, moonrise repeats every 24.3 ~ 25.2 hours, and so it must be delayed in
successive days. There is always one day with no moonrise (e.g. 2003 December 16 in Hong Kong)
and one day with no moonset (2003 December 30) in each lunar month.
In this illustration, the Moon takes two full days to Exact moonrise or moonset is defined by the time when
cross Taurus from west to east. the upper limb of the Moon contacts with the horizon.
The graph below illustrates the delay of moonrise during 2003 in Hong Kong. For example, the Moon
rose about 62 minutes later per day by the last week of January; but in the first week of February, the
Moon appeared to speed up and rose just 32 minutes later per day. This indicates a very large variation
of moonrise time within two weeks. The general saying that the Moon rises about 50 minutes later per
day is not applicable most of the time.
Harvest Moon (穫月) refers to the full moon that rises at minimum delay time during a year. It happens
in few successive nights close to autumnal equinox (September 23) in the northern hemisphere. At
these nights, the full moon rises around the time of sunset, and it appears only 30 minutes later than the
Moon did the day before. This is because at days close to autumnal equinox, the ecliptic, and hence the
Moon’s orbit, is at its least angle to the horizon at the time of moonrise in the northern latitudes. In higher
latitudes (e.g. 500 N), the daily delay time of the Harvest Moon is even shortened to 20 minutes or less.
Harvest Moon happens in March in the southern hemisphere. It is so named because the moonlight
helps farmers to work at harvest time.
16
Tilting of the Moon’s terminator, as seen from Earth
Between moonrise and moonset, the Moon in the sky
seems to tilt differently from the vertical. This is
because our eyes see the sky as its projection on the
celestial sphere, and the Moon appears to move in a
curved path above the horizon. Such perception is
illustrated by a binocular watch on 2003 August 5
Hong Kong. At 3 pm, the first-quarter Moon was
visible in daylight at an altitude of 30 o. It was rising
with the upper end of the terminator tilting to the
observer’s left hand side. At transit when the Moon
was highest above horizon, the terminator looked
almost vertical. Thereafter the Moon was sinking
westward, and the terminator tilted to the right.
Tilting of the Moon’s rotation axis, as seen from space

The Moon’s rotation axis is tilted 1.530 from the vertical of the ecliptic (plane of the Earth’s orbit). Hence the
Sun always appears very low above the horizon at the poles of the Moon. Some craters at the poles are so
deep that sunlight probably never reaches their bottoms. Based on spectroscopic surveys by the lunar
probes, scientists speculate upon the existence of water ice there, especially an area of about 100 km
diameter around the south pole which contains permanently shadowed depressions and where the
temperature never exceeds −1800 C. So far traces of water-ice on the Moon are not affirmative.
(Not to scale)
Brightness of the Moon

Due to the elongation of the Moon from the Sun, the brightness of
Sun
the Moon changes against its age in a lunation. Maximum
brightness is at the full moon, equivalent to visual magnitude of Moon
about −12.7. Minimum brightness is at the crescents, see the
following table. A moon-filter is sometimes needed to suppress the θ
lunar brightness in visual observations. θ = Elongation
距角
Note that at ages approaching full illumination, the Moon rises in the
afternoon and is naked-eye visible in daylight. Earth
Moon Age First Last

3 5 7 9 11 13 Full Moon 17 19 21 24 26 28
(days) Qtr. Qtr.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Elongation 37 61 85 90 110 134 158 180 207 232 256 270 293 317 341
Relative 100 (full

<1 3 6 8 16 30 58 49 26 13 8 4 1 <1
Brightness illumination)
17
Notes on lunar observation
This book presents lunar images taken with small and medium-sized telescopes. They indicate
the requirements of a lunar telescope are not critical except personal preference. The author’s
preference tends to have three:
z A 4-inch (102 mm) f/8 refractor for portability, the front objective is fluorite for supreme
sharpness in visual enjoyment.
z A 5-inch (128 mm) f/8 refractor for imaging at wide field (happened to be fluorite too).
z A 10-inch (254 mm) f/6 Newtonian for imaging lunar details.
(See telescope pictures in Section 5.)
The 5 and 10-inch are not supposed portable. Newtonian bigger or longer than 10-inch f/6 is
seldom used because the observer needs to “stand high on stool” by the eyepiece (sounds to
cause falling accident), and it produces not much better result than the 10-inch f/6 in most nights
of the year. The C9 (Celestron 9.25-inch Schmidt-Cassegrain) is sometimes used when the
10-inch Newtonian is unavailable, e.g. recoating of mirror. In the author’s experience, a
collimated C9 gives best optics among all Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrain, but it never
outperforms a quality, equal-aperture Newtonian. The Celestron kit of vibration suppression pads
is highly recommended. It kills vibration residue of the telescope almost instantly, and has been
tested equally well for loading as heavy as 150 lbs (68 kg).
Try to observe even when the seeing is mediocre, because the peculiar view of a landscape lasts
for few hours only (e.g. the “golden handle” and wrinkle ridges of Sinus Iridum MAP 18 ). If this
session is missed, the observer must wait 4 weeks to meet similar view.
Moon after the last quarter rises late at night or even at dawn. Take a rest first. It is advantageous
to plan an observing session in advance, such as where the lunar terminator and libration are
expected, and how high is the Moon in the sky. Always check the collimation of the optics and
allow them to reach thermal equilibrium; these are essential for high magnification works.
The author’s current site for lunar

(and planetary) observation.
Left is a 10-in (254 mm) f/6 Newtonian;
right Is a moveable mount for 4 to 5-in
refractors. The site is at open roof of a
32-storey building in the urban area of
Hong Kong. A high wall behind the site
chamber blocks the east.
18
Here is an example to plan observing the features in Map 8. They include crater Sabine, Ritter
and Armstrong where Apollo 11 landed at their vicinity, and the nearby rilles, domes and
wrinkle ridges.
***** EXAMPLE *****

Reference No. 24 suggests a freeware PosDat for moon ephemeris, a table giving the predicted
positions of the Moon. Download this freeware from Internet. After setup, select the object
“Moon” in the dialogue window. Input the date, time and geographic location similar to below.
Moon Ephemeris from PosDat
The predicted Moon

2004.07.23 12:00 UT
Sabine,
Ritter
Terminator Disc center

at 13.800 E 6.920 W 2.350 S
Sign of longitudinal directions: Positive means E, Negative means W.

Sign of latitudinal directions : Positive means N, Negative means S.
PosDat then predicts that at the given Universal Time and geographic location, the Moon is 390
above horizon and is sinking. Its C. M. (Central Meridian) is −6.920. The negative C. M. means
the Moon disc is centered at longitude 6.920 W, causing nearly 70 extra area of libration** along
the west limb. However the 6-day Moon age makes the west side too dark to be seen. Similarly,
Declination of Earth −2.350 implies that the Moon disc is centered at latitude 2.350 S, causing a
slightly more area of libration near the south pole. PosDat also predicts Terminator at 13.80o E,
so the Sun is illuminating Sabine (200 E) and Ritter (190 E, Map 8) at favorable angles. On the
other hand, crater Armstrong is known small (diameter 5 km or 2.5 arcseconds angular). It is
easier to spot Armstrong with bigger telescopes, as well as the rimae and domes in the map.
In the above table, Terminator at 13.800 is just an alternative quote of Colongitude 346.200,
because both angles always sum to 3600, 1800 or 00. The colongitude** tells the Sun’s
illuminating angle and hence an estimated height of a lunar feature from the length of its shadow.
PosDat is not the only program available. There are other sources of moon ephemerides.
** Libration and Colongitude are elaborated in the Event 1 and Event 2 pages respectively,
also explained briefly in the Glossary.
19
Thebit P dagger
A last but not least hint is “Imagination”. It enhances
the perception of an observed feature. For instance, the
Straight Wall (Rupes Recta) can be thought as a long sword
sword with a handle at the southern end. This handle is
also part of the walls of a heavily flooded “ghost crater”
called Thebit P, see figure at right or Map 12. The floor
Thebit
of Thebit P is shaded by a pattern of darker lava which
resembles a dagger. The combination is then a sword
Mare
and a dagger side by side on the edge of Mare Nubium. Nubium
The imagination may be extended to crater Alphonsus,

see figure at right or Map 12. A close look at its floor
shows three small, dark lava patches along the rim,
and there are clefts and craterlets on the patches. Such
appearance suggests that it is a remnant of volcanism,
possibly very young by geologic age. If the Moon’s
interior is not totally inert, someday volcanism may
erupt again through the craterlets and become visible
as some kind of LTP (Lunar Transient Phenomena).
LTP are short duration of brightness, color or shape
changes at the lunar surface. They have been noticed
for decades, although a lot of them remain skeptical
and controversial. Refer to http://www.ltpresearch.org/
or Reference No. 7, 8 and 21.
In Map 1, there is a page on three types of moon rocks. The mare basalt looks dark. The
anorthosite, which exists in highlands or beneath the mare basalt, is light-colored. The brecca is a
mixed type. This rock scenario may inspire speculation about the peculiarities of some surface
features, such as the grey tone of Palus Somnii Map 2, the dark collar of Mare Serenitatis with
even darker patch near Littrow Map 9, the bright formation Reiner Gamma Map 20, the bright
patch near Descartes Map 31 and Tycho’s system of long rays Map 33. The Moon is indeed full
of speculative topology and geology. Reference No. 6, 14, 27 to 31 help to study it.
T029
The Moon & Venus in Crescents

Taken at the author’s home roof in
dawn of 2004.07.13, after a night
of observing the 26-day old Moon.
Venus appears as a bright morning
star about 70 from the Moon crescent,
however telescope shows Venus is a
crescent too.
20
2. Lunar Features and Events
T048E
z All lunar photographs in MAP and EVENT pages are south up unless otherwise noted.
z Moon ages when the lunar features were photographed:
Moon Age (days)
Map
Lunar Features ~4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
No.
z
2 Mare Crisium, Proclus, Cleomedes y y y y y y
3 Langrenus, Vendelinus, Petavius y y
4 Janssen, Fabricius, Vallis Rheita y y y
5 Theophilus, Cyrillus, Rupes Altai y y
6 Messier, Censorinus, Taruntius y y y
7 Capella, Gutenberg, Torricelli y y
8 Sabine, Ritter, Lamont, Arago y y
9 Posidonius, Plinius, wrinkle ridges y y y y y y
10 Atlas, Hercules, Bürg, Gauss y y y y y y
11 Tycho, Clavius, Deslandres y y y y y y y
12 Ptolemaeus, Rupes Recta, Birt y y y y y
13 Rima Hyginus, Rimae Triesnecker y y y
14 Apenninus, Archimedes, rilles y y y y
15 Vallis Alpes, Aristoteles, Meton y y y y y
16 Plato, Mons Pico, Anaxagoras y y y y
17 Anaximander, Pythagoras y y
18 Sinus Iridum, Montes Recti, Sharp y y
19 Copernicus, Eratosthenes, Stadius y y y
20 Kepler, Reiner Gamma, Marius y y y y y
21 Aristarchus, Vallis Schröeteri, Prinz y y
22 Eddington, Struve, Russell y
23 Mons Rümker, Mons Gruithuisen γ y
24 Rimae Hippalus, Marth, Bullialdus y y y
25 Gassendi, Vitello, Mersenius y y y
26 Grimaldi, Darwin, Byrgius y y
27 Rimae Sirsalis, Crüger, Billy y y
28 Schiller, Schickard, Wargentin y y
29 Bailly, Longomontanus, Hainzel y y y y
30 Maurolycus, Stöfler, Boussingault y y y
31 Catena Abulfeda, Catena Davy y y y y
21
MAP 1
Mare, Sinus, Lacus, Palus and Montes
The Moon keeps the same face towards the Earth. The large dark area of this face (the nearside)
is termed Mare, the Latin for “Sea”. The term was originally used in the 17th century, when the
dark plains of the Moon were thought to be water. Maria are physically smooth lowlands of
solidified lava, typically 500 ~ 1500 m thick over the lunar crust. They erupted some 3 billion
years ago and are younger than the surrounding highlands.
Plains of relatively small areas are Latinized as Sinus (Bay), Lacus (Lake) or Palus (Marsh).
Montes are “mountain ranges”. Three huge montes lie along the eastern edge of Mare Imbrium:
Montes Apennius, Montes Caucasus and Montes Alpes. They are actually part of the rising rim
of a colossal impact basin which flooded later with lava that formed Mare Imbrium today.
T001
Mare Cognitum Known Sea 知海 Mare Nubium Sea of Clouds 雲海 Palus Putredinis Marsh of Decay 凋沼 (腐沼)
Mare Crisium Sea of Crisis 危海 Mare Serenitatis Sea of Serenity 澄海 Palus Somnii Marsh of Sleep 夢沼
Mare Fecunditatis Sea of Fertility 豐富海 Mare Tranquillitatis Sea of Tranquillity 靜海 Sinus Aestuum Bay of Billows 暑灣 (浪灣)
Mare Frigoris Sea of Cold 冷海 Mare Vaporum Sea of Vapors 汽海 Sinus Amoris Bay of Love 愛灣
Mare Humorum Sea of Moisture 濕海 Oceanus Procellarum Ocean of Storms 風暴洋 Sinus Iridum Bay of Rainbows 虹灣
Mare Imbrium Sea of Rains 雨海 Lacus Mortis Lake of Death 死湖 Sinus Medii Central Bay 中央灣
Mare Insularum Sea of Isles 島海 Lacus Somniorum Lake of Dreams 夢湖 Sinus Roris Bay of Dew 露灣
Mare Nectaris Sea of Nectar 酒海 Palus Epidemiarum Marsh of Epidemics 疫沼
(Maria on the east limb are given in Event 1 pages.)
22
Close-up views of Mare Imbrium and Montes Apenninus
NASA 018
Lambert
An oblique view taken by the crew of
Apollo 15 in July 1971 when they flew
over the southern region of Mare Imbrium.
South is top. Ancient lava flow (now
solidified) on the mare floor is evident.
Prominent wrinkle ridges are also seen in the
middle of the picture. Wrinkle ridges
are common in lunar maria. They are up
Mons La Hire
to 200 m high and may have resulted from
surface shrinkage and collapse following
the cease of volcanism. The isolated massif
is Mons La Hire, which is over 1000 m high,
base 10 x 20 km. The crater Lambert (30 km
in diameter) happens behind an obstacle in
wrinkle ridges front of the camera.
(NASA image AS15-1555.)
NASA 019
Sinus Aestuum
MARE
VAPORUM
A picture from Apollo 17 in 1972

December. Montes Apenninus,
which forms part of the main rim
of Mare Imbrium, is the largest
mountain ranges on the nearside
of the Moon. The peaks of Montes
Apenninus are 5000 m higher than
Mare Imbrium. Compare this image
with the Apenninus in Map 14.
(NASA image AS17-2432.)
MARE IMBRIUM
50 km
23
The Moon seen by Apollo 11 crew on return trip, 1969 July (NASA AS11-44-6667)
This view is not visible from terrestrial-based telescopes. Mare Crisium and Mare Fecunditatis
now appear close to the center of the disc, and Maria Nos. 1 to 7 (normally seen at the east
limb of the Moon from Earth) are positioned in better perspective. The terrestrial views of Maria
Nos. 1 to 7 are given in T056D, EVENT 1 page.
NASA 001
1
Furnerius A
Petavius B
Langrenus
Mare
Nectaris
2 酒海
5 Mare
Fecunditatis
4 豐富海
Theophilus
Albategnius
3
Mare Mare
Crisium Tranquillitatis
危海靜海
6
Proclus
Mare
Geminus Serenitatis
澄海
Montes Apenninus
7
Anaxagoras Montes Caucasus
Mare Frigoris 冷海
1. Mare Australe (Southern Sea) 南海 2. Mare Smythii (Smyth’s Sea) 史密斯海

3. Mare Marginis (Border Sea) 界海 4. Mare Undarum (Sea of Waves) 浪海
5. Mare Spumans (Foaming Sea) 泡海 6. Mare Anguis (Serpent Sea) 蛇海
7. Mare Humboldtianum (Humboldt’s Sea) 洪堡海
Note the shape of Mare Crisium in above image. It is more circular compared to the oblique view in
Image T001.
24
View from Galileo spacecraft as it flew past the Moon on 1992 Dec 9
Mare Orientale (Eastern Sea) is near the center of the picture, but on Earth it is hidden behind the west limb of
the Moon and is visible only at very favorable librations. Mare Orientale is the lava-flooded part of an impact
basin, about 300 km in diameter. Its outer vicinity is encircled by concentric mountain ranges (Montes Rook and
Montes Cordillera) up to 900 km across. The whole mare is situated on the farside, at 950 W 200 S.
Remark: In old maps Mare Orientale was on the “far east” region of the Moon and hence so named.
But today’s selenographic coordinates confusingly put Mare Orientale on the west.
NASA 002
South Pole - Aitken

12 (basin)
11
Mare 9
Nubium 15
10
雲海 Mare 8
Humorum Montes Rook
濕海盧克山脈
6
Mare Orientale
5
東海
4 13 14
1
2
Oceanus
Procellarum
Montes Cordillera
風暴洋科迪勒拉山脈
3
Mare
Imbrium
雨海
1. Copernicus 哥白尼 2. Kepler 開普勒 3. Aristarchus 亞利斯塔克 4. Grimaldi 格里馬第

5. Sirsalis 希薩利斯 6. Gassendi 加桑迪 7. Byrgius 伯朱斯 8. Schickard 西卡爾德
9. Schiller 席勒 10. Tycho 第谷 11. Clavius 克拉維 12. Bailly 貝利
13. Lacus Autumni (Autumn Lake) 秋湖 14. Lacus Veris (Spring Lake) 春湖
15. South Pole - Aitken (basin) 南極艾肯盆地
By comparing the nearside of the Moon (T001) with the two spacecraft images (NASA 001 &
002), it can be seen that the dark maria are concentrated on the nearside but the farside is mostly
brighter highlands with very few maria. It also shows, in general, maria tend to be circular in
shape. This suggests that, like craters, these depressed lowlands were created by colossal
impactors which struck the Moon some billion years ago, thus forming basins. The basins
subsequently flooded with lava that flowed out from the Moon’s interior through cracks in the
crust, forming the maria that appear in image T001. An illustration of maria formation and moon
rocks are given in following pages, also a table of the Moon’s geologic history in Appendix 2.
A question is why maria on the nearside are much more than farside. One belief is that the crust
is thinner on the nearside; it is easier to eject magma (non-solidified lava beneath the crust)
through cracks of this side after colossal impacts.
25
A cross-section of the Moon’s interior
The lunar crust has an average thickness of about 60 km on the nearside which faces the Earth, but about 50 %
thicker on the farside. It is easier to eject magma (non-solidified lava) through cracks of the nearside crust after
colossal impacts, hence creating vast areas of dark plains or maria we see from the Earth. The farside has very few
maria due to thicker crust. The lack of global magnetic field on the Moon’s surface suggests that the present Moon
may or may not have a metallic-iron core. If it has, the core is small, probably less than 700 km in diameter.
3500 km
Moonquakes: The lunar crust is about 2 times

thicker than the Earth’s continental crust.
Therefore it is not surprising that moonquakes
on the surface are less intensive than
earthquakes. Indeed, all known moonquakes are
very minor, less than magnitude 2 in the Ritcher
Scale. The lack of plate motion on the Moon also
suggests that moonquakes are less frequent.
Roughly 3000 moonquakes are detected per
year, whereas hundreds of thousands of
earthquakes are recorded per year with similar
equipment on the Earth. Because of the tidal
force of the Earth acting on the Moon, the
occurrence of moonquakes is maximum during
perigee.
(Not to scale)
Lunar Impact History

Left: The impact rate on the Moon can be deduced from
crater counts. Generally it is much higher during the first 0.8
billion years of lunar history. The high initial impact rate is
probably due to early stages of planetary accretion, or
fragmentation of a nearby asteroid. The exact cause of early
bombardment is uncertain but it is known that the impact rate
dropped dramatically between 3.9 and 3.2 billion years ago.
In this period, many impact basins flooded with lava forming
the maria. Since then the lunar impact rate has been quite
slow. The maria and mountains we see today remain nearly
same status as 3.0 billion years ago.
NASA 021
9
1 billion = 10
Right: Although the impact rate to produce craters are slow

today, the airless Moon is still under continuous bombardment
by micrometeoroids, cosmic rays and particles of solar wind. As
a result, a layer of loose and broken rock and dust, termed
regolith 浮土, has accumulated 3 ~ 30 m thick over the lunar
crust. This picture from Apollo 17 mission shows the wheel
tracks of the rover and the footprints of the astronaut left on
regolith. Note that the surface gravity of the Moon is 1 / 6 of the
Earth’s. Despite the “much lighter” weight of the astronaut
(roughly 20 kg on the Moon), his footprints appear quite deep
suggesting that the regolith is loose indeed.
26
Maria Formation (illustration)
P005
Joe Tucciarone, http://members.aol.com/INTERSTELL/art.html
(a) 4.6 billion years ago, the proto-Earth rotated rapidly at few hours per day only. Another proto-planet
about the size of Mars stuck the proto-Earth. The debris so created cast into space, then gradually accreted
to form the Moon orbiting around the Earth. The giant impact caused high degrees of melting, resulting the
Moon covered by a global layer of hot magma hundred of kilometers thick (so called the magma ocean).
W003
1. Mare Imbrium 雨海
2. Sinus Iridum 虹彎
11 14 3. Grimaldi 格里馬第
4. Mare Nectaris 酒海
4 5. Mare Crisium 危海
12 6. Mare Fecunditatis 豐富海
7. Mare Tranquillitatis 靜海
6 3 8. Mare Serenitatis 澄海
13 9. Mare Frigoris 冷海
7 15 10. Mare Vaporum 汽海
10 11. Mare Nubium 雲海
12. Mare Cognitum 知海
5 13. Mare Insularum 島海
8 14. Mare Humorum 濕海
15. Oceanus Procellarum 風暴洋
1
2
9
(b) 0.7 billion years after the giant impact, the Moon appeared as above. Its surface had somewhat solidified
while bombardment by colossal impactors continued. Impact basins several hundred km or larger in diameter
formed at the impact sites. A number of them subsequently flooded with lava, forming the dark maria we see
today. The number label corresponds to the name of the overlaying mare, oceanus or sinus.
27
Moon Rocks
Moon rocks are much similar to terrestrial but completely free of water molecules. This is a strong support to the giant
impact theory (previous illustration) that the Moon had been molten in its infant stage.
Among the moon rocks sampled from the Apollo Missions, there are two distinct families: mare basalt 玄武岩 in the
lava plains and anorthosite 斜長岩 in the mountainous highlands. The mare basalt is about 3.2 ~ 3.9 billion years old
whereas the anorthosite is older, in range of 4.0 ~ 4.6 billions years. Mare basalt and anorthosite are just broad terms;
they can be subdivided into various rock types depending on their mineral concentrations.
Figure (a) shows a sample of dark, vesicular basalt collected from the lunar maria by the Apollo astronauts. It is these
basaltic rocks and overlaying material of similar composition that make the maria look dark in telescopes. The rock is
vesicular because of many holes in its body. It indicates that gas must have dissolved under pressure in the lava from
which this rock solidified. When the lava reached the airless Moon’s surface, bubbles formed as the gas pressure
dropped. The dark color is a characteristic of mare basalt. It implies enriched contents of heavier elements like iron,
manganese and titanium. Compare Figure (a) with (b) which shows another sample collected from the lunar highlands.
The rock, so called anorthosite, is rich in silicon, calcium and aluminum. Hence it is light-colored and less dense than
iron-rich materials. During the period when the Moon’s surface was molten, the less dense anorthosite rose to the top,
forming the highlands. The anorthosite is believed to be the most ancient type of moon rocks; it is the material of the
original lunar crust. On the other hand, the mare basaIt was formed from lava flooded on the lunar crust; hence it must be
a relatively shallow layer over the anorthosite.
Figure (c) shows another common rock breccia 角礫岩 which is not as light-colored as the anorthosite. It is made up of
different types of rock fragments cemented together by the heat and pressure of a meteorite impact. The lunar regolith
浮土 (Image NASA 021 in previous page) acts as the cementing agent.
A unique type of rock KREEP 克里普岩, was also sampled in the highlands near the rims of maria. It is rich in potassium
(chemical symbol K), rare-earth elements (REE), phosphorus (P) as well as other radioactive elements. It is these
radioative elements that had given the heat energy to support the viscuous magma in the Moon’s interior. KREEP is
incompatible to common rock-forming process and hence it floated to the upper lunar crust in the last chemical
separation of the magma ocean. The presence of KREEP enables scientists to trace the volcanic history of the Moon.
By imaging the surface brightness of the Moon at multiple discrete wavelengths, it is possible to map the abundance of
elements on the lunar crust. For instance, iron absorbs light mostly around 950 nm whereas titanium absorbs more light
near 415 nm. Using such multispectral technique, Clementine spacecraft derived an Iron map of the Moon in 1996,
Figure (d). The red are the areas of highest iron concentrations; they coincide closely with the maria where molten,
iron-rich materials flowed from cracks of the lunar crust in the ancient past. The lowest concentrations of iron are found in
blue, which correspond to the highlands. The intermediate iron concentrations are in green. The broadest green region
lies on the South Pole - Aitken, a gigantic impact basin at the farside.
NASA 023
(a) Mare Basalt (b) Anorthosite (c) Breccia
South-Pole Aitken
Highlands
(d) Clementine Iron Map

Highland
Maria
28
MAP 2
Mare Crisium, Proclus, Cleomedes, Messala
Mare Crisium
590 E 170 N
T002A T003 T004
Prom. Agarum
Picard
Proclus
Peirce
Cleomedes
Age 15 days Age 16 days Age 17 days
3 views of Mare Crisium Left: 2000.04.20 17:52 UT Age 15 days. FS102+CP950 1/3 sec DSCN 1589. Middle: 2000.09.15
15:25UT Age 16 days. MK67+CP950 1/11 sec DSCN4013. Right: 2002.01.01 15:59UT Age 17 days. C9+CP990 1/8 sec DSCN0289.
Mare Crisium (Sea of Crisis) is a dominating feature near the east limb of the Moon. It is a dark,
lava-filled oval basin surrounded by mountain walls. It measures 570 km east-west and 430 km
north-south, but in terrestrial the north-south diameter always appears longer due to perspective.
Mare Crisium is the site of a gravitational anomaly known as a "mascon," or mass concentration
that probably represents thick accumulation of dense lava, or the fragments of an impactor that
created the basin buried beneath the mare surface. Mascons exist in other large maria as well.
Their high-gravity causes lunar satellites orbiting at low altitudes to either impact the Moon or to
be flung out into interplanetary space after a few years.
Under oblique illumination, wrinkle ridges are prominent T005

along the edge of the mare floor. At the western edge is
the elusive feature O’Neill’s Bridge (Image T111) that
appears to join two promontories. Actually it is not a Palus
bridge but two adjoined small, eroded craters which are Mare Somnii
distinct only when seeing is good. At vicinity are three Crisium
Proclus
“P-initial” craters Proclus, Picard and Peirce. Proclus is
a center of very bright rays, 28 km in diameter. The cape
at the southern edge is Promontorium Agarum. The
sizable crater at the mare north is Cleomedes (T185); it
is 126 km in diameter, with smaller craters and a rille on
the floor. Further north are two small craters Geminus C
and Messala B; they appear no special on the terminator Proclus (ray center) 2000.06.15 16:28UT Age 13 days.
but become centers of bright rays during the full moon. The bright reflection around the inner rim of Proclus
makes this crater resembling a bull’s eye.
29
T111 T051
Cleomedes
C
Geminus
B
Messala
North of Mare Crisium 2000.09.15 16:26 UT Age 17 days
T126
30
T185
Cleomedes, Geminus
and Messala during
favorable libration Î
T189
2004.12.15 11:09 UT Age 3.4 days. 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + ToUcam
Í Palus Somnii (Marsh of Sleep)

A gray-color, diamond-shaped area
separating Mare Tranquillitatis and
the western highland of Mare Crisium.
Its formation appears associated with
the ejecta splashed out of the rayed
crater Proclus. The gray-color also
suggests that the floor of Palus Somnii
probably contains rocky combination
of mare basalt and anorthosite, Map 1 .
Sinus Concordiae (Bay of Concord)

A small, bay-like lava plain adjoining
Mare Tranquillitatis and Palus Somnii.
31
T002
This crater is Eimmart C.

Combined with the wrinkle
ridges on the eastern edge
of the mare floor, Eimmart C
resembles a loop on a string.
Mare Crisium 2000.04.20 17:52 UT Age 15 days. FS102 + LE5 + CP950 at 1/3 sec
T122
Tebbutt Cauchy
Shapley da Vinci
Sinus
Auzout Concordiae
Condorcet Glaisher Lyell
Hansen
Alhazen Mare Crisium Proclus

Carmichael
Macrobius
Hill
Tisserand
Lacus
Eimmart
Bonitatis
Cleomedes
Delmotte Tralles
Debes
32
T123
T124
33
T112 T113
11
1 MARE
FECUNDITATIS
3 MARE
SPUMANS
12
2 MARE
10
UNDARUM
(partial)
5 1
4
MARE
CRISIUM
3
MARE CRISIUM
1. Firmicus (630E 70N, diameter 56 km)

9 2. Condorcet (700E 120N, diameter 74 km)
3. Lacus Perseverantiae (Lake of Persistence,
it looks like a wedge.)
4. Promontorium Agarum (Cape Agarum)

5. Dorsa Harker (length 200 km)
6. Dorsa Tetyaev (length 150 km)
7. Dorsum Termier (length 90 km)
8. Eimmart (650E 240N, diameter 46 km)
9. Eimmart C (610E 220N, diameter 20 km)
10. Apollonius (610E 40N, diameter 53 km)
11. Webb (600E 10S, diameter 22 km)
12. Sinus Successus (Bay of Success)
34
MAP 3
Langrenus, Vendelinus, Petavius, Furnerius
T007
Palitzsch
T006
Vallis Palitzsch
T006
Vallis Rheita
Fur nerius
Stevinus A
Fur nerius A
Snellius Vallis Snellius
Petavius
Vendelinus
Langrenus
The magnificent chain of craters in image T006 ⎯ The Great Eastern Chain ⎯ lines up at the
terminator when the Moon age is 15 ~ 17 days.
Langrenus 610 E 90 S
A prominent crater with terraced walls and central peaks, 132 km in diameter. The walls rise to
2700 m above the hilly floor. At high Sun angles, the interior of Langrenus takes on a distinctly
yellowish-brown tint, compared to its surroundings. At full moon, Langrenus emits bright rays.
Vendelinus 620 E 160 S

A walled plain, 147 km in diameter. Its rim is interrupted by few craters, the largest being Lamé.
Petavius 600 E 250 S

A large ring mountain with central peaks, clefts and dark patches on its floor, 177 km in diameter.
The cleft (part of Rimae Petavius) running from central peaks to the south-western wall is very
distinct. The eastern wall is followed by Palitzsch and Vallis Palitzsch.
Furnerius 600 E 360 S

A walled plain, 125 km in diameter, with Rima Furnerius (50 km long) on the northern floor.
Immediately outside the wall is Vallis Snellius, a crater valley stretching 500 km east-west.
35
Snellius, Petavius B, Furnerius A and Stevinus A
These craters are centers of bright rays.
T107_T110
`
10
6
5
7 1. Furnerius (Dia. 125 km)
2. Petavius (177 km)
13 8 3. Vendelinus (147 km)
12 4. Langrenus (132 km)
5. Furnerius A
9 11 6. Rima Furnerius
15 7. Stevinus (75 km)
14 8. Stevinus A
9. Hase (83 km)
10. Rima Hase
2 11. Snellius (83 km)
17 12. Vallis Snellius
16 13. Adams (66 km)
14. Legendre (79 km)
15. Palitzsch (41 km)
19 16. Vallis Palitzsch
17. Rimae Petavius
18. Petavius B
19. Wrottesley (57 km)
20. Behaim (55 km)
18 21. Holden (47 km)
20 21 22. Lamé (84 km)
23. Lohse (42 km)
24. Kapteyn (49 km)
25. Barkla (43 km)
26. von Behring (39 km)
27. Somerville (15 km)
28. Born (15 km)
3 29. Acosta (13 km)
30. Atwood (29 km)
22 31. Naonobu (35 km)
32. Bilharz (43 km)
23 33. Al-Marrakushi (8 km)
33
24 25
4
27
26
30 32
28 29
31
36
T107
T108
37
T109
T110
38
MAP 4
Janssen, Fabricius, Vallis Rheita, Mare Australe
T140
Full map in next page
Janssen 420 E 450 S

A large walled plain with craters, rilles and mountain massifs on its floor, 190 km in diameter. It
is highly eroded by impacting debris. The system of curved rilles that crosses the southern floor
is Rimae Janssen, length 140 km.
Fabricius 420 E 430 S

This crater is 78 km in diameter, with a central peak. At one observation, the wall appeared
double, making it look as though one crater is almost perfectly centered in another. However,
this is only apparent under certain angle of illumination, and photographs do not confirm this.
Metius 430 E 400 S

A crater joining the walls of Janssen and Fabricius, 88 km in diameter.
39
T172
T172
T008
T008 Watt
Lockyer
Steinheil
Janssen
Fabricius
Young
Vallis Rheita Riccius

Biela (Diameter 76 km)
Metius Rabbi Levi Borda (44 km)
Capella (49 km)
Rheita Catharina (100 km)
Colombo (76 km)
Cook (47 km)
Lindenau Cyrillus (98 km)
Stevinus Neander Fabricius (78 km)
Fracastorius (124 km)
Zagut Goclenius (72 km)
Gutenberg (74 km)
Piccolomini Hagecius (76 km)
Hommel (125 km)
Reichenbach Hypatia (40 km)
Isidorus (42 km)
Janssen (190 km)
Rupes Lindenau (53 km)
Borda Fracastorius Altai Lockyer (34 km)
Mädler (28 km)
Magelhaens (41 km)
Metius (88 km)
Santbech Monge (37 km)
Neander (50 km)
Nearch (76 km)
Piccolomini (88 km)
Monge Catharina Pitiscus (82 km)
Rabbi Levi (81 km)
Cook MARE Reichenbach (71 km)
Rheita (70 km)
NECTARIS Riccius (71 km)
Colombo Rosenberger (96 km)
Cyrillus
Rupes Altai (480 km long)
Magelhaens Santbech (64 km)
Mädler
Steinheil (67 km)
Theophilus Stevinus (75 km)
Theophilus (100 km)
Torricelli (23 km)
Vallis Rheita (500 km long)
Goclenius Isidorus Vlacq (89 km)
Watt (66 km)
Young (72 km)
Gutenberg Capella Zagut (84 km)
Hypatia
Torricelli
MARE
FECUNDITATIS
2000.11.02 12:14UT Age 6 days. FS128 + LE12.5 + QV2300
40
Vallis Rheita 510 E 420 S
Vallis Rheita is the longest valley on the nearside of the Moon. It extends 500 km southward
from Rheita (70 km), passing by Mallet (58 km) and ends near Reimarus (48 km). The floor of
Vallis Rheita appears scalloped, giving the impression that it might not be a true valley but a
chain of overlapping craters. Rheita E is a peculiar crater-valley formation, 32 x 66 km.
Young 510 E 410 S Remark: Vallis Rheita and

A shallow crater superimposed on Vallis Rheita, 72 km in diameter. Vallis Snellius in Map 3 are
similar in structure.
Steinheil 470 E 490 S Watt 490 E 500 S
A pair of overlapped craters, each crater is about 67 km in diameter.
Vlacq 390 E 530 S (Image T172)

A prominent crater near the southeast limb, 89 km in diameter.
T188
Mare Australe 910E 460S (Image T188)

Mare Australe (Southern Sea) is at the south-east limb, overlapping the near and far sides of the
Moon and hence a difficult object for earth-based observation. Its dark irregular shape stretches
over 40 degrees across in longitude and latitude, covering a surface area of about 150,000 sq. km.
Several sizeable craters and light areas are scattered on the floor. Compare Mare Australe in
image T188 with the view from Apollo 11 (NASA001, Map 1 ).
Lyot 840E 500S (Image T188)

A large flooded walled plain lying within Mare Australe, 141 km in diameter. It is circular in
shape but in T188 it appears elongated due to perspective distortion.
41
MAP 5
Theophilus, Cyrillus, Catharina,
Piccolomini, Rupes Altai
T141
42
Crater Trio : Theophilus, Cyrillus and Catharina
T144
Fracastorius
T145
(Mosaic of 3 video clips, 85% resized)
43
Theophilus, Cyrillus and Catharina form a prominent trio of craters near Mare Nectaris (Sea of
Nectar).
T009
Theophilus 260 E 110 S
A ring mountain, 100 km in diameter. Its
massive terraced walls rise 4400 m above
the interior. These huge walls appear as
two to three concentric ring mountain
ranges, each successively lower to the
next until the floor is reached. At lower
magnifications Theophilus appears to be
circular while higher powers show the
walls to be composed of linear segments.
Along the north-western wall is a small
crater Theophilus B. Theophilus also
contains magnificent multiple central
mountains with one of the peaks rising
1400 m above the floor. At full moon,
Theophilus becomes a rayed crater.
Cyrillus 240 E 130 S

A ring mountain with disintegrated wall
and three central peaks, 98 km in diameter.
It is obvious that the Theophilus impact
destroyed a section of Cyrillus’s walls.
Cyrillus is therefore older than Theophilus.
T009A
The southwestern wall contains a small crater, Cyrillus A.
The floor of Cyrillus does not appear smooth like the floor
of Theophilus, but rough with depressions.
In T009A, note the intricate, spiky, ring-shaped spot shadow

inside crater Cyrillus F, when sunlight shines from the west.
(A similar ring shadow is found in Montes Jura, T065 of Map 18.)
Catharina 240 E 180 S

A ring mountain with disintegrated wall, 100 km in diameter. Catharina is connected to
Cyrillus by a broad valley, and is believed the oldest of the trio. Catharina has been nearly
obliterated by several impacts. There are big and small craters on its floor (the most prominent
being Catharina P), but no sign of central peaks. The central peaks must have existed years ago
but now overwhelmed by Catharina P.
Piccolomini 320 E 300 S

A prominent crater with terraced walls and central peaks, 88 km in diameter.
Rupes Altai 230 E 240 S

A sinuous mountain fault running between Piccolomini and Catharina, 480 km long. It is the
remains of the rising rim of an impact basin in which the central part is Mare Nectaris.
Fracastorius 330 E 210 S

An incomplete walled plain, 124 km in diameter. See also Map 7.
44
MAP 6
Messier, Censorinus, Taruntius, Cauchy
Messier (480E 20S) and Messier A is a pair of small craters in Mare Fecunditatis (Sea of
Fertility), each about 11 km in diameter. Messier A is a double crater and hence looks slightly
larger. It emitts two long bright rays to the west like a comet. This pair of craters probably
formed simultaneously by a broken / binary impactor. The map T049 also shows the
over-exposed crater Censorinus (330E 00S) near the edge of Mare Tranquillitatis. It is 4 km in
diameter, surrounded by very light material and is exceptionally bright under high illumination.
Taruntius (460E 60N) is a rayed crater at the “neck” between Mare Fecunditatis and Mare
Tranquillitatis. It is 56 km in diameter, with concentric walls and a central peak.
T049
T105 T106
45
T186
Cauchy 390E 100N

A crater, 12 km in diameter. It is bright at the full moon but in T186 it is heavily shadowed.
Bounding this crater are two parallel features: Rupes Cauchy (120 km long) and Rima Cauchy
(200 km long). Rupes Cauchy is a fault and Rima Cauchy is a rille; they bear similarity to Rupes
Recta and Rima Birt in Map 12. The south of Cauchy are two domes designated ω and τ which
are visible only at low Sun angles. Dome ω has a noticeable summit craterlet.
da Vinci 450E 90N

A disintegrated crater close to Sinus Concordiae (Bay of Concord), 38 km in diameter. Its floor
is rather rough.
Lawrence 430E 70N

A flooded crater, 24 km in diameter.
46
MAP 7
Capella, Isidorus, Gutenberg, Torricelli, Fracastorius
T142
T142
Capella 350 E 80 S
T174
Capella is a crater at the north of Mare Nectaris (Sea of Nectar),
49 km in diameter. It has an oversized central peak with a
summit pit. A valley (Vallis Capella, 110 km long) cuts through
Capella and the adjacent smaller craters. If Image T142 is turned
clockwise, Capella looks like a smiling face.
Isidorus 340 E 8 0 S
A crater, 42 km in diameter. Its wall is interrupted by Capella.
It has no central peak but a prominent crater on its floor.
Gutenberg 410 E 90 S
A flooded crater, 74 km in diameter. Its eastern wall is broken
by a smaller crater. A wide system of rilles, Rimae Gutenberg
(length 300 km) runs at vicinity. Montes Pyrenaeus extends
southward from this crater to beyond Bohnenberger (Image 193). W001
Mädler 300 E 110 S

A 28-km crater with ejecta blanket similar to Bürg in Map 10.
Torricelli 280 E 50 S
Torricelli is a strange-looking crater, 23 km in diameter. Its western
wall is open and linked with a smaller crater, so that the whole
formation appears pear-shaped. Torricelli B is one of the sites for
LTP (Lunar Transient Phenomena, Reference No. 7, 8 and 21).
47
T193
Fracastorius 330 E 210 S

An incomplete walled plain, 124 km in diameter. Its floor opens to Mare Nectaris and contains
an elusive latitudinal rille. Compare this image with T145 of Map 5.
Bohnenberger 400 E 160 S

A crater with a group of low hills and a craterlet on its uneven floor, 33 km in diameter.
Gaudibert 380 E 110 S

A crater with much of the floor occupied by massifs and ridges, 34 km in diameter. Its outer wall
adjoins a trio of small craters and is surrounded partially by mountain ranges.
48
MAP 8
Sabine, Ritter, Lamont, Arago
T096
T096
Sabine 200 E 10 N Ritter 190 E 20 N

Two adjoining craters near the equator, each about 30 km in diameter. What makes them
noticeable is Apollo 11 Lunar Module which landed on their vicinity on 1969 July 20. The
landing site is a flat area called Statio Tranquillitatis (Tranquillity Base). It is truly flat and was
chosen by the Apollo mission planners to prevent any obstacle or hazard during final descent.
To honor this pioneer expedition, three nearby craters are renamed Armstrong (5 km), Collins
(2 km) and Aldrin (3 km). Armstrong is the Apollo 11 astronaut who first set his foot on the
Moon; Collins and Aldrin are other crew members.
49
Two systems of rilles, Rimae Hypatia (length 180 km) NASA 004
and Rimae Ritter (length 100 km) are at the close
vicinity of Sabine and Ritter. Rimae Ritter is elusive to spot.
Moltke 240 E 10 S
A small crater with a bright halo, 7 km in diameter. The
bright halo makes easier to recognize where crater
Armstrong should be.
Hypatia 230 E 40 S
A curiously shaped crater. It measures 28 x 41 km and
appears to sit on its own plateau.
Delambre 170 E 20 S
A terraced crater, 52 km in diameter and rather deep Apollo 11 Landing Module (picture corner)
and the Laser Ranging Retro-reflector Array.
(~ 3000 m). On the map it is heavily shadowed. The reflector was left by Apollo 11 crew on
the landing site, and is still used today by
Arago 210 E 60 N the McDonald Observatory to monitor the
precise Earth-Moon distance.
A crater of 26 km in diameter, with two nearby domes. (http://www.csr.utexas.edu/mlrs/)
Lamont 230 E 50 N
A ghosty formation (ghost crater), 75 km in diameter. Its wall is outlined by wrinkle ridges.
T169
This image was taken when the

terminator was crossing the wrinkle
ridges. The low Sun angle made the
wrinkle ridges prominent. The arrow
points to an inconspicuous sinuous
cleft nicknamed Diamondback Rille.
50
MAP 9
Mare Serenitatis (Posidonius, Plinius, Serpentine Ridge)
T010
A. Lacus Hiemalis B. Lacus Gaudii C. Lacus Lenitatis D. Lacus Doloris E. Lacus Odii F. Lacus Felicitatis G. Sinus Fidei
3
(Winter Lake) (Lake of Joy) (Lake of Tenderness) (Lake of Sorrow) (Lake of Hate) (Lake of Happiness) (Bay of Faith)
Mare
Tranquillitatis Mare Serenitatis (Sea of Serenity) is a vast,
near-circular lava plain, about 650 km in diameter.
The inner collar of the mare looks somewhat darker,
suggesting richer in metallic composition than the
rest of the floor. The eastern floor is crossed by two
snaky wrinkle ridges named Dorsa Lister and Dorsa
Smirnov (also collectively called Serpentine Ridge,
see next page). Each of them is about 10 km wide and
meanders quite a long distance. Wrinkle ridges
generally appear in lunar maria and may be the result
Mare of a shifting of the surface after the lava solidified.
Serenitatis
Mare Imbrium
They are fairly low in height (less than 200 m), so
they need a low angle of sunlight to be seen well.
In Image T010, the west of Mare Serenitatis is bound by the 400-km long Montes Haemus. Next
to Haemus are six small “lakes” labeled A to F. Menelaus, Plinius, le Monnier and Posidonius
are the most conspicuous craters in this region. A lava channel between Montes Caucasus and
Montes Apenninus connects Mare Serenitatis and Mare Imbrium.
51
T138 T168
Serpentine Ridge 蛇脊
It is prominent only when
it is close to the bright
side of the terminator. At
the middle of this ridge
is the small crater Very
(diameter 5 km).
52
T143
T011
Apollo 17
landing site
Left: A remarkably dark patch

appears near crater Littrow.
The inner edge of Mare
Serenitatis is also darker than
the rest of the floor.
53
Montes Taurus and vicinity
T063
T078A
The east of Mare Serenitatis is Montes Taurus (the
Bull Mountain ranges). It spreads about 400 km across,
with Sinus Amoris (Bay of Love) at the south and
Lacus Somniorum (Lake of Dreams) at the north. Sinus Amoris
Montes Taurus holds the fairly prominent crater Römer
and several longitudinal rilles named Rimae Römer,
Rimae Littrow, Rimae Chacornac and Rima G. Bond. MARE
SERENITATIS
Like wrinkle ridges, these rilles rely on low angles of Römer
sunlight to be distinctive. Montes Taurus Posidonius
Lacus Somniorum
54
--- Image T143, T063 --- NASA 022
Posidonius 300 E 320 N S

A walled plain with smaller craters and rilles
(Rimae Posidonius) on its floor. It is 95 km in Posidonius
diameter and is located between Mare Serenitatis
and Lacus Somniorum (Lake of Dreams). Near
first quarter, it appears like "a thin pancake on
the dark mare" because of its raised floor. craterlets
Chacornac 320 E 300 N

Mare
A disintegrated crater adjoining Posidonius. It
Serenitatis
is 51 km in diameter, with hexagonal walls. A
craterlets
central craterlet and few rilles (Rimae Chacornac),
which are visible at high magnification, are on its Part of Posidonius, imaged by Apollo 15 crew in 1971 July.
floor. Chacornac appears as the little brother of Note the short chains of craterlets near the inner rim of
Posidonius. Posidonius. These craterlets, being 1 km less in diameter,
are resolvable only in big telescopes. (NASA-AS15-91-12366)
le Monnier 310 E 270 N

A bay-like flooded crater with a dark floor, 61 km in diameter.
Plinius 240 E 150 N

A sharp rimmed crater between Mare Serenitatis and Mare Tranquillitatis, 43 km in diameter. It
is visible even in the full moon. A system of parallel rilles (Rimae Plinius, length 120 km) lies
on its immediate north and cuts through the wrinkle ridges on the mare. See also Image T138.
Plinius is a Roman general and naturist, also the author of the encyclopedia “Historia Naturalis”.
He died in the witness of the massive eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a volcano in Italy that
destroyed the City of Pompeii in AD79.
Littrow 310 E 210 N

Ching-Te 300 E 200 N
Both craters are located near a small, remarkably dark patch of lava on the eastern edge of Mare
Serenitatis. This patch is so dark that it is easily recognized as a tiny sesame during the
full-moon.* Littrow is a flooded crater, 31 km in diameter, with a nearby complex system of
rilles (Rimae Littrow). Ching-Te (Chinese male name) is a small crater close to Mons Argaeus,
4 km in diameter. It is an obscure object for small telescopes and is likely hidden when the Sun
angle is not appropriate. The surroundings of Ching-Te are massifs. Apollo 17 landed on the
other side of the massifs on 1972 December 11, about 20 km away from Ching-Te.
* Geologists call this patch “dark mantle deposits” (http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Feb97/PSRD-MoonVolcanics.pdf).
They contain a mixture of small black and dark orange glass debris which formed from quickly cooled droplets
during an explosive eruption of lava. Black, glassy but tiny beads (NASA 028) were also found in the lunar
regolith; they were created from the impacts of micrometeoroids and were different in characteristics from the
volcanic glass.
NASA 028
Römer 360 E 250 N
A sharp rimmed crater with terraced walls and a central peak, 40 km
in diameter. It is relatively bright at Moon age about 7 to 17 days.
Rima G. Bond 360 E 260 N

A prominent rille extending into Lacus Somniorum, 150 km long.
Tiny glassy beads from lunar regolith
55
--- Image T167 ---
Manilius 90 E 140 N
A bright rayed crater with sharp rim, terraced walls and central peaks, 39 km in diameter.
Linné 120 E 280 N

A small, relatively young crater surrounded by bright ejecta material. Linné is only 2.4 km in
diameter or one arcsecond angular, yet it is easily recognized through telescopes as a bright spot
under high illumination. Since the second half of the 19th century, numerous mysterious changes
and disappearances of Linné have been recorded. Some observers suggested it could be outgoing
gases from the crater and referred it to LTP (Lunar Transit Phenomena). Even today, the Linné
controversy goes on. (See Reference No.21 and http://www.astrosurf.com/lunascan/Linncont.htm .)
Sung-Mei 110 E 250 N

A crater, 5 km in diameter. Sung-Mei is originally a Chinese female name. (There is also a 3-km
crater named Krishna adjoining Sung-Mei. Both craters are too close to be distinct in Image T167.)
Menelaus & Bessel (Image T010)

These craters are centers of bright rays. See also Map 33.
T167
56
MAP 10
North-east limb and vicinity
(Atlas, Hercules, Bürg, Endymion, Mare Humboldtianum)
T102
Atlas 440 E 470 N T012

Hercules 390 E 470 N
Atlas and Hercules are prominent pair of
craters near the NE limb. Their walls look
similar but their interiors are very different.
Atlas is 87 km in diameter, with central

peaks and a system of rilles (Rimae Atlas)
on its rough floor. Its terraced walls
average to 3000 m high. At favorable
seeing, numerous features can be detected
within this crater under high magnification.
Hercules is a terraced crater of relatively

flat floor, 69 km in diameter. It has no
central peak but a craterlet near the floor center. The floor also contains the bowl-shaped
Hercules G, easily seen in small telescopes. A small crater, Hercules E, is at the southern wall.
57
Space view of the region similar to Image T102
This view was captured by the Galileo spacecraft as it flew by the Moon on 1992 December 7.
Fabry and Compton are farside craters not visible from the Earth.
(Cropped from NASA image JPL-PIA00130 and reprocessed.)
NASA 008A
58
T115 T097
Bürg 280 E 450 N T175

Bürg is a prominent crater in Lacus Mortis (Lake
of Death). It is 40 km in diameter. Its high terraced
walls contain deep clefts. Bürg's ejecta blanket can
be seen thrown out into two main swaths heading
north and south from the impact zone. Between these
two swaths of material are two rilles that intersect
roughtly at right angles, known as the Rimae Bürg
of length up to 100 km.
Mason 300 E 430 N

Plana 280 E 420 N
Manson and Plana are overlapped flooded
craters. Mason is 33 X 43 km. Plana is 44 km T104
in diameter with a central peak.
Grove 330 E 400 N

A crater, 28 km in diameter. Its ejecta blanket
resembles Bürg’s.
Gauss 790 E 360 N

A vast walled plain, 177 km in diameter. Its
floor contains small hills and craters which
become distinctive under favorable
illumination.
Hahn 740 E 310 N

A mid-sized crater with terraced walls and
central peaks, 84 km in diameter.
Berosus 700 E 330 N

A flooded crater, 74 km in diameter. Its flat
floor contains no central peak.
59
T114
Endymion 570 E 540 N
A prominent crater with fairly dark floor, no central
peaks, 125 km in diameter
Chevallier 510 E 450 N

A heavily flooded walled plain, 52 km in diameter.
T180
T103
Chevallier A 500 E 450 N

A bowl-shaped crater with a
craterlet on its rim, 22 km in
diameter.
Keldysh 440 E 510 N

A crater, 33 km in diameter.
Mare Humboldtianum
800 E 570 N
Mare Humboldtianum
(Humboldt’s Sea) is a
difficult visual object
because its rim extends to
910 E on the Moon’s farside.
A better terrestial view is given in T180 and T103, when the libration was favorable. Mare
Humboldtianum is physically the central lava-flooded portion of a large impact basin. The mare
is only 160 km in diameter, but the whole basin including the outer concentric walls is 640 km
across. See also Image T102 (label F) and NASA 008A. Occasionally Mare Humboldtianum
makes the northeast limb of a Moon disk appeared dark and broken, like T040A in the Overview
Section.
60
W004
de la Rue 530 E 590 N
A disintegrated walled plain, 136 km in diameter. It is named
after the British amateur astronomer Warren de la Rue (1815-89)
who first succeeded in producing a copper plate for printing
from a photographic negative of the Moon. See W004.
Thales 500 E 620 N Strabo 540 E 620 N

Both craters are centers of bright rays at the full moon. Thales
is 32 km in diameter; Strabo is 55 km. See also Map 33 . A printing from de la Rue in about 1870
T187
61
MAP 10
11
Tycho, Clavius, Magnius, Deslandres and vicinity
T014A T043
T013
T048F
The dark halo around Tycho is impact melt materials.
Tycho and its system of long rays

2003.09.11 16:11 UT Age 15 days.
The rays are lines of deposits of highland rocks and
debris excavated by an impact 110 million years ago.
Tycho 110 W 430 S

Tycho is a prominent impact crater in the "Southern Highlands" region. Its diameter is 85 km. At
full moon, Tycho stands out as the brightest beacon, and its system of rays can be traced far
across the lunar surface. It is this ray system that strongly supports the impact theory of Tycho's
origin, and the origin of other craters as well. Tycho is about 110 million years old, very young
by geologic age. Near quarter moon (image T053), Tycho appears as an abyss 4800 m deep
surrounded by thick walls. A central peak, 2300 m high, also stands out prominently.
Clavius 140 W 580 S

Clavius is a spectacular walled plain in the Southern Highlands. Its diameter is 225 km, one of
the largest craters. Its walls are broken by two sizeable craters, Rutherfurd (50 km) in south and
Porter (52 km) in north, and there are ridges running between them (see T080). An arc-array of
craters extends across the floor, which also contains many craterlets and small hills. Clavius is
best seen shortly after first quarter or before last quarter but hardly visible at the full moon.
Newton 170 W 770 S

A crater at the south limb, 79 km in diameter. It is difficult to be seen well. Its depth is not
ascertained, probably 6000 ~ 8000 m. See also Image T197, Event 1 pages.
62
T053
Clavius right on the terminator

It looks like an abyss. The inside craters
are Clavius D (larger) and Clavius C.
T054
Newton
Rutherfurd
D
J
C N
Porter
Clavius just outside
the terminator.
63
T015
Maginus
Proctor Street
Saussure
Huggins Pictet
Tycho
Nasireddin
Orontius
Miller
Sasserides
Lexell Ball
Gauricus
Hell
Deslandres
Walter
Pitatus
A
Regiomontanus
Mare Nubium
Tycho, Magnius, Deslandres, Walter, Pitatus 2000.11.05 13.35 UT Age 9 days. FS128 + QV2300
1/10
Maginus 60 W 500 S
A large walled plain with other impact craters on its wall and floor, 163 km in diameter.
Deslandres 50 W 320 S T098

A vast ruined walled plain, 234 km in diameter. Crater
Hell (33 km) and few chains of craterlets are on its floor.
Walter 10 E 330 S
A walled plain almost at the 00 longitude, 140 km in
diameter and with mountain massif on its floor.
Pitatus 130 W 300 S

A flooded walled plain, 97 km in diameter.
Gauricus 130 W 340 S

An eroded crater, 79 km in diameter. Its wall is encircled by a ring of small craters. (Image T083)
Regiomontanus 10 W 280 S
A walled plain, 126x110 km. It has a summit crater Rigiomontanus A (5 km) on the central peak.
64
More images from 10-inch f/6 Newtonian
T085
T080
65
Compare Tycho at age of 9 and 10 days (1 day difference).
T076
T088
66
T128
T129
67
T074
The black arrow points to Regiomontanus A on a hill that resembles a volcano more than impact origin.
See also T131 of Map 12.
68
MAP 12
Ptolemaeus, Rupes Recta, Rima Birt and vicinity
T016
T016
69
The prominent crater trio: Arzachel, Alphonsus and Ptolemaeus.
T130
Above: The Imbrium Sculpture in

a paper by the American geologist
Grove Karl Gilbert (1843-1918). It is
a terrain of grooves and ridges radial
to Mare Imbrium, and affects the lunar
surface for more than 1000 km from
Imbrium. Part of this sculpture is easily
identified on the walls of Alphonsus at
the middle of T130. Other parts are
traceable in T072, T101 & T179 of
following pages, also in T164, T077 of
Map 13 and T173, T071 of Map 31.
70
T017
Ptolemaeus 20 W 90 S
Ptolemaeus is a prominent walled plain, 153 km
in diameter. Its floor appears flat but numerous
craterlets, pits and depressions are detectable at
high powers; see also Image T130. The floor of
Ptolemaeus changes considerably during a lunation.
It brightens near full moon but appears quite dark
at days close to first and last quarter. Ptolemaeus,
Alphonsus (119 km) and Arzachel (97 km) are
often described together as a trio feature. The floor
of Arzachel contains sharp rilles (Rimae Arzachel).
Alphonsus is characterized by ridged floor with
three dark patches and rilles (Rimae Alphonsus)
along its inner rim. and it shares the walls with
Ptolemaeus. The NASA probe Ranger 9 made a
hard impact on Alphonsus in 1965. The crater is
also an object of LTP (Lunar Transient Phenomena, briefed at the end of Overview Section).
Note that the surroundings of this trio are cut by a radial pattern of grooves and ridges known as
Imbrium Sculpture, formed when a hurricane of ejecta from the giant Imbrium Basin impacted
in this region at low angles. (Origin of Imbrium Sculpture: http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2001/pdf/1900.pdf )
Alpetragius 40 W 160 S T118A

A bowl-shape crater with oversized central
mountain, 40 km in diameter, 3900 m deep.
Davy 80 W 120 S (Image T072, next page)

A crater, 35 km in diameter. Note the nearby chain
of small craters, Catena Davy. See also Map 31.
Rupes Recta 70 W 220 S (Image T073)

Also called the Straight Wall. Physically it is a
fault 110 km long, 2.5 km in apparent width. Its
eastern side is 300 m higher than the western
side. It casts striking shadow at days near the
first quarter.
Rima Birt 90 W 210 S (Image T073)

A 50-km rille near crater Birt and running in
parallel with Rupes Recta. Its north end connects The dark patches along the inner rim of Alphonsus are believed
the small crater Birt E. Its south end connects the result of lava outflow from craterlets. The cross represents the
Birt F. See also image T131. impact site of Ranger 9 probe at 2.40 W, 12.80 S. The arrow points
to the small crater Chang-Ngo 嫦娥 at 2.10 W, 12.70 S (which is
Thebit 40 W 220 S (Image T073) 3 km in diameter but not shown clearly in this image). Chang-Ngo
is named after a female flying to the moon in a Chinese myth.
A crater, 57 km in diameter. Its wall is overlapped
by Thebit A which is again overlapped by the 10-km
Thebit L. Thebit L has a distinct central peak which is uncommon for small craters of such size.
Thebit P 60 W 240 S (Image T073)

A ghost crater, 75 km in diameter. Part of its floor is darker than the rest.
71
T072
Chain of small craters

(Catena Davy)
Chain of small craters
T073
T099
Purbach 20 W 250 S (Image T131, next page)

A walled plain with ghost crater Purbach W on its floor, 118 km in diameter.
72
T131 NASA 009
Rupes Recta
Rima Birt
Ï Oblique View from Apollo 16 Mission (Ap16-120-19224)
73
T089
Guericke
Ptolemaeus
Gambart
T178
Guericke 140 W 110 S
Parry 160 W 80 S
Guericke is the remains of a walled plain, 60
km in diameter. Together with another walled
plain Parry (48 km), they form a prominent
pair lying between Mare Nubium and Mare
Cognitum. A system of rilles (Rimae Parry)
crosses the western rim of Parry.
Bonpland 170 W 80 S
A shallow walled plain, 60 km in diameter.
Its floor is also crossed by Rimae Parry.
Fra Mauro 170 W 60 S

Remains of a walled plain, 95 km in diameter.
Its floor is bisected by Rimae Parry. Apollo 14
landed at its northern vicinity in Janurary 1971.
Lalande 90 W 40 S
A bright-rayed crater, 24 km in diameter.
Gambart 150 W 10 N
A single walled flooded crater, 25 km in
diameter. There is a dome at the vicinity
of Gambart C. See also Map 19.
74
Image T101:
Albategnius 40 E 110 S T101
A prominent ring mountain with small
cenral peak, 136 km in diameter. Its inner
wall is interrupted by another crater Klein
(44 km) and outer wall by Parrot (70 km).
Vogel 60 E 150 S
A crater, 27 km in diameter. Its wall is
cut open by adjoined craters giving a
gourd-like view. See also Map 31 .
Halley 60 E 80 S
A crater, 36 km in diameter, Its wall is
cut tangentially by a long narrow valley.
Hind 70 E 80 S
A crater, 29 km in diameter. Also a center
of bright rays.
T179
Image T179:
Herschel 20 W 60 S
A crater with terraced walls, 41 km in
diameter.
Flammarion 40 W 30 S
A walled plain, 75 km in diameter. Its
western wall is stuck by Mösting A
whose selenographic position
(50 12’ 39.6”W 30 12’ 43.2” S)
is a reference standard.
Mösting 60 W 10 S
A crater with terraced walls, 26 km in
diameter.
Gyldén 00 E 50 S
A disintegrated crater crossed by the line of 00 longitude, 47 km in diameter.
Réaumur 10 E 20 S
Remains of a crater, 53 km in diameter. Its rim is intersected by two rilles. See also Image T133,
Map 13.
Oppolzer 10 W 10 S
Remains of a crater ajoining Réaumur, 43 km in diameter. Its south rim is intersected by
Rima Oppolzer (shown more prominently in Image T133, Map 13 ).
75
T119 NASA 012
76
MAP 13
Rima Ariadaeus, Rima Hyginus, Rimae Triesnecker
Rima Ariadaeus 130 E 70 N

Rima Hyginus 60 E 80 N
Rimae Triesnecker 50 E 50 N
T164
A rima is a rille, an open or slumped channel on the Moon’s surface. Rilles are classified
according to their formation. Sinuous rilles are thought to have been formed by running lava,
typically 1 ~ 2 km wide and are found mostly in maria (flooded lava plains); fine examples are
Rima Hadley in Map 14 and Rima Marius in Map 20 . Linear rilles are straighter and wider,
typically 5 ~ 60 km in width. They can cross mare and highland boundaries, and might be either
collapsed lava tubes or lineaments where the ground to either side has been pulled slightly apart.
There are three prominent rille systems near Sinus Medii at the the center of the Moon disk, all
visible in small telewscopes. They are Rima Ariadaeus, Rima Hyginus and Rimae Triesnecker.
z Rima Ariadaeus is a linear rille, 220 km long, with a nearly uniform width of about 5 km. A
section of it is interrupted by a ridge extending from crater Silberschlag (diameter 13 km).
z Rima Hyginus is a also linear rille, 220 km long, 3 ~ 5 km wide, 400 m deep. Its middle is
Hyginus (diameter 11 km), and chains of craterlets happen to lie along this rille.
z Rimae Triesnecker consists of a group of rilles spreading like the branches of a tree. It
measures over 200 km north-south.
At the north of Hyginus is a small spiral mountain resembling a rotated letter "e", as marked by
arrow in T164. Observers call it Mount Schneckenberg (Reference No. 5 & 7). At vicinity are
Rimae Boscovich composed of short rilles, the flooded crater Julius Caesar (90 km) with
partially darkened floor, and the sharp rimmed crater Agrippa (46 km) with a central peak.
77
T132
NASA 026 NASA 027
Rima Ariadaeus seen from Apollo 10 Rima Hyginus seen from Apollo 10
South is up. (NASA AS10-31-4646) South is at picture left. (NASA AS10-31-4650)
(Images in next page)

Rhaeticus A crater with ruined wall at 50 E 00N, 46 km in diameter.
Réaumur 10 E 20S
Remains of a crater, 53 km in diameter. Its rim is intersected by Rima Réaumur (length 45 km)
and Rima Oppolzer (length 100 km).
Bruce 0.40 E 1.10 N

A named crater in Sinus Medii nearest to the zero-point coordinates, 7 km in diameter.
Murchison 00W 50N Pallas 20W 60N

A pair of closely adjoined craters near Sinus Medii. They appear like the Greek alphabet Φ. Both
have disintegrated walls; Murchison is 58 km in diameter and Pallas is 50 km.
78
Bode 20 W 70 N
A crater, 19 km in diameter. Rimae Bode runs northwards from this crater.
T133
T077
Sinus Medii
79
MAP 14
Montes Apenninus, Archimedes, Autolycus
and Aristillus
T019
Montes Apenninus
Montes Apenninus 30 W 200 N

The largest mountain range on the nearside
of the Moon. It is at the south-eastern edge
of Mare Imbrium (Sea of Rains), and is part
of the rising rim of the impact basin that
holds the mare. Apenninus measures 600 km
in length, 5000 m peak. The mountain slopes
towards Mare Imbrium are rather steep
(roughly 30o) but the slopes of the other side
are gradual. See Image T091. Apenninus is
extreme bright at days close to the full moon.
Conon 20 E 220 N
A prominent crater on Apenninus, 22 km in
diameter. A short rille Rima Conon is at the south vicinity, see Image T075.
Rima Bradley 20 W 230 N

A prominent straight rille running parallel with the mountain range, length 130 km. A closer view
is shown in T075.
Rima Hadley 30 E 250 N

A sinuous rille, 80 km long, 1~2 km wide. It is a typical lava channel formed from lava running
downhill from the Appeninus. On 1971 July 30, Apollo 15 landed at the eastern side of this rille,
near Mons Hadley Delta (T137 in following page).
Rimae Fresnel 40 E 280 N

A system of rilles, length 90 km. A closer view is shown in T137. The main rille appears to be a
continuation of Rima Hadley and ends near the spiky cape Promontorium Fresnel.
Montes Spitzbergen 50 E 350 N

A group of adjoined mountains with peak height up to 1500 m, length 60 km.
Timocharis 130 W 270 N

A crater with sharp rim, 34 km in diameter. It is also a rayed crater under high illumination.
Eratosthenes See Map 19.
80
Archimedes 40 W 300 N
A flooded crater with terraced walls and craterlets on its floor, 83 km in diameter. Its triangular
cape-like feature towards Apenninus makes it an easily recognized landmark.
Montes Archimedes 50 W 260 N

A mountain range adjoining the southern rim of Archimedes. It might be part of Montes
Apenninus 4 billion years ago, before Mare Imbrium was filled with lava.
Rimae Archimedes 40 W 270 N

A broad system of rilles extending from the south-east of Archimedes to Montes Apenninus,
length 150 km.
Palus Putredinis (Marsh of Decay) 00 270 N

A lowland between Montes Apenninus and crater Archimedes, east-west length 180 km.
T075
9.
81
T136
T137
The arrow points to the landing site of Apollo 15.
82
T091
Macro Polo 20 W 150 N (Image T091)

An irregular crater on the southern slope of Montes Apenninus, 21 x 28 km.
Autolycus 10 E 310 N Aristillus 10 E 340 N (Image 162)

These are prominent crater pair close to the northern end of Montes Apenninus. Autolycus has a
rough floor, 39 km in diameter; Aristillus is 55 km, with multiple central peaks. Both craters are
also centers of bright rays under high illuminastion.
Rimae Theaetetus 60 E 330 N (Image 162)

An inconspicuous group of rilles, about 50 km long.
Sinus Aestuum 80 W 120 N (Image T163)

Sinus Aestuum (Bay of Billows) is a mare-like lowland where its eastern edge is the slopes of
Montes Apenninus, 230 km in diameter.
83
T162
T163
84
MAP 15
Montes Caucasus, Montes Alpes, Vallis Alpes,
Cassini, Aristoteles, Eudoxus, Mons Piton T022
Montes Apenninus
Montes Caucasus Montes Alpes
T020
MARE
SERENITATIS MARE IMBRIUM
Montes
Caucasus
Cassini
Mons
Calippus Piton
C Prom. Agassiz
Alexander
Prom. Deville
Mons Blanc
Eudoxus Montes
Alpes
Vallis Alpes
Trouvelot
Egede
Aristoteles
MARE FRIGORIS
Montes Caucasus and Montes Alpes 2001.09.25 12:57 UT Age 8 days. C9+CP990 DSCN9804
Montes Caucasus 90 E 390 N

A mountain range between Mare Serenitatis at the east and Mare Imbrium at the west. Its length
is 520 km, with height up to 6000 m. It is the highest montes on the nearside of the Moon.
Standing on the highest peak, an observer could see a hozizon 140 km away.* Montes Caucasus
appears once united with Montes Apenninus but subsequently a channel of mare lava separated
them, see Image T190 in next page.
* Horizon range ≈ square root of (altitude of observer x diameter of the Moon)
85
T190
86
Calippus 110 E 390 N
A crater sitting on the highlands of Montes Caucasus, 33 km in diameter. Its eastern wall looks
linear more than curved. Calippus C is a flooded crater resembling a bay in Mare Imbrium.
Alexander 130 E 400 N

A heavily eroded walled plain, 82 km in diameter.
Montes Alpes 10 W 460 N

A mountain range at the northeast edge of Mare Imbrium, length 250 km and height 2400 m.
Under low Sun angles, the mountain peaks cast strikingly long triangular shadows. The southern
end of the Alpes has two named capes: Promontorium Agassiz and Promontorum Deville.
Mons Blanc 10 E 450 N

A mountain adjoining Montes Alpes, 3600 m high.
Mons Piton 10 W 410 N

An isolated mountain, 2250m high, base 25 km wide. It casts long shadow when on terminator.
T021
NASA 007
0 0
Vallis Alpes 3 E 49 N
Vallis Alpes (Alpine Valley) is a prominent landmark,
length 180 km. It looks to cut through Montes Alpes.
Under good seeing and when the Sun just illuminates the
valley floor, a very narrow central cleft (less than 500 m
wide) can be detected using bigger telescopes. It is believed
that Vallis Alpes began as two fairly parallel rilles. A shock
caused by a major impact might have caused the surface
between the two rilles to sink and form this valley.
87
T120
Cassini 50 E 400 N
Two distinct craters are on its floor,
Cassini A and B. A third crater
Cassini M is close to the rim.
T134
Aristoteles 170 E 500 N

A crater with terraced walls, 87 km in diameter.
A triangular landslip is at the western wall.
Eudoxus 160 E 440 N

Egede 110 E 490 N (Image T020, T193)

A shallow flooded crater, 37 km in diameter.
Bürg
See Map 10.
T166
88
T135
Valentine Dome 100E 310N

A raised, circular plateau near the southern end of Montes Caucasus. Together with the nearby
smaller dome, they are noticeable only at very low Sun angles. Compare Image T135 with T190.
Rimae Theaetetus 60E 330N T125

Inconspicuous rilles, length about 50 km.
T125A
T100
East of the North Pole, Image T100:

W. Bond 40E 650N
A vast walled plain with rough floor,
158 km in diameter.
Meton 190E 740N

Remains of a vast walled plain,
122 km in diameter. It adjoins two
sizeable subcraters: Meton C (77 km)
and Meton D (78 km).
Barrow 80E 710N

89
MAP 16
Mare Frigoris, Plato, Mons Pico, Anaxagoras
T024A
2002.08.21 14:40 UT Moon age 12 days. FS128 + LE12.5 + CP990 at 1/28 sec.
Mare Frigoris (Sea of Cold)

While lunar maria generally tend to be circular in shape, Mare Frigoris is in long strip near the
north limb. It extends roughly 200 km north-south and 1,500 km east-west between Lacus Mortis
and Sinus Roris, see chart T001 in Map 1. The formation of Mare Frigoris is not acertained.
Some geologists suggested that it could be part of the lava-filled depression that belongs to the
outmost circumference of the gigantic Imbrium Impact; the other parts of depression including
Mare Vaporum, Sinus Aestuum and perhaps, the eastern portion of Oceanus Procellarum. There
is no conscpicuous features within Mare Frigoris except the on-edge crater Aristoteles Map 15.
Sinus Roris (Bay of Dew)

A mare area linking Mare Frigoris and Oceanus Procellarum. Harpalus (diameter 39 km) is the
most prominent crater in the sinus floor.
90
Plato 90 W 520 N
Plato is a walled plain, 101 km in diameter. Johannes Hevelius called it “The Great Black Lake”.
It is one of the darkest surface features, even in the full moon. Its floor looks flat and blank, but
tens of minute craterlets are detectable using bigger telescopes under good seeing. When the
Moon is just before first quarter, the eastern walls of Plato cast spiky shadows on the floor. The
western walls also cast similar shadows just beyond last quarter. In images below, note the two
triangular landslips on Plato’s rim, the sinuous valley-rille feature running southward from the
rim, and two inconspicuous rilles at the southern vicinity; all of them are unnamed.
(Remark: Similar landslips also found in crater Aristoteles Map15 and Gassendi MAP 25 .)
T079
T121
rille rille
91
Rimae Plato 20 W 510 N (Image T121) T146
Rilles east of Plato, length about 70 km.
Mons Pico 90 W 460 N

An isolated mountain at the south of Plato,
2400 m high, base 15 x 25 km. It casts a long
shadow under low-angle illumination.
Montes Teneriffe 130 W 480 N

A group of isolated mountains close to Plato,
with peaks up to 2400 m. The whole group
spreads about 110 km east-west.
Craters at west of the north pole, Image T092:

T092
Anaxagoras 100 W 730 N

A crater near the north limb, 51 km in diameter. It emits bright rays during the full moon.
Goldschmidt 30 W 730 N
A walled plain, 120 km in diameter. The north pole is just at the north of this walled plain.
Birmingham 100 W 650 N

A heavily ruined crater, about 90 km in diameter.
92
MAP 17
J. Herschel, Anaximander, Pythagoras and vicinity
T024B
J. Herschel 410 W 620 N T023

A disintegrated walled plain, 156 km in diameter.
Anaximander 510 W 670 N

A crater with broken wall, 68 km in diameter.
It joins almost with another crater Carpenter
(60 km in diameter). Details in image T157.
Pascal 700 W 740 N

A crater very close to the limb, 106 km in diameter.
Anaximenes 440 W 730 N

A walled plain, 80 km in diameter.
Philolaus 320 W 720 N

A crater with double central peaks, 71 km in
diameter.
Pythagoras 630 W 630 N T147

A crater with central peaks, 130 km in diameter.
Babbage 570 W 600 N

A walled plain, 144 km in diameter. Its floor
contains a fairly large crater, Babbage A (30 km).
Oenopides 640 W 570 N

A walled plain, 67 km in diameter.
South 510 W 580 N

93
T157
94
MAP 18
Sinus Iridum, Montes Recti, Sharp, Bianchini
T025
MARE IMBRIUM
le Verrier Helicon
Sinus Sinus Iridum

Montes Iridum
Recti T026
la Condamine
Linear feature
Sinus Iridum (Bay of Rainbows) 320 W 450 N

Sinus Iridum is a distinct landmark at the north-western edge of Mare Imbrium (Sea of Rains).
It measures 220 km between two capes named Promontorium Laplace (at east) and
Promontorium Heraclides (at west). Its origin is believed a crater but large part of the walls
is overwhelmed by Mare Imbrium. Under low Sun angle, the floor of Sinus Iridum is crossed
by wrinkle ridges, and Montes Jura
(the semicircular mountain range along T090
the shore) resembles a “golden handle”.
Crater Bianchini (38 km) & Sharp (40 km)
resemble a pair of “eyes” on Sinus Iridum.
Montes Recti 200 W 480 N

A straight range of mountains close to Sinus
Iridum, 90 km long and up to 1800 m high.
A similar linear feature is found in T026.
95
Maupertuis 270 W 500 N
A pentagon-like disintegrated crater close to Promontorium Laplace, 46 km across.
Sunrise over Sinus Iridum

T065
Helicon
The wrinkle ridges on the floor of Sinus Iridum are particularly prominent when the terminator
passes over them. To emphasize the profile of these ridges, Montes Jura (the mountain range under
illumination) is inevitably over-exposed in this picture. Sunlight comes from the east, suggesting that
an explorer on the shore of Sinus Iridum would experience sunrise at this time.
The cape-like feature that casts triangular shadow is Promontorium Laplace. It rises 2600 m high.
Helicon is a crater resembling a bowl, 25 km in diameter and 1900m deep.
The Moon Maiden When the Italian-born French astronomer Cassini observed Sinus Iridum in the
17th century, he depicted Promontorium Heraclides (arrowed) as the “Moon Maiden”, complete with face
and waving hair. Cassini's "Moon Maiden" is in fact an illusion and may not show up all the time. The trick
to knowing it is to view it on a night when seeing is not that good; this exaggerates the illusion !
T065A
A burr frame Cassini’s drawing

from video
f
96
MAP 19
Copernicus, Eratosthenes and vicinity
T027A
Copernicus 200 W 100 N

Copernicus is a fine example of
a young ring mountain, formed
about 0.8 billion years ago. It is
in Mare Insularum (Sea of Isles),
93 km in diameter, with a group
of central peaks and terraced walls
3700 m above the floor. It is full
of details when it lies near the
terminator. Extensive bright rays
emit from its immediate vicinity
at days close to the full moon.
The number of central peaks in

Copernicus is a challenge to
observation. Three peaks of height
up to 1200 m are obvious in small
telescopes. Large telescopes may
spot additional small “bumps”. Images from spacecraft, however, reveal even more peaks. The
terraced walls look somewhat hexagonal. The radial scars around the outer walls are the result
from a great asteroid-like impact. Numerous craterlets and pits also spread like raisins at the
north-east vicinity. The two small overlapping craters at south of Copernicus are Fauth (12 km)
and Fauth A (10 km); they are good indicators to align an image’s north-south orientation.
Eratosthenes 110 W 140 N

Eratosthenes is a sharp rim crater with terraced walls, located at the southern end of Montes
Apenninus and not far away from Copernicus. It is 58 km in diameter and 3500 m deep. It has
three central peaks. The adjacent land relief is an interesting object in telescopes; it resembles an
elephant with an upward swirling nose. Eratosthenes changes in appearance depending on lunar
phases. At full moon it seems almost disappeared.
Stadius 140 W 100 N

A ghost depression with incomplete low walls and many crater pits, 69 km in diameter.
Reinhold 230 W 30 N
A terraced crater, 48 km in diameter, 3200 m deep. It is heavily shadowed in T027A.
Gambart 150 W 10 N
A crater with a nearby dome. See MAP 12.
97
T084
T086
Cross-section of a typical mid-sized impact crater on the Moon.

For Copernicus,
Diameter A = 93 km Depth of floor B = 3700 m
Height of central peaks C = 1200 m
Wall height D = 1400 m.
Small impact craters (less than about 10 km in diameter) do Compare Copernicus with this impact crater in Arizona, USA.
not have central peaks. They tend to have simple bowl-shaped The latter is 1.2 km in diameter, 170 m in depth. It was formed
forms whereas in larger craters, slumping of material off the from a ~50m meteor impact 49,000 years ago.
inner walls helps to flatten the crater floor.
98
T087
Copernicus
Rima Gay-Lussac
Gay-Lussac
T. Mayer
Montes Carpatus
Draper
Montes Carpatus 250 W 150 N T177

Copernicus
A mountain range, length 400 km. It is
one of the montes that form the rising rim of
Mare Imbrium. There are two named craters,
Gay-Lussac (28 km in diameter), T. Mayer Lambert
(33 km) and one wide rille Rima Gay-Lussac
(40 km long). Conspicuous chains or rows of
craterlets can also be spotted at vicinity.
Lambert 210 W 260 N

Mons La Hire 250 W 280 N

An isolated mountain, base 10 x 20 km. Its
view from Apollo mission is given in Map 1.
Dorsum Zirkel Dorsum Heim

They are wrinkle ridges on the western edge of
Mare Imbrium. Dorsum Zirkel is 210 km long.
Dorsum Heim is 130 km, followed by few more
unnamed wrinkle ridges that extend northwards
into Sinus Iridum. (Note: Sinus Iridum is beyond
the bottom edge of Image T177; it reappears in
T065 of Map18.)
99
T199
(See Map 32 for domes near Hortensius and Milichius.)
100
MAP 20
Kepler, Reiner Gamma, Marius and the west region T028
Montes Riphaeus T018
Kunowsky
Maestlin R
Encke N
Maestlin
Copernicus F
Kepler
Kepler dome
0 0
Kepler 38 W 8 N
A crater with uneven floor, 32 km in diameter.
Milichius
It is also a bright ray center. There is an
elusive dome at the northwest of Kepler.
Encke 370 W 50 N
A crater with uneven floor, 29 km in diameter.
A craterlet Encke N is at its rim. At full moon, Bessarion
Encke is overwhelmed by the bright rays from
Kepler.
T158
Maestlin R 410 W 40 N
Milichius See Map 32.
101
T028
Grimaldi 690 W 50 S T069

A flooded basin with rather dark floor. See Map 26.
Riccioli 740 W 30 S, Hedin 760 W 30 N

Two adjacent walled plains, each about 140 km in
diameter. The Moon’s equator is midway between
them. The northern floor of Riccioli is rather dark.
Olbers, Olbers A ~760 W 70 N

Both craters are centers of bright rays during full
moon. Olbers is 75 km in diameter.
Reiner 550 W 70 N
A crater with central peak, 30 km in diameter.
Reiner Gamma 590 W 80 N

A swirling deposit of bright material. Its main part
is about 50 km across, with a central oval dome.
Combined with the tail formation at close vicinity,
Reiner Gamma resembles the head of a white snake.# Visually the snake has two tails, but only
one tail prominent at a time. The “east tail” is shown in T069 whereas the “west tail” is shown in
T155. The west of Reiner Gamma is a small plain Planitia Descensus (Plain of Desert, T181),
named for the first soft landing on the Moon by the Soviet Luna 9 probe in February 1966.
(# A paper on Reiner Gamma: http://www.geocities.com/kc5lei/SWIRL2001.htm )
102
T181
Rimae Grimaldi
Damoiseau
Grimaldi
unnamed
massif
Hermann
Lohrmann
Riccioli C
OCEANUS Rimae Hevelius
Hevelius
PROCELLARUM
Cavalerius
Reiner
Gamma
Reiner Luna 9
Planitia landing site
Descensus
Galilaei
103
T155
T057
Marius
Marius 510 W 120 N

A crater in Oceanus Procellarum, 41 km in diameter. Its rim is stuck C
by a small crater Marius H. The vicinity of Marius is rich in wrinkle
ridges and dome-like hills, best seen at Moon age of about 12 days.
It is believed a territory of active volcanism 3 billion years ago.
In Image T155, a sinuous rille (Rima Marius) meanders at the north

of Marius. It begins near crater Marius C, where its width is about
2 km. At Marius B, the rille turns west and ends about 40 km west
of Marius P, where it is less than 1 km wide. The full length of the
rille is 250 km. The bright streaks at the picture left side are rays B
radiated from Kepler.
Right: Rima Marius
This is cropped from T155, B&W inverted
and sharpened to emphasize the feature. P
104
Image T181:
Hevelius 670 W 20 N
A walled plain, 106 km in diameter. Its floor contains inconspicuous rilles (Rimae Hevelius).
Cavalerius 670 W 50 N
NASA 014
A crater adjoining Hevelius, 58 km in diameter.
Galilaei 630 W 100 N

A small crater, 16 km in diameter.
Image T028:
Rocca 730 W 130 S
A disintegrated crater, 90 km in diameter.
Lansberg 270 W 00 S
A crater close to the equator, 39 km in diameter.
Surveyor 3 and the landing module

of Apollo 12 at about 360 m distance.
T154
Montes Riphaeus 280 W 70 S (Image T154)

A mountain range between Mare Cognitum (Known Sea) and Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of
Storms), length 150 km. It resembles a man walking with a torch when viewed with south up.
The “torch” is the bright rayed crater Euclides with central peaks, 12 km in diameter. Surveyor 3
probe (unmanned) landed on the vicinity in 1967 April. Apollo 12 (manned) landed close to
same site in 1969 November.
105
T161
T148
Flamsteed 440 W 40 S
A crater, 21 km in diameter. It is inside
the ghost ring formation Flamsteed P.
This ring (about 110 km in diameter) has
incomplete wall, and is believed an ancient
impact crater flooded by lava during the
formation of Oceanus Procellarum. An
unnamed mountainous feature, resembling
the “smaller brother” of Montes Riphaeus,
is at the west of Flamsteed.
Letronne 420 W 110 S

Remains of a flooded walled plain
appearing like a bay which opens to
Oceanus Procellarum, 119 km in
diameter. See also Map 25.
Dorsa Rubey 420 W 90 S

A system of wrinkle ridges extending
outward from Letronne, length 170 km.
Wichmann 380 W 70 S
A fairly bright crater, 11 km in diameter.
Its northern wall connects to an arc-shaped
mountain. Its southern wall is linked to an
irregular mountain by an elusive ridge, see
Image T148.
106
MAP 21
Aristarchus, Herodotus, Vallis Schröteri, Prinz
T200
107
Aristarchus, Herodotus and Vallis Schröteri form an interesting feature group on the floor of
Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of Storms). Near the terminator shortly before the full Moon, the
feature resembles the face of a cat (or an owl) when viewed with south up.
Aristarchus 470 W 240 N

An impact crater with terraced walls and a central peak, 40 km in diameter. Its depth is 3000 m,
deep enough to expose the bright anorthosite materials of the lunar crust. Indeed, Aristarchus is a
bright-ray center. It is so bright that it can be seen even in earthshine portion (night side) of a
Moon crescent, Event 3. Aristarchus is very young by age, originated about 0.5 billion years ago.
Herodotus 500 W 230 N

A flooded crater with flat floor, 35 km in diameter.
Vallis Schröteri (Schröter’s Valley) 510 W 260 N

This is the largest sinuous valley on the Moon. It starts about 30 km
Cobra’s head
north of Herodotus on a diamond-shaped plateau, then bends through
nearly 1800 to the west before opening out onto Oceanus Procellarum.
The starting end actually joins with a 6-km diameter crater; observers
call this end the “Cobra’s head”. Vallis Schröteri is about 160 km long,
up to 11 km wide and 1000 m deep. Current theory suggests that the
entire valley, including the head, is a collapsed lava tube. (NASA Apollo-15 image)
Rupes Toscanelli 470 W 270 N

A fault, length 70 km. JL005
Montes Agricola 540 W 290 N

A straight and narrow mountain range,
length 160 km.
Dorsum Niggli 520 W 290 N

A short length of wrinkle ridge connecting
Montes Agricola and the plateau that holds
Vallis Schröteri, 50 km long.
Prinz 440 W 250 N

Prinz is the remains of a flooded crater, about
47 km in diameter. A wide system of rilles
(Rimae Prinz) emerges from the crater wall.
Montes Harbinger 410 W 270 N

A group of isolated mountains outside Prinz
and spreading 90 km north-south.
Dorsa Argand 400 W 280 N

Wrinkle ridges, length 150 km.
Rimae Aristarchus 470 W 280 N (Image 196)

A wide system of rilles extending from the
north-east vicinity of Vallis Schröteri, length
120 km. The longest rille runs beyond Prinz.
108
Aristarchus T196
Ï Rimae Aristarchus and Rimae Prinz The corner picture is cropped from same frame, black and white
inverted, and sharpened to emphasize the profile of Rimae Aristarchus (Label 9) and Rimae Prinz (Label 17).
T159
OCEANUS
Aristarchus Herodotus
PROCELLARUM
Í The diamond-shaped plateau

that holds Aristarchus, Herodotus
and Vallis Schröteri. It measures
220 x 170 km and rises 1 ~ 2 km
above the oceanus floor. Near its
Vallis Schröteri north side are Montes Agricola,
Dorsa Dorsum Niggli and Dorsa Burnet.
Burnet
Dorsum Niggli
Montes Agricola
109
T030
NASA 011
Above: Image from the

author’s 10-inch telescope.
Left: Image of same feature

from the Apollo 15 mission.
The10-inch telescope resolves

craters to about 800 m diameter
only, hence it cannot reveal the
numerous craterlets as seen
from the Apollo spacecraft at
close distance from the Moon.
(From Apollo 15)
110
MAP 22
Eddington, Struve, Russell, Seleucus
T031
Eddington 720 W 210 N,

Struve 770 W 230 N
Russell 750 W 260 N
These are fine examples of remains of flooded walled plains, named to honor three
astrophysicists in the early 20th Century. They are located at the north-west limb, visible as long
as lunar libration is favorable. Their diameters are 125 km, 170 km and 103 km respectively. The
line of 800 W longitude passes through Struve’s western wall.
Seleucus 670 W 210 N

A prominent crater with terraced walls, 43 km in diameter. Note the bright rays passing the rim
of Seleucus.
Briggs 690 W 260 N

A crater with small central peaks, 37 km in diameter.
Schiaparelli 590 W 230 N

A crater, 24 km in diameter, named after the 19th century Italian astronomer whose description of
“canali” on Mars was misinterpreted as “canals” by other astronomers of his times.
111
MAP 23
Mons Gruithuisen Gamma, Mons Rümker, Mairan
T153
Mons Gruithuisen Gamma

T150
T152
T151
Mons Gruithuisen Gamma 410 W 370 N

A peculiar dome mountain, base 20 km. Its summit
has two craterlets, the larger one being ~900 m in
diameter. They are visible in steady seeing at high
magnifications, and are good tests for 8 to 10-inch
(20 to 25 cm) telescopes.
Mons Gruithuisen Delta 390 W 360 N

An irregular mountain, about 20 km in diameter.
Mons Rümker 580 W 410 N

A volcanic complex of dome mountains on Oceanus
Procellarum, base 70 km. It contains a shallow
depression sculptured by clefts and craterlets. At
low Sun angles, wrinkle ridges are seen at its vicinity.
Mairan 430 W 420 N

Mairan is a 40-km crater with sharp rim. Mairan T is a small dome with a summit craterlet. In
small telescopes, Mairan T appears as a bright spot.
112
MAP 24
Rimae Hippalus, Rima Hesiodus, Rimae Ramsden,
Marth, Bullialdus
JL 006
Rima Rima
Hesiodus Hippalus
Bullialdus
Rimae Hippalus 290 W 250 S

A spectacular system of wide rilles crossing the
ruined crater Hippalus, length 240 km. At least 3
rilles of the system are visible in small telescopes.
Rima Hesiodus 210 W 300 S

A rille at the southern edge of Mare Nubium
(Sea of Clouds), length 300 km.
Rimae Ramsden 310 W 330 S

Agatharchides
A system of joined rilles in the area called Palus
Epidemiarum (Marsh of Epidemics), length 130
km. JL 008
JL 007
Marth 290 W 310 S T062

A small (7 km) yet interesting double-walled crater in Palus Epidemiarum.
Bullialdus 220 W 210 S

A crater with terraced walls, central peaks and radial structure outside the
rim, 61 km in diameter. It looks like a “smaller version” of Copernicus.
113
T068
Kies 220 W 260 S

A flooded crater with a spiky cape at the southern wall, 45 km in diameter. A dome hill with
summit craterlet, designated Pi (π), is at the west of Kies.
König 250 W 240 S W004

A crater, 23 km in diameter, fairly deep (2400 m).
Agatharchides 310 W 200 S

A flooded crater with ruined wall, 49 km in diameter.
Rima Agatharchides (length 50 km) is at the east, on
the floor of Agatharchides P.
Loewy 330 W 230 S

Puiseux 390 W 280 S
These flooded craters are named after the co-authors
of Atlas Photographique de la Lune, first published
by Paris Observatory in 1896 - 1910. Loewy is in
oval shape, 22 x 26 km. Puiseux is 25 km in diameter.
Promontorium Kelvin 330 W 270 S

A cape-like massif at the eastern edge of Mare Humorum.
An image in Atlas Photographique de la Lune.
The original photo is much larger in size than above.
114
MAP 25
Mare Humorum, Gassendi and vicinity
T032
T032A
Gassendi
T046
Hainzel A
Lacus
Timoris
Lacus
Excellentiae
Palus Epidemiarum
Rimae Hippalus
Vitello
Letronne
Lee
Vitello M Doppelmayer
MARE
HUMORUM Mare Humorum 390 W 240 S
Mare Humorum (Sea of Moisture) is a
relatively small circular basin filled by dark
solidified lava. It is about 400 km across.
Small craters and concentric wrinkle ridges
Gassendi are on its floor. The surrounding mountains
suggest that this basin was formed from a
A massive impact. Lacus Excellentiae (Lake
of Excellence) and Lacus Timoris (Lake of
Fear) are at the south of Mare Humorum.
Gassendi 400 W 170 S
Gassendi is a prominent walled plain on the edge of Mare Humorum, 110 km in diameter, with
numerous rilles (Rimae Gassendi, T195) hills and central peaks on its floor. Actually Gassendi
is almost circular in shape, but it looks oval due to its proximity to the lunar limb. Gassendi was
formed from an impact object which struck almost perpendicular to the lunar surface.
A jumble of three prominent peaks lies at the center of Gassendi. The northern wall has been
broken by a smaller crater, Gassendi A. This crater is 33 km in diameter, 3600 m deep while the
depth of Gassendi is just 1800 m. Note the triangular land-slip at Gassendi’s western wall.
Letronne 420 W 110 S

A semi-circular relief just north of Gassendi. It is the remains of a flooded walled plain, 119 km
in diameter. Letronne together with Gassendi looks like a “lobster”. See also Image T198.
115
T059
Vitello 380 W 310 S
A crater, 42 km in diameter. Its west is Vitello M.
Its east is Rimae Hippalus Map 24. The crater center
resembles a rope-jumping rabbit in a Chinese myth.
Lee 410 W 310 S,

The remains of a flooded crater, 41 km in diameter.
Doppelmayer 420 W 280 S

A ruined crater with a fairly large central peak,
64 km in diameter.
T033
7
6 5
MARE HUMORUM
4
1. Gassendi
2. Mersenius
2 3. Rimae Mersenius
4. Cavendish
1 3 5. Liebig
6. Rupes Liebig
7. de Gasparis &
Rimae de Gasparis
Mersenius 490 W 210 S

A flooded crater, 84 km in diameter. Its floor is somewhat convex and contains a group of
inconspicuous rilles. Its wall adjoins a smaller flooded crater Mersenius P (Image T195).
Rimae Mersenius 450 W 200 S

A prominent system of rilles, length 230 km.
Cavendish 540 W 240 S

A crater of 56 km in diameter. Its wall is interrupted by two craters: Cavendish A and
Cavendish E (the larger one).
Rupes Liebig 460 W 250 S

A scarp where the floor of Mare Humorum ends, length 180 km.
116
Gassendi and Letronne de Gasparis 510 W 260 S (Image T033)
T198 A flooded crater, 30 km in diameter. Its floor is
crossed by a group of clefts (Rimae de Gasparis).
Lacus Timoris & Palus Epidemiarum (Image T046)

See descriptions in Map 29.
T195
117
T149
A complete view
of Mare Humorum
(Sea of Moisture)
Compare this image with

T068 of Map 24. The wrinkle
ridges on the mare floor are
not prominent because of
inappropriate sunlight angle.
The arrow points to a 50-km

gray feature “The Helmet”
nicknamed by the crew of
Apollo-16.
118
MAP 26
Grimaldi, Darwin and vicinity
T034
S
Darwin
Grimaldi
Grimaldi 690 W 50 S
A circular flooded basin with damaged walls. The
lava-filled dark floor is 200 km in diameter but the
outmost wall is 400 km across. A dome is located
on the northern part of the floor (Image T182). By
category, Grimaldi is a small mare more than a crater.
Darwin 690 W 200 S

Darwin is a complex disintegrated walled plain,
130 km in diameter. A cluster of smaller craters
is on its southern floor. Its northern floor contains
a dome-like hill and is crossed by Rimae Darwin.
(length 280 km). When Darwin is near the
terminator, it resembles one half of a butterfly wing
while the other half is an unnamed feature.
Lamarck 700 W 230 S

A disintegrated crater adjoining Darwin. It is 115 km in diameter.
Byrgius 650 W 250 S T055

Byrgius is a crater, 87 km in diameter. Byrgius A
is a rayed crater, see also Map 33.
Billy, Crüger, Sirsalis, Rimae Sirsalis

See Map 27.
Damoiseau 610 W 50 S
A crater, 37 km in diameter. It interrupts with
the larger crater Damoiseau M (JL009, T182).
Darwin
JL 009
Rimae
Darwin
Damoiseau
in shadow Î
Rimae
Sirsalis
119
T182
1
26 25 2
3
24 1. Byrgius (Dia. 87 km)
23 2. Byrgius A
3. Lamarck (115 km)
27 4. Darwin (130 km)
5. Rimae Darwin
6. Crüger (46 km)
7. Sirsalis (42 km)
8. Sirsalis A
5 4 9. Rimae Sirsalis
22 10. Grimaldi (400 km)
“W-shaped” 11. Rimae Grimaldi
shadow 12. Lohrmann (31 km)
13. Hermann (16 km)
14. Damoiseau (37 km)
15. Damoiseau M
21 16. Hansteen (45 km)
17. Rima Hansteen
6 18. Mons Hansteen
20 19. Billy (46 km)
20. Fontana (31 km)
9 21. Zupus (38 km)
22. de Vico (20 km)
23. Henry Frères (42 km)
24. Henry (41 km)
19 25. Cavendish (56 km)
26. Liebig (37 km)
27. Mersenius (84 km)
8
18
17 7
16
11
T182A
15
14 10
unnamed
massif
OCEANUS Ï A non-oblique view of Grimaldi,

cropped and rescaled from T182.
PROCELLARUM Note the concentric mountainous
rings around the mare-like floor.
13
12
120
MAP 27
Sirsalis, Rimae Sirsalis, Rimae Darwin and vicinity
T035
T035
Sirsalis 600 W 120 S

A crater, 42 km in diameter. It is also a
center of bright rays under illumination
(Image T035), but on the terminator
(T156) it is as dark as a black hole. Lacus
Aestatis
In T156, there is a narrow strip of wall
extending northward from the rim of
Sirsalis. The wall casts a conspicuous
triangular shadow around Moon age of
12 days.
Rimae Sirsalis 620 W 170 S

This is a sizeable system of rilles, visible
even in small telescopes. Its length is
420 km, the longest of all lunar rilles. Its
northern end begins near crater Sirsalis
and its southern end extends into the east
of crater Darwin. See also T182 in
Map 26.
Rimae Darwin 670 W 200 S

A system of rilles crossing the floor of Darwin, length 280 km.
Lacus Aestatis (Summer Lake) 690 W 150 S

A small dark surface appearing like the letter C, diameter about 60 km, total area 1000 sq. km.
Crüger 670 W 170 S,

A crater with a central craterlet on the dark-flat floor, 46 km in diameter.
Images in next page:

Billy 500 W 140 S
A dark-floor crater almost identical to Crüger, 46 km in diameter.
Hansteen 500 W 120 S

A crater with internal hills, 45 km in diameter. A short rille (Rima Hansteen) is at close vicinity.
Mons Hansteen 500 W 120 S

A triangular, hand-shaped mountain, base 30 km. Very bright.
121
Sirsalis E 560 W 80 S
A heavily flooded crater, about 70 km in diameter. Only part of its walls remains visible.
T156
T037
122
MAP 28
Schiller, Schickard, Wargentin and southwest limb
T038
Schickard,
Schiller Wargentin
Schiller 400 W 520 S

A truly elongated crater with off-center peaks, 178 x 71 km. It seems to form from the fusion of
two craters, or was created by a low angled impactor. The territory between Schiller and Zucchius
(64 km) is an impact basin which has two concentric mountain rings up to 330 km across.
Segner 480 W 590 S

A shallow crater with rough floor, 67 km in dia. T061
Schickard 550 W 440 S

A vast walled plain with a partially flooded
floor, 227 km in diameter. It casts spiky shadows
on its floor under low Sun angle. In Image T183
of next page, there is a ghost crater (marked P)
near the east rim of Schickard.
Wargentin 600 W 500 S

A rare type of crater, 84 km in diameter. It is
filled up with solidified dark lava almost to the
top of the rim. The floor is raised 400 m above
the surrounding, and is crossed by complex of
wrinkle ridges.
Nasmyth 560 W 500 S

Phocylides 570 W 530 S

123
T183
Inghirami 690 W 470 S
Drebbel 490 W 410 S

T039
T184 Image 184:

Craters at the north of Schickard
Piazzi 680 W 360 S

An eroded walled plain,
101 km in diameter.
Lagrange 720 W 330 S

A walled plain, 160 km in
diameter.
Vieta 560 W 290 S

Fourier 530 W 300 S

Palmieri 480 W 290 S

A flooded crater, 41 km in
diameter. Its floor is crossed by
narrow rilles (Rimae Palmieri,
length 150 km).
124
MAP 29
Bailly, Longomontanus and Hainzel
T047
Crater Coordinates Diameter Crater Coordinates Diameter
Bettinus 450 W 630 S 71 km Mee 350 W 440 S 132 km

Blancanus 220 W 640 S 105 km Scheiner 280 W 600 S 110 km
Casatus 300 W 730 S 110 km Segner See Map 28
Hainzel 330 W 410 S 70 km Wilhelm 210 W 430 S 107 km
Kircher 450 W 670 S 73 km Wilson 420 W 690 S 70 km
Longomontanus 220 W 500 S 145 km Zucchius 500 W 610 S 64 km
125
T060
Bailly 690 W 670 S

The largest crater (walled plain) on the nearside of the Moon. Its outer wall is 300 km in diameter.
The floor is scattered with subcraters, the largest being A and B. Bailly is best seen during
favorable libration, as in above image when the latitudinal libration is −4.70.
Kircher 450 W 670 S

Bettinus 450 W 630 S JL 003
Zucchius 500 W 610 S (Image T047)
These craters of roughly same size form a
prominent trio at the outside rim of Bailly,
especially when Bailly is hidden in shadow.
Scheiner 280 W 600 S

A crater, 110 km in diameter. Its floor contains
several small craters but no central peak. In
Image T047, the western wall of Scheiner is
brightly illuminated by one arm of the rays
emitted from Tycho. In Image T197 of Event 1 ,
the southern wall of Scheiner is cut through by
two prominent ridges.
Longomontanus 220 W 500 S

A walled plain, 145 km diameter. Its rim overlaps
half of the smaller crater Longomontanus Z.
Wilhelm 210 W 430 S

A walled plain with fairly rough floor, 107 km
in diameter. It overlaps two smaller craters
Lagalla (85 km) and Montanari (77 km).
126
Mee 350 W 440 S
An eroded crater, 132 km in diameter. Its floor contains a white spot that brightens up under
illumination.
Hainzel 330 W 410 S

A complex of craters overlapping each other. The formation resembles a peanut shell. Lacus
Timoris (Lake of Fear) is at vicinity.
Palus Epidemiarum (Marsh of Epidemics) 270 W 320 S

A lava plain that holds crater Capuanus, Marth and Ramsden, about 300 km across.
See also Map 24.
T058
127
MAP 30
Maurolycus, Stöfler, Boussingault
T082
Maurolycus,
Stöfler Tycho
Í The highlands at
the east of Tycho
T191
Crater Trio: Maurolycus,

Faraday and Stöfler Î
Maurolycus is located in the

southern highlands where no
mare exists but high density
of impact craters. It forms a
trio with Faraday and Stöfler,
and is a prominent landmark
in this region.
Maurolycus 140E 420S

A walled plain with smaller craters and central mountains on its floor, 114 km in diameter. It
joins with Barocius, 62 km in diameter. The wall of Maurolycus is also interrupted by craters. A
short chain of craterlets can be spotted at vicinity (arrow in Image T191).
Stöfler 60E 410S

A vast walled plain, 126 km in diameter and 2760 m deep. Its depth-diameter ratio is 1 : 45, quite
shallow compared to a typical ring mountain at depth-diameter ratio of 1 : 15. Part of Stöfler’s
wall is stuck by Faraday which is 70 km in diameter, 4100 km deep. The wall of Faraday is
again stuck by several craters. In Image T191 and T165, Stöfler’s floor appears crossed by bright
and darker strips. This is due to the ejecta materials from Tycho when it was created.
128
T165
11
10
1. Barocius (Dia. 82 km)
2. Maurolycus (114 km)
6 3. Faraday (70 km)
4. Stöfler (126 km)
5. Clairaut (75 km)
9 6. Baco (70 km)
7. Licetus (75 km)
8. Heraclitus (90 km)
8 9. Cuvier (75 km)
5 10. Lilius (61 km)
11. Jacobi (68 km)
12. Fernelius (65 km)
7 13. Kaiser (52 km)
1 14. Nonius (70 km)
15. Gemma Frisius (88 km)
16. Goodacre (46 km)
17. Poisson (42 km)
18. Aliacensis (80 km)
19. Walter, see Map12.
2
3
12
13
15
14
16
19
17
18
129
JL002
Boussingault
Abulfeda
Demonax
Neumayer
Boguslawsky
Boussingault
A
K
E
Helmholtz B
D Boussingault 550E 700S
C A crater, 131 km in diameter. Its floor
contains Boussingault A, while B, C,
D, E and K are at close vicinity. They
form a conspicuous complex of craters
Hagecius on the southeast limb.
Nearch
Abulfeda 140E 140S
A crater with flat floor but no central
SE Limb 2004.05.24 Age 5 days. (by Joseph Liu with 20.6 cm refractor + CP990) peaks, 62 km in diameter. See Map 31
for Catena Abulfeda.
JL001
Abulfeda
Descartes
Kant
Dollond
Andĕl
Halley
Zöllner
Lindsay
Hind
Alfraganus
Taylor
Saunder
Delambre Theon Junior
North of Abulfeda 2004.05.26 04:37 UT Age 7 days. 20.6 cm f/7.7 AP EDF refractor + Or12.5 + CP990 (by Joseph Liu)
130
MAP 31
Catenae and arrays of craters
Catena is a chain of small craters, probably resulted from fragmental impacts of a tidally
disrupted asteroid. The longest chain is Catena Abulfeda in the south-east quadrant, length 210
km. At low power, it resembles a thin, bright line running from Abulfeda to the northern end of
Rupes Altai. At high power, it resolves into over 20 craterlets in a chain. A loose chain of
craterlets and a remarkably bright patch also appear in the vicinity, see Image T070. T081 shows
the crater array running north-south from Abulfeda to Apianus, and the Apollo 16 landing site.
T070
Abulfeda
140 E 140 S
Davy
80 W 120 S
T081A T093
131
NASA 003
Catena Davy seen from Apollo 12 spacecraft Î
Another crater chain, the Catena Davy,

requires higher power to resolve. It has about
23 craters of 1 ~ 3 km in diameter, 50 km
long. An unnamed shorter chain of craterlets
is also at vicinity (T093, label 3).
Other short chains of craterlets are found close

to Ptolemaeus, Rima Hyginus, Eratosthenes,
Montes Carpatus, Stöfler, Bürg and Deslandres.
They are marked by arrows in the guide map
below. These chains are unnamed, best seen
at Moon age 6 ~ 10 days.
132
Ptolemaeus Vogel and its subcraters - The combination resembles a gourd.
T173
Vogel
60E 150S
Hipparchus
50E 60S
Mare Imbrium
Image T173 shows a gourd-like

(葫蘆狀) crater array composed of
Vogel, its subcraters A, B and C.
Vogel can be located with the larger
map in next page. It is 27 km in
diameter.
Image T071 shows a row of diminishing craters, composed of Halley, Hind, Hipparchus C and
Hipparchus L. Hipparchus is a vast walled plain, 150 km in diameter. Its wall is fairly
disintegrated and modified by a pattern of grooves and ridges known as "Imbrium Sculpture".
This pattern is radial to Mare Imbrium, which affects the lunar surface for more than 1000 km
from Imbrium. The same pattern can be seen in the territory around crater Parrot in T173 and
T192. Horrocks is a younger crater on the floor of Hipparchus, 30 km in diameter; it is named
after Jeremiah Horrocks, a young English astronomer who was the first to contribute an
observational record of Venus transit across the Sun in 1639.
T071
133
Nonius T192
Walter
Aliacensis
Regiomontanus
Werner
Apianus
Krusenstern
Blanchinus
Purbach
Í An array of diminishing small
craters, composed of
la Caille
Delaunay la Caille (68 km)
Delaunay (46 km)
Faye (37 km)
Donati (36 km)
Faye Airy (37 km)
Argelander (34 km)
Donati
Vogel (27 km).
Airy T194
Arzachel
la Caille
Argelander E
Vogel
Parrot M
Delaunay
Burnham Faye
Alphonsus
Klein
Albategnius
Ï Delaunay, subcraters E and
M, form a bell-shaped feature.
Delaunay is 46 km in diameter,
divided by a sharp central ridge.
Ptolemaeus
134
MAP 32
Domes
Domes are small rounded hills of relatively low heights found mostly on mare floor, some of
them with summit craters. They swell up from the lunar surface and appear to have been formed
by volcanic activities. Domes located near a known feature are highlighted in the following maps;
they are best seen under low illumination angles.
1. Cauchy, See Map 6 or Image below and

2. Arago, Map 8.
3. Valentine Dome (nickname), Map15.
4. Kies, Map 24.
5. Gambart, Map 19.
6. Hortensius & Milichius, see image below.
7. Kepler, Map 20.
8. Marius, Map 20.
9. Mons Gruithuisen Gamma, Mons Rümker and
Mairan T, Map 23.
10. Grimaldi, Map 26.
More details: http://www.glrgroup.org/news/28.htm
JL 004
W002
135
MAP 33
Lunar Rays
When the solar illumination angle is high enough (e.g. 300 or more), bright rays begin to emit
from certain craters. The table below and its associated map in next page list those craters known
to have bright rays. They are particularly prominent during a full moon.
Rayed Craters
Anaxagoras (Map 16) Furnerius A (Map 3) Messala B (Map 2) Stevinus A (Map 3, 33)
Aristarchus (Map 21) Geminus C (Map 2) Messier A (Map 6) Strabo (Map 10, 33)
Aristillus (Map 14) Godin (Map 33) Olbers (Map 20) Taruntius (Map 6)
Autolycus (Map 14) Hind (Map 12, 31) Olbers A (Map 20) Thales (Map 10, 33)
Bessel (Map 9) Kepler (Map 20) Petavius B (Map 3) Theophilus (Map 5)
Birt (Map 12) Lalande (Map 12) Proclus (Map 2) Timocharis (Map 14)
Byrgius A (Map 26, 33) Langrenus (Map 3) Reiner Gamma * (Map 20) Tycho (Map 11, 33)
Copernicus (Map 20) Manilius (Map 9) Sirsalis (Map 27)
Euclides (Map 20) Menelaus (Map 9) Snellius (Map 3)
* bright feature
Lunar rays are recognized generally as lines of deposits of highland rocks excavated by a crater
impact event, such as Tycho. They are bright because the highland rocks are made predominately
of light-colored anorthosite (illustrated in Map 1). Lunar rays are therefore hints of how rocks
had been moved around on the Moon’s surface.
Lunar rays are unique in the following characteristics: T048D
z They do not have fixed direction and pattern. For

example in T048C of next page, the long rays from
Tycho radiate in multi directions whereas those from
Menelaus point only north-eastward. The rays from
Copernicus are wispy; they are actually secondary
impact craters and small pits formed from ejected
debris during the impact formation of Copernicus.
z The rays may not point exactly back to the crater from
which they supposedly originated.
z The rays may shift slightly in position during a lunation.
z The rays are not always equally bright when under a
similar illumination angle in the lunar morning and
evening.
According to theory, rayed craters were formed later than

non-rayed craters and hence geologically younger.
Note that a bright crater is not necessarily a rayed crater

(e.g. Dionysius in T176 of this Map, Censorinus in Map 6 ,
Moltke in Map 8 and Linné in Map 9 ), but a rayed crater is
certainly bright.
Right: Bright rays from the crater Menelaus extends completely

across Mare Serenitatis. It is almost in line with the rays from the
opposite craters Strabo and Thales. (Enlargement from T048C)
136
T048C
137
Furnerius T050
S Furnerius A
Furnerius A Stevinus A Stevinus A
Snellius Snellius
Petavius
Same craters with
and without rays
Petavius B Petavius B
Theophius Theophius
Langrenus 2000.09.15 15:52 UT Langrenus 2000.02.11 13:24 UT

Moon age 17 days Moon age 6 days
T127
T052
T176
T005
Proclus and its system of rays

2000.06.15 16:28 UT Moon age 13 days
138
EVENT 1
Libration
T040
Libration (天平動) allows the nearside of the Moon to be seen from slightly different angles at
different time, producing an overall view of the lunar surface that adds up, over time, to 59% of
the total. There are three types of apparent (optical) librations.*
* In fact the Moon librates very slightly by itself; this is called physical libration. See Appendix 2.
z Longitudinal Libration (經天平動) is due to the fact that the Moon moves faster when it is
near perigee and slower when near apogee, but its rotation remains constant. This means
that the Moon’s rotation is not yet in perfect synchronization with its orbital motion. As a
result, the Moon appears to wobble back and forth around its rotation axis. The additional
longitudinal surface that can be seen with this libration is ± 7.9 degrees.
139
z Latitudinal Libration (緯天平動) is due to the tilt angle of the Moon’s equator (or rotation
axis) from its orbital plane. As a result, the Moon appears to nod its polar regions towards
and away from the Earth as it goes around its orbit. The additional latitudinal surface that
can be seen with this libration is ± 6.8 degrees.
z Diurnal Libration (周日天平動) gives an extra 1 degree of visible surface round the east or
west limb of the Moon, because the Earth’s rotation brings a terrestrial observer at slightly
different view angles between moonrise and moonset.
Longitudinal libration and latitudinal libration occur concurrently and repeat every 27 ~ 28 days
(approximately one sidereal month). They are specified by l and b, i.e. the shift of zero point (00
longitude and 00 latitude) from the Moon disk’s exact center at that moment. They also mean that
the disk center is now at longitude l and latitude b. A positive value of l or b gives more surface
of the east or north limb exposed to Earth. A negative value of l or b gives more exposed surface
of the west or south limb.
Disk center at
coordinates l, b
T001A
Lunar libration causes surface features near the limb distort noticeably Lacus
in angular dimensions, and features very close to the limb may be out Autumni
of sight. For instance, Lacus Autumni (Autumn Lake, left image) and
Mare Orientale (Easten Sea, Farside Map ) just behind the west limb Grimaldi
are visible only in very favorable libration. The maria on the east limb
(T056D, next page) are also libration dependent.
(Enlarged from T001)
140
Maria on the east limb of the Moon
The visibility of Maria No. 1, 2, 3 and 7 is libration dependent
T056D
141
The east limb near equator during favorable libration
T160 T116
14
11
13
12 18
15
10
9 16
17
8
7 6
2
5 0
(Terminator at 87 E)
1 4
T116A NASA 025
0 0 0
(Libration l = 5.4 b = 1.4 . Terminator at 82 E)
1. Mare Undarum (690E 70N) 10. Kästner (105 km)

2. Mare Spumans (650E 10N) 11. la Pérouse (78 km)
3. Dubiago (Diameter 51 km) 12. von Behring (39 km)
4. Firmicus (56 km) 13. Kapteyn (49 km)
5. Banachiewicz (92 km) 14. Barkla (43 km)
6. Nobili (42 km) 15. Somerville (15 km) This image of Kiess is cropped
7. Jenkins (38 km) 16. Rankine (9 km) from T116 but its horizontal scale
8. Weierstrass (33 km) 17. Maclaurin (50 km) is stretched 5 times to compare
9. Gilbert (107 km) 18. Langrenus (132 km) Overhead view of Kiess, cropped
with the Lunar Orbiter view at right. from Lunar Orbiter mapping. Kiess
is 63 km in diameter, at 840E 60S.
142
South pole and its western region during favorable libration
The south pole is marked SP. Crater Bailly is hidden in the dark side of the terminator. Newton (diameter 79 km) is shown together with subcraters A, B and G.
The arrow points to the highest peak of Leibnitz Mountains which rises about 10,000 m above mean level. It is illuminated by sunlight most of the time and
hence appears like a beacon above the darkened surroundings. Leibnitz Mountains (an informal name) is the highest surface feature known on the Moon so far.
T197
143
The region east of the North Pole during favorable libration
T171
144
Artist’s impression of lunar libration
To an observer at a given place on the nearside of the Moon, the Earth would seem to be almost fixed in the
sky. Lunar libration, however, produces an additional peculiar motion of the Earth. Whenever on the Moon the
Earth is seen above horizon, it will seem to set and then rise again, as indicated by the broken curves. This
peculiar rising or setting of the Earth at the horizon follows the period of libration, which repeats approximately
every 27~28 days. (Sketch from Perelman’s Astronomy For Entertainment, Moscow, 1958.)
P003
A partially illuminated Earth rises above the lunar horizon

Taken by Apollo 11 crew flying over Mare Smythii, 1969 July 20 (NASA Image AS11-44-6550).
Mare Smythii is on the east limb of the nearside. If the crew landed on Smythii and stayed there
long, they would find the Earth wandering very slowly above the horizon, similar to the above sketch.
NASA013
145
EVENT 2
Terminator
The terminator (明暗界線) is the border line between the illuminated and dark portions of the
Moon. It is the line of sunrise or sunset. At the morning terminator, the Sun is rising over that
part of the Moon; at the evening terminator, the Sun is setting. Precisely the terminator position
is specified by the Sun’s colongitude, which is same as the selenographic longitude of the
morning terminator, measured westwards from the 00 longitude of the Moon globe. Thus the
terminator position is colongitude 00 at first quarter, 900 at full moon, 1800 at last quarter and
2700 (= 900 E) at new moon. The public, however, are more often to mark the terminator in terms
of the age of the Moon or the fractional illumination k, see the following illustration.
The terminator always moves

westwards on the nearside
of the Moon, hence it rotates
anticlockwise if viewed from top
of the lunar south pole. However
Mosaic from various images, south is up and west is right. The top row (before full moon) the terminator rotation is not
gives the morning terminator; the bottom row (after full moon) gives the evening terminator. uniform. It may vary from about
Note that Moon age less than 2 days or greater than 27 days is very difficult to trace due to 29.3 to 29.8 calendar days for
0
close proximity to the Sun. Practically the Moon crescent is not visible if it is less than 7 from one revolution. The average is
the Sun. (Reference No. 19) 29.53059 days, generally known
as the Synodic Month 朔望月.
Moon
B
A C
Illumination (also called Phase)

k = AB / AC
0 % at exact new moon
50% at first or last quarter
100 % at full moon
The terminator moves quite slow at days close to full moon. This can be simulated by astronomy
software in the above diagram, which shows no terminator at exact full moon ( k = 100 % ), and
that the Moon remains “pretty full” ( k > 98 % ) in 63 hours.
146
Although the terminator moves slowly, it is possible to detect this movement with telescopes.
One observation through a 4-inch refractor at low power (image below) indicates that the
movement is barely distinguishable in interval as short as 10 minutes.
T041
The terminator produces many conspicuous views. The wrinkle ridges rely on the terminator to
reveal their profiles (e.g. Image T169 in Map 8). The craters and mountains cast intriguing
shadows as the terminator approaches them (figure below).
T036A
147
Terminator seen by Galileo spacecraft as it flew by the Moon
Below is a mosaic of 18 images from the spacecraft’s camera through a green filter on 1992 December 7, when the
Moon was 94 % full and with the illuminated portion approximately facing the Earth. The lunar north pole is on the outer
rim of crater Peary. This crater is 74 km in diameter and lies just inside the shadow zone next to crater Byrd. To a
terrestrial observer, Mare Humboldtianum is a difficult object on the northeast limb of the Moon but it is seen here at full
perspective. Note the bright ray from crater Geminus shining on the edge of Mare Humboldtianum. The shapes of
Mare Tranquillitatis, Mare Fecunditatis and Mare Crisium also change significantly from their usual impressions.
The broken line separates the nearside from the farside of the Moon. The morning terminator indicates the Sun is
rising over that part of the region. At the evening terminator, the Sun is setting. Because the Moon has no atmosphere,
there is no Earth-like twilight. The day and night transition over a lunar place occurs quite instantly. During daytime
0
(which lasts approximately 2 weeks by Earth calendar), the surface temperature can reach 130 C. During nighttime
(which also lasts approximately 2 weeks), the surface temperature drops to -1800C or even lower at the polar regions.
(Reprocessed from NASA image JPL-PIA00130)
NASA 008
Babbage Pythagoras
Aristarchus
Byrd North Pole
Anaxagoras Peary
Mare Plato
Imbrium
Meton
Copernicus
Hayn
Belkovich
Aristoteles Thales
Compton
Hercules
Endymion
Mare Fabry
Atlas
Humboldtianum
Posidonius
Menelaus
Geminus Gauss
Mare Cleomedes Joliot

Proclus Hubble
Tranquillitatis Plutarch
Mare Crisium Mare Marginis
Mare
Fecunditatis Mare Smythii
148
EVENT 3
Crescents
When the Moon is a crescent, its sky
T042
position is not far away from the Sun. The
Waxing Crescent (T042 left) indicates the
Moon phase (its illuminated surface) is
increasing. The Waning Crescent (T042
right) indicates the Moon phase is
decreasing.
Thin crescents often appear with
Earthshine 地照, as shown in T170 and
T094. It refers to a faint illumination of the
dark portion of the crescent, caused by
sunlight reflected from the Earth. Surface
features on a crescent photograph are likely
lack of contrast, because the reflection of
Earth shines on the crescent as well.
T170
Aristarchus
149
T094
T095
As seen in binoculars
150
EVENT 4
Eclipse and Occultation
A mosaic of the 2001 January 9 total lunar eclipse (月全蝕) is given in T044 where north is up
to simulate the view in binoculars. The color and brightness of the Moon did not change much in
the Earth’s penumbra (18:34 UT ). As the Moon entered the Earth’s umbra, its color changed
gradually and became dull red at eclipse maximum (20:21 UT). The brightness drop of the
eclipsed moon is indicated by the graph in next page. It also happened that the Moon almost
occulted Delta Geminorum (δ Gem, a 3.5-magnitude star) in this event, see image T045.
T044
Path of the Moon through Earth's shadows, 2001 January 9
Stage of Lunar 2001.01.09 Moon’s

Eclipse (UT) Altitude
P1 入半影 17:43 710
U1 初虧 18:42 580
E AST WEST
U2 食既 19:50 430 U3 Max U2
Max 食甚 20:21 360
U3 生光 20:52 290
U4 復圓 21:59 150 本影
P4 食終 22:58 30
半影
0 20 40 60 80
Arc Minutes
151
Brightness of the eclipsed Moon, 2001 January 9
The relative brightness is deduced by comparing the exposure readings of
different images captured by Casio QV2300 digital camera during the eclipse.
10000
5000 equivalent to change
3000 2000 of one stellar magnitude
1000
300
Relative 100
Brightness
of the Moon 30
10
1
Enters penumbra Enters umbra Fully in umbra Eclipse Max.
0.3 入半影初虧 (入本影) 蝕既蝕甚
17:30 18:00 18:30 19:00 19:30 20:00 20:30

2001.01.09 (Universal Time)
T045
152
This is another Total Lunar Eclipse, occurred on 2004 May 4 and observed in Hong Kong. When
the eclipse began, the sky was already overcastted for rain. Only this picture is available in the
full course of the event.
T067
Lunar and solar eclipse at the same time

While watchers on Earth see a lunar eclipse, P004
watchers on the Moon could experience a solar
eclipse as well. If the Moon passes through the
umbra (darkest portion) of the Earth’s shadow, the
total solar eclipse seen from the Moon can last up
to 1.7 hours, much longer than the duration of any
solar eclipse seen from the Earth.
Moon
Sun Earth
(Not to scale)
Earth’s shadow (umbra)
The left is a space painting by David A. Hardy,

which depicts an eclipse of the Sun by Earth as
seen from the Moon. From here the Earth looks
four times larger than the solar disc, hence the
corona (extremely hot ionized gas surrounding the
Sun) would not be seen. The Earth’s atmosphere
forms a ‘ring of fire’ as sunlight is refracted by it,
giving a typical coppery tint. The red glow is
caused by the “sunset” effect. The Moon also turns
red by the illumination of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Note that a simultaneous total lunar eclipse must
occur on Earth. That is why the eclipsed Moon in
Image T044 looks red.
Credit: David A. Hardly, http://www.astroart.org
153
Farside
3. Farside of the Moon
NASA 017
A. 石申
B. 張衡
C. 祖沖之
D. 郭守敬
E. 萬戶
Long. Lat. Dia.* Long. Lat. Dia.

Feature Name Feature Name
(deg.) (deg.) (km) (deg.) (deg.) (km)
Mare Crater
Mare Moscoviense 21 Campbell 坎貝爾 151 E 45 N 219
1 148 E 27 N ~270
(Moscow Sea) 莫斯科海 22 D’ Alembert 阿蘭伯特 164 E 51 N 248
2 Mare Orientale (Eastern Sea) 東海 95 W 20 S ~300 23 Birkhoff 伯克霍夫 146 W 59 N 345
3 Mare Australe (Southern Sea) 南海 91 E 46 S ~600 24 Landau 蘭道 118 W 42 N 214
4 Mare Marginis (Border Sea) 界海 88 E 12 N ~360 25 Lorentz 勞蘭斯 (勞倫斯) 95 W 33 N 312
5 Mare Ingenii (Sea of Ingenuity) 智海 163 E 37 S ~300 26 Giordano Bruno 左丹奴布魯諾 103 E 36 N 22 #
Crater 27 Fabry 法布里 101 E 43 N 184
6 Tsiolkovsky 齊奧爾科夫斯基 129 E 21 S 185 28 Compton 康普頓 104 E 55 N 182
7 Milne 米爾恩 112 E 31 S 272 29 Schwarzschild 史瓦西 121 E 70 N 212
8 Gagarin 加加林 149 E 22 S 265 30 Plaskett 普拉斯基特 174 E 82 N 109
9 Jules Verne 朱爾斯‧維恩 147 E 35 S 143 31 Jackson 杰克遜 163 W 22 N 71 #
10 Leibnitz 萊布尼茲 179 E 38 S 245 32 Mach 馬赫 149 W 18 N 180
11 Oppenheimer 奧本海默 166 W 35 S 208 33 Pasteur 巴士德 105 E 12 S 224
12 Apollo 阿波羅 152 W 36 S 537 34 Hilbert 希爾伯特 108 E 18 S 151
13 Von Kármán 卡曼 176 E 45 S 180 35 Fleming 費萊明 110 E 15 N 106
14 Poincaré 龐加萊 164 E 57 S 319 36 Joliot 約里奧 93 E 26 N 164
15 Schrödinger 施羅丁格爾 132 E 75 S 312 37 Curie 居里 91 E 23 S 151
16 Planck 普朗克 137 E 58 S 314 38 Zeeman 塞曼 134 W 75 S 190
17 Mendeleev 門捷列夫 141 E 6N 313 39 Rowland 勞蘭德 162W 57 N 171
18 Aitken 艾肯 173 E 17 S 135 Montes
19 Korolev 科羅列夫 157 W 4S 437 M1 Montes Cordillera 科迪勒拉山脈 80 W 20 S ~900
20 Hertzsprung 赫茨普隆 129 W 3N 590 ♦ M2 Montes Rook 盧克山脈 83 W 20 S ~600
* Diameter or longest dimension ♦ Largest crater on the entire Moon # Crater with bright rays Detail maps: http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/luna_ccsr.html
154
Compared to the nearside, the farside is more heavily cratered, contains few smaller maria and mascons (mass
concentrations).
The north pole lies on the outer rim of crater Peary 皮爾里. The south pole is on a depression, which is roughly 70 km
across and is so deep that sunlight probably never reaches there. The south pole is therefore a speculative cold area
0
where water ice could exist. Shoemaker 蘇梅克 is a 50-km crater just inside the dark south pole depression (45 E
0
88 S). It is named in year 2000 after the American astronomer and geologist Eugene M. Shoemaker (1928-1997).
Shoemaker, his wife Carolyn and his amateur colleague David H. Levy discovered the fragmented comet SL-9 which
subsequently collided on Jupiter during 1994 July 16-22. He is also one of the pioneers in crater counting technique.
The South Pole – Aitken 南極艾肯盆地 is an impact basin about 2300 km in diameter and 12 km deep. It is the
largest and oldest known impact basin in the solar system.
NASA 015
Goldschmidt
Anaxagoras
Byrd
Peary North Polar Region
N Pole
Plaskett
NASA 016
Zeeman
Schrödinger South Polar Region
S SPole
Pole
Newton
Casatus
Moretus
155
Features on the Farside of the Moon
1. Earthrise over crater Plaskett near the north pole: The Earth actually appeared about twice as far above the
lunar horizon as shown. Africa is clearly visible (Clementine image). 2. Oblique view of Mare Moscoviense:
This mare (Moscow Sea) is the most prominent feature on the farside, about 270 km in diameter. Tsu Chung-Chi
th
袓沖之 is a crater named after a Chinese mathematician in the 5 century, 28 km in diameter (Apollo 13 image).
3. Oblique view of Tsiolkovsky: A feature that appears partially crater and partially mare. The crater itself is fairly
circular, but its dark mare-like floor is distinctly not circular. The central peaks, terraced walls and slump blocks on
the inner rim of the crater are typical of many large impact craters (Apollo 15 image).
NASA 020
1 2
Mare Moscoviense
Tsu Chung-Chi 祖沖之
3
Peary
Tsiolkovsky
Plaskett
Earthrise over
Plaskett crater
156
There are 9 lunar craters named after Chinese, 4 on the nearside and 5 on the farside. See the full list below.
Lunar Features named after Chinese

Year Dia.* Long. Lat.
Feature Name Origin Where
Adopted (km) (deg.) (deg.)
Crater
Chang Heng 張衡 1970 43 112 E 19 N Astronomer, 78 - 139 North of Crater 35 (Fleming), Farside map.
Chang-Ngo 嫦娥 1976 3 2W 13 S Female in Chinese myth Inside Crater Alphonsus, Map 12.
#
Ching-Te 1976 4 30 E 20 N Male name South of Crater Littrow, Map 9.
Kao (Ping-Tse) 高平子 1982 34 88 E 7S Astronomer, 1888 - 1970 On the southern edge of Mare Smythii, Map 1.
Kuo Shou Ching 郭守敬 1970 34 134 W 8N Astronomer, 1231 - 1316 Northeast of Crater 20 (Hertzsprung), Farside map.
Shi Shen 石申 1970 43 104 E 76 N Astronomer, ~ 300 B.C. North of Crater 29 (Schwarzschild), Farside map.
#
Sung-Mei 1976 5 11 E 25 N Female name South of Crater Linné, Map 9.
Tsu Chung-Chi 袓沖之 1970 28 145 E 17 N Mathematician, 429 - 500 South of Mare Moscoviense, Farside map.
Wan-Hoo (Van-Gu) 萬戶 1970 52 139 W 10 S Inventor, ~ 1500 Southeast of Crater 20 (Hertzsprung), Farside map.
Rima
#
Rima Sung-Mei 1985 4 11 E 25 N Female name Immediate north of Crater Sung-Mei, Map 9.
#
Rima Wan-Yu 1976 12 31 W 20 N Female name Midway between Copernicus & Aristachus, Map 20.
#
Its names in native language is not yet ascertained. * Diameter or longest dimension
Shi Shen 石申 ~ 300 B.C. Wan-Hoo 萬戶 ~ 1500

戰國時代魏國人。他和楚國人甘德各自編過一本星表。兩者都是世界上最早的星據傳原是木匠，後在明朝軍營擔任兵器技藝的開發。他的姓
表，後人將石申編的資料歸納成《石氏星經》，此書已失，但唐朝《開元占經》名不詳，萬可能是一軍階的名謂。他曾把 47 枚火箭捆綁
輯錄了大量片斷內容。
《石氏星經》主要記錄了二十八宿距星和 121 顆恒星的赤道在自己的座椅上，並且手持風箏試圖飛天 (見下圖)，可惜
座標位置，可以說是中國古代天體測量工作的基礎。點火後火箭爆炸喪命。外國稱他是「最早乘搭火箭的人」。
Wan-Hoo’s attempt to fly on chair powered by 47 rockets.

Chang Heng 張衡 78 - 139
東漢西鄂人(今河南省南陽市北)，字平子。少年時代醉
心於文學，曾花十年時間，寫成《二京賦》，藉以諷諫
當時的奢侈。三十歲後開始從事天文科學技術的研究
工作。三十八歲由郎中遷任太史令，晚年任尚書。他
利用滴漏原理設計的「渾天儀」(公元 117 年)，是世界
上第一台用水力推動的大型星象演示儀器；他的「候
風地動儀」(公元 132 年)，是世界上第一架測定地震及
方位的儀器。他還制造出巧妙的指南車、自動記里鼓
車和飛行數里的木鳥。主要學術著作有《靈憲》、《渾
天儀注》
、《算罔論》等。張衡亦是東漢六大畫家之一。
Tsu Chung-Chi 袓沖之 429-500

南北朝时代南朝人。他把圓周率精確地推算到數值在
3.1415926 和 3.1415927 之間，比歐洲人的演算早一千一
百多年。他的數學專著《綴術》到唐朝時被定為學校
的課本。他根據自己長期觀測天象的结果，于 33 歲時
創制了《大明曆》，採用的一個回歸年的天數，跟現
代值只多出 54 秒；採用的一個交點月的天數，跟現代
值相差不到 1 秒。在《大明曆》中，祖沖之首次引入
了歲差，每隔 391 年設 144 個閏月。這些做法，都是
對前代曆法的重大改革。在制曆過程中，他發明了用
圭表測量冬至前後正午時日影長度以定冬至時刻的方
法，這個方法為後世長期採用。
Kuo Shou Ching 郭守敬 1231 - 1316 Kao (Ping-Tse) 高平子 1888 - 1970
元代河北邢台人，字若思，他在全國各地設立 27 個原叫高均，江蘇人，對張衡十分敬仰，故又名平子。他沒
觀測站進行大規模的天文和地理測量，最北遠至西伯有接受正規的天文教育，震旦學院畢業後入徐家天文台
利亞，最南的在西沙群島，並且首次運用海拔概念，及佘山天文台，隨法國神父從事太陽黑子、小行星及雙星
比歐洲的同樣概念早五百年；他的「招差術」，比牛的觀測，工餘自修天文。1924 年他代表中國接管由日本人
頓的内插法早四百年；他主持編成的《授時曆》，一霸佔的青島觀象台，1926 年參加國際經緯度的測定工作，
年的周期 (365.2425 天) 與現在的公曆相同。另外，他也曾主持編算天文年曆及協建南京紫金山天文台。抗日
他還創造和改進了十餘種天文儀器，包括著名的「簡時期避居上海租界研究中國古天文，1948 年遷居台灣。其
儀」、「量天尺」(巨型圭表)、「景符」及「窺幾」等。後發起創立台灣「中國天文學會」，連任幾屆理事長，著
同時，他又建造「元觀星台」。他主持的治水工程，作有《史日長編》、
《圭表測影論》等。1987 年台灣的中央
集防洪、灌溉、航運為一體。天文數學著作有十四種研究院數學研究所出版了《高平子天文曆學論著選》。
共 105 卷。
157
Shi-Shen 石申 ~300 B.C.
Shi-Shen was an astronomer and astrologist. He catalogued the equatorial positions of 121 stars in 28 Su (ancient Chinese
constellations). His catalogue, together with similar works of another Chinese observer Gan-Te, are supposed to be the
earliest star catalogue in the world. The original star catalogue by Shi-Shen was lost, but much of his works were
frequently quoted and preserved in Kaiyuan Zhanjing (Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Reign Period) compiled in the
8th century.
Chang Heng 張衡 78-139

Chang was interested in literature at youth and produced several works that brought him recognition as a writer. In his
early 30s, he decided to turn to astronomy. He was soon recognized as a scientist and entered government service at the
age of 38. Eventually he became chief astronomer and minister under the emperor. In year 123 Chang introduced a
calendar reform, which aligned the months again with the seasons. Chang's best known invention is a seismograph, or
more accurately a “seismoscope”, since it did not produce a graph of the earthquake but indicated in which direction it
occurred. He also invented a chariot that knew direction automatically and a wooden bird that could fly few thousand feet.
He had several papers in science, philosophy and literature. Chang also excelled in picture painting.
Tsu Chung-Chi 祖沖之 429-500

A mathematician and an astronomer. He determined Pi (π) between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, a thousand years ahead of
the European precision. At age 33, he proposed an improved calendar with one tropical year only 54 seconds longer than
today’s value, and a nodical month accurate to within 1 second. He also introduced the concept of “precession of the
equinoxes” in his calendar and suggested 144 extra-months (leap months) per 391 years for the season alignment scheme.
During calendar development, Tsu invented a method to time the accurate moment of winter solstice by measuring the
Sun’s shadow at noon on days near the solstice. This method remains to be a standard reference for many later years.
However, his calendar was not accepted by court until 10 years after his death.
Kuo Shou Ching 郭守敬 1231-1316

An astronomer and a senior government officer. He once conducted a large-scale land survey, north up to Siberia and
south up to the islands in southern China. His survey conveyed the concept of “the elevation above sea level” and the
mathematical method of “interpolation”, both being 400~500 years earlier than the European did. He developed a calendar
with one tropical year = 365.2425 days, almost as precise as today’s value. He invented or improved over 10 astronomical
instruments including a torquetum (see photo in http://www.perceptions.couk.com/kuo.html), sight tubes and a huge
gnomon for measuring the sun’s shadow with a device to read the shadow position effectively. He also built an
observatory and held credits in national projects of flood prevention, agriculture and navigation. He authored a variety of
scientific books in 105 volumes.
Wan-Hoo 萬戶 ~1500
Wan-Hoo is supposed a carpenter who later joined the army of the Ming Dynasty as a weapon builder and inventor.
Wan-Hoo may not be his real name but probably a term in the military rank. He attempted to fly by binding himself on a
47-rocket powered chair together with large kites. Unfortunately the rockets, being gun-powder fueled, exploded during
ignition. Wan-Hoo died in his attempt. He is credited to be “the first man to fly in rockets”.
Kao (Kao Ping-Tse) 高平子 1888-1970

Kao is one of the pioneer astronomers in the 20th century China. He didn't have a formal education in astronomy. He
picked up everything by himself. In his earlier career, Kao worked under two French observatories in Shanghai, major in
the observations of sunspots, asteroids and binary stars. In 1924, he represented the Chinese government to resume the
supervision of Qingdau Observatory (青島觀象台) which was once occupied by the Japanese. In 1926, He participated in
the international project of longitude-latitude survey. He had been an editor of astronomical almanac and also one of the
planners to establish the Purple Mountain Observatory in Nanjing of China. During World War II where no observations
were feasible, he resided in Shanghai to study the history of Chinese astronomy. In 1948 he moved to Taiwan. There he
founded the Taiwan-China Astronomical Society and was its president for some years. His papers in astronomical
measurements and calendar studies were published collectively in Taiwan in 1987.
(http://www.chinataiwan.org/web/webportal/W2001315/A2015706.html)
Chang-Ngo 嫦娥
A lady in an ancient Chinese myth. She stole her husband’s long-life elixir
and swallowed it, but the elixir made her flying to the Moon and never
back to Earth.
Ching-Te, Sung-Mei and Wan-Yu

The author of this book is puzzled by these Chinese names. Their names
in native language are not yet ascertained.
A poem on the myth of Chang-Ngo,

by Li Shang-Yin (813 - 858)
158
Moon Landing
4. Moon Landing Map
Trajectory of Apollo 11 is given in

http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/nojs/flighpath/a11.steps.html
Date of Date of
Spacecraft Results Spacecraft Results
Landing Landing
Luna Probes (former USSR) Apollo Missions (USA)
Luna 2 1959.09.13 Hit moon in Palus Putredinis First manned landing on 23.50 E 0.70 N,
Apollo 11 1969.07.20
Luna 9 1966.02.03 Soft-landed in Oceanus Procellarum Map 8. Collected 21 kg rock/soil samples.
Luna 13 1966.12.24 Soft-landed in Oceanus Procellarum Landed on 23.40 W 3.00 S, Map 20.
Apollo 12 1969.11.19
Luna 16 1970.09.20 Returned 100 g soil from M. Fecunditatis Collected 34 kg rock/soil samples.
Luna 17 1970.11.17 Landed one rover in Mare Imbrium Landed on 17.50 W 3.60 S, Map12.
Apollo 14 1971.01.31
Luna 20 1972.02.21 Returned 30g soil from Crisium highlands Collected 42 kg rock/soil samples.
Luna 21 1973.01.15 Landed one rover in Mare Serenitatis Landed on 3.60 E 26.10 N, Map 14.
Apollo 15 1971.07.30
Luna 24 1776.08.18 Returned 170 g soil from Mare Crisium Collected 76 kg rock/soil samples.
Landed on 15.50 E 9.00 S, Map 31.
Apollo 16 1972.04.21
Surveyor Probes (USA) Collected 94 kg rock/soil samples.
Surveyor 1 1966.06.02 Soft -landed in Oc. Procellarum (11,000) Landed on 30.80 E 20.20 N, Map 9.
Apollo 17 1972.12.11
Tested soil in Mare Insularum (6300), Collected 110 kg rock/soil samples.
Surveyor 3 1967.04.20
later visited by Apollo 12 astronauts.
Figures in brackets indicate the approximate number of photographs
Surveyor 5 1967.09.11 Tested soil in Mare Tranquillitatis (18,000)
transmitted to Earth. Depending on reference map used, the exact
Surveyor 6 1967.11.10 Tested soil in Sinus Medii (30,000)
landing sites of Apollo may differ slightly from the given coordinates.
Surveyor 7 1968.01.10 Tested soil near crater Tycho (21,000)
159
Methods
5. Methods of Imaging
The author of this book applied two methods to image the Moon ⎯ the “afocal” method and the
“video” method.
5.1 Afocal Method
Figure 5.1 - Afocal Method
f1 f2 f3
CCD
Eyepiece
Objective
Camera lens
Effective Focal Length = (f1 / f2) x f3
(Not to scale)
This is implemented by coupling a digital camera to the telescope’s eyepiece, Figure 5.1. The
camera’s focus mechanism is fixed at infinity (hence the term “afocal”). Actual focusing is
adjusted on the telescope while watching the camera LCD screen.
The effective focal length of an afocal system is equal to the telescope magnification times the
focal length of the camera’s front lens.
Example
Telescope focal length, f1 = 1040 mm
Eyepiece focal length, f2 = 12.5 mm
Telescope magnification = f1 / f2 = 1040 / 12.5 = 83
Camera lens focal length, f3 = 24 mm
Effective focal length for afocal imaging = (f1 / f2) x f3 = 83 x 24 ≈ 2000 mm
The frame FOV (field of view) is equal to the FOV of the camera lens divided by telescope
magnification. If the FOV of the camera lens is 17 x 13 degrees (which can be estimated from its
specifications), then following the above example, the frame FOV will be 12 x 9 arcmin. This
covers about 1/3 ~ 1/4 diameter of the Moon disk.
The afocal method is very flexible while image quality is highly promising. Changing the
eyepiece, zooming the camera lens and/or using telescopes of different sizes virtually satisfy all
needs of wide-field and close-up images of the Moon. However, there is an upper limit of
telescope magnification. Under average seeing, the author controls the telescope magnification
not to exceed 25X per inch aperture. 40X per inch is used only at very good seeing.
160
The telescopes used depend on instant availability; they are shown in Figure 5.3. The digital
camera used are 3X optical zoom type, including Casio QV2300 (2M-pixels), Nikon Coolpix-950
(2M pixels) and Coolpix-99x (3M pixels); these cameras incorporate CCD of pixel size = 3.45
µm square. Knowing the pixel size is more affirmative to determine the resolution of a CCD
imaging system.
Typically a raw image from any digital camera looks flat. It can be enhanced in single-frame
with the editing software “Photoshop”.
Figure 5.2 - FS102 Refractor on EM2 Mount Figure 5.3 - Telescopes Used for Afocal Imaging
The early works of the author used this portable setup.
5.2 Video Method Figure 5.4 - Video Method
The default setup of this method is illustrated in

Figure 5.4. It includes a 10-inch (254 mm) f/6
Newtonian reflector in which the prime mirror
was produced by the specialist Robert F. Royce
(http://www.rfroyce.com/), a 2.5X Barlow lens, a
webcam with its original lens removed and a PC
that controls the webcam exposure. The webcam
is Philips ToUcam Pro. It incorporates a 3.58 x
2.69 mm CCD chip (640 x 480 pixels, each pixel
= 5.6 µm square), allowing video frames to be
captured at shutter speed 1/25 to 1/1000 sec and
beyond. The whole setup is quite powerful for
high magnification works, for the shutter can be
set at higher speed to compensate the jittering of
images, and the overall resolution can reach 3.3
pixels per arcsecond of the imaged object. Each
161
frame covers a FOV of 3.2 x 2.4 arcmin or roughly 1/10 of a lunar diameter at 2.5X Barlow. In
theory this 10-inch telescope resolves round objects to 0.45 arcsecond or lunar craters as small as
800 m in diameter. Linear objects like clefts can be detected to 400 m or less in width, subject to
their contrast and seeing.
← Clip this icon to play a ToUcam video ← Clip this icon to play a ToUcam video
at 640 x 480 pixels per frame, 10 frames that gives image T031 in MAP 22. Note
per second. It produces Image T064 in the dust at the frame corner, which was
Figure 5.7. (CD-version only) software-removed afterwards.
After video, the sharper raw frames are extracted and stacked with the freeware “Registax”
(http://registax.astronomy.net/). Stacking is a technique to reduce image noise inherent in CCD.
Registax can sort out the sharper frames automatically while the user determines by preference
the number of frames stacked. No more than 100 frames should be stacked, for too-much leads
to loss of image details. In general, good seeing allows less stacking (e.g. 10 frames) and bad
seeing requires more stacking (e.g. 60 frames). Registax also provides a sharpening tool, so
called the wavelet layers where image sharpness is adjustable on individual layers. However, the
author prefers to enhance the image by “Photoshop” whereas the wavelets serve as ancillary tool.
The guidelines to manipulate ToUcam and Registax are described in References No. 17. Note
that this method, though superior, may take several minutes to convert a video clip to final image.
A high-speed PC is preferred to run Registax.
Figure 5.5 - The 10-inch f/6 Newtonian
Figure 5.5 shows the full view of the 10-inch f/6

Newtonian, equipped with a Barlow lens and a
motorized focuser. When seeing is good, a 4X or
even a 5X Barlow lens is used instead of the 2.5X.
The 4X is supposed an optimal choice according to
Nyquist sampling theory. At 4X, the effective focal
length of the Newtonian is 240 inches or 6100 mm.
A lunar feature of angular size equals to the
telescope’s resolution (i.e. 0.45 arcsecond) thus
projects an image length = 6100 sin-1 (0.45 / 3600)
= 13 µm at the focal plane. This covers
approximately two pixels on each side of the CCD
chip in ToUcam --- a fitted Nyquist sampling.
However the 4X is not always useable due to
unfavorable seeing.
The choice of afocal or video method is a matter of FOV and seeing consideration. For instance
in Figure 5.6, a wide field like T117A is obtained with the afocal method. High magnification
like T118 in Figure 5.7 is obtained with the video method. Figure 5.8 is an attempt of using high
magnification during bad seeing; it is an experiment and is not intended as a regular work.
162
Figure 5.6 - Moon imaging by afocal method
Right: Raw frame, taken with FS102 (4-inch f/8) refractor

+ Ortho 25 mm eyepiece + QV2300 digital camera.
The original frame is 1600 x 1200 pixels. Here it is
down sized and cropped to show only the Moon
disk portion.
Below: Processed image, sharpened and color enhanced

with Photoshop software. It is found that digital
camera at color mode is slightly noisier and less
pleasing than black and white mode; hence most
lunar images taken by the author of this book are
intrinsically B&W.
T139
163
Figure 5.6 - Moon imaging by afocal method (continued)
T117A
Left: Digital camera

coupled to 5-inch
(128mm) f/8 refractor
+ 24 mm eyepiece.
Below: Digital camera

coupled to 7 x 50
finderscope with
cross-hair removed.
T066
T014
Right: Digital camera coupled to 9.25-inch (235mm)

f/10 Schmidt-Cassegrain + 7.5 mm eyepiece.
164
Figure 5.7 - Moon imaging by video method
Top: from 10-inch (254 mm) f / 6 Newtonian + 2.5X Barlow lens (effective f / 15).
Bottom: from same Newtonian + 2.5X + 1.6X Barlow lenses (effective f / 24).
T064
50 km Age 10 days
T118
50 km
165
Figure 5.8 – An attempt of high-magnification video during bad seeing.
The figure shows the quality fluctuation of raw frames in a 21-second video during a bad seeing night. The setup was
10-in f/6 Newtonian + 2.5X + 1.6X (cascaded Barlow lenses) + ToUcam. It produced a high-magnified image which was
somewhat excessive against the seeing. About 60 frames of the video were selected and stacked with Registax, then
combined with an image of another similar video to form the mosaic T196 in Map 21. To the author, the sharpness of
T196 at this magnification is acceptable, but of course it would be nicer if the seeing were good.
Note that the video is deliberately underexposed; normal exposure will cause the dark bands totally washed out in the
brightness of the crater walls.
166
5.3 Other Considerations
It should be noted that the brightness of the Moon changes significantly with its age in a lunation.
This implies that when shooting the Moon, a wide range of camera shutter speed is required.
Typically the shutter speed is a fraction of a second at crescent to about 1/400 second at full
moon. If the frame contains very bright and very dark features simultaneously (such as Figure
5.8), the exposure is compromised by trials. Today’s technology makes exposure rather easy,
because the trials can be judged from the digital camera or PC screen any time.
A second consideration is precise focusing. In close-up images taken by the video method (the
setup in Figure 5.5), a motorized focuser has been found extremely useful. It also avoids
telescope vibration as focusing is made.
5.4 Environment and Image Archives

All lunar images in this book and taken by the author are traceable from the data given in
Appendix 1. The images were taken mostly in City One Shatin of Hong Kong where the author’s
observing site is located. The night sky above the site is heavily light-polluted, and there are
hundreds of air conditioners in the windows of the neighbor buildings. The site is also blocked in
the east direction, hence much of the imaging were done in phases before the last quarter. To
minimize the effect of air turbulences, sometimes imaging works were waited until the Moon
altitude exceeded 40 degrees.
In Appendix 1, the Moon Age column is expressed in rounded number, e.g. 15 meaning the age is
between 15.0 to 15.9 days. The Equipment Used are abbreviated, e.g. FS102 + K25 + QV2300 =
Takahashi FS102 refractor with Kellner 25mm eyepiece and Casio QV2300 digital camera. All
digital cameras are set to ~ISO100 and full resolution for maximum available pixels. When the
ToUcam was used, not all video clips were archived; only the stack of raw frames were saved.
Figure 5.9 - The Night Sky

A light-polluted sky like this is disappointing to explore deep sky
objects but still manageable for lunar (and planetary) observations.
167
Appendix 1
Data of Lunar Images
The following data apply to lunar images taken by the author; each image is identified by a “T” code at the frame corner.
Image Code Date & Time (UT) Moon Age Equipment Used Exposure (sec) Raw Image
T001, A, B 2000.09.13 14:39 15 days FS102 + K25 + QV2300 1/265 QV2300-20000913-0072
T002, A 2000.04.20 17:52 15 FS102 + LE5 + CP950 1/3 CP950-DSCN 1589
T003 2000.09.15 15:25 16 MK67 + PL16 + CP950 1/11 CP950-DSCN 4013
T004 2002.01.01 15:59 17 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/8 CP990-DSCN 0289
T005 2000.06.15 16:28 13 FS102 + LE7.5 + CP950 1/21 CP950-DSCN 2989
T006, A 2000.09.15 15:52 17 MK67 + K25 + CP950 1/42 CP950-DSCN 3997
T007 2000.04.20 17:58 15 FS102 + LE5 + CP950 1/4 CP950-DSCN 1591
T008, A, C 2000.11.02 12:14 6 FS128 + LE12.5 + QV2300 1/6 QV2300-20001102-0044
T009, A 2001.05.12 18:20 19 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 ? CP990-DSCN 9080
T010, A 2004.06.26 14:54 9 10-in f/6 + ToUcam at prime focus 1/100 38 frames stacked
T011 2000.11.02 12:38 6 FS128 + LE7.5 + QV2300 1/2 QV2300-20001102-0058
T012 2004.12.17 10:43 5 10-in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/50 68 frames stacked
T014 2001.08.11 20:42 22 C9 + LE7.5 + CP990 ? CP990-DSCN 9642
T014A 2002.12.15 ? 11 ToUcam single frame ?
T015 2000.11.05 13:35 9 FS128 + LE12.5 + QV2300 1/10 QV2300-20001105-0018
T016, A, B 2000.11.05 13:38 9 FS128 + LE12.5 + QV2300 1/8 QV2300-20001105-0020
T017 2001.09.25 12:49 8 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/2 CP990-DSCN 9797
T018 2001.01.06 15:17 11 FS102 + LE7.5 + QV2300 1/8 QV2300-20010106-0041
T019 2000.11.05 13:58 9 FS128 + LE12.5 + QV2300 1/8 QV2300-20001105-0029
T020 2001.09.25 12:57 8 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/4 CP990-DSCN 9804
T021 2004.09.05 ~21:31 21 10-in f/6 +2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/25 Stacked from 2 video clips
T022 2001.11.23 13:57 8 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/3 CP990-DSCN 9997
T023 2004.09.25 14:10 11 10 in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/50 16 frames stacked
T024, A, B 2002.08.21 14:40 12 FS128 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/28 CP990-DSCN 5490
T025 2002.12.14 16:40 10 C9 + Or25 + CP990 1/4 CP990-DSCN 5832
T026 2002.12.16 14:02 12 10-in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 2 frames stacked
T027, A 2002.11.14 14:58 9 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/7 CP990-DSCN 5818
T028, A, B 2000.09.12 15:34 14 MK67 + PL16 + QV2300 1/10 ?
T029 2004.07.13 21:43 26 FS102 + LE12.5 + CP990 (Venus) CP990-DSCN 9022 + 9029
T032 2002.06.21 13:30 10 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/3 CP990-DSCN 4483 (lost)
T034 2000.06.15 14:36 13 ETX90 + PL16 + CP950 1/15 CP950-DSCN 2964
T036 2001.07.03 18:03 12 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/15 CP990-DSCN 9554
T037 2005.01.22 15:23 12 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/25 68 frames stacked
T039 2005.01.22 ~15:17 12 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/25 Mosaic of 2 video clips
2000.04.20 18:26 15 FS102 + K25 + CP950 1/322 CP950-DSCN 1596
T040, A
2001.10.02 19:06 15 Kenko 8cm f/8 + Or18 + CP990 1/140 CP990-DSCN 9823
2000.04.20 18:26 16 FS102 + K25 + CP950 1/322 CP950-DSCN 1596
T041, A
2000.04.20 18:35 16 FS102 + K25 + CP950 1/322 CP950-DSCN 1604
2000.05.07 12:25 3 7x50 finderscope + CP950 at 3X 1/4 CP950-DSCN 1958
T042
2000.07.28 21:26 27 FS102 + K25 + CP950 1/7 CP950-DSCN 3399
T043 2001.04.03 10:08 9 FS128 + LE12.5 + CP990 ? CP990-DSCN 8764
T044 2001.01.09 total lunar eclipse FS102 + Or25 + QV2300 Mosaic from a batch of images
T045 2001.01.09 total lunar eclipse FS102 + Or25 + QV2300 Mosaic from a batch of images
T046 2000.12.07 14:16 11 ? 1/8 QV2300-20001207-0002
T047 2000.05.15 14:15 11 FS102 + LE12.5 + CP950 1/40 CP950-DSCN 2350
T048A - F 2003.09.11 16:11 15 FS128 + PL25 + CP995 1/416 CP995-DSCN 9883
T049 2004.10.21 ~14:23 8 10-in f/6 + ToUcam at prime focus 1/100 Mosaic of 2 video clips
2000.09.15 15:52 17 MK67 + K25 + CP950 1/42 CP950-DSCN 3997
T050
2000.02.11 13:24 6 FS102 + PL6.7 + CP950 1/30 CP950-DSCN 0060
T051 2000.09.15 16:26 17 MK67 + PL16 + CP950 1/9 CP950-DSCN 4015
T053 2000.11.05 13:50 8 FS128 + LE12.5 + QV2300 1/8 QV2300-20001105-0024
T054 2001.08,11 20:21 21 C9 + LE12.5 + CP990 ? CP990-DSCN 9622
T056, A - E 2001.09.22 11:27 5 Kenko 8cm f/8 + Or18 + CP990 1/8 CP990-DSCN 9724
T058 2005.01.22 ~15:38 12 10-in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/50 Mosaic of 2 video clips
T062 2004.04.30 14:05 11 10-in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/33 19 frames, cropped, 2X resized.
T066 2004.05.31 12:37 12 7x50 finderscope + CP995 at 4X 1/85 CP995-DSCN0120
T067 2004.05.04 total lunar eclipse FS128 + PL25 + CP995 CP995-DSCN0035, DSCN0038
168
T078, A 2000.11.05 13:22 9 FS128 + Or25 + QV2300 1/74 QV2300-20001105-0016
T081, A 2004.06.26 15:08 9 10-in f/6 + ToUcam at prime focus 1/100 13 frames stacked
T082 2004.06.26 15:03 9 10-in f/6 + ToUcam at prime focus 1/100 16 frames stacked
T085 2004.06.27 13:35 10 10-in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/50 Single frame (No. 7)
T086 2004.06.27 13:16 10 10-in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/33 Single frames (No. 50)
T091 2004.09.05 ~21:43 21 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X +ToUcam 1/25 Mosaic of 2 video clips
T093 2004.09.05 ~20:12 21 10-in f/6 + 5X + ToUcam 1/25 Stacked from 3 video clips
T094 2004.07.13 20:42 26 FS102 + PL25 + CP990 1 sec CP990-DSCN 8992 (2)
2004.07.13 20:57 26 FS102 + PL25 + CP990 1/60 CP990-DSCN 9000 (2)
T095
2004.07.13 21:07 26 FS102 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/8 CP990-DSCN 9005 (2)
T097 2004.09.20 11:55 6 10 in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/33 39 frames stacked
T098 2001.08.11 21:01 22 C9 + LE7.5 + CP990 ? CP990-DSCN 9648
T102 2004.08.01 14:22 15 FS128 + LE12.5 + CP990 1/38 CP990-DSCN 9081 (2)
T116, A 2004.10.28 ~14:09 15 10 in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/100 Mosaic of 2 video clips
T117, A - C 2004.08.07 19:04 22 FS128 + LE24 + CP990 1/30 CP990-DSCN 9131 (2)
T118, A 2004.08.07 21:31 22 10-in f/6 Royce + 4X + ToUcam 1/33 14 frames stacked
T119 2004.08.07 ~20:38 22 10-in f/6 Royce + 5X + ToUcam 1/25 ~50 frames stacked from 5 video clips
T121 2004.09.05 21:34 21 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X ToUcam 1/25 88 frames stacked
T122 2004.08.31 19:07 15 10-in f/6 + ToUcam + IR Blocker 1/500 12 frames stacked
T125A 2004.09.05 21:37 21 10 in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/25 88 frames stacked
T127 2004.08.31 19:18 15 10-in f/6 + ToUcam + IR Blocker 1/500 16 frames stacked
T130 2004.09.05 ~20:53 21 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X ToUcam 1/25 Mosaic of 6 video clips
T131 2004.09.05 ~21:15 21 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X ToUcam 1/25 Mosaic of 2 video clips
T135 2004.09.05 20:46 21 10-in f/6 + 5X + ToUcam 1/25 90 frames stacked
T138 2004.09.04 21:26 20 12.5-in f/6 + 4X + modified ToUcam Mosaic of 5 video clips
T139 2002.06.24 16:20 14 FS102 + Or25 + QV2300 1/500 QV2300-200206250001
T140 2004.12.17 ~11:28 5 10 in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/50 Mosaic of 3 video clips
169
T144 2004.09.20 ~11:47 6 10 in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/33 Mosaic of 3 video clips
T170, A 2002.08.13 ~12:00 4 FS102 + Or25 + CP990 CP990-DSCN4967 + 5021
T173 2004.09.05 20:27 21 10 in f/6 Royce + 5X + ToUcam 1/25 67 frames stacked
T176 2004.10.21 14:28 8 10 in f/6 + ToUcam at prime focus 1/250 38 frames stacked
T184 2004.11:25 14:50 13 10 in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/100 64 frames stacked
T186 2004.12.17 ~10:54 5 10 in f/6 Royce + 2.5X + ToUcam 1/50 Stack of 4 video clips
T194 2005.01.19 12:18 9 10 in f/6 Royce + 5X + ToUcam 1/25 88 frames stacked
T195 2005.01.22 ~15:05 12 10 in f/6 + 2.5X + 1.6X + ToUcam 1/25 Mosaic of a batch of video clips
170
Appendix 2
Data of the Moon
Equatorial diameter 赤道直徑 3476 km (0.272 of Earth’s diameter)
Polar diameter 極直徑 Nearly same as equatorial
Mean angular diameter 平均角直徑 31’ 05’’ (geocentric 從地心計), 31’37” (topocentric 從地面計)
Variation of angular diameter 角直徑的變化 29’ 23’’ to 33’ 31’’ (geocentric)
Axial rotation period 自轉周期 27.32166 days (= sidereal month)
22
Mass 質量 7.35 x 10 kg (1/81 of Earth’s Mass)
3
Mean density 平均密度 3.34 g / cm (0.6 of Earth’s density)
2
Surface gravity 表面引力 1.62 m / sec (1/6 of Earth’s Gravity)
Escape velocity 脫離速度 2.38 km / sec
0 0
Surface temperature 表面溫度 Approx. 130 C at day to -180 C at night
Albedo 反照率 0.12
Mean visual magnitude 平均目視星等 −12.7 (full moon)
Average thickness of crust 平均地殼厚度 Approx. 60 km (nearside), 90 km (farside)
Surface magnetic field 表面磁場 Almost undetectable
Mean distance from Earth 月地平均距離 384 401 km (30 times Earth diameter)
Increase of mean distance from Earth 月地平均距離增加率 3.8 cm per year
Mean of apogee (greatest distance from Earth) 遠地點平均距離 405 500 km (406 712 km on 1984 March 2)
Mean of perigee (closest distance from Earth) 近地點平均距離 363 300 km (356 375 km on 1912 January 4)
Period of revolution of perigee 近地點移行周期 3232 days (8.849 years)
Orbital eccentricity 軌道偏心率 0.055 (variable 0.026 ~ 0.077), Note 1.

0 0 0
Inclination of lunar equator to orbit 月球赤道與白道交角 6.68 (oscillating between 6.48 ~ 6.85 )
0 0 0
Inclination of orbit to ecliptic 白道與黃道交角 5.15 (oscillating between 4.98 ~ 5.30 every 173 days), Note 2.
0
Inclination of lunar equator to ecliptic 月球赤道與黃道交角 1.53
Mean orbital velocity 平均軌道速度 1.023 km / sec
0 0 0
Mean sidereal motion 平均月移行 13.18 per day (moving eastward, variable 12 ~ 15 per day )
Mean value of lunar month:

Sidereal month (orbital period) 恒星月 27.32166 days
Synodic month (new moon to new moon) 朔望月 29.53059 days (variable 29.27 ~ 29.83 days), Note 3.
Anomalistic month (perigee to perigee) 近點月 27.55455 days
Tropical month (equinox to equinox) 分至月 27.32158 days
Draconic month (node to node) 交點月 27.21222 days
0
Regression of nodes 交點退行 19.34 per year (period = 18.61 years), Note 4.
Earth-Moon Lagrangian points 拉格朗日點(地月系統) Note 5
Libration of the Moon 月球天平動 (Reference No. 12 & 15)

Longitudinal 經天平動 Latitudinal 緯天平動
Optical libration 光學天平動
0 0
Displacement (selenocentric) 從月心位移 ± 7.88 ± 6.85
Period approximately one sidereal month
Physical libration 物理天平動
Displacement (selenocentric) 從月心位移 ± 66’’ ± 105’’
Period 1 year 6 years
Surface area of Moon visible from Earth 59 % maximum
Geologic History of the Moon 月球進化紀年 (Reference No.13)

Time Name of
9 Marking events
(10 years ago) Period
4.54 accretion of the Moon
4.6 - 4.4 accretion & melting, magma ocean
4.4 - 4.2 Pre-Nectarian cooling, crust formation
4.2 - 3.9 Nectarian intense bombardment, impact basins, highlands
3.9 - 3.2 Imbrian volcanism, mare basalt formation
3.2 - 0.9 Eratosthenian continuing but less intense bombardment
0.9 - present Copernian crater & regolith formation
(Not to scale)
The perigee (and apogee) of the lunar
orbit revolves in a period of 8.849 years.
171
Note 1:
According to Jean Meeus (Reference No. 15), the instantaneous eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit can vary
between the extremes 0.026 and 0.077. Eccentricity maximum occurs at position H of the following
diagram, where the apogee and perigee line up towards the Sun. Eccentricity minimum occurs 103 days
later at position J, where the apogee and perigee are perpendicular to the Sun-Earth line. A new
eccentricity maximum is reached again after 103 days at position K. This change of eccentricity, together
with the oscillation of orbital inclination, make the synodic month to vary also from its mean value.
a
Moon’s orbit
Eccentricity Max. H Earth
p
p = perigee 近地點
a = apogee 遠地點
a 103 days
Sun
Eccentricity Min. J (Not to scale)
103 days
a
p
K Eccentricity Max.
p
Note 2:
Because the ecliptic inclines at 23.440 to the celestial equator, the Moon’s declination (赤緯) shall vary up
to 23.440 + 5.300 = 28.740 north or south of the celestial equator.
Note 3:
The relationship between synodic month and sidereal month is theoretically given by
1 / synodic month = 1 / sidereal month − 1 / sidereal year, i.e.
1/ 29.53059 days = 1 / 27.32166 days − 1 / 365.25636 days
Note 4:
The regression of the Moon’s nodes, together with the Sun’s gravity on the Earth’s equatorial bulge,
cause a periodic oscillation of the Earth’s pole about its mean position and hence a similar variation in the
celestial positions of stars. The main oscillation has an amplitude of about 9 arcseconds and a period
equal to the regression of the Moon’s nodes (18.61 years). This periodic oscillation of the Earth’s pole is
termed Nutation 章動.
Note 5:
The Lagrangian points refer to 5 points L1 L2 L3 L4 and L5 on the orbital plane of the Earth-Moon
System. L1 L2 and L3 are points of quasi-equilibrium. That is, a small perturbation will cause an object
in these points to drift away. The L4 and L5 are points of stable equilibrium.
L4
Let E = Center of the Earth
M = Center of the Moon 60
0
O = Center of mass
d = Earth-Moon distance
(i.e. EM ≈ 384,000 km)
0
60
Then EO ≈ 0.012 d ≈ 4,600 km L3
E O L1 L2
ML1 ≈ 0.16 d ≈ 62,000 km 60
0
M
ML2 ≈ 0.16 d ≈ 62,000 km
EL3 ≈ d ≈ 384,000 km
EL4 = ML4 = d ≈ 384,000 km (Not to scale) 60
0
EL5 = ML5 = d ≈ 384,000 km

L5
172
Appendix 3
Glossary
Accretion 吸積 The increase of mass of a body by the accumulation of smaller objects that collide and stick to it.
Age of the Moon 月齡 The period that has elapsed since the last new moon. It starts at “zero” day (exact new moon).
Albedo 反照率 A measure of the reflectivity of a surface. The albedo of lunar mare is 6 % typical while highland is 17 %.
Anorthosite 斜長岩 The light-colored rock from lunar highlands, rich in silicon, calcium and aluminum.
Apogee 遠地點 The farthest point on the Moon’s orbit from the Earth.
Apollo Missions 阿波羅登月任務 The American NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) program to land
humans on the Moon. The first manned landing is Apollo 11 (1969 July 20), and the last is Apollo 17 (1972
Dec 11). Apollo 13 (1970 April) aborted in the 3rd day of the mission.
Basalt 玄武岩 Igneous rock formed from solidified lava or magma. The basalt sampled in lunar maria is dark-colored and is
enriched by heavy metals like iron, manganese and titanium.
Breccia 角礫岩 Rock consists of two or more types cemented together. On the Moon, it is produced by heat and pressure of
meteorite impacts.
Catena 環形山串 Latin for chain of relatively small craters (plural: catenae).
Center of Mass 質心 The point in a system of bodies (e.g. Earth-Moon) which acts as if all the mass were concentrated there.
Colongitude 餘經度 A measure of the Sun’s relative position. On the Moon, it is same as the selenographic longitude of the
morning terminator, measured westwards from the disc center. Thus its value is 00 at first quarter, 900 at full
moon, 1800 at last quarter & 2700 at new moon. (Remark: At the morning terminator, the Sun is rising over that
part of the Moon; at the evening terminator, it is setting.)
Crater 環形山 A generic term for bowl-shaped depression on surface, such as ring mountain and walled plain. A ring mountain
looks smaller in diameter but deeper than a walled plain. Craters are of either impact or volcanic origin.
Crescent 娥眉月 The phase of the Moon when it is less than half illuminated as seen from the Earth.
Crust 地殼 The outermost solid layer of a planet or satellite.
Dark Mantle Deposits 暗地幔澱積物 Deposits of dark glass-like mixture on the Moon’s surface, possibly formed from
droplets of a nearby volcanic fountain.
Diurnal 周日的 Happening daily.
Domes 拱形小山 / 拱形山 Low rounded hill formation. They appear to have been formed by volcanic activities.
Dorsum 皺脊 (plural: dorsa) Latin for wrinkle ridge. Long narrow rising feature on the mare floor, resulted from surface
shrinkage and collapse following the cease of volcanism.
Earthshine 地照 / 地球照 The faint illumination on the dark part of a crescent, caused by sunlight reflected from the Earth.
Eccentricity 偏心率 A measure of how far an orbit diverges from a circle. The lunar orbit is nearly circular, with eccentricity
averaged at 0.055.
Ecliptic 黃道 The plane of the Earth’s orbit on the celestial sphere (the apparent path of the Sun against the star background).
Ejecta 噴出物 Material thrown out from an explosive event, such as a crater-forming impact or volcanic eruption.
Ejecta Blanket 噴出覆蓋物 The area immediately outside the rim of an impact crater where the ejecta has completely covered
the underlying terrain.
Elongation 距角 The angle between the Sun and a body in the solar system (e.g. the Moon), as seen from Earth.
Farside of the Moon 月背面 The side of the Moon facing away from the Earth.
First Quarter 上弦 The phase of the Moon that occurs midway between new and full moon, when half of the Moon is
illuminated. At first quarter, the Moon has moved 1/4 of its orbit around the Earth and lies 900 east of the Sun.
Full Moon 滿月 / 望 The phase of the Moon when it is fully illuminated and 1800 away from the Sun, as seen from the Earth.
Ghost Crater 假環形山 The bare hint of a crater formation that has been destroyed by some later action.
Giant Impact Theory 大碰撞論 A theory for the origin of the Moon from impact debris when a Mars-sized proto-planet
collided with the proto-Earth in about 4.6 billion years ago, developed after the Apollo Missions.
Gibbous Moon 凸月 The phase of the Moon when it is between half and fully illuminated.
Harvest Moon 穫月 The full moon closest to the autumnal equinox when it rises at minimum delay time in successive days.
Highlands 高地 Raised areas on the Moon, light-colored, heavily cratered and chemically distinct from the maria.
Illumination 照度 A measure of moon phase, equal to the ratio of illuminated area to the total area of the Moon disk. New
moon gives Illumination = 0 %, full moon gives 100 %.
Impact Basin 隕擊盆地 A vast depressed surface (several hundred km or larger in diameter) caused by colossal impactors. A
smaller impact basin is often termed impact crater while lava-filled area within the basin is termed mare.
Impact Crater 隕擊環形山 / 隕擊坑 A depressed surface caused by high-speed impactors such as a meteoroid, asteroid, or
comet. Newly formed impact craters have central peaks and terracing on their inner walls.
Igneous 火成的 Referring to processes that involve the formation and solidification of hot, molten magma or lava.
KREEP 克里普岩 A type of igneous rock in lunar highlands, rich in potassium (chemical symbol K), rare-earth elements
(REE), phosphorus (P) as well as other radioactive elements.
Lacus 湖 Latin for lake. A “small version” of lunar mare.
Lagrangian Points 拉格朗日點 Five locations in space where a small body (e.g. artificial satellite) can remain in equilibrium
despite the gravitational influence of two massive bodies (e.g. Earth & Moon).
Last Quarter 下弦 The phase of the Moon that occurs midway between full and new moon, when half of the Moon is
illuminated. At last quarter, the Moon has moved 3/4 of its orbit around the Earth and lies 900 west of the Sun.
173
Libration 天平動 The apparent vertical or horizontal rocking motions of the Moon as it orbits around the Earth. The amount of
libration is measured by the shift of longitude and latitude at the center of the Moon disk.
LTP 月面瞬變現象 Abbreviation for “Lunar Transient Phenomena”. A controversial observed phenomena of weird happenings
or changes on the Moon’s surface.
Lunar Eclipse 月蝕 The eclipse seen on Earth as the full Moon passes through the Earth’s shadow.
Lunar Month 太陰月 Month based on the Moon’s orbital motion. Its value depends on definitions. See Appendix 2.
Lunation (Synodic Month) 朔望月 The period of time taken for the Moon to go through a complete cycle of phases.
Magma (在地層下的)岩漿 Subterranean molten rock. When it reaches the surface during a volcanic eruption, it is called lava.
Mantle 地幔 The thicker layer in the interior of a planet or satellite, underneath the crust but overlying the core, and differing
in composition from both.
Mare 海 Latin for sea (plural: maria). The broad dark plain formed from ancient lava outflow from the Moon’s interior.
Mascon 質量瘤 / 重力異常區 Abbreviated from the term “mass concentration”. An area on the Moon either composed of, or
underlain, by denser material, as evidenced by an increased gravitational pull.
Meteorite 隕石 / 隕星 Object from space that hits the Moon or other planets. Large meteorites are believed to have created
most of the craters on the Moon. The distinction between a large meteorite and a small asteroid is blurred.
Micrometeoroid 微流星體 Micro object from space that hits the Moon or other planets, sometimes just called meteoroid.
Mineral 礦物 Inorganic solid with a definite composition and crystal structure. Minerals are basic components to form rocks.
Mons 山 Latin for mountain.
Montes 山脈 Latin for mountain ranges or a group of isolated mountains.
Moonquake 月震 Sudden trembling of the Moon caused by the abrupt release of slowly accumulated elastic energy in rocks.
Nearside of the Moon 月正面 The side of the Moon facing the Earth
New Moon 新月 / 朔 The phase of the Moon when it is directly between the Earth and the Sun.
Node 交點 The intersecting point between the plane of Moon’s orbit and the Earth’s orbit (ecliptic).
Occultation 掩 The movement of one celestial object (e.g. a star) behind another (e.g. the Moon).
Oceanus 洋 Latin for ocean. The “large version” of lunar mare. Oceanus Procellarum is the only feature so named.
Palus 沼 Latin for marsh or swamp. A “small version” of lunar mare.
Penumbra 半影 The less dark outer region of the shadow of the Earth.
Perigee 近地點 The nearest point on the Moon’s orbit from the Earth.
Phase 月相 The amount of the illuminated Moon disk. There are 4 specific phases ⎯ new moon, first quarter, full moon and
last quarter ⎯ and also non-specific phase names such as waxing moon, waning moon, gibbous moon and crescent.
Promontorium 岬 / 海角 Latin for promontory or cape.
Rays, Lunar 月面輻射紋 Bright streaks radiating from certain impact craters of the Moon.
Regolith 浮土 From the Greek for “blanket of stone”. A layer of loose and broken rock and dust on the crust of a planet or
satellite. The lunar regolith contains a small amount of tiny, black glass beads produced by micrometeoroid impacts.
Regression of Nodes 交點退行 The eastward (backward) movement of the Moon’s nodes relative to the direction of orbit.
Rima 溪 / 月溪 / 溝紋 Latin for rille (plural: rimae). A narrow and relatively long cleft, slumped channel or valley on the
surface of the Moon, caused by ancient running lava or slight pulling of ground to either side.
Ritcher Scale 黎克特地震等級 A logarithmic scale to determine the magnitude of earthquake (and moonquake). Each whole
number increase in scale magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude of the strongest quake
waves, or 31.6 times more energy release than the preceding magnitude. Thus magnitude 8.0 releases energy
1000 times more energy than magnitude 6.0. Magnitudes below about 2.0 are generally not felt by people.
Rupes 懸崖 / 峭壁 / 斷層 Latin for scarp, cliff or fault.
Secondary Craters 次級隕擊坑 / 次級環形山 Impact craters produced by the ejecta of a large impact-crater.
Seeing 視寧度 A measure of the steadiness of air through which a celestial object is observed.
Selenographic 月面的 Belonging or relating to the surface of the Moon. “Selene” is the Greek goddess of the Moon.
Sinus 灣 Latin for bay. A “small version” of lunar mare, usually in the appearance of a bay but can be irregular in shape.
Southern Highlands 南面高地 The heavily cratered highlands in the south of the Moon’s nearside where no mare exists.
Terminator 明暗界線 The boundary on the Moon between day and night, or between light and shadow.
Terraced Wall 台地牆 The inner wall (of a lunar crater) that appears in terrace structure.
Terrain 地體 / 地勢 A generic term referring to any surface area with a distinctive geological character.
Tidal Force 起潮力 The gravitational pulling force of a celestial body on the surface of another body. It is inversely
proportional to the cube of the distance between the two bodies. The lunar tidal force on Earth is 2.2 times greater
than the Sun’s tidal force.
Umbra 本影 The darker core of the shadow of the Earth, typically cone shaped, and surrounded by a lighter penumbra shadow.
Within the umbra, the Moon is completely obscured from direct sunlight; a total lunar eclipse will be seen on Earth.
UT 世界時 Abbreviation for “Universal Time”, same as Greenwich Mean Time which is the mean solar time on the meridian of
Greenwich. For time conversion, UT = Hong Kong Standard Time − 8 hours.
Vallis 谷 / 月谷 Latin for valley.
Waning Moon 虧月 The phase of the Moon after the full moon and before the new moon.
Waxing Moon 盈月 The phase of the Moon after the new moon and before the full moon.
Wrinkle Ridge 皺脊 See Dorsum.
174
Appendix 4
References
1. Antonín Rükl, Atlas of the Moon, 1996, Kalmbach Books.
2. Jeremy Cook, The Hatfield Photographic Lunar Atlas, 1998, Springer.
3. Dinsmore Alter, Pictorial Guide to the Moon, 3rd edition, Thomas Y. Crowell Company.
4. John E. Westfall, Atlas of the Lunar Terminator, 2000, Cambridge University Press.
5. H. P. Wilkins & Patrick Moore, The Moon, 2nd edition, Faber and Faber Limited.
6. Charles A. Wood, The Modern Moon: A Personal View, 2003, Sky Publishing Corporation.
7. Patrick Moore, Patrick Moore on the Moon, 2001, Cassell & Co.
8. Gerald North, Observing the Moon, 2000 edition, Cambridge University Press.
9. E. H. Cherrington, Jr., Exploring the Moon through Binoculars and Small Telescopes, 1984, Dover Inc.
10. Kim Long, The Moon Book, 1998, Johnson Books.
11. David Whitehouse, The Moon: A Biography, 2001, Headline Book Publishing.
12. Arthur N. Cox, Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities, 4th edition, AIP Press. (Chapter 12)
13. K. Lodders & Bruce Fegley, Jr., The Planetary Scientist’s Companion, 1998, Oxford University Press.
14. Thomas A. Mutch, Geology of the Moon: A Stratigraphic View, 1970, Princeton University Press.
15. Jean Meeus, Mathematical Astronomy Morsels, 2000, Willmann-Bell, Inc. (Chapter 1 - 6).
16. Alan Chu, Total Lunar Eclipse 9 January 2001: Observation Report, 2001.
17. Alan Chu, Guidelines of Using ToUcam and Registax in Astro-imaging, 2003.
18. Y. Perelman, Astronomy For Entertainment, translated by A. Shkarovsky, 1958, Moscow. (Chapter 2)
19. Roger W. Sinnott, Seeking Thin Crescent Moons, Sky & Telescope magazine, Feb 2004. (Page 102)
20. Charles A. Wood, Lunar Notebook, Sky & Telescope magazine, issues since May 2000.
21. William P. Sheehan & Thomas A. Dobbins, Epic Moon, 2001, Willmann-Bell, Inc. (Chapter 11 - Linné).
22. The New Solar System, 4th edition, Sky Publishing Corp. and Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 6, 10)
23. The Sky Astronomy Software, Version 5, 1999, Software Bisque. (for moon orbital simulation)
24. PosDat, http://home.t-online.de/home/grischa.hahn/astro/posdat/ (freeware, for moon ephemerides)
25. Moon Nomenclature and Topography Maps, http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/moon/moonTOC.html
26. Lunar Science Results, http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/science/science_index.html
27. Apollo Over the Moon, http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-362/contents.htm
28. An Introduction to Lunar Domes, http://www.u-net.com/ph/mas/members/domes/domes.htm
29. Composition and Origin of Lunar Rays, http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/moon99/pdf/8035.pdf
30. The Oldest Moon Rocks, http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html
31. Geologic History of the Moon, by Don Wilhelms http://cps.earth.northwestern.edu/GHM/
32. Timeline of Lunar Exploration, http://www.space.edu/moon/timeline/timeline1699.html
33. The Lunascan Project, http://www.astrosurf.com/lunascan/
175
註: 部份的中文譯名以上海出版的
「英漢天文學名詞」及三聯書局的 Index
「新英漢詞典」為準，其他譯名還
未一致化。 Index
(Lunar features are by Map No.)
Abenezra 阿拜內茲臘 31 Barrow 巴羅 10, 15
Abulfeda 阿布費達 30, 31 Bayer 拜爾 28
Acosta 阿科斯特 3 Beaumont 博蒙特 5, 7
Adams 亞當斯 3 Behaim 貝漢 3
Agatharchides 阿加撤契德 24, 25 Beillaud 白勞德 Event 1
Age of the Moon 月齡 Overview, Event 2 Beketov 9
Agrippa 阿格里巴 13, 33 Belkovich 別爾科維奇 10, Event 2
Airy 艾里 31 Bernoulli 伯諾里 2, 10
Albategnius 阿爾巴塔尼 12, 31 Berosus 伯羅薩斯 2, 10
Aldrin 艾德林 Overview, 8 Berzelius 伯齊列斯 10
Alexander 亞歷山大 15 Bessarion 19, 20, 21
Alfraganus 阿法堅努斯 30, 33 Bessel 貝塞爾 9, 33
Alhazen 2 Bettinus 貝蒂鈉斯 29, Event 1
Aliacensis 阿里辛西斯 30, 31 Bianchini 比安齊尼 16, 18
Almanon 阿耳曼農 31 Biela 比厄拉 4
Al-Marrakushi 阿馬拉庫殊 3 Bilharz 3
Alpetragius 阿彼德拉基 12, Section 5 Billy 比利 26, 27
Alphonsus 阿方索 Overview, 12, Section 5 Birmingham 伯明翰 16
Ammonius 埃蒙尼斯 12 Birt 伯爾特 12, 33
Anaxagoras 阿諾薩戈臘斯 10, 16, 17, 33, Farside Blagg 13
Anaximander 亞諾芝曼德 16, 17 Blancanus 布蘭薩努斯 11, 29, Event 1
Anaximenes 亞諾芝門斯 16, 17 Blanchinus 布蘭奇努斯 31
Andĕl 30, 31 Bobillier 博比利埃 9
Angular Diameter 角直徑 Overview Bode 波得 13, 14
Ångström 埃斯特朗 21 Boguslawsky 鮑古斯拉夫斯基 30
Anorthosite 斜長岩 Overview, 1, 2, 33 Bohnenberger 波蘭貝格 7
Apianus 阿皮納 31 Bond, G 邦德(G) 9
Apogee 遠地點 Overview, Appendix 2 Bond, W 邦德(W) 15
Apollo Missions 阿波羅登月任務 Moon Landing Map Bonpland 邦普蘭 12
Apollonius 阿波朗尼斯 2, Event 1 Borda 玻達 4
Arago 阿拉果 8, 32 Borel 玻韋 9
Aratus 阿拉圖 (亞羅特) 14 Born 玻恩 3
Archimedes 阿基米德 14 Boscovich 波士高維 13
Archytas 16 Boussingault 布辛高爾特 Overview, 30
Argelander 阿格蘭德 31 Bowen 鮑恩 9
Ariadaeus 阿麗阿黛 13 Brayley 21
Aristarchus 亞利斯塔克 21, 33, Event 3 Breccia 角礫岩 Overview, 1
Aristillus 亞利斯基爾 9, 10, 14, 33 Brenner 布林納 Overview, 4
Aristoteles 亞利斯多德 15 Brewster 布魯斯特 9
Armstrong 阿姆斯特朗 Overview, 8 Briggs 布里格斯 22
Arnold 阿諾德 Event 1 Brightness of the Moon 月面亮度 Overview
Array of craters 環形山陣 11, 31 Brisbane 布列斯本 4
Aryabhata 6 Brown 布朗 29
Arzachel 阿爾扎赫 12, 31 Bruce 布魯斯 13
Atlas 阿特拉斯 10, Event 1 Bullialdus 布利奧杜 24, 25
Atwood 阿伍德 3 Burckhardt 2
Autolycus 奧托利克 9, 10, 14, 33 Bürg 布龍格 10, 15, 31
Auzout 2 Burnham 伯納姆 12, 31
Avery 艾弗里 Event 1 Byrd 伯德 10, 15, Event 2, Farside
Azophi 阿索菲 31 Byrgius 伯朱斯 26, 33
Babbage 畢德格勒 16, 17 Cabeus Event 1
Back 貝克 Event 1 Cajal 9
Baco 培根 30 Calippus 卡利普 15
Bailly 貝利 29, Event 1, Event 3 Cameron 卡梅倫 6
Baily 10 Campanus 康帕努斯 24, 25
Ball 鮑爾 11, 12 Capella 卡彼拉 4, 6, 7
Banachiewicz Event 1 Capuanus 卡普納斯 24, 29
Bancroft 班克羅夫特 14 Carlini 卡利尼 19
Banting 班丁 9 Carmichael 卡邁克爾 2
Barkla 巴其阿 3, Event 1 Carpenter 卡本特 16, 17
Barocius 巴羅齊 30 Carrel 8, 9
176
Index
Casatus 卡薩圖斯 29, Event 1, Farside Delmotte 德莫提 2
Cassini 卡西尼 15 Dembowski 13
Catena (chain of small craters) 環形山串 12, 31 Democritus Event 1
Catharina 凱瑟琳娜 5 Demonax 德蒙勒斯 30
Cauchy 科西 2, 6, 32 Descartes 德卡蒂斯 (笛卡兒) 30, 31
Cavalerius 卡瓦勒里斯 20 Deseilligny 9
Cavendish 卡文迪 25, 26, Event 3 Deslandres 德朗達爾 11, 12, 31, 33
Cayley 13 Diamondback Rille 8
Censorinus 6, 33 Dionysius Overview, 33
Center of Mass 質心 Overview Dollond 多朗 30, 31
Cepheus 仙王 10 Domes 拱形小山 (拱形山) 32
Chacornac 查科納克 9, 10 Donati 杜納提 31
Challis 16 Doppelmayer 多彼梅耶 25
Chang-Ngo 嫦娥 12, Farside Dorsa Aldrovandi 9
Chevallier 薛瓦利埃 10 Dorsa Argand 21
Ching-Te 9, Farside Dorsa Barlow 9
Chladni 13 Dorsa Burnet 伯內特皺脊群 21
Clairaut 克勒羅 30 Dorsa Harker 2
Clavius 克拉維 11, 29, 30 Dorsa Lister 9
Clementine (Lunar Probe) 克萊門泰探月器 1, Farside Dorsa Rubey 20
Cleomedes 克努梅迪 2, 10 Dorsa Smirnov 9
Clerke 克萊克 9 Dorsa Tetyaev 2
Cobra’s head 響尾蛇頭 21 Dorsum Buckland 巴克蘭皺脊 9
Collins 柯林斯 Overview, 8 Dorsum Gast 9
Colombo 哥倫布 4, 7 Dorsum Guettard 12
Colongitude 餘經度 Overview, Event 2 Dorsom Heim 19
Compton 康普頓 10, Event 2, Farside Dorsum Nicol 尼科爾皺脊 9
Condorcet 康多塞 Overview, 2 Dorsum Niggli 21
Conon 科龍 14 Dorsum Oppel 2
Cook 庫克 4, 7 Dorsum Owen 歐文皺脊 9
Copernicus 哥白尼 Overview, 19, 33 Dorsum Termier 2
Crater 環形山 Overview Dorsum von Cotta 9
Crater, Cross-section 環形山截面圖 19 Dorsum Zirkel 19
Craters named after Chinese 華人名字的璟形山 Farside Draper 德雷珀 19
Crescents 娥眉月 Event 3, 33 Drebbel 28
Crile 克里 2 Dubiago 杜比阿果 Event 1
Crüger 羅卡 26, 27 Dunthorne 鄧桑 24, 25, 29
Crust (Lunar) 月殼 1 Earth-Moon System 地月系統 Overview
Curtius 柯蒂斯 Event 1 Earthshine 地照 Event 3, 33
Cusanus 庫薩努斯 Event 1 Eclipse (lunar, solar) 蝕 (食) Event 4
Cuvier 居維頁 30 Eddington 愛丁頓 22
Cyrillus 西里爾 5 Egede 愛格德 15
Cysatus Event 1 Eimmart 2
d’ Arrest 達雷斯達 33 Elger 埃爾加 29
da Vinci 達芬奇 2, 6 Elongation 距角 Overview
Daguerre 7 Encke 恩克 20
Damoiseau 達毛西 20, 26 Endymion 恩迪米昂 10, Event 1, Event 2
Danbrée 丹比 9 Epigenes 15, 16
Daniell 丹尼爾 9 Epimenides 29
Darney 達恩里 24 Eppinger 愛皮格 20
Dark Mantle Deposits 暗地幔澱積物 9 Eratosthenes 愛拉托遜 14, 19, 31
Darwin 達爾文 26, 27, 32, 33 Esclangon 埃斯蘭戈 2, 9
Davy 戴維 12, 31 Euclides 歐幾里得 20, 33
Dawes 道斯 9 Euctemon 尤地蒙 15, Event 1
de Gasparis 德加斯帕里斯 25 Eudoxus 歐多克斯 15
de la Rue 德拉呂 10 Euler 歐拉 Overview
de Sitter 德西特 Event 1 Fabbroni 9
de Vico 德維科 26 Fabricius 法彼里齊 4
Debes 德比斯 2 Fabry 法布里 10, Event 2, Farside
Delambre 德朗布爾 8, 30, 33 Faraday 法拉第 Overview, 30
Delaunay 德朗尼 31 Farside of the Moon 月背面 1, Event 2, Farside
Delisle 21 Fauth 霍夫 19
177
Index
Faye 法伊 31 Hayn 海恩 10, Event 2
Fermat 弗麥克 5 Hedin 希迪 20
Fernelius 弗留利斯 30 Henry 亨利 26
Firmicus 弗米卡斯 2, Event 1 Henry Frères 26
Flammarion 弗拉馬利翁 Overview, 12 Helicon 黑利康 18
Flamsteed 弗蘭斯蒂德 Overview, 20 Hell 赫爾 11
Fontana 方塔納 26 Helmert 赫默 Event 1
Fontenelle 16 Helmet, The 頭盔 25
Foucault 傅科 18 Helmholtz 亥姆霍玆 30
Fourier 傅里葉 25, 28, Event 3 Heraclites 赫拉克里斯 30
Fra Mauro 弗拉摩洛 12 Hercules 赫庫列斯 10, Event 1
Fracastorius 弗卡斯托爾 4, 5, 7 Hermann 赫爾曼 20, 26
Franck 弗蘭克 9 Herodotus 赫羅多特 21
Franklin 富蘭克林 10 Herschel 赫歇爾 12
Franz 弗朗斯 2 Herschel, C 卡羅琳‧赫歇爾 19
Fraunhofer 夫琅和費 4 Herschel, J 約翰‧赫歇爾 16, 17
Fredholm 弗雷德霍姆 2 Hesiodus 赫斯特 Overview, 11
Furnerius 弗內留斯 3, 33 Hevelius 赫維留斯 20
Galen 加蘭 14 Hill 希爾 2, 9
Galilaei 伽利略 20, 33 Hind 欣德 12, 30, 31, 33
Gambart 加巴特 12, 19, 32 Hippalus 依巴勒斯 24, 25
Gardner 加德納 9 Hipparchus 依巴谷 Overview, 31
Gärtner 加特納 Event 1 Holden 荷頓 3
Gassendi 加桑迪 25 Hommel 霍梅爾 4
Gaudibert 高迪伯特 7 Hooke 胡克 10
Gauricus 高里克 11, 12 Hornsby 霍恩斯比 30
Gauss 高斯 10, Event 2 Horrebow 赫瑞堡 17
Gay-Lussac 給呂薩克 19 Horrocks 霍羅克斯 31
Geber 賈貝爾 31 Hortensius 賀坦西斯 19, 32
Gemma Frisius 格馬‧弗里修斯 30 Hubble 哈勃 Event 2
Geminus 杰米納斯 2, 10, 33, Event 2 Huggins 哈金斯 11
Geologic History (Lunar) 月球進化紀年 1, Appendix 2 Hyginus 海金努斯 13
Ghost Crater 假環形山 Overview, 8, 12, 19, 20 Hypatia 愛帕蒂亞 4, 8
Giant Impact Theory 大碰撞論 1 Ibn Rushd 5, 31
Gilbert 吉爾伯特 Event 1 Illumination 照度 Event 2
Gioja 16 Imbrium Sculpture 12, 31
Glaisher 2 Impact Basin 隕擊盆地 1, 28
Goclenius 笱克蘭留斯 4, 7 Inghirami 英希拉米 28
Godin 哥登 Overview, 33 Isidorus 伊西多爾 4, 6, 7
Goldschmidt 戈爾德史密特 10, 15, 16, Farside Jacobi 雅各比 30
Goodacre 古德卡 30 Jansen 贊生 8, 9
Gould 古爾德 24 Janssen 贊桑 4
Greaves 格雷夫斯 2 Jenkins 詹金斯 Event 1
Grimaldi 格里馬第 20, 26 Joliot 約里奧 Event 2, Farside
Grove 格羅夫 10 Joy 喬伊 9, 14
Gruemberger 格魯貝格 11, Event 1 Julius Caesar 儒略凱撒 13, 33
Gruithuisen 21 Kaiser 凱撤 30
Guericke 格里克 12 Kane 凱恩 Event 1
Gutenberg 古坦堡 7 Kant 康德 30
Gyldén 12 Kao (Kao Ping-Tse) 高平子 Event 1, Farside
Hagecius 哈格修斯 4, 30 Kapteyn 3, Event 1
Hahn 哈恩 Overview, 10 Kästner 卡斯特納 Event 1
Haidinger 海丁格 29 Keldysh 10
Hainzel 海恩舍爾 25, 29 Kepler 開普勒 19, 20, 32, 33
Hall 霍爾 9 Kies 基斯 24, 25, 32
Halley 哈雷 12, 30, 31 Kiess 凱斯 Event 1
Hanno 韓諾 4 Kircher 基歇爾 29, Event 1
Hansen 漢森 2 Kirchhoff 基爾霍夫 9
Hansteen 韓斯坦 26, 27 Klaproth 克拉普羅特 Event 1
Harpalus 哈巴勒斯 16 Klein 12, 31
Harvest Moon 穫月 Overview König 24, 25
Hase 哈斯 3 KREEP 克里普岩 1
178
Index
Krieger 21 LTP 月面瞬變現象 Overview, 7, 9
Krishna 9 Lubiniezky 呂班尼茲基 24, 25
Krusentern 克魯辛斯坦 31 Luna Probe 月球探測器(蘇聯) 20, Moon Landing Map
Kuiper 柯伊伯 20 Lunar Orbiter 月球軌道探測器 Overview, Event 1
Kundt 12 Lunation 朔望月 Overview
Kunowsky 20 Luther 路德 (盧瑟) 9
la Caille 拉卡爾 12, 31 Lyell 2
la Condamine 拉孔達米恩 18 Lyot 李約 4
la Pérouse 拉佩魯斯 Event 1 Maclaurin 馬克洛林 Event 1
Lacus Aestatis 夏湖 27 Maclear 馬克利爾 8
Lacus Autumni 秋湖 1, Event 1 Macrobius 馬克羅比 Overview, 2, 10
Lacus Bonitatis 好湖 Overview, 2 Mädler 馬德勒 4, 5, 7
Lacus Doloris 悲湖 9 Maestlin 馬士連 20
Lacus Excellentiae 優湖 25 Magelhaens 麥哲倫 4, 7
Lacus Felicitatis 福湖 9 Maginus 馬紀努斯 11, 30
Lacus Gaudii 喜湖 9 Main 梅恩 15, 16
Lacus Hiemalis 冬湖 9 Mairan 梅蘭 16, 21, 23, 32
Lacus Lenitatis 柔湖 9 Mallet 莫萊特 4
Lacus Mortis 死湖 1, 10 Manilius 曼尼林 9, 33
Lacus Odii 恨湖 9 Manners 曼納斯 9, 33
Lacus Perseverantiae 久湖 2, Event 1 Marco Polo 馬可勃羅 14
Lacus Somniorum 夢湖 1, 9, 10 Mare Anguis 蛇海 1, 2, Event 1
Lacus Spiel 願望湖 2, 10 Mare Australe 南海 1, 4, Event 1
Lacus Timorous 懼湖 25, 29 Mare Basalt 在月海的玄武岩 Overview, 1, 2
Lacus Veris 春湖 1 Mare Cognitum 知海 1, 12
Lade 拉德 33 Mare Crisium 危海 Overview, 1, 2, 10, Event 1
Lagalla 拉格拉 29 Mare Fecunditatis 豐富海 1, 2, 6, 10, Event 2
Lagrange 拉格朗日 28 Mare Frigoris 冷海 1, 10, 16, 17
Lagrangian Points 拉格朗日點 Appendix 2 Mare Humboldtianum 洪堡海 1, 10, Event 1, Event 2
Lalande 拉朗德 Overview, 12, 33 Mare Humorum 濕海 1, 24, 25
Lamarck 拉馬 26 Mare Imbrium 雨海 1, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, Event 2
Lambert 蘭伯特 Overview, 1, 19 Mare Insularum 島海 1, 32
Lamé 拉美 3 Mare Marginis 界海 1, Event 1, Event 2
Laméch 15 Mare Moscoviense 莫斯科海 Farside
Lamont 拉蒙 8 Mare Nectaris 酒海 1, 4, 5, 7
Langrenus 朗格努斯 3, 6, 10, 33, Event 1 Mare Nubium 雲海 1, 12, 24
Lansberg 蘭斯堡 20 Mare Orientale 東海 1, Event 1, Farside
Lassell 拉塞爾 12 Mare Serenitatis 澄海 1, 9, 10, 14, 15, 33
Lawrence 勞倫斯 6 Mare Smythii 史密斯海 1, 6, Event 1, Event 2
le Monnier 勒蒙尼亞 9 Mare Spumans 泡海 1, 2, 6, Event 1
le Verrier 勒威耶 18 Mare Tranquillitatis 靜海 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, Event 2
Lee 李 25 Mare Undarum 浪海 1, 2, 6, Event 1
Legendre 勒讓德 3 Mare Vaporum 汽海 1, 9, 14
Leibnitz Mountains 萊布尼茲山脈 Event 1 Marius 馬里烏斯 20, 32
Lepaute 29 Markov 馬可夫 16
Letronne 利賽尼 20, 25 Marth 馬庫 24, 25, 29
Lexell 勒格澤爾 11, 12 Mascon 重力異常區 (質量瘤) 2, Farside
Libration 天平動 Overview, Event 1 Maskelyne 馬斯奇連 6
Licetus 利塞塔斯 30 Mason 梅森 10
Lick 利克 2 Maupertuis 莫佩圖斯 18
Liebig 萊比 25, 26 Maurolycus 莫羅利卡斯 Overview, 30
Lilius 利呂斯 30 Mayer, C 克里斯琴‧梅耶 15
Lindenau 林丹努 4 Mayer, T 杜拜斯‧梅耶 19
Lindsay 林賽 30 McDonald 麥克唐納 19
Linné 林列 9, 14, 15, 33 Mee 米 29
Lippershey 12 Menelaus 馬尼勒斯 1, 9, 33, Event 2
Littrow 利特洛 9 Mercator 梅卡托 24, 25
Loewy 24, 25 Mercurius 默柯里斯 2, 10
Lockyer 洛克耶 4 Mersenius 默爾謝尼 25, 26, Event 3
Lohrmann 羅曼 20, 26 Messala 梅薩拉 2, 10, 33
Lohse 羅西 3 Messier 梅西葉 6, 33
Longomontanus 朗哥芒坦 11, 29 Metius 梅蒂斯 4
179
Index
Meton 默冬 10, 15, Event 1 Oenopides 奧諾皮德斯 16, 17
Milichius 米利切斯 19, 20, 32 Oersted 奧斯特 10
Miller 米勒 11 Oken 奧肯 4
Mitchell 米切爾 15 Olbers 奧伯斯 20, 33
Moigno Event 1 O’Neill’s Bridge 奧紐橋 2
Moltke 毛德 8, 33 Opelt 24
Monge 蒙日 4, 7 Oppolzer 奧伯爾茲 12
Mons Argaeus 阿格厄斯山 9 Orontius 奧朗塔斯 11
Mons Blanc 布蘭克山 15 Palisa 帕利薩 12
Mons Gruithuisen Gramma / Delta Overview, 16, 21, 23, 32 Palitzsch 3
Mons Hadley Delta 哈德利三角洲山 Overview, 14 Pallas 帕拉斯 Overview, 13
Mons Hansteen 韓斯坦山 26, 27 Palmieri 25, 28
Mons Herodotus 赫羅多特山 21 Palus Epidemiarum 疫沼 1, 24, 25, 29
Mons La Hire 拉希爾山 1, 19 Palus Putredinis 凋沼(腐沼) 1, 14
Mons Pico 比科山 Overview, 16 Palus Somnii 夢沼 1, 2, 6
Mons Piton 比同山 15, 16 Parrot 帕羅特 12, 31
Mons Rümker 呂姆克爾山 23, 32 Parry 帕里 12
Montanari 蒙塔納里 29 Pascal 帕斯卡 16, 17
Montes 山脈 1 Peary 皮爾里 10, Event 2, Farside
Montes Agricola 阿根哥拉山脈 21 Peek 彼爾 Event 1
Montes Alpes 阿爾卑斯山脈 1, 14, 15 Peirce 2
Montes Apenninus 亞平寧山脈 1, 9, 14, 15 Peirescius 4
Montes Archimedes 阿基米德山脈 14 Perigee 近地點 Overview
Montes Carpatus 喀爾巴阡山脈 19, 31 Petavius 佩塔維斯 3, 33
Montes Caucasus 高加索山脈 1, 9, 15 Petermann 彼得曼 Event 1
Montes Cordillera 科迪勒拉山脈 1, Farside Phase 月相 Event 2
Montes Haemus 海瑪斯山脈 9 Philolaus 菲洛勞斯 16, 17
Montes Harbinger 哈賓格山脈 21 Phocylides 佛齊利德 28, Event 3
Montes Jura 侏羅山脈 18 Piazzi 皮亞齊 28
Montes Pyrenaeus 比利牛斯山脈 Overview, 7 Picard 皮卡爾 2
Montes Recti 直列山脈 16, 18 Piccolomini 皮哥洛米尼 4, 5
Montes Riphaeus 里菲山脈 20 Pickering 皮克林 31
Montes Rook 盧克山脈 1, Farside Pictet 皮特 11
Montes Spitzbergen 斯皮茲柏金西斯山脈 14 Pitatus 皮塔特 11, 12
Montes Taurus 金牛山脈 Overview, 9 Pitiscus 4
Montes Teneriffe 泰納里夫山脈 16 Plana 普朗納 10
Moon Landing 月登陸 Moon Landing Map Planitia Descensus 沙漠平原 20
Moon Maiden 月娘 Overview, 18 Plaskett 普拉斯基特 Farside
Moonrise 月升 Overview Plato 拍拉圖 16
Moonquake 月震 1 Playfair 莆勒費薾 31
Moretus 莫雷塔斯 11, Event 1, Farside Plinius 普林尼 9
Mösting 莫斯丁 Overview, 12 Plutarch 普路塔 Overview, Event 2
Mouchez 莫切斯 16 Poisson 泊松 30
Mount Schneckenberg 施勒肯堡山 13 Polybius 波利比斯 5
Müller 默勒 12 Pons 龐斯 5
Murchison 默其森 Overview, 13 Pontécoulant 龐特庫朗 4
Naonobu 內奧諾布 3 Porter 波特 11
Nasireddin 11 Posidonius 波西多尼 9, 10
Nasmyth 內史密斯 28 Prinz 普斯 21
Neander 尼安德 4 Proclus 普羅克爾 2, 33
Nearch 4, 30 Proctor 普托 11
Nearside of the Moon 月正面 Overview, 1, Event 2 Promontorium Agarum 阿格魯姆海角 2
Neison 尼森 Event 1 Promontorium Agassiz 阿加西斯海角 15
Neumayer 紐梅耶 30 Promontorium Deville 德維爾海角 15
Newton 牛頓 11, Event 1, Farside Promontorium Fresnel 彿斯內海角 14, 15
Nicollet 尼科勒 12 Promontorium Heraclides 赫拉克萊特海角 Overview, 18
Nobili 諾比利 Event 1 Promontorium Kelvin 開爾文海角 24
Nonius 諾尼斯 30, 31 Promontorium Laplace 拉普拉斯海角 18
North Pole of the Moon 月球北極 10, 16, Event 2, Farside Promontorium Lavinium 拉文尼厄姆海角 2
Occultation 掩 Event 4 Promontorium Olivium 奧利維厄姆海角 2
Oceanus Procellarum 風暴洋 1, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26 Promontorium Taenarium 泰納里厄姆海角 12
180
Index
Protagoras 16 Rimae Grimaldi 格里馬第月溪 20
Ptolemaeus 托勒玫 12, 31 Rimae Gutenberg 古坦堡月溪 7
Puiseux 24, 25 Rimae Hevelius 赫維留斯月溪 20
Purbach 普爾巴赫 12, 31 Rimae Hippalus 依巴勒斯月溪 24, 25
Pythagoras 畢達哥拉斯 16, 17 Rimae Hypatia 愛帕蒂亞月溪 8
Pytheas 皮特阿斯 Overview Rimae Janssen 贊桑月溪 4
Rabbi Levi 臘拜利維 4 Rimae Littrow 利特洛月溪 9
Raman 21 Rimae Mersenius 麥爾謝尼月溪 25
Ramsden 冉斯登 24, 29 Rimae Opelt 12
Ranger (Lunar Probe) 徘佪探月器 12 Rimae Palmieri 28
Rankine 蘭金 Event 1 Rimae Parry 帕里月溪 12
Rays (Lunar Rays) 輻射紋 29, 33 Rimae Petavius 佩塔維斯月溪 3
Réaumur 列奧繆爾 12, 13, 33 Rimae Plato 拍拉圖月溪 16
Regiomontanus 勒吉奧蒙塔努斯 11, 12, 31 Rimae Plinius 普林尼月溪 9
Regolith 浮土 1, 9 Rimae Posidonius 波西多尼月溪 9
Reichenbach 勒秦巴赫 4 Rimae Prinz 普斯月溪 21
Reimarus 4 Rimae Ramsden 冉斯登月溪 24
Reiner, Reiner Gamma 萊因納伽傌 20, 33 Rimae Ritter 里特爾月溪 8
Reinhold 萊因霍德 19 Rimae Römer 羅邁月溪 9
Resolving Power 鑒別率 (解像力) Overview Rimae Sirsalis 希薩利斯月溪 26, 27
Rhaeticus 雷提庫斯 13 Rimae Sosigenes 8
Rheita 里伊塔 4 Rimae Sulpicius Gallus 9
Riccioli 里希奧利 20 Rimae Theaetetus 14, 15
Riccius 里絮斯 4 Rimae Triesnecker 特斯納卡月溪 13
Rille (Sinuous / Linear) 月溪 Overview, 13 Ritchey 里奇 12, 31
Rima Agatharchides 阿加撤契德月溪 24 Ritter 里特 Overview, 8
Rima Ariadaeus 阿麗阿黛月溪 13 Robinson 魯賓遜 17
Rima Birt 伯爾特月溪 12 Rocca 羅卡 20
Rima Bradley 布拉德利月溪 14 Römer 羅邁 Overview, 9
Rima Calippus 卡利普月溪 15 Rosenberger 羅桑貝格 4
Rima Cauchy 科西月溪 6, 32 Ross 羅斯 8, 9
Rima Cleomedes 克努梅迪月溪 2 Rosse 羅西 7
Rima Conon 科龍月溪 14 Rost 28
Rima Furnerius 弗內留斯月溪 3 Rothmann 羅夫曼 5
Rima Gärtner 加特納月溪 Event 1 Runge Event 1
Rima Gay-Lussac 給呂薩克月溪 19 Rupes Altai 阿爾泰峭壁 4, 5, 31
Rima G. Bond 邦德(G)月溪 9 Rupes Cauchy 科西峭壁 6, 32
Rima Hadley 哈德利月溪 14 Rupes Liebig 萊比峭壁 25
Rima Hansteen 韓斯坦月溪 26, 27 Rupes Recta 豎直峭壁 (直壁) Overview, 12
Rima Hase 黑斯月溪 3 Rupes Toscanelli 托斯卡里尼峭壁 21
Rima Hesiodus 赫斯特月溪 24 Russell 羅素 22
Rima Hyginus 海金努斯月溪 Overview, 13, 31, 33 Rutherfurd 盧塞褔 11
Rima Jansen 贊生月溪 9 Sabine 薩比 Overview, 8, 33
Rima Mairan 梅蘭月溪 23 Sacrobosco 薩克羅博斯科 31
Rima Marius 馬里烏斯月溪 20 Santos-Dumont 桑托斯杜蒙 14
Rima Oppolzer 奧伯爾茲月溪 13 Santbech 桑特貝克 4, 7
Rima Réaumur 列奧繆爾月溪 13 Sarabhai 9
Rimae Alphomsus 阿方索月溪 12 Sasserides 扎西里德 11
Rimae Archimedes 阿基米德月溪 14 Saunder 桑德 30, 31
Rimae Aristarchus 亞利斯塔克月溪 21 Saussure 索絮爾 11
Rimae Arzachel 阿爾扎赫月溪 12 Scheiner 沙伊納 11, 29, Event 1
Rimae Atlas 阿特拉斯月溪 10 Schiaparelli 斯吉業巴列里 22
Rimae Bode 波得月溪 13 Schickard 西卡爾德 28, Event 3
Rimae Boscovich 波士高維月溪 13 Schiller 席勒 28, 29
Rimae Bürg 布龍格月溪 10 Schmidt 施密特 8
Rimae Chacornac 查科納克月溪 9 Schröter 施洛特 Overview
Rimae Darwin 達爾文月溪 26, 27 Schubert 許伯特 Event 1
Rimae de Gasparis 德加斯帕里斯月溪 25 Schumacher 舒麥徹 2
Rimae Fresnel 彿斯內月溪 14, 15 Scoresby 斯科士比 15, Event 1
Rimae Gassendi 加桑迪月溪 25 Secchi 石齊 6
Rimae Goclenius 笱克蘭留斯月溪 7 Seeliger 西拉格 31
181
Index
Segner 謝格納 28, 29, Event 1 Tide (Perigean Spring Tide) 近地點大潮 Overview
Selenographic Coordinates 月面座標 Overview Timaeus 提勒玫 16
Seleucus 謝列克 22 Timocharis 提莫恰里斯 14, 33
Serpentine Ridge 蛇脊 9 Tisserand 蒂塞朗 2
Shadow 影(投影) Overview, Event 2 Tolansky 杜蘭斯基 12
Shapley 沙普利 2 Torricelli 拖麗西里 4, 7
Sharp 沙爾普 16, 18 Tralles 2
Shoemaker 蘇梅克 Farside Triesnecker 特斯納卡 13, 33
Short 雪特 11, Event 1 Trouvelot 15
Shuckburgh 肖白 10 Tsiolkovsky 齊奧爾科夫斯基 Farside
Sidereal Month 恒星月 Appendix 2 Turner 特納 12
Silberschlag 西別什拉格 13 Tycho 第谷 Overview, 11, 29, 30, 33
Sinas 辛納斯 6, 32 Ukert 烏開特 13
Sinus Aestuum 暑灣 (浪灣) 1, 14 Väisälä 21
Sinus Amoris 愛灣 1, 9 Valentine Dome 瓦倫丁拱形山 14, 15, 32
Sinus Concordiae 和諧灣 2, 6 Vallis Alpes 阿爾卑斯月谷 15, 16
Sinus Fidei 忠誠灣 9 Vallis Capella 卡彼拉月谷 7
Sinus Iridum 虹灣 1, 16, 18 Vallis Palitzsch 3
Sinus Medii 中央灣 Overview, 1, 13, 33 Vallis Rheita 里伊塔月谷 Overview, 3, 4
Sinus Roris 露灣 1, 16 Vallis Schröteri 施洛特月谷 21
Sinus Successus 成功灣 2 Vallis Snellius 斯內拉斯月谷 3
Sirsalis 希薩利斯 20, 26, 27, 33 Van Biesbroeck 21
Snellius 斯內拉斯 3, 33 Van Vleck Event 1
Somerville 薩默維爾 3, Event 1 Vega 維格 4
Sosigenes 8, 13 Vendelinus 文德林 3
South 索斯 17 Vera 21
South Pole - Aitken 南極艾肯盆地 1, Farside Very 威里 9
South Pole of the Moon 月南極 Overview, 11, Farside Vieta 維特 28, Event 3
Southern Highlands 南面高地 11, 30 Vitello 維特洛 25
Spörer 12 Vitruvius 維特留夫 9
Spurr 斯普爾 14 Vlacg 弗拉格 4
Stadius 斯大迪 19, 31 Vogel 沃格爾 12, 31
Stag’s Horn Mountains 斯達霍山 12 von Behring 3, Event 1
Statio Tranquillitatis 寧靜基地 8 Wallace 華萊士 14
Steinheil 斯泰哈爾 4 Walter 華爾特 11, 12, 31
Stevinus 斯蒂文 3, 4, 33 Wargentin 瓦根廷 28
Stöfler 史托福勒 Overview, 30, 31 Watt 瓦特 4
Strabo 斯托雷波 10, 33 Watts 瓦特斯 6
Straight Range (= Montes Recti) 16, 18 Webb 韋布 2, 6
Straight Wall (= Rupes Recta) Overview, 12 Weierstrass 韋爾斯特拉斯 Event 1
Street 11 Weigel 28, Event 1
Struve 施特魯維 22 Werner 沃納 31
Sung-Mei 9, 15, Farside Whewell 13
Surface Gravity, Lunar 月面重力 1 Wichmann 20
Surface Temperature, Lunar 月面溫度 Overview, Event 2 Widmanstätten Event 1
Surveyor (Lunar Probe) 測量員探月器 20, Moon Landing Map Wilhelm 威廉 11, 29
Swift 斯威夫特 2 Wilson 威爾遜 29, Event 1
Synodic Month 朔望月 Overview, Appendix 2 Wöhler 4
Tacitus 特西圖斯 5, 31 Wolf 沃爾夫 Overview, 24
Tacchini 特基里 Event 1 Wollaston 沃萊士頓 21
Taruntius 塔朗提斯 Overview, 6, 33 Wrinkle Ridge 皺脊 1, 2, 8, 9, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25
Taylor 泰勒 30, 33 Wrottesley 羅特斯勒 3
Tebbutt 2 Wurzelbauer 維澤包爾 Overview, 11
Tempel 頓泊爾 13 Yangel’ 9
Terminator 明暗界線 Overview, Event 2 Yerkes 葉凱士 2
Thales 法列斯 10, 33 Young 楊格 4
Theaetetus 15 Zagut 扎古特 4
Thebit 錫比特 Overview, 12 Zähringer 6
Theon Junior 30 Zeno 澤諾 2, 10
Theophilus 菲奧費勒 4, 5, 7, 33 Zöllner 30
Theophrastus 2 Zucchius 侏奇烏斯 28, 29, Event 1
Tidal Force 起潮力 1 Zupus 26
182
183
Lunar Photograph and Illustration Credits
Label Credits
NASA 001 - 028 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA.
JL 001 - 009 Joseph H. C. Liu (California,USA))
P001 - 003 Y. Perelman, Astronomy For Entertainment, 1958, Moscow.
P004 David A. Hardy (UK)
P005 Joe Tucciarone, (Florida,USA)
T138 Co-authors: Eric Ng & Alan Chu (HK)
W001 - 004 Anonymous (retrieved from web and reprocessed)
Kao Ping-Tse (高平子) portrait 由蔡元生先生(台灣) 提供
Version History
Version Date of Release Major Changes
1.1 2003.10.28 First release with 90 photos and illustrations, 62 pages.
1.6 2004.02.09 z 150 photos and illustrations, 95 pages.

z Expanded Overview, Maria, Event and Method of Imaging pages.
z Added Lunar Rays, Farside of the Moon and Moon Landing maps.
z Rechecked Moon Age.
1.7 2004.02.12 z More Lacus & Crater names.

z Released to web for free access.
1.9 2004.08.01 z P001 reprocessed to show true slope of the Straight Wall.
z Add Map 30 to cover southeastern region.
z Cancel Romantic Moon
2.1 2005.01.28 z Extensive refinement, over 200 images, 184 pages, additions
including ~30 mosaic images & illustrations on lunar geology.
.
(The latest draft of this Moon Book is saved temporary in http://alanchuhk.sev84.001at.com/,

awaiting process to newer edition.)
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Photographic Moon Book

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) is the first

An early lunar map with details, published in

Map 1: Mare, Sinus, Lacus, Palus and Montes

3. Farside of the Moon 154

4. Moon Landing Map 159

z An Overview to cover the Moon basics prior to observation.

z A section on the Methods of Imaging.

It is suggested to print the entire book for handy reference.

email address: mca@netvigator.com

Last updated: 2005 January 28

Lunar features are traditionally classified in Latin as

Mare (sea, plural: maria) (海)

Surface features of the nearside are depicted under Map 1

Grimaldi Sinus Medii

The Straight Wall 直壁

Standing at the foot of the 300-m high Straight Wall

For an astronaut standing on the central floor of Copernicus,

Rima Hyginus from Lunar Orbiter 3 probe that orbited

View in telescope, Map 18. Poor seeing creates

Mare Crisium 危海 NASA 001A

Two views of Mare Crisium in telescope, Map 2. They differ

Resolving Power of Telescopes

Right: A 25-cm (10-inch)

900-m craterlet on Mons Gruithuisen Gamma

3 / 4 Tycho in shadow Half of Tycho in shadow No shadow (at full moon)

Age of the Moon

Moon’s elliptical orbit Tycho is about 45 arcseconds.

Minimum and maximum

The Earth-Moon System

Tilting of the Moon’s rotation axis, as seen from space

Brightness of the Moon

Moon Age First Last

Relative 100 (full

(See telescope pictures in Section 5.)

The author’s current site for lunar

***** EXAMPLE *****

Moon Ephemeris from PosDat

The predicted Moon

Terminator Disc center

Sign of longitudinal directions: Positive means E, Negative means W.

The imagination may be extended to crater Alphonsus,

The Moon & Venus in Crescents

A picture from Apollo 17 in 1972

(NASA image AS17-2432.)

1. Mare Australe (Southern Sea) 南海 2. Mare Smythii (Smyth’s Sea) 史密斯海

South Pole - Aitken

1. Copernicus 哥白尼 2. Kepler 開普勒 3. Aristarchus 亞利斯塔克 4. Grimaldi 格里馬第

Moonquakes: The lunar crust is about 2 times

Lunar Impact History

Right: Although the impact rate to produce craters are slow

Joe Tucciarone, http://members.aol.com/INTERSTELL/art.html

(a) Mare Basalt (b) Anorthosite (c) Breccia

(d) Clementine Iron Map

T002A T003 T004

Under oblique illumination, wrinkle ridges are prominent T005

North of Mare Crisium 2000.09.15 16:26 UT Age 17 days

2004.12.15 11:09 UT Age 3.4 days. 10-in f/6 + 2.5X + ToUcam

Í Palus Somnii (Marsh of Sleep)

Sinus Concordiae (Bay of Concord)

* EXAMPLE *