ISSUE 2

UNDERSTANDING THE PRINCIPLES OF

DPCVS & PICVS IN DYNAMIC BALANCING

Technical
Guide

TECHNICAL GUIDE 2
AN OVERVIEW
This Guide on the principles of DPCVs (Differential Pressure Control Valves)
and PICVs (Pressure Independent Control Valves) is the latest in the series
from Hattersley specifically for Building Services engineers.

The author, Andy Lucas, left school at 15 years old with no formal qualifications. He returned to study
in his late 20s, working within various manufacturing industries, culminating in the position of Technical
Development Manager for Hattersley.

This Guide is written in a ‘practical language’ that is easy to read, being relevant to practicing engineers
at all levels of knowledge and experience including fitters, commissioning technicians, contractors,
consultants and system designers.

Andy explains, as everyone becomes more aware of the consequences of global warming, system design
has changed to ensure energy use is uppermost in the designer’s mind. This Guide describes, in detail,
changes in system design which made it necessary to introduce DPCVs and PICVs into variable volume
heating and chilled water systems.

It covers:

System Design Change

Differential Pressure Control
Typical Circuits
Commissioning
Trouble Shooting

The Guide includes, as appendices, explanations of some of the ‘every day’ terms and some of the
hydraulic principles used by Building Services engineers but perhaps rarely understood.

Andy’s ‘15 minutes of fame’ came when he designed the Building Services industry first single terminal
unit manifold system. The concept of a one piece ‘H’ body
design incorporating the flushing by-pass changed the industry,
with several other companies copying his design concept.

From his original idea came the development of the multi-

manifold commissioning systems and more recently the move
towards the 40mm centre terminal unit manifold.

Hattersley are CIBSE Patrons as well as members of BSRIA and

the CSA.

Member

Cover photo | One Bank Street

1 DPCV / PICV
FORWARD
As we become more aware of the possible effects of global warming, the issues
of reductions in energy use, carbon footprint and CO2 emissions should be
uppermost in the engineer’s mind.

This has led to the development of various building (heating and chilled water services), resulting in
environmental assessment schemes throughout the move from constant volume to variable
the world. volume systems.

The UK scheme, BREEAM (Building Research This design change created a requirement for
Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) additional valves to stabilise the fluctuating distribution
being the first, was introduced in 1990 and is used in pressures caused by this design change. Initially,
over 50 countries worldwide. DPCVs (Differential Pressure Control Valves) were
designed into systems and latterly, PICVs (Pressure
The American scheme, LEED (Leadership in Independent Control Valves) offer an alternative
Energy and Environmental Design) was introduced approach.
in 1998 with the Australian Green Star scheme being
introduced in 2003. This guide explains the design change, the use of
DPCVs and PICVs and the different way these
The Middle East has subsequently devised its valves control the flow of water to the terminals.
own schemes specifically tailored for hot, humid
countries. These schemes would include Estidams This guide forms an integral part of the wide range of
for Abu Dhabi and EmiratesGBC (Green Building balancing valve information published by Hattersley,
Council) for the UAE. designed to assist all those involved in the design,
installation and operation of hydronic systems.
Government commitments on CO2 emissions, together
with these building assessment schemes, has driven
the move for more efficient fixed building services

TECHNICAL GUIDE 2
CONTENT
Introduction 4–9

Section 1 Differential Pressure Control Valves – DPCV

1.1 Differential Pressure Control Valves 10–19

1.2 System Design Incorporating DPCVs 20–27

1.3 Typical circuits using DPCVs 27–34

1.4 System Balancing using DPCVs 34–35

1.5 Trouble shooting DPCV circuits 35–38

Section 2 Pressure Independent Control Valves – PICV

2.1 Design incorporating PICVs 39–45

2.2 Typical circuits with PICVs 45–48

2.3 System Balancing using PICVs 49–51

2.4 Trouble shooting PICV circuits 52–56

2.5 Actuators 57–60

Appendices 1 Cavitation 61–63

2 Relationship between flow rate 64

and differential pressure

3 Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law 65

4 Heat output from terminals 66–67

5 Preferred numbers 68–69

6 Characteristics of control valves 70–72

7 Equal percentage characteristics 73

3 DPCV / PICV
INTRODUCTION
Scope
This guide is intended to provide designers and users with an insight into the technical aspects of selecting
and commissioning of DPCVs and PICVs in conjunction with other commissioning valves – covered in previous
Hattersley publications.

In general, the design of Hattersley DPCVs and PICVs are consistent with systems that are regarded as
commercial rather than domestic systems.

What is a balanced system? The need for balancing

The criterion for a hydronic system (the use of water The need to consider flow regulation and
as the heat transfer media) is that it should deliver measurement arises from the fact that in practice
the correct heating / cooling flow rates to all areas it is not possible to achieve a ‘balanced’ system
of the system. through the manipulation of pipe sizing and pipe
configuration alone.
In order to achieve this, the designer must make the
necessary provisions to ensure the water distribution The design engineer’s responsibility is to;
throughout the system is in accordance with the
design requirements. design systems with high operational efficiency
 chieve specified levels of comfort at
a
It can be said the system is balanced when water
acceptable costs
flow rates in primary, distribution and terminal
circuits are compatible, stable and in close conserve energy resources
accordance with the design requirements.
To a large extent, the attainment of these design
objectives relies on the installation and commissioning
of suitable static and dynamic balancing valves to
provide a practical means of system balancing,
optimising the performance of control valves.
S Shand-Brown

S Shand-Brown

Ricoh Arena, Coventry Blackfriars Railway Station, London

TECHNICAL GUIDE 4
INTRODUCTION

Design considerations Commissioning results

The system design and its associated controls Commissioning is now an explicit requirement
should take account of; of the Building Regulations in the UK.

a) the application Part L of the England and Wales Building

Regulations; Conservation of Fuel and
b) building construction
Power requires;
c) heating / cooling load patterns
d) design space temperatures
e) domestic hot water requirements
f) control requirements
“ reasonable provision shall be
made for the conservation of fuel
g) minimising use of primary energy and energy by providing and
h) opportunities for heat recovery commissioning energy efficient
i) economic factors fixed building services with

Achieving (d), (f) and (g) is highly dependent on the correct

distribution of water throughout the system.
effective control.
”
It follows therefore that the design of the system must take into Part L was later revised to also require;
account the needs of system commissioning:

the commissioning process should be agreed

in principle
appropriate provision of balancing valves
“ confirmation of commissioning
by certified commissioning

”
specify required tolerance on system flow rates
sheets.
A correctly commissioned system will ensure;

correct flows to chillers and boilers

correct distribution of flow throughout the system
compatibility between primary and secondary circuits

Benefits of a correctly commissioned system ensure;

room temperatures held within a narrow band

throughout the installation
energy efficiency

5 DPCV / PICV
 INTRODUCTION

Why are DPCVs required?

With the move from constant to variable volume system design,
the stability of the system is lost.
With a constant volume system, 3 or 4 port control valves are used to control the flow
and subsequently, the heat output of the terminal. Generally, a constant volume of water
is pumped around the system, being diverted through the by-pass by the control valve
if no heat output is required, giving constant pressure drops in the distribution pipework
and terminal circuits, with constant speed (flow volume) pumps being used.

The advantages of this type of system design meant easy sizing of control valves, with a
constant authority and system balancing. The disadvantages however, mean that water
is being pumped around the system even when there is no demand. Also, as water is
being diverted, ie returned ‘unused’, the required differential temperature (Δt) across the
boiler / chiller is compromised, therefore, reducing system efficiency.

3 or 4 Port Control Valves on terminal units

The move to variable volume system design meant the replacement of the 3 or 4 port
control valves with a 2 port control valve with no by-pass.

2 Port Control Valves

The use of 2 port control valves allowed the use of variable speed pumps which allows
significant pump energy savings at part load (reduced flow volume). Instead of diverting
the excess water through a by-pass, as is the case with the 3 & 4 port control valves,
the 2 port control valve allows reduction in mass flow rate.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 6
INTRODUCTION

Pump energy consumption is directly related to flow When considering reduced power consumption,
rate and can be evaluated using pump affinity laws; we must also be aware that as the pump speed
reduces so may the pump efficiency.
Q2 = Q1 (N2/N1) where Q
 = flow rate (m3.s-1)
p = pump pressure (Pa) The reduction in efficiency must be offset against the
p2 = p1 (Q2/Q1) 2
P = pump power (W)
energy savings.
P2 = P1 (Q2/Q1) 3 N = pump speed (revs/min-1)

It can be seen that flow rate varies in direct proportion

to pump speed, ie double the pump speed doubles
the flow rate, half the pump speed halves the flow rate.
Also, that pressure varies with a squared relationship
to flow, eg double the flow rate (or pump speed)
quadruples the pressure drop, halving the flow rate
results in a quarter of the pressure drop.

The third variant, pump power consumption,

is relevant to energy savings. Pump power has a
cubed relationship to flow rate, eg doubling the flow
rate results in eight times the power consumption,
Pump efficiency
halving the flow rate results in an eighth of the
power consumption.
Having looked at the good news, reduced energy
consumption and consequent reductions in CO2
emissions and carbon footprint, we now have to
consider the effects on flow rate and pressure drops
created by the changing control position of the 2 port
control valves.

The 2 port control valves allows variation in terminal

unit flow rates but causes changes in pipework
pressure losses.

The design of the control valves establishes a

relationship between valve open position and heat
output from the terminal unit.

As control valves open, partially open or fully close

throughout the system, the pressure fluctuation will
Pump speed vs running cost cause the flow rates through other control valves to
vary, thus upsetting the relationship between control
valve position and heat output.
The benefits of the reduced flow rates can be seen
from the reduction in power consumption and The DPCV is designed to create stable areas within
subsequent energy costs. systems having fluctuating flow rates. Therefore,
by installing DPCVs at strategic positions within
the system we can recreate stable areas and thus
maintain the control valve / heat output relationship,
ie the control valve authority.

7 DPCV / PICV
 INTRODUCTION

PICVs – an alternative approach

In more recent years, valve manufacturers have
offered the system designers an alternative solution
to overcome the fluctuation in terminal flow rates, the
PICV. The PICV combines the functions of the DPCV,
2 port control valve and the balancing valve into a
single valve and is normally installed on individual
terminal units.

 he controlled circuit is from ‘a’ (flow pipework)

T
to ‘b’ (return pipework)

Having created these stable areas, they can be

treated as independent sub-circuits within the
installation. Once set, the DPCV protects its controlled
sub-circuit from variations in flow rates caused by
control valve opening / closing in other circuits.
PICVs fitted to individual terminal units with FMD
(Flow Measurement Devices) in main branch

Whilst approaching the issues created by the

fluctuating flow rates in a different way to the DPCV,
both solutions offer advantages and disadvantages
over each other.

Both the DPCV and PICV will be fully discussed in the

following sections.

Independent sub-circuits

Each of the sub-circuits (1/2/3) is protected by the

DPCV from pressure / flow rate fluctuation in the
distribution pipework caused by the 2 port control
valves opening / closing.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 8
INTRODUCTION

Standard symbols used in this guide

Description Symbol

Hattersley Companion Valve with Impulse Tube

Hattersley Hook-Up with FODRV & Strainer Drain

Hattersley Hook-Up with PICV, FMD & Strainer Drain

DPCV

DoC (Drain Valve)

FMD (Flow Measurement Device)

FODRV (Fixed Orifice Double Regulation Valve)

Isolation Valve

PICV

CFR (Constant Flow Regulator)

Strainer

TP (Test point)

2 port control valve

3 port control valve

4 port control valve

9 DPCV / PICV
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

1.1 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

CONTROL VALVES (DPCV)
As the name suggests, the valve is designed to control differential pressure. It is installed
in a section of pipework and linked to another via an impulse (capillary) tube.

There are 2 designs of DPCVs, offering different functions;

1. Normally Open (NO) – closing on rising pressure

2. Normally Closed (NC) – opening on rising pressure

The Normally Open DPCV is used to control the differential pressure across a single
sub-circuit within a complete installation. As system pressures increase the DPCV closes
to absorb the additional available dynamic pressure. These are covered comprehensively
within this guide in the following sections.

The Normally Closed DPCV is used to create ‘bleed by-passes’ between flow and
return pipework. This type of DPCV opens as system pressures increase to allow flow.
Typically they are used to allow for minimum pump turndown and remove stagnant
pipework as 2 port control valves close allowing continued distribution of water
treatment. These are not covered in this guide.

DPCVs can be installed in either the flow or return pipework, provided that the correct
design of DPCV is selected to suit its installed position, ie a return mounted DPCV should
only be installed in the return pipework.

Return mounted Flow mounted

For ease and consistency, in this publication, DPCVs will be shown in return pipework,
which is the preferred installed position – see section 1.1.3

TECHNICAL GUIDE 10
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

1.1.1 H
 ow the DPCV controls
Differential Pressure
A DPCV has two distinct and separate sections;

the valve body

the actuator assembly

1.1.1.1. DPCV Valve Body

 he valve body is installed in the pipework and

T
includes the seat and disk / stem assembly to
regulate the flow rate.
DPCV actuator assembly

An impulse tube is used to connect the pressure

to the upper and lower pressure chambers. Some
DPCV designs incorporate an internal impulse
tube so the 2nd tube may not always be visible.
The impulse tube is only a means of transmitting
pressure, once filled with water there is no actual
flow through the impulse tube.

DPCV section showing disk / stem assembly

1.1.1.2. Actuator Assembly

The actuator assembly is attached to the body and

drives the disk / stem assembly to control the flow of
water across the DPCV, thus controlling the differential
pressure through the sub-circuit. It incorporates
upper and lower pressure chambers separated by a DPCV installed in return linked to flow
diaphragm.

The term ‘upper chamber’ refers to the chamber with The difference in pressure between the upper and
the DPCV in an upright position; the DPCV could lower chambers is the pressure drop across the
of course be installed in any orientation (there is sub-circuit protected by the DPCV.
sometimes a high temperature limitation on installed
position but not normally applicable to building services For fixed DPCVs there is a fixed pressure drop,
applications) so technically the upper chamber could depending on the spring fitted to the DPCV,
become the lower chamber. whereas, for adjustable DPCVs the pressure drop
in the sub-circuit is adjustable between a minimum
To save any confusion, we shall always refer to it as and maximum value.
the upper chamber.
Almost all DPCVs are now adjustable in design,
The pressure to the upper chamber acts to close the with fixed DPCVs only being used within multi
DPCV, whereas the pressure to the lower chamber manifold commissioning units, but even these
acts to open the DPCV. fixed spring DPCVs are being superseded by
adjustable DPCVs.
Irrespective of which DPCV design, flow or return
mounted, the pressure from the flow pipework is always
connected to the upper chamber acting as a closing
force, the pressure in the return pipework is always
connected to the lower, acting as an opening force.

11 DPCV / PICV
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

1.1.2 Sizing DPCVs

Sizing of conventional control valves equates the pressure drop across a circuit to the pressure
drop across the control valve, ie its authority.

DPCVs differ from other control valves because their response is due to a pressure imbalance
across an internal diaphragm.

The response time to pressure imbalance is instant, or can at least be considered to be instant.

Sizing of DPCVs considers two distinct and separate pressure drops.

1.1.2.1. Differential Pressure Control Range

The differential pressure control range of a DPCV will be specified by the manufacturer.

The use of a fixed differential pressure DPCV relies on knowing the pressure drop across
the circuit and sizing the DPCV to suit. If selection is incorrect, the DPCV, or at least the
diaphragm / spring assembly, needs to be changed.

More commonly in recent years, DPCVs are selected with an adjustable control range,
typically 5 - 50kPa for radiator circuits and 20 – 100kPa for circuits with coils (FCUs, AHUs etc).

An adjustable control range has the benefit of allowing for errors when calculating the pressure
drop across the circuit and being able to ‘fine tune’ the differential pressure to match specific
individual circuits as installed.

1.1.2.2. DPCV Pressure Drop

Because DPCVs are dynamic valves, ie constantly moving in response to variable system
conditions, the pressure drop across the DPCV will be constantly changing.

Manufacturers publish ‘fully open’ Kv values for all the different sizes of valves. These allow
us to calculate the pressure drop across the DPCV, in the fully open position, at required
design flow rates.

We can therefore select the DPCV size to suit specific pressure drop requirements.

Whilst this seems relatively simple, like all things in life, it proves to be not that simple!

If we first consider the ‘index’ circuit, any

additional resistance added to this circuit
has an impact on pump size and energy
consumption, the DPCV body would
therefore be sized to add only a ‘relatively’
low pressure drop.

Pressure drop (∆p) across DPCV

TECHNICAL GUIDE 12
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

Therefore a DPCV for radiator circuits might be The pump will be set to produce sufficient head to
selected with a fully open pressure drop of about deliver the required flow rate to the most remote sub-
3kPa, whereas, for a group of FCUs, the pressure circuit, ie the index. For sub-circuits nearer the pump
drop might be about 10kPa. discharge, the pump head available will be greater
than that required for the sub-circuit, the DPCV will
The sizing of DPCVs not in the index circuit could be therefore close to absorb the additional pump head.
considered more complex.
In this instance, as both sub-circuits are identical,
Applying Kirchhoff’s law (see Appendix 3) to the the index DPCV will operate at a near open position,
complete installation, we know that sub-circuits near whereas, the DPCV installed closer to the pump
the pump discharge will be subjected to the same discharge will operate in a more closed position, ie
differential pressure as the index sub-circuit. This higher differential across it albeit at the same flow rate
means that the additional available pressure nearer as the index sub-circuit.
the pump discharge will need to be absorbed within
the circuit. Traditionally, in constant flow systems, this If we knew what the additional pump head was at the
has been done using conventional commissioning closest DPCV sub-circuit, we could size this DPCV
valves. With variable flow systems, the DPCV absorbs with a smaller body, but the same actuator assembly
any additional / fluctuating pressure. control range, to increase the pressure drop across it
at the design flow rate.
If we consider two identical circuits, having the same
design flow rate and number of coils, separated by In theory, easy, but in practice getting sufficient data
several floors within an installation; from designers has proved difficult if not impossible.

Sizing of DPCVs should be discussed with

manufacturers to ensure correct selection.

Identical circuits separated by numerous floors 

13 DPCV / PICV
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

1.1.3 DPCV location

Firstly, before we consider the location within the installation, we need to understand
that DPCVs cannot be installed in ‘series’, ie where the water passing through one DPCV
also passes through another DPCV. If installed in series, the DPCVs will not find a control
position but will instead ‘hunt’ each other in an attempt to control the differential pressure
across the circuit.

DPCVs installed in series

DPCVs can only be installed in parallel, ie if we consider any terminal unit and follow a path
from the pump to the terminal unit and back to the pump, the water must only pass through
one DPCV.

DPCVs installed in parallel

As with all control valves, there is a relatively high pressure drop across the DPCV,
best practice suggests that it should be installed in the return pipework and linked to the
flow pipework (via the impulse tube). This keeps the terminals and individual 2 port control
valves in a higher pressure zone than otherwise would be the case if installed in the flow
pipework. By keeping the system pressure, combined static and dynamic (pump) pressure,
as high as possible the risk of cavitation is reduced – for an explanation of cavitation
see Appendix 1.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 14
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

 hen installed in the return pipework, the pressure before the

W
DPCV is higher than after the DPCV

 hen installed in the flow pipework, the pressure before the DPCV is
W
higher than after the DPCV, therefore control valves in lower pressure
zones increases the risk of cavitation

1.1.4 How the DPCV controls flow rate

As there is a direct relationship between differential pressure and flow rate, by controlling
the differential pressure between two points within a circuit the DPCV also controls the flow
rate. The pressure drop across any circuit is created by the volume of water passing through
it; increased flow rate increases the pressure drop and reduced flow rate decreases the
pressure drop. For example, we know that an increase in the flow rate of 20% increases the
pressure drop across the circuit by 44% - for an explanation of the flow rate / pressure drop
relationship (see Appendix 2).

By understanding this relationship, we can see that by having control over the differential
pressure drop between two connected points, ie the installed position of the DPCV and the
connected position of the impulse tube, we have control over the flow rate.

To fully understand how the DPCV controls the flow rate where there are multiple terminals
and control valves in the protected circuit, we first need to understand Kirchhoff’s 2nd law
(see Appendix 3), which states;

“ the total head loss in each parallel path (circuit)

caused by the flowing fluids must be equal
”

15 DPCV / PICV
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

Applying Kirchhoff’s Law, we know that the pressure drop through each of the terminal circuits must be
equal albeit the flow rates might be different. Conventional static balancing valves are used to adjust the
pressure drops in each of the terminal circuits so that all sub-circuit pressure drops are equal.

Pressure drop from ‘A’ to ‘B’ through each of the circuits must be equal

1.1.5 Effects of 2 port control valve opening or closing

There are two system conditions to consider:

1. effect of changes in other circuits throughout the installation

2. effect of changes within the DPCV protected sub-circuit.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 16
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

1. As control valves open / close in other areas of

the installation this causes changes to the total
flow rate and consequentially changes in the main
distribution pipework pressure losses, potentially
having the effect of changing the flow rates
through all other sub-circuits. The DPCV adjusts
its stem position to maintain a constant differential
pressure across the protected sub-circuit
maintaining the design flow rate.

 ingle terminal unit with 2 port control valve and DPCV in
S
return pipework linked to flow pipework

As the control valve closes, reducing the flow rate

and consequently the heat output of the terminal, the
DPCV senses a pressure rise in the flow pipework and
reacts by closing to keep the pressure drop across
the terminal sub-circuit constant, ie a lower flow rate
creating the same differential pressure due to the
control valve now being partially closed.

 luctuating distribution pressures increase / decrease

F If we now consider circuits containing multiple
available pressure at branch inlet. terminal units:
DPCV holds pressure constant between ‘a’ and ‘b’
If the DPCV is installed in a circuit containing multiple
2. As the control valves within the protected terminal units and control valves then the control of
sub-circuit open / close the pipework pressure the flow rate by the DPCV is more complex.
losses change affecting the differential pressure
drop across the controlled sub-circuit. As a
consequence of these pressure changes,
the individual terminal unit flow rates change
accordingly until the new flow rates create the
same differential pressure as the original design
flow rate.

 o further explain this, if we consider circuits

T
containing single terminal units:

If the DPCV is installed in a circuit containing a

single terminal unit with a 2 port control valve then
the operating function and control over the flow rate DPCV protected circuit
is easily understood – for the preferred installation
position see section 1.2.
If we consider the effect on circuits 1 & 3 if terminals
2 & 4 close, it helps us to understand how the DPCV
controls the flow rate through the ‘protected’ circuit.

17 DPCV / PICV
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

Control valves closed in terminal-circuits 2 & 4,

ie no flow through these terminals

We have already seen that the DPCV controls the differential pressure between two points
within the circuit, ‘a’ to ‘b’, and that the differential pressure is a resultant of the flow rate
through the circuit.

As terminals 2 & 4 are now closed, ie no flow, the flow rate through the main pipework changes
and as a consequence of the flow rate changes, the pipework pressure losses change.

As control valve closes, flow rate changes

The DPCV response is;

the water from the now closed terminals increases the flow rate through the open
terminal-circuits

DPCV senses a rise in differential pressure caused by the increased flow rate

DPCV closes, reducing total flow rate, to re-create the DPCV controlled differential
pressure set point through the two remaining open terminal sub-circuits

These steps of course happen instantaneously

TECHNICAL GUIDE 18
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL VALVES

The reduced total sub-circuit flow rate through the open terminal sub-circuits that are now
controlled by the DPCV is established by an interactive process. As the flow rate to terminals
2 & 4 starts to fall, the flow rates to terminals 1 & 3 starts to increase, increasing the differential
pressure across the open circuits with a squared relationship, ie 10% increase in flow creates a
21% increase in differential pressure.

As the two remaining open circuits have equal pressure drops across them (Kirchhoff’s 2nd
Law), the rise in flow rate will increase each individual terminal sub-circuit flow rate, keeping
the pressure drop across the circuits equal, albeit possibly with different flow rates.

Although the pressure drops will remain equal through the open terminal sub-circuits as the flow
rate increases, the actual flow rate increase may not increase equally, it is the differential pressure
that remains equal.

In all cases, the flow rate through the open terminal sub-circuits will increase above the design flow
rate, to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the relationship between pipework losses and
terminal sub-circuit losses.

As the DPCV controls the total differential pressure across the sub-circuit, ie pipework,
valves and coils etc, if the pipework losses reduce as terminals 2 & 4 close, the pressure
loss in the remaining terminal sub-circuits, ie 1 & 3, must increase to re-establish the DPCV
controlled set differential pressure.

If the pipework losses only reduce by a small amount, then the increase in flow rate will
be small, whereas if the pipework losses decrease by a large amount then the flow rate
increase will be greater.

There are of course times when the control valves will modulate (partially close) to reduce
the flow rate and hence the terminal output.

The DPCV controls the differential pressure between the two installed connection points
(DPCV position and connecting impulse tube connection point). As the 2 port control valve
moves to a partially closed position the design flow rate causes the differential pressure
across that individual circuit to increase. Since the overall differential pressure is controlled
by the DPCV, the flow rate through that circuit will fall to a flow rate that recreates the DPCV
set differential pressure. Hence the 2 port control valve has reduced the flow rate and
consequently the heat output of the terminal, but the total sub-circuit differential pressure
remains constant.

With one or more control valves in a partially open position, the total flow rate through the main
pipework runs will change affecting the pipework pressure drops. We are then in the same
scenario as when the control valves fully close, ie total flow rate changes to maintain the DPCV
set differential pressure.

The differential pressure across each of the terminal unit

circuits within the protected sub-circuit remains at the value
of the DPCV set controlled value

19 DPCV / PICV
 SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

1.2 System design incorporating Initially, during the 1990s when variable volume
systems started to become more common, a single
DPCVs DPCV would have been installed in the plant room
This guide is intended to give an understanding of the to control the differential between the flow and
role that DPCVs play within variable volume systems return pipework.
and not an in depth system design guide. Other
system items; boilers, chillers, pumps etc are more
correctly covered by experts from manufacturers of
these items.

1.2.1 Protecting the Control Valves

A well designed variable volume system is one that

satisfies the water distribution at both maximum
and minimum load conditions. By satisfying these
distribution conditions, it is likely that the water
distribution for all intermediate conditions will also be Single DPCV installed in plant room
good.

To ensure the highest possible system efficiency, it It quickly became apparent that a single DPCV, whilst
is important to preserve the operation of the control better than no attempt at differential pressure control,
valve. did not offer the best solution.

Having established the BMS (Building Management

System) control over the heat output from the terminal
unit, by giving it control over the flow rate through the
2 port control valve, established by its authority, we
need to ensure that this control is not undermined.

We therefore install DPCVs at strategic positions

throughout the system to maintain the BMS control
over heat output from the terminals.

To ensure that DPCVs give the required protection to

the control valves, it is important that the sizes of the
sub-circuits that they protect are considered. DPCVs in risers

The two extremes for quantities of DPCVs are;

In larger building installations the DPCV was moved
a single DPCV controlling the whole installation from the plant room to the individual risers.

a DPCV installed with every control valve This meant more, smaller DPCVs each controlling a
smaller circuit than the single plant room DPCV. This
If you have too large a circuit the DPCV will not gave better control over the fluctuating
respond to changes as some of the control valves system pressures.
open / close.
Whilst offering better control, the circuits controlled by
the DPCV are still quite large.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 20
SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

DPCV with individual control valve

Whilst combined DPCV and control valve arrange-

DPCV in branches ments give the highest control valve authority, this
solution also gives the highest installed cost.
The next design change saw the DPCVs move from
the risers to the branches off the risers. Again, this re- Selection of a design solution between the single
duced the size of the circuits controlled by the DPCV, DPCV in the plant room, trying to control the complete
ie more smaller DPCVs. system, and combined DPCV and control valve is a
compromise between system control, energy usage
and installed cost.

One solution is not necessarily better than another,

the designer must take a view on what he / she is
trying to achieve.

If we look at two totally different requirements, it will help

us understand how the decision is made;

shopping centre

trading room

When considering the selection of a DPCV for a

large space, possibly with high roof areas, where the
DPCVs in sub-circuits doors are constantly being opened, the number of
people within the space is constantly changing and
This approach is still common but moving the DPCVs the time they spend in the area varies, then selection
into sub-circuits within the branches offers still better of the combined DPCV and single 2 port control
control. As a general rule, DPCVs should be installed valve arrangement could be considered to offer an
as close as possible to the control valve or valves they unnecessary high level of control with high installed
are protecting. costs, whereas a DPCV protecting a series of terminal
units would seem to offer a more practical solution.
From a control point of view, the ideal position for
the DPCV is with each individual 2 port control valve, At the other extreme, we know that where there is high
installed on the outlet of the control valve linked to activity decision making, if the occupants are either
the inlet pipework by the impulse tube. too hot or too cold then their decision making ability
is impaired. Too hot increases the risk of mistakes,
whereas too cold slows the decision making process.
Because the benefits of accurate, quick decision
making benefits the company, the higher installed
cost for better control is a more viable option.

Somewhere between the extremes there is a

‘compromise’ position that matches the requirements
of the client.

21 DPCV / PICV
 SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

1.2.2 CIBSE GUIDELINES

CIBSE guidelines recommend that a DPCV protected

sub-circuit should not have a
differential pressure greater than
150% of the differential pressure
across the end (least favoured
/ index) terminal unit sub-circuit
at design flow rate, ie if the
differential pressure at design
flow rate is 40kPa across the
end terminal unit sub-circuit then System index circuit
the DPCV controlled differential
pressure setting should be no As the DPCV is set to 150% of the differential pressure
greater than 150% of 40kPa = of the last terminal sub-circuit (the pressure drop from
60kPa. ‘A’ to ‘B’) a 50% increase in differential pressure gives
a 22% increase in flow rate – see Appendix 2.

If this increase in flow rate is not acceptable, then the

DPCV control differential pressure across the circuit
needs to be reduced from 150% to a lower acceptable
level, ie 120% gives a possible flow rate increase of
less than 10%. To achieve this, a smaller sub-circuit
must be selected, ie if the original design had 12
terminals (CIBSE recommendation), then reducing the
number of terminal units in the sub-circuit, and hence
the pipework lengths, will reduce the sub-circuit DPCV
controlled pressure drop.
End terminal circuit from ‘A’ to ‘B’

CIBSE suggest that by restricting the differential

pressure to 150% of the differential pressure across
the end terminal unit sub-circuit at design flow rate,
the protected zone could accommodate up to 12
terminals.

Whilst we might use this as a general indicator,

obviously, it depends on the mix of pipework sizes,
terminals and terminal flow rates.

By restricting the protected sub-circuit differential

pressure to 150% of the end terminal unit sub-circuit
differential pressure, we ensure that under part-
load conditions (reduced flow rates through some
terminals) the individual terminal unit flow rates
through other terminals will not increase by more
than 22%. This increase in flow rate will normally be
acceptable.

If we consider the worst case scenario when all

terminal units, except the last one, are calling for
no heat (control valves in the closed position), the
pipework losses to and from the last terminal unit
sub-circuit tend towards zero and effectively become
zero. This means that the DPCV controlled differential
pressure is all across the last terminal unit sub-circuit,
ie from ‘A’ to ‘B’.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 22
SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

1.2.3 TERMINAL UNIT TYPE

Another consideration for the designer is the terminal unit type.

For terminal units that use natural convection to emit heat into a room, eg radiators,
passive chilled beams etc, the issue of overflow could be considered to be less important
than where the terminal unit has forced air, eg FCU (Fan Coil Units). Of course any
overflow could mean lower efficiency and higher energy costs.

Also, it could also be argued that for FCUs with ultra-low flow rates, ie 0.010l/s, a 50%
overflow is still only a flow rate of 0.015l/s, ie 50% of not a lot is still not a lot! If the 2 port
control valves are modulating, then any overflow will be reduced as the BMS re-positions
the control valve to reduce the terminal unit heat output. The designer must consider the
‘bigger’ picture.

For single radiators in stairwells it might be acceptable for the flow rate to increase
unchecked. The total design flow rate to the stairwell radiators might total 0.060l/s (6
radiators each having a flow rate of 0.010l/s) so at 150% or 200% overflow the total flow
rate would increase to 0.120l/s. Although a relatively high percentage increase in flow rate,
when viewed as part of a total system flow rate, which might be several litres per second,
the additional flow might be considered negligible. When using TRVs (Thermostatic
Radiator Valves), consideration needs to be given to the maximum system pressure that
the TRVs will close against so increased flow rates might not be acceptable for this reason.

1.2.4 PREFERRED DPCV INSTALLED POSITION

There are three preferred options, or a combination of these options, for the DPCV
installed positions as well as recommendations for mixed terminal unit installation;

main floor branch

sub-branches within the floor

individual terminal units

mixed terminal unit control requirement

Typical layout with no DPCV shown

We can consider a typical installation where there are a number of risers supplying a
number of floors as shown.

23 DPCV / PICV
 SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

1.2.4.1 DPCV installed in main floor branches

If we consider the criteria for DPCV positioning, we could conclude that as there are
12 terminal units or fewer on each floor then a single DPCV installed on the main branch
would be the correct position.

DPCVs installed in the main floor branches

We would still need to consider the branch pressure drop compared to the last terminal unit
sub-circuit pressure drop to establish if it is within the 150% recommended by CIBSE or at a
lower acceptable pressure rise.

Having confirmed this, we should also consider;

what are we trying to achieve?

is the level of control over the flow rate good enough?

is the balance between installed cost and control correct?

are we minimising primary energy use?

If we are happy with these general requirements, and any other particular project
requirements, then installing the DPCVs at the branches would offer the preferred solution.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 24
SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

1.2.4.2 DPCV installed in sub-branches within the floors

If a better level of control is required, then we could look at this option. Looking at the
pipework configuration, it divides nicely into smaller manageable sub-circuits each having
three, four or five terminals. There is less variation in total flow rate in each of the sub-circuits
due to there being fewer terminal units, with less ‘shared’ pipework.

This gives better control over the flow rate and hence better control over the terminal unit heat
output – the main objective.

Obviously this would mean the installation of more DPCVs than in Option 1.

DPCVs installed in sub-branches 

First thoughts might be ‘good news for the valve manufacturer then’?

But we know that as pipework divides into sub-circuits the diameter reduces. Therefore, it is
not always true that more valves cost more, indeed reducing from larger flanged valves in the
main branch down to more threaded valves in sub-circuits could save on total installed costs -
valve purchase and installation costs.

25 DPCV / PICV
 SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

1.2.4.3 DPCV installed with individual terminal units A decision then has to be made;

For the majority of the terminal units in a ‘typical’ do the best we can?
installation, installing a DPCV with every terminal unit
control valve is probably not a realistic option. make changes to the pipework to create
smaller sub-circuits?
Whilst this option offers the greatest control over the
flow rate the total installed costs are high and this level consider other design options?
of control is possibly not needed.
ignore some terminals as they cannot be
included in groups with others?

etc, etc?

DPCV with individual terminal unit

There are of course some items of plant that require

better flow control than others. We could take the view
that control over the flow rate through a radiator is not
too critical whereas the flow rate through an AHU
(Air Handling Unit) could be considered more critical.

When installing a DPCV with an individual terminal

unit, there is a preferred installed position – see
section 1.2.1.  loor branches are divided into small manageable
F
sub-circuits with FCUs in groups protected by DPCVs
with an individual DPCV protecting the larger AHUs
1.2.4.4 Mixed DPCV installation for terminal unit
control
Single terminal units, generally radiators or FCUs
In practice, within a typical installation, if there is such installed off main pipework runs, generally cause the
a thing as a typical installation, there will be a mixture biggest problem when trying to integrate terminal units
of terminal units and control requirements. The into small manageable sub-circuits.
installed position of the DPCV therefore needs to be
considered with regards to the individual installation If we consider a series of single radiators installed
requirements and not as a ‘one size fits all’ solution. in the stairwells of a three story building, floor level
and intermediate levels, as the individual radiators
Floor branches are divided into small manageable cannot be incorporated into the pipework runs to other
sub-circuits with FCUs in groups protected by DPCVs terminal units, we could decide that the best solution
with an individual DPCV protecting the larger AHUs. is to install a DPCV at each radiator.

There are of course some instances when looking at The approach would satisfy the requirement for
the pipework layout drawings, there are no obvious all terminal units to be protected from overflow
positions for the DPCVs to be installed. conditions, but could be considered to be a ‘little
over the top’ for what the designer is trying to do –
background heating in the stairwell.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 26
SYSTEM DESIGN
INCORPORATING DPCVS

Another approach could be to accept overflow

through the radiators as we know that overflow in
radiators does not significantly increase heat output
and a greater heat output from these radiators may not
be an issue, but could prove to be an issue if it results

CFR installed in return of each stairwell radiator

1.3 Typical Circuits Incorporating

DPCVs
Whilst there is probably no such thing as a typical
circuit there are, however, circuits that we see in
Radiators installed on each floor and intermediate levels common use.

In this section we will discuss ‘typical’ valve

in serious overheating, noise and pipework vibration. arrangements associated with various terminal units /
However, if TRVs are used we could find ourselves in items of plant.
a position where the TRVs cannot close against the
possible high pump pressures available, as TRVs are Typical circuits show a 2 port control valve, although,
usually limited to the pressure they can close against. in some instances 3 or 4 port control valves would
If TRVs are not used then this is not an issue. be used.

If we consider what the designer is trying to achieve, We have included the installation of pressure
we could offer a different solution. test points (TP) at various positions to facilitate
maintenance, verification of system operation and
If we accept that the radiators need protecting trouble shooting. Whilst it could be argued that these
from overflow, by installing CFRs (Constant Flow are ‘nice to have but not necessary’, we have found
Regulators) in each of the radiator circuits we are their inclusion in systems to be invaluable when
guaranteed that there will be no overflow. However, the installed system doesn’t seem to be working
because the CFRs are designed to give a single as expected!
constant flow rate, the TRVs effectively become on /
off control valves, so we need to ask the question –
‘does it matter’? 1.3.1 Valve associated with the DPCV

Before we look at the general valves required in

a circuit, we need to consider valves specifically
associated with the DPCV.

There are two methods commonly used for setting

the DPCV;

1. measuring differential pressure

2. measuring flow rate

27 DPCV / PICV
 TYPICAL CIRCUITS USING DPCVS

1.3.1.2 Setting to Design Flow Rate

In Section 1, we discussed the relationship between

flow rate and pressure drop. As we always know the
required flow rate through a sub-circuit, but not the
actual pressure drop, we can therefore set the DPCV
by measuring flow rate to achieve the correct pressure
drop across the sub-circuit at design flow rate. We do
not need to know the value of the pressure drop, but
as there is only one pressure drop possible at design
flow rate, the DPCV set control pressure must be
DPCV controlled sub-circuit from ‘a’ to ‘b’ correct for the design flow rate.

1.3.1.1 Setting sub-circuit Differential Pressure

Although this method is easily done, in practice

it proves difficult as the pressure drop across the
sub-circuit is not usually known and not easily
calculated accurately. If a pressure drop value had
been calculated at design, it usually varied due to
installation constraints / variations to anticipated
installation, ie change to route of pipework.

This system of setting the DPCV is now almost never

used, with the exception of when a DPCV is used to By installing an FMD we can simply set the DPCV
protect PICVs from excessive system pressure, ie the whilst measuring the flow rate
DPCV is used to set a ‘glass ceiling’ – see section
on PICVs.
Using flow rate to set the DPCV is almost always used
as it removes the issues associated with differences
between the on-paper layout drawing and the actual
on-site installation.

Test points in sub-circuit

Originally DPCVs were set to allow a specific pressure

drop across a sub-circuit. This was achieved by
installing pressure test points in the flow and return  raditionally, the impulse tube is connected to the
T
pipework and adjusting the DPCV to give the required pipework via a pipework tee with a threaded adaptor
pressure drop. in the branch of the tee

TECHNICAL GUIDE 28
TYPICAL CIRCUITS USING DPCVS

Having established that the best way of setting the 1.3.2 Air Handling Units (AHU)
DPCV is to measure the flow rate, instead of installing
a separate FMD, impulse tube connection tee and AHUs are usually larger terminal units, although
an isolation valve, a simpler and neater solution is to strictly speaking they are not terminal units but heat
install a single valve with these three functions – such exchangers having relatively high flow rates. They are
as the Hattersley DP1732 Companion Valve usually single items of plant, albeit with a combination
of coils,
i.e. heating, frost and chilled. It could also be argued
that as a heat exchanger, ie water to air, used to
condition the quality of the distributed air, the control
over the flow rate is more crucial than some other
terminal units, so a higher level of control is required.

Hattersley DP1732 Companion Valve

AHU with typical valve arrangement

The Companion Valve offers;

Valve arrangements could be;
flow measurement
impulse tube connection point control valve used to control / regulate the flow
pipework isolation rate and therefore, heat output
flow regulation isolation valves should be installed in the flow
plugged bosses – to allow test points and return pipework as well as in the flushing
to be added if required by-pass. The flushing by-pass should be as
close as possible to the coil; this ensures that
as much of the pipework as possible is cleaned
in the system flushing process.
test points should be installed either side of the
strainer to help identify when the strainer needs
cleaning.
the drain valve for the AHU should be of
sufficient size to facilitate coil ‘back-flushing’.
pressure test points should be fitted on the inlet
and outlet to the AHU coil to allow the pressure
Companion Valve used to connect impulse tube to pipework
drop across the coil to be measured to identify
a blocked / partially blocked coil.

29 DPCV / PICV
 TYPICAL CIRCUITS USING DPCVS

Where possible, applying best practice (see Section Valve arrangements could be;
1), the DPCV should be installed in the return
pipework and connected to the Companion Valve control valve used to control / regulate the flow
installed in the flow pipework with the impulse tube – rate and therefore, heat output
see 1.2.1 for DPCV position for control valves. isolation valves should be installed in the flushing
by-pass and in the flow and return pipework, the
flushing by-pass should be as close as possible to
1.3.3 Heat Exchangers (HEx)
the coil.
Heat Exchangers are used to pass the energy, test points should be installed either side of the
in the form of water temperature, from the primary strainer to help identify when the strainer needs
circuit to a secondary circuit. They therefore have a cleaning, with the strainer being fitted as close
requirement for two groups of valve arrangements, as possible to the branch inlet.
primary and secondary.
the drain valve for the HEx should be of
sufficient size to facilitate coil ‘back-flushing’.
pressure test points should be fitted on the inlet
and outlet to the HEx coil to allow the pressure
drop across the coil to be measured to identify
a blocked / partially blocked coil.
a safety valve can be added to protect the
HEx against over pressure and / or raised
temperature.

Where possible, applying best practice (see Section

Heat exchanger 1), the DPCV should be installed in the return
pipework and connected to the Companion Valve
installed in the flow pipework with the impulse tube –
As items of plant, the control over the flow rate see 1.2.1 for DPCV position for control valves.
is usually considered to be crucial to system
efficiency. HEx are sized on primary and secondary
flow rates and temperatures, it is therefore critical 1.3.4 Fan Coil Units (FCU)
for the performance of the HEx that these are FCUs have relatively low flow rates so are typically
tightly controlled. supplied by 15 or 20mm pipework. In variable
volume systems, they are usually grouped into small
manageable sub-circuits protected by a single DPCV
(see Section 1.1.3).

Heat exchanger with typical valve arrangement

Grouped FCUs protected by single DPCV

TECHNICAL GUIDE 30
TYPICAL CIRCUITS USING DPCVS

In line with the latest BSRIA Pre-commissioning

Cleaning of Pipework Systems Guide, BG 29/2012,
we recommend the installation of DoC (drain valves)
on the inlet and outlet of the FCU coil, as small size
control valves restrict the water velocity when carrying
out the coil back-flushing.

The addition of a second DoC in the return pipework

between the coil and the control valve allows back-
flushing at full velocity without passing through the
control valve.
Hook-Up
Valve arrangements could be;
control valve used to control / regulate the flow Hattersley Hook-Up manifold assemblies are supplied
rate and therefore, heat output labelled for specific terminal units. The use of
Hattersley Hook-Up ensures that the commissioning
isolation valves should be installed in the flushing
valve sizing is correct for the required flow rate.
by-pass and in the flow and return pipework, the
flushing by-pass should be as close as possible to Other installed valve arrangements could be where
the coil. 3 or 4 port control valves are required. This is
the drain valve for the FCU should be of sometimes required by the system designer to build in
sufficient size to facilitate coil ‘back-flushing’. a minimum flow rate requirement providing;

pressure test points should be fitted on the inlet minimum pump turn down
and outlet to the FCU to allow the pressure drop distribution of system inhibitor
across the coil to be measured to identify a local heating / chilled water to terminal units
blocked / partially blocked coil.
FCUs are selected throughout the installation to be
fitted with a 3 or 4 port control valve, the sum of the flow
rates providing the minimum required flow rate. The last
terminal in a pipework run is usually selected as this
maximises reduction of stagnant water in the pipework.

Hattersley Hook-Up

As an alternative to installing single valves, a terminal

unit manifold assembly such as the Hattersley Hook- FCU group with 3 Port Control Valve on last FCU
Up could be used.

Manifold assemblies are made to meet the specific

requirements of the individual installation, ie custom
designed, and usually include;

isolation in flow and return

isolation in flushing by-pass
strainer in flow (can have integral flushing valve)
drain valves
commissioning station
(static valve or PICV – see Section 2)

31 DPCV / PICV
 TYPICAL CIRCUITS USING DPCVS

1.3.5 Radiators

As radiators rely on natural air convection across the radiator surface to pass the heat
from the water into the room environment, the valve arrangement is relatively simple,
and might include;

isolation valve in return pipework

TRV (Thermostatic Radiator Valve) and Lockshield Valve

DPCV protecting radiator circuit

Strainers are sometimes added at the main branches; if installed an additional isolation
valve would be required.

Radiator circuit with strainer added

Depending on the regime adopted for minimum flow, is it common to see an end of branch
bleed by-pass. The sum of the by-pass flow rates should add up to the minimum required
flow rate.

Radiator circuit with by-pass

Drain valves (not shown) are usually installed throughout the system to allow draining of
small sections of the installation.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 32
TYPICAL CIRCUITS USING DPCVS

1.3.6 Chilled Beams In line with the latest BSRIA Pre-commissioning

Cleaning of Pipework Systems Guide, BG 29/2012,
Although Chilled Beams are available as passive (no we recommend the installation of DoC (drain valves)
fan), active (with integral fan) or as an installed hybrid on the inlet and outlet of the Chilled Beam. Small size
option (passive beam with forced air from ducting) the control valves restrict the water velocity when carrying
valve arrangement is the same. Different 2 port control out the coil back-flushing.
valve actuators are used depending on the required
controllability, ie passive beams will usually have 3 The addition of a second DoC in the return pipework
point (on / off) actuators, whereas active and hybrid between the coil and the control valve allows back-
beams will usually have modulating actuators. flushing at full velocity without passing through the
control valve.

Chilled Beams with typical valve arrangement

Valve arrangements could be;

Hattersley Hook-Up
control valve used to control / regulate the flow
rate and therefore, heat output
isolation in flow and return As an alternative to installing single valves, a terminal
unit manifold assembly like the Hattersley Hook-Up
isolation in flushing by-pass could be used.
strainer in flow (can have integral flushing valve)
commissioning station (static valve or PICV –
see Section 2)
the drain valve for the Chilled Beams should be
of sufficient size to facilitate coil ‘back-flushing’.
pressure test points should be fitted on the inlet
and outlet to the Chilled Beams to allow the
pressure drop across the coil to be measured to
identify a blocked / partially blocked coil.

Chilled beams fitted with the Hattersley Hook-Up replacing

the individual valves

33 DPCV / PICV
 SYSTEM BALANCING USING DPCVS

1.3.7 Multi-manifold Commissioning Systems 1.4 System Commissioning using

Where the installation allows for grouping of terminals, DPCVs
usually FCUs and Chilled Beams, a Multi-manifold
The use of DPCVs to create a series of small pressure
Commissioning System can be used.
protected sub-circuits within the complete installation,
allows the commissioning engineer to balance each
sub-circuit using the conventional ‘proportional balancing
method’.

For an in-depth explanation of proportional balancing

please contact us or refer to publications by;

CIBSE (Chartered Institution of Building

Services Engineers)
www.cibse.org

BSRIA (Building Services Research

Information Association)
www.bsria.co.uk

CSA ( Commissioning Specialist Association).

www.csa.org.uk

The convention of proportional balancing dictates that

the least favoured (index) terminal unit is identified
Hattersley MultiComm Commissioning System in the initial scan of the system. Having identified the
least favoured terminal unit, the balancing process is
These commissioning systems incorporate a DPCV, carried out working from the ‘least favoured’ terminal
removing the requirement for DPCVs to be installed unit towards the pump.
elsewhere within the pipework installation.
As each individual sub-circuit is independent, being
They also incorporate: protected by the DPCV, balancing the sub-circuits can
be completed in any order. Conventional balancing,
isolation valves ie starting at the individual least favoured terminal unit
control valves of the complete system, rather than the least favoured
commissioning valve within a sub-circuit, is not necessary.
strainer
drain On large projects this could allow balancing of some
areas as construction is still being completed in
Multi-manifold Commissioning Systems are supplied other areas.
in fully insulated boxes, having the benefit of removing
the requirement to insulate individual pipework
components.

Also supplied with PICVs – see Section 2

DPCV protected sub-branch

TECHNICAL GUIDE 34
SYSTEM BALANCING USING DPCVS

If we consider a sub-circuit where the pressure is being

held constant by a DPCV, the sub-circuit differential
pressure across all terminal units, ie the difference
between pressure at ‘a’ and ‘b’, in the sub-circuit is
held constant at the DPCV set control pressure (see
Appendix 3).

The differential pressure is dictated by the flow rate.

There is only one possible flow rate associated with
every differential pressure value, higher flow rates give
higher differential pressures and lower flow rates give
lower differential pressures. DPCV holds differential pressure constant between ‘a’ & ‘b’

An outline of the balancing procedure would be;

The DPCV is now set to control the differential
1. set the DPCV to give a total flow rate through the pressure across the individual terminal circuits.
sub-circuit of about 110% DFR (Design Flow Rate),
as measured through the FMD (Flow Measurement Each individual terminal circuit is now in balance with
Device) the other terminal units in the same sub-circuit to the
correct individual, possibly different, flow rates but with
2. the DPCV will now control the flow rate by the same differential pressure across each terminal
controlling the differential pressure, albeit we unit circuit (see Appendix 3).
do not know what the value of the differential
pressure is
1.5 Trouble Shooting DPCV Circuits
3. measure the flow rate at the index terminal unit
and calculate the %DFR There are various reasons that the DPCV may not
be controlling the sub-circuit differential pressure
a. DFR = actual flow rate divided by design correctly, which could include;
flow rate multiplied by 100 to convert to
percentage
1.5.1 DPCV not operating
4. whilst still monitoring the flow rate through the
index terminal unit, measure the flow rate though There are five main reasons that this could occur:
the next terminal unit

5. calculate %DFR for the second terminal unit 1.5.1.1 Blocked Impulse Tube

6. adjust the second terminal unit commissioning

valve until at the same %DFR as the index
Because the impulse tube
terminal unit is used to pass the pressure
from one section of pipework
7. repeat 4 /5 /6 for the remaining terminals to the DPCV installed in the
working towards the pump other section of pipework,
the inlet into the DPCV is
8. measure the total sub-circuit flow rate through only drilled with a small hole,
FMD or Companion Valve typically about 1mm in smaller
sized DPCVs.
9. whilst measuring total flow rate, adjust DPCV
until the total flow rate is within specification
Impulse tube connection to pressure chamber
10. if pressure test points are installed at ‘a’ & ‘b’,
record sub-circuit differential pressure.

35 DPCV / PICV
 TROUBLE SHOOTING DPCV CIRCUITS

During operation there is no flow, pressure If, after the initial release of water from the upper
transmission being only through the impulse tube; chamber, water continually runs from the impulse tube
therefore the entrance hole is kept deliberately port then there is a leak path between upper and lower
small to prevent ingress of particles into the DPCV chambers, probably a split diaphragm.
chambers.

To check if the impulse tube is clear of blockages and 1.5.1.4 L

 ow Differential Pressure across
therefore pressure can be passed through it to the the controlled sub-circuit
DPCV chamber, disconnect the impulse tube at the
DPCV end.

If the impulse tube is fitted with an isolation valve,

it should be closed before disconnection of the impulse
tube and then opened to allow the system water to
bleed through the impulse tube into a container.

If not fitted with an isolation valve, care should be

taken when loosening the compression nut as
the impulse tube will be subjected to full system
pressure. When loosened, water can be bled out into
a container.
Drilled and tapped bosses for test points
To check if the inlet hole to the DPCV chamber is
blocked, disconnect the impulse tube, and view
If the water flow rate through the protected sub-circuit
through the compression adaptor.
is insufficient to create a differential pressure equal to
the minimum DPCV setting, the DPCV will remain fully
1.5.1.2 Trapped Air in Impulse Tube open and appear not to be working.

As we have discussed, the function of the impulse To check this, you will need to have pressure test
tube is to pass the pressure from the pipework to points in both the flow and return pipework.
the relevant pressure chamber within the DPCV. Any
The Hattersley range of DPCVs and Companion
entrapped air, being a compressible gas, within the
Commissioning Valves have drilled and plugged
impulse tube will affect the response of the DPCV to
bosses that allow pressure test points to be added if
pressure changes.
none are available in the installed pipework.
It is therefore important that the impulse tube is bled of
Take a circuit pressure drop reading between the flow
air to ensure correct DPCV function.
and return pipework and check to see if it is above the
minimum of the DPCV range.
1.5.1.3 Split Diaphragm in DPCV

If the diaphragm becomes split, the pressure in

the high and low pressure chambers will equalise,
therefore, the DPCV will not react to changing
differential pressures.

To check for a split

diaphragm, disconnect the
impulse tube and check if
water constantly runs out of
the disconnected impulse
tube port.

DPCV with split diaphragm

TECHNICAL GUIDE 36
SYSTEM BALANCING USING DPCVS

If below the differential pressure requirements; Also note, that by increasing the resistance
through the sub-circuit to allow the DPCV to
DPCV will remain fully open, not controlling the work within range, additional resistance could
differential pressure and subsequently the flow be added to the pump duty. If the sub-circuit
rate, until a flow rate increase creates a higher is not the system least favoured (index) circuit
differential pressure. The DPCV will then control then increasing resistance may be acceptable,
the differential pressure to its pressure setting. whereas, if it is the least favoured circuit then
additional resistance may not be acceptable.
A common practice is to install additional
resistance to the sub-circuit to raise the If the selected DPCVs minimum control
controlled differential pressure. This can be differential pressure is greater than the actual
done by installing a DRV, preferably in the return sub-circuit differential pressure, the DPCV
pipework or by adding resistance to the least should be changed for another with a lower
favoured terminal unit sub-circuit, ie closing the control range. On larger DPCVs, it may be
commissioning valve which would normally be possible to change just the actuator assembly.
left fully open.

Care must be taken when adding a DRV to 1.5.1.5 Insufficient flow through controlled sub-
increase the sub-circuit resistance as the circuit
additional resistance is only added at design
flow rate. As control valves close and flow rate  here are two main reasons that insufficient flow rates
T
reduces, the additional resistance added by are achieved:
the DRV reduces (see Appendix 2) so the sub-
circuit differential could again fall outside the Insufficient available pump pressure
DPCV control range.
If the pump has been undersized or the variable speed
set too low, then some circuits may suffer from low
flow rates.

 o verify this, whilst monitoring the flow rate through the

T
DPCV protected sub-circuit, increase the pump speed
(or close other circuits to make more water available
for this sub-circuit). If the flow rate increases then there
was insufficient pump pressure available for the design
flow rate to be achieved within this sub-circuit and
consequently through the complete system.

 owever, if diversity is designed into the system then

H
it will not be possible to achieve the design flow rate
 RV installed in return to increase controlled differential
D
through all sub-circuits simultaneously.
pressure in controlled circuit

Note that when adding an additional DRV to

create resistance, it must be in a section of
pipework that the total flow passes through.

37 DPCV / PICV
 TROUBLE SHOOTING DPCV CIRCUITS

Sub-circuit differential pressure above maximum DPCV setting

If the DPCV is set to its highest differential pressure control setting and the flow rate is not
being achieved, then the differential pressure across the controlled sub-circuit for the design
flow rate is above the maximum setting of the DPCV.

To verify this, whilst monitoring the flow rate, increase the pump speed (or close other
circuits to make more water available for this sub-circuit). If the flow rate does not increase
then the differential pressure that would be created by the design flow rate is higher than the
DPCV maximum setting.

Alternatively, if an isolation valve has been installed in the impulse tube, it can be closed to
‘de-activate’ the DPCV. The DPCV will remain in the fully open position irrespective of system
pressure. If the pump speed is now increased, the flow rate in the sub-circuit should rise to
achieve the DFR. If it does, then the DPCV control range is too low, whereas if it does not
then it indicates that the pump is undersized, or possibly that diversity has been applied so
100%DFR can not be achieved everywhere.

To rectify this, if the DPCV control range was shown to be too low, the DPCV needs to be
changed for another having a higher differential pressure control range.

Usually, for larger DPCVs the control spring assembly (actuator) can be replaced whilst
leaving the valve body in the pipework.

For smaller DPCVs the complete valve will need to be changed as it is not generally possible
to change the control spring assembly.

1.5.2. Hysteresis

Mechanical assemblies like the DPCV actuator assembly include springs, diaphragms etc
that operate differently when under compression or being relaxed: this phenomenon is
known as hysteresis.

Graph showing hysteresis

If we look at a graph plotting flow rate against differential pressure whilst the DPCV operating
spring is being compressed and then relaxed, we see that for the set DPCV controlled
differential pressure through the circuit the flow rate varies slightly.

To help manage hysteresis, some consultants insist that all DPCVs should be set with the
same pressure conditions, ie on rising (or falling) system pressures only.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 38
DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

2.1 PRESSURE INDEPENDENT

CONTROL VALVES
(PICVs)
Technically, these control valves also perform a balancing function so perhaps
should more correctly be referred to as Pressure Independent Balancing and
Control Valves (PIBCV).

As they perform several functions they are sometimes referred to as Combination

valves, with the ‘C’ for Control being substituted for ‘C’ for Combination.

In this document we have used the generally accepted term PICV to denote this valve type.

PICVs as a product were used within the industrial process industry for a number of
years before being introduced into Building Services.

Within the Building Services industry they are relatively new, dating back to the 1990s,
although not in common use. Being a valve that moved to Building Services from the
process industries, physical size and cost was prohibitive for use with terminal units,
therefore, the main use was only for larger items of plant.

The move in system design to variable volume created an opportunity for valve
manufacturers to look for pressure control solutions.

Since about 2003 several Building Services manufacturing companies have started to
mass produce PICVs. This has reduced the size as well as the cost.

The functions of the PICV are:

differential pressure control

adjustable pre-set flow rate
actuated flow control.

PICV functions

39 DPCV / PICV
 DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

2.1.1 HOW THE PICV WORKS As the pressure drop within the PICV is being held
constant by the differential pressure controller, whilst
2.1.1.1 Differential Pressure Control setting, the open area around the disk will change
resulting in a change to the flow rate. The new set flow
As the flow rates in the distribution pipework fluctuate rate recreates the constant seat differential pressure
to match demand, the available pressure at individual controlled by the differential pressure controller.
terminal units varies. Without differential pressure Having set a new flow rate, it will stay constant at the
control, this variation in available pressure has the new set value.
effect of changing the flow rate through the terminal
sub-circuit, Commonly, manufacturers publish tables giving flow
ie an increase in pressure gives an increased flow rate. rates at the PICV set positions, or instructions of how
to calculate the set position.
To control these fluctuations in distribution pressure,
PICVs are fitted to individual terminal units.

Typical tables for PICV set positions

Pressure drop across seat

Example of calculated set position;

To negate these fluctuating pressures, the PICV
maintains a constant pressure drop across its seat DN20; fully open flow rate = 0.280l/s;
P1 to P2, therefore maintaining a constant flow rate required flow rate = 0.260l/s
to the terminal.
Set position =
 0.260/0.280 x 100 = 92.9 (actual)
= 93% in ‘real life’
2.1.1.2 Adjustable Pre-set flow rate

Different manufacturers use various methods to set

the flow rate. Essentially, they all do the same thing in
a slightly different way.

Change in open space

The flow rate can be adjusted by changing the open

area between seat and disk.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 40
DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

2.1.1.3 Flow Control The actuator fitted to the PICV allows for the flow rate
to be varied controlling the heat output of the terminal.
Although PICVs are generally fitted with actuators For PICVs with an equal percentage disk (see Section
to control the flow rate, they can be used without an 2.1.3) there is a direct relationship between valve open
actuator to act as a constant flow device (CFD) / flow position and heat output, ie valve half open = half heat
regulator (CFR). output – (see Appendix 4).
Generally within Building Services there are two There are various options when considering actuator
methods utilised to regulate the heat output of the selection, these are outlined later in Section 2.5.
terminal unit;
Whilst including an outline of actuators, they are
1. varying water temperature – VT circuit not discussed in any depth in this publication.
Further reading should be obtained from actuator
2. constant temperature – CT circuit manufacturers.
1 - Variations in water temperature are usually
achieved by the use of a 3 port mixing valve. This 2.1.2 SELECTION
allows the water from the return (cooler for a heating
system) to be mixed with the supply water thus Traditionally, control valves are sized using the
reducing the supply water temperature to the terminal calculated pressure drop across the control valve
unit and subsequently reducing heat output. The relative to the pressure drop across the circuit it is
temperature of the ‘mixed’ supply temperature is controlling, this gives a numerical value, referred to as
usually related to the outside temperature, ie warmer its authority.
days require a lower heat output from the terminal.
These circuits are sometimes referred to as ‘weather
compensated’ circuits. For chilled water applications,
the return water temperature will of course be higher,
so when mixed with the supply water the temperature
of the water supplied to the terminal unit will be higher
thus reducing its cooling output.
Control valve circuit
 or heating systems, this option is seen commonly
F
in radiator circuits, whereas for cooling systems, this
option might be used for passive chilled beams. Δp of control valve
control valve authority (N) =
Δp from ‘a’ to ‘b’ including control valve
 - The use of a PICV, as with all 2 port control valves,
2
allows for the variation of the flow rate to vary the heat
output of the terminal unit. The PICV is an integral part This calculation gives a numerical value 0 - 1.0, 1.0
of the control loop. being the highest possible control valve authority.

This value of control valve authority indicates how well

it will be able to modulate the flow rate as it opens /
closes.

For on / off control, authority is irrelevant as there is

either flow or no flow.

Conventional 2 port control valves are designed with

known Kv values (flow coefficient used in the pressure
drop calculation) which comply with a ‘preferred value’
series – (see Appendix 5).

Thermostat, BMS, terminal unit controller, PICV In essence, they are stepped values that allow valve
selection to give a required pressure drop which
influences the authority value. Because there are
an infinite number of possible Kv values, not every
possible Kv value can be readily available in the
market place. 2 port control valve selection, as with all
control valves, is therefore done on a ‘best fit’ basis.

41 DPCV / PICV
 DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

Typical Kv values might be in the order of;

1.6 / 2.5 / 4.0 / 6.3 / 8.0 / 10.0

This means that the control valve authority varies as the selected Kv value varies.

With PICVs however, as the pressure drop across the seat is held constant by the differential
pressure control section within the PICV, then its authority is 1.0, ie the highest possible authority.
Technically, it is slightly lower than 1.0 but near enough to be considered to be 1.0.

When considering PICV authority, it must be remembered that whilst the PICV has near perfect
authority fully open, depending on the flow setting method used in the PICV design, the control
characteristic could be diminished during operation – (see Appendix 6).

Therefore when sizing, as the authority is never an issue, always being 1.0, then valve selection
becomes easy. If the flow rate is within the range of a PICV then its selection is correct.

Therefore, initially, PICV selection is based on flow rate only.

There are of course other parameters that could influence selection:

1. pipework size
2. pressure drop across PICV
3. flow regulating stem travel at design flow rate

1 – Matching pipe size could be a consideration when selecting a PICV. Whilst selection of a smaller
size PICV could offer a saving, the additional cost of pipework changes may be greater.

2 – The minimum pressure required to activate the PICV can vary between sizes, typically about 15 kPa
for smaller sizes increasing to 30 kPa for larger sizes. In some cases this could be a consideration.
An increased pressure drop in the least favoured (index) circuit could increase the whole life running
costs of the system.

3 – Where stem travel is used to regulate the flow rate and the disk design is ‘equal percentage’,
the control characteristic could be affected – (see Appendix 6).

Because of the influence stem travel has on the control characteristic of PICVs designed with an ‘equal
percentage’ disk, if the PICV uses stem travel to regulate the flow rate, then the recommended selection
criteria is to select the valve that can achieve the required flow rate in the most fully open position.

PICV selection table

TECHNICAL GUIDE 42
DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

Looking at typical selection table, with the P1 – P3, ie

minimum pressure drop requirement across the PICV
(Δp) added, we can see, for a flow rate of 0.180 l.s-1,
we could select;

DN15 at position 90% open with a pressure

drop
of about 25kPa

DN20 at position 64% open with a pressure

drop
of about 25kPa

DN25 at position 37.5% open with a pressure The heat output from a terminal unit can be plotted
drop of about 20kPa against the flow rate

Based on the set position, selection of a PICV with Generally, two methods are used to establish a
an equal percentage disk, the DN15 would be the relationship between flow rate and heat output from
preferred selection, ie most open position. the terminal unit:
For PICVs with a linear disk, see Section 2.1.3, the 1. design of the seat / disk arrangement within the
open position becomes irrelevant as the actuator PICV – often referred to as ‘equal percentage’
converts design; shown as =%
the remaining disk travel to a ‘perfect’ control curve.
In practice however, to allow the actuator the best 2. actuator control over the PICV – often referred to
chance to modulate in all positions, selection of the as ‘linear’ design
most open PICV could also be considered good
practice. 1 – The PICV disk is designed to create a ‘mirror’
image of the heat output / flow rate graph of the
We should also, of course, check the pressure drop terminal unit.
across the valve to ensure that we are not imposing
additional resistance. In this case, the DN15 and
DN20 have the same minimum differential pressure
requirement with the DN25 requiring a differential
pressure of 20kPa. Therefore, the DN15 & 20
imposes a slightly higher pressure drop for the same
flow rate, but would probably be cheaper valves,
whereas the DN25 imposes a slightly lower pressure
drop, but would probably be slightly dearer.

2.1.3 CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC

The control characteristic is how the PICV controls the

flow rate when being operated by the actuator.
PICV control characteristic
If a simple on / off control is required, then the design
control characteristic of the PICV can be ignored,
ie open gives full flow and closed gives no flow. This is often referred to as a profiled (shaped) or equal
percentage disk (=%) – (see Appendix 7).
If modulating (part open / closed) control is required,
then the design control characteristics of the PICV When the PICV is installed, it creates a linear (straight
and actuator need to be considered. line) relationship between the valve open position and
the terminal unit heat output, ie the offsets of the heat
output curve and valve open position curve counteract
each other.

43 DPCV / PICV
 DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

Unlike the equal percentage disc design, it does not

establish a relationship between terminal unit heat
output and valve position. Whilst initially this could
be considered as a problem, the correctly selected
actuator changes the control characteristic to give the
required relationship between heat output and valve
open position.

To allow the BMS (Building Management System)

to have control over the terminal unit heat output,
ie to change the linear relationship between flow rate
and valve opening and create a linear relationship
between heat output and flow rate, a logarithmic
Resultant linear control actuator is required.

Now that a linear relationship between the valve open

position and heat output is established, a simple linear
action actuator can be used.

From a system controls perspective, creating this

linear relationship is ideal. Having said this design
creates the ideal control situation, where the stem is
used to regulate flow rate, this control characteristic
is only valid for the fully open position and changes
for all other set positions. Obviously, PICVs will be
individually set to the required flow rates for individual
terminal units and is therefore very unlikely that all
PICVs will be set in their fully open position – (see
Appendix 6). Actuator controlled equal % control

This gives a direct relationship between actuator

movement and heat output. When using a 0 – 10V A logarithmic actuator mathematically converts
control signal, 1V gives 10% actuator movement the linear valve opening to an equal percentage
which gives 10% heat output, 6V gives 60% actuator relationship thus creating the required control
movement which gives 60% heat output, etc. relationship with the terminal unit heat output.
2 – The PICV is designed to give a linear relationship As the control characteristic has been converted
between valve opening and flow rate: 10% valve by the actuators electronics, it is always correct
opening changes the flow rate by 10%, 60 % valve irrespective of the PICV set position.
opening changes the flow rate by 60%, etc.

2.1.4 INSTALLED POSITION

In general, installation best practice dictates that

where possible, pipework components that have a
relatively high pressure drop should be installed in
the return pipework. This ensures that the other circuit
components, eg terminal coils etc, are kept at the
highest possible pressure available in that area of the
complete installed system, thus reducing the risk of
cavitation – (see Appendix 1).

Because the pressure drop across the PICV, being

a control valve, is relatively high compared to other
PICV with linear control
installed items, eg coils, from a design point of view,
it should, where possible be installed in the
return pipework.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 44
DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

If we just considered the functions of the PICV, there are no advantages or disadvantages
to it being installed in the flow or return.

As a general rule, control valves including PICVs do not require straight lengths of
pipework on the valve inlet (upstream) or outlet (downstream). However, it is considered
good practice to have at least a short length of straight pipework on both the inlet and
outlet of the valve to give the control valves a ‘fighting chance’ of performing to its design
characteristic.

2.2 TYPICAL CIRCUITS INCORPORATING PICVs

In this section we will discuss ‘typical’ valve arrangements, if there is such a thing,
associated with various terminal units / items of plant.

We have included the installation of pressure test points (TP) at various positions to
facilitate maintenance, verification of system operation and trouble shooting. Whilst it
could be argued that these are a ‘nice to have but not necessary item’, we have found
their inclusion in systems to be invaluable when the installed system does not appear to
be working as expected!

2.2.1 Valves Associated with the PICV

As PICVs incorporate differential pressure control, flow regulation and flow control,
technically, the only other valves needed are strainers and isolation valves.

Because of the inherent flow regulation and control issues associated with PICVs (see
Sections 2.3 and 2.4), FMD (Flow Measurement Devices) are often fitted in each terminal
sub-circuit – see Section 2.3.1.

A compromise position could be to install an FMD where it is considered that better

control over heat output is required. This could include boilers and chillers as well as
larger terminal units such as AHUs.

2.2.2 Air Handling Units (AHU)

AHUs are usually larger terminal units, although strictly speaking they are not terminal
units but heat exchangers, having relatively higher flow rates.

AHU with PICV

45 DPCV / PICV
 TYPICAL CIRCUITS WITH PICVS

Valve arrangements could include;

isolation valves in the flushing by-pass and

in the flow and return pipework. The flushing
by-pass should be as close as possible to the
coil. This ensures that as much of the pipework
is cleaned as possible during the flushing
process.

test points installed in the inlet and outlet of the

strainer and coil to verify change in pressure
drop. Used for maintenance, if the pressure
Heat exchanger with PICV
drop increases it indicates blocking of the
strainer / coil.

DoC (drain valves) installed in the inlet and

outlet of the coil to allow back flushing without Valve arrangements could include:
the need to flush through the PICV. isolation valves in the flushing by-pass and in
FMD – Flow Measurement Device the flow and return pipework. The flushing by-
pass should be as close as possible to the coil.
The Hattersley Hook-Up can be used on smaller AHU
coils – see FCU valve arrangements. safety relief valves installed with heat
exchangers to protect from over pressure.

2.2.3 Heat Exchangers (HEx) test points installed in the inlet and outlet of the
strainer and coil to verify change in pressure
Heat Exchangers are used to pass the energy, in the drop. Used for maintenance, if the pressure
form of water temperature, from the primary circuit to drop increases it indicates blocking of the
a secondary circuit. They therefore have a requirement strainer / coil.
for two groups of valve arrangements, primary and
secondary, but will generally be the same. DoC (drain valves) are installed in the inlet and
outlet of the coil to allow back flushing without
the need to flush through the PICV.

FMD – Flow Measurement Device

2.2.4 Fan Coil Units (FCU)

FCUs have relatively low flow rates so are typically

supplied by 15 or 20mm pipework.

Heat exchanger

As items of plant, the control over the flow rate is

usually considered to be critical. HEx are sized on
primary and secondary flow rates and temperatures,
it is therefore critical for the performance of the HEx
that these are tightly controlled.

FCU with PICV

TECHNICAL GUIDE 46
DESIGN INCORPORATING PICVS

Valve arrangements could include; The Hattersley Hook-Up manifold assembly would
normally include;
isolation valves in the flushing by-pass and in
the flow and return pipework. The flushing by- isolation in flushing by-pass
pass should be as close as possible to the coil.
isolation in flow and return pipework
test points installed in the inlet and outlet of the
strainer and coil to verify change in pressure strainer in flow (can have integral flushing valve)
drop. Used for maintenance, if the pressure
FMD – Flow Measurement Device
drop increases it indicates blocking of the
strainer / coil. Test points in the inlet and outlet of the coil
to verify a change in pressure drop. Used for
in line with the latest BSRIA Pre-commissioning
maintenance, if the pressure drop increases it
Cleaning of Pipework Systems Guide, BG
indicates blocking of the strainer / coil.
29/2012, we recommend the installation of DoC
(drain valves) on the inlet and outlet of the FCU PICV
coil for back flushing. Small size control valves
restrict the water velocity when carrying out the
coil back flushing process. The addition of a
second DoC in the return pipework between the
coil and the control valve allows back flushing at
full velocity without passing through the control
valve.

FMD – Flow Measurement Device

As an alternative to installing single valves, a terminal

manifold assembly like the Hattersley Hook-Up Prime
could be used.
Hattersley Hook-Up with PICV

Hattersley Hook-Up are custom made to suit

specific project requirements and are sized to match
individual FCUs. They are supplied pressure tested
and
location labelled.

2.2.5 Radiators

PICVs are not normally associated with radiator

circuits but are occasionally installed in the main
distribution pipework and used to prevent overflow
in the radiator circuit as well as to isolate complete
Hattersley Hook-Up
sections during the summer season.

2.2.6 Chilled Beams

Although Chilled Beams are available as passive

(no fan), active (with integral fan) or as an installed
hybrid option (passive beam with forced air from
ducting) the valve arrangement is the same. Different
PICV actuators are used depending on the required
controllability, ie passive beams will typically have 3
point (on / off) actuators, whereas active and hybrid
beams will typically have modulating actuators.

Hattersley Hook-Up with PICV & FMD

47 DPCV / PICV
 TYPICAL CIRCUITS WITH PICVS

2.2.7 Multi-manifold Commissioning Systems

Where the installation allows for grouping of terminals,

usually FCUs and Chilled Beams, a multi-manifold
commissioning system can be used.

These would incorporate PICVs for each of the

individual circuits instead of individual PICVs at each
terminal unit.

They also incorporate;

Chilled Beam with PICV isolation valves

strainer
Valve arrangements could include; drain

isolation valves in the flushing by-pass and in the Multi-manifold Commissioning Systems are supplied
flow and return pipework. The flushing by-pass in fully insulated boxes, thus removing the requirement
should be as close as possible to the coil to insulate individual pipework components.

strainer in flow (can have integral flushing valve)

FMD – Flow Measurement Device

PICV

test points are installed in the inlet and outlet

of the coil to verify a change in pressure drop.
Used for maintenance, if the pressure drop
increases it indicates blocking of the strainer /
coil.

in line with the latest BSRIA Pre-commissioning

Cleaning of Pipework Systems Guide, BG
29/2012, we recommend the installation of
DoC (drain valves) on the inlet and outlet of
the Chilled Beam. Small size control valves,
in particular PICVs, restrict the water velocity
when carrying out the coil back flushing. The
addition of a second DoC in the return pipework
between the coil and the control valve allows
back flushing at full velocity without passing Hattersley MultiComm Commissioning System
through the control valve.

As an alternative to installing single valves, a terminal

unit manifold assembly like the Hattersley Hook-Up
could be used – see FCUs.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 48
SYSTEM BALANCING USING PICVS

2.3 SYSTEM BALANCING USING PICVs

As the PICV is set to give a specific flow rate, there is no actual commissioning of the PICV, other
than flow rate verification.

However, part of the function of the Commissioning Engineer is to set the circulation pump speed.

Having identified the least favoured (index) PICV, the Commissioning Engineer will set the pump
speed to ensure that this PICV has sufficient pressure available to ensure it is within its working
range. If the least favoured PICV has sufficient pressure available then all other PICVs must have a
greater pressure available, and therefore be within working range.

On larger systems, the least favoured circuit may change position as demand changes, and as
a consequence the PICV control position changes. It would therefore be necessary to set up a
system of pressure sensors to ensure that the pump always delivers enough head (pressure) to
satisfy the ‘new least favoured PICV’.

It would be considered good practice to ‘spot check’ a selection of PICVs throughout the
installation to confirm they are within working pressure range and hence the flow rate is correct.

2.3.1 Flow Rate Verification

Being a relatively newly developed product the level of PICV performance, in some cases, has
been questioned. For this reason, in May 2012 BSRIA published BTS1 a ’Test Method for PICVs’ in
an attempt to standardise the manufacturers published data and allow Consultants / Contractors
to make PICV selection based on the actual performance of the combined PICV and actuator
assembly.

As with conventional Automatic Balancing Valves (ABVs), PICVs could be considered as ‘fit and
forget’ commissioning valves.

It could be argued that as the PICVs are pre-set to the required flow rate and provided that
sufficient pressure is available for them to control the flow rate, then the flow rate will be correct.

As with all mechanical assemblies, the PICV being an assembly of various components including
springs and a rubber diaphragm, the manufacturing tolerances mean that the actual performance
of the finished assemblies will vary.

It is also common for Consultants to specify a requirement for witnessing flow rates at a
percentage of the terminal units.

For these reasons CIBSE and BSRIA recommend that as a minimum, a Flow Measurement
Device (FMD) is installed in the branch pipework. A commissioning set, ie combined FMD + DRV,
is not required as the PICV will absorb additional available pressure, therefore, there is only a
requirement to measure the flow rate and not to regulate.

49 DPCV / PICV
 SYSTEM BALANCING USING PICVS

Minimum CIBSE recommendation

An alternative approach could be to install FMDs in the sub-circuits as well as the main branch.

FMD on sub-circuits

If individual terminal unit flow rate verification is required, then an FMD should be
installed in each terminal sub-circuit, possibly with an FMDs, also in the sub-circuits
(probably considered too much) and the main branch.

FMD on terminal units

TECHNICAL GUIDE 50
SYSTEM BALANCING USING PICVS

Where individual terminal unit flow rate is required but no FMD is installed on the
individual terminal units but a single FMD is installed in the main branch, it is sometimes
possible to use a ‘subtraction’ method to determine the individual terminal unit flow rates.

With terminal PICVs all set to their design flow rate position (actuator removed or
driven by the BMS to open):

1. Measure total flow rate through branch

2. Close a single PICV – ie no flow
a. Measure reduced flow rate through the branch
b. Subtract new flow rate from original flow rate
c. The resulting difference is the flow rate to the closed terminal unit
3. Open the closed PICV and verify total flow through the branch returns to original
total flow rate
4. Close next PICV
a. Measure reduced flow rate through the branch
b. Subtract new flow rate from original flow rate
c. The resulting difference is the flow rate to the closed terminal unit
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 & 4 to establish individual flow rates as required.
It must of course always be remembered that fluctuating pressures within the main
distribution pipework will mean that the PICVs are subjected to varying pressures at
different times. These variations mean that the PICV, being a dynamic valve that is
designed to respond to fluctuating pressures, could be operating in a different position
within its pressure control band, ie if the total pressure drop across the PICV is 30kPa
then the flow rate could be different if the total pressure drop across the PICV is 150kPa –
(see Section 2.4).

51 DPCV / PICV
 TROUBLE SHOOTING PICV CIRCUITS

2.4 TROUBLE SHOOTING PICV CIRCUITS

When looking at problems associated with terminal units controlled by PICVs, it is
assumed that suitable checks have been made to verify that pipework or coil blockages
are not causing the problem.

When considering possible problems associated with PICV controlled terminal unit
circuits, we need to be aware that as the PICV is operated by the actuator it could be a
controls issue and not a PICV issue.

To help identify any problems, the actuator should be removed to ensure that it has no
influence over the PICV operation.

Problems associated with the operation of PICVs could include;

2.4.1 Low Differential Pressure

There are two differential pressures associated with PICV operation;

2.4.1.1 When measured using integral pressure test points, the differential pressure
across the seat of the valve is measured – see Section 2.

 his is the controlled differential pressure that ensures the flow rate remains constant so
T
will therefore have a fixed value. This will vary between manufacturer’s designs.

Differential pressure between P1 and P2 held constant

If the differential pressure is low when measured, it indicates that insufficient pump
pressure is available at the installed position.

 s this pressure is constant, provided the required pressure is available, it cannot be

A
higher than the controlled differential pressure.

In an existing installation where the pump speed was set to achieve the required
differential pressure across the PICV and consequently the correct design flow rate, if the
pump speed is at the set position and there is insufficient pressure then the problem is
probably not with the PICV.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 52
TROUBLE SHOOTING PICV CIRCUITS

2.4.1.2 When measuring the differential pressure across the inlet and outlet of the PICV,
the pressure should always be greater than the minimum pressure requirement as
specified by the manufacturer.

Pressure differential between P1 to P3 varies with available pump pressure.

 y ensuring that the differential pressure between ‘P1’ and ‘P3’ is above the minimum
B
requirement then the ‘P1’ to ‘P2’ requirement has been satisfied.

PICV total pressure drop

2.4.2 High Differential Pressures

 he PICV is designed to control the flow rate up to a maximum differential pressure,

T
typically about 400kPa (4 bar), more recently to about 600kPa (6bar).

If this pressure is exceeded, the flow rate could rise above, or fall below, the required set
flow rate.

 he available pressure needs to be controlled so that the PICV can operate within its
T
range, above minimum but below maximum pressures.

If there is a particular branch / area within the installation that is subjected to high
pressures, which may occur at differing times depending on the position of the control
valves and pump speed, a DPCV could be installed in the main branch return pipework
and set to impose a ‘glass ceiling’ for the differential pressure. For instance, the DPCV
could be set to 100kPa where the expected differential pressure in the branch circuit
is 40kPa. By setting to 100kPa differential pressure, the differential pressure is allowed
to fluctuate as the control valves open / close or pump speed changes but will never
exceed the DPCV set value, thus keeping the PICVs within a pre-determined pressure
range, ie minimum to 100kPa.

 here close control over the flow rates and consequentially the heat output of the
W
terminal unit is a consideration, the installation of a DPCV restricts the range of differential
pressure that the PICV works between – see Section 2.4.3.

53 DPCV / PICV
 TROUBLE SHOOTING PICV CIRCUITS

2.4.3 Flow Rate Variation

 he PICV absorbs additional available pressure up to its maximum working pressure

T
to control the flow rate.

 ecause the PICV depends on springs and diaphragms to control the flow rate,
B
there will be some variation as available pressure rises and falls.

PICV differential pressure range

 ICVs will typically best control at low to mid differential pressures and drift as
P
the pressure continues to rise. This drift could increase or reduce the flow rate.

 hen measuring flow rates through terminal units, we therefore need to consider the
W
differential pressure across the PICV to be able to ‘make a well informed decision’ as
to whether the PICV is controlling the flow rate correctly.

2.4.4 Setting Errors

 here an individual FMD is installed with each terminal PICV, the actual measured
W
flow rate would be used to ‘fine tune’ the PICV set position to bring the flow rate into
specification, or closer to the actual required flow rate.

 here the Commissioning Engineer relies on the PICV set position to give
W
the correct flow rate, care should be taken to set it as close as possible to the
required position.

Setting errors can be caused by various means:

1) Alignment error

2) Parallax errors

3) Differential pressure whilst setting

4) Key turn direction of flow rate adjustment

5) Small adjustments giving large changes in actual flow rate.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 54
TROUBLE SHOOTING PICV CIRCUITS

2.4.4.1 Alignment Error

 lignment of a pointer (arrow) to the set position may vary between

A
Commissioning Engineers.

Care should be taken to align the set position pointer to ensure the accuracy of the flow rate.

PICV set position

2.4.4.2 Parallax errors

Parallax errors are caused by not viewing the object, in this case the setting pointer and
dial, perpendicularly.

Parallex error when setting

Care should be taken to ensure that the setting pointer / dial is viewed perpendicularly
(at right angle).

55 DPCV / PICV
 TROUBLE SHOOTING PICV CIRCUITS

2.4.4.3 Differential pressure whilst setting

 s we saw in Section 2.4.3, the flow rate varies as differential pressure across
A
the PICV varies. It is therefore important to set the valve as close as possible to the
operating conditions.

 s the available pressure varies within variable volume design systems, it is difficult
A
to establish the operating pressure. The BSRIA PICV test method, BTS1, suggests that
when testing actual flow rate against set flow rate then the PICV differential pressure
should be 100kPa.

Other tests identified in BTS1 suggest testing between the manufacturer’s minimum
and 50kPa.

 ooking at these suggested differential pressures, setting the flow rate when the PICV
L
differential pressure is between the minimum and 100kPa would appear to be a ‘preferred’
operating region.

2.4.4.4 Key turn direction of flow rate adjustment

 s the pressure variation within PICVs are controlled by a diaphragm and springs, hysteresis
A
(as with DPCVs) can be an issue.

 o remove this issue, some Commissioning Engineers, when setting PICV position,
T
will always adjust in the same direction, eg always clockwise / always counter-clockwise.
This ensures that the spring is always either in compression or being relaxed when set.

 s a habit, I always fully close to check ‘zero’ position and then re-open to required
A
set position. This ensures that all PICVs are set with the applied spring force in the
same direction.

2.4.4.5 Small adjustments giving large changes in actual flow rate

Depending on the PICV design, small changes in the set position of the PICV when
commissioning can make large % changes to the flow rate. There is not much that can
be done if this is the case except to take extreme care when setting.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 56
ACTUATORS

2.5 ACTUATORS USED WITH PICVs

Firstly we need to say that as we do not manufacture actuators, the purpose of this
section of the guide is to give a general overview of actuators and not an in depth
understanding. More detailed technical advice should be obtained from others who are
better placed to offer it.

For this reason, this section is quite simplistic in its explanation, but we feel will give the
reader an overview of the operation / functions of the actuator.

Before we look at actuators fitted to PICVs we should firstly establish what actuators are.

An actuator is any device that utilises an external energy source to operate the valve.

The external source could be;

human – operation of a gearbox / lever

electric
pneumatic
hydraulic

Actuators used with PICVs in the Building Services Industry will almost definitely be
electric. Modern electronics have allowed for sophisticated functions to be built into
relatively cheap electric actuators.

Actuators receive a drive voltage to move the PICV open position and for modulating
actuators, the relevant control signal voltage from the BMS to position it.

Within Building Services, actuators will generally be 24Vac within control signal of 0 –
10V (see switchable actuator functions).

Actuator selection depends on the terminal units being controlled and the system control
requirements, eg on / off, modulating.

As actuators affect how the PICV will perform, it is important that a ‘suitable’ actuator is
used with the PICV to ensure good control over the heat output of the terminals.

Actuators used with PICVs can be divided into two groups;

1) Thermo-electric

2) Electro-mechanical

These two groups are further divided into control functions;

a) on / off

b) 3 point

c) modulating

57 DPCV / PICV
 ACTUATORS

If we look firstly at the two groups;

1) Thermo-electric

 hese actuators contain a substance, possibly a wax, with a known thermal expansion
T
characteristic. A voltage is supplied to a heater element within the actuator, which,
when energised heats the wax. The wax expands forcing the stem of the PICV to move
resulting in a change of water flow rate. Conversely, as the wax cools it contracts allowing
a further change to the flow rate.

 s Thermo-electrical actuators return to their ‘normal’ set position when power is

A
removed and the thermal element cools, they are available in either ‘normally closed’ or
‘normally open’ operation, ie the position the valve reverts to when the thermal element
of the actuator is cooled.

2) Electro-mechanical

 lectric actuators are driven by the supply voltage to the required position, this change
E
results in the PICV stem moving to change the water flow rate. The electric actuator
remains in the position it reached when the supply voltage is removed, unlike the thermo-
electric which will cool when the supply voltage is removed resulting in a positional
change of the PICV.

The control function can apply to both thermo-electric and electro-mechanical actuators,
but in our view, better control functions are achieved with electro-mechanical actuators.

There is an initial installed cost penalty for using electro-mechanical actuators over
thermo-electric, but when considering whole life costs, eg life expectancy, system
efficiency; electric actuators would be our recommended option.

a) on / off control
For terminal units that are designed to use heat convection, eg passive chilled
beams, radiant panels etc, simple on / off actuators would be used. This type of
terminal unit is not very responsive to water flow rate changes so there is little or no
point installing a sophisticated control regime.
These actuators drive the PICV fully open / closed only, resulting in full flow or no
flow, ie maximum heat output at full flow and no additional heat output at no flow.

b) 3 point control
These offer more control over the water flow rates than the simple on / off actuators,
as they can be set up to stop in positions between fully open and fully closed. The
supply voltage can be supplied for a calculated time which drives the actuator to the
required position.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 58
ACTUATORS

Live supply voltage switches between open / off / close

Example;

If the actuator moves 1mm in 10 seconds, and the total travel is 6mm, by applying
the supply voltage for 30 seconds the actuator will drive the PICV 3mm which is half
its stem travel. This could be considered to give a ‘crude’ modulating control.

c) Modulating control

Actuators with full modulating control should be used on ‘forced air’ terminal units,
ie where a fan is used to force air across a coil to disperse the heat. These would
typically be FCUs, active chilled beams etc.

Terminal units with forced air are very responsive to changes in water flow rates so
the control regime should be more comprehensive than for convector type
terminal units.

Modulating control is usually achieved by applying a 0 – 10V positional signal,

or variations of this voltage – see switchable options.

Within Building Services the control signal to the actuator from the BMS is usually
0 – 10V, although, through the 80s and 90s a 4 – 20mA control signal was common.
Some actuators have switchable control signal inputs between voltage and mA.

Usually, actuators are supplied configured so that 0V gives the PICV a fully open
position, and 10V a fully closed position.

59 DPCV / PICV
 ACTUATORS

Standard switchable actuator functions

As electronics have developed it has allowed for sophisticated functions to be built into
relatively cheap actuators.

Modern actuators usually offer some of the following switchable functions:

self-calibrating
each time the actuator is powered, the actuator drives the PICV fully closed and
then opens to establish the actual stroke length of the PICV

control voltage can be set to;

0 – 10V, 10 – 0V, 2 – 10V, 10 – 2V, 0 – 5V, 5 - 0V

mA or voltage signal

control direction – direct or reverse acting

changes direction of control voltage, ie 0V = fully open changes to 0v = fully
closed

linear / logarithmic (equal percentage)

functional selection should be based on the PICV design, ie linear or =%. It is very
important that the correct functioning actuator is selected and ‘paired’ with the PICV
otherwise the control over the flow rate will be affected. The actuator function, linear
or logarithmic, will create a control characteristic based on the PICV design

anti-sticking
actuator exercises the PICV when it has been in the same position for an
extended time.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 60
CAVITATION

Appendix 1 – Cavitation
This explanation is intended to give a basic overview of
the condition of cavitation and not a full thermodynamic
understanding.
Cavitation is a common problem in pumps and control valves causing serious wear and
damage. Cavitation dramatically reduces the life expectancy of the product.

Cavitation is the rapid formation and collapse (implosion) of vapour bubbles. Vapour
bubbles should not be confused with pockets of air in systems, eg tops of risers or in
radiators etc.

As the system pressure or temperature changes the ability of the water to retain
dissolved air changes. As the pressure falls or temperature rises, air is released in
the form of air bubbles. The ability of water to retain dissolved air is explained by
Henry’s Law.

Henry’s Law states;

“
… at a constant temperature the amount of dissolved gas is directly
proportional to pressure …
”

Henry’s Law

Another associated problem caused by falling pressures is a change in the ‘state’ of the
water, ie liquid changing to steam.

61 DPCV / PICV
 CAVITATION

This effect is commonly referred to as ‘flashing’ to steam.

Water changes state when the pressure falls below its vapour pressure.

The vapour pressure of water will depend on the temperature and water make-up,
ie water plus additives.

Typical vapour pressure for water

Cavitation and flashing to steam occurs where there are sudden drops in pressure; the
main cause of this is an increase in water velocity. In pumped circulation systems this
is mainly at pump inlets and control valves but can occur wherever there are pressure
drops in the system.

If we consider a control valve, of which the PICV is one, as the water passes through the
PICV there is an increase in water velocity due to the reduction in open area for the water
to pass through.

Control valve pressure & water velocity

It can be seen that as the water passes through the pipework into the reducer and
control valve the water velocity increases and as the water exits, the velocity reduces
back to the original velocity (assumes the same size pipework on the inlet and outlet).

TECHNICAL GUIDE 62
CAVITATION

At the same time as the water velocity is increasing, the total pressure available is
reducing. Note that the pressure, unlike the water velocity, never returns to the inlet
pressure as there is a pressure loss through the valve, ie energy is used for the water to
flow through the valve.

The point where the lowest pressure occurs is referred to as the ‘vena contracta’ and
surprisingly occurs after, not at, the greatest reduction in open area that the water passes
through.

As the mixture of water and released vapour bubbles pass through the control valve
outlet the velocity decreases causing the pressure to rise. This rise in pressure causes
the air bubbles to implode, creating noise and pitting in the valve, which, if left for a
period of time can cause valve failure.

A ‘change of state’ (flashing) will occur if the total pressure available drops below the
vapour pressure.

Below the vapour pressure, water changes to steam (change of state). As steam
occupies a greater volume than the water, it causes the pressure to rise and hence
the steam to change back to water (change of state). This change of state,
ie liquid gas liquid, will continue to occur as the total system pressures
change above / below the vapour pressure.

Bottom line comment:

“Cavitation is bad news, change of state is a disaster waiting

to happen. Both conditions should be avoided.
”

63 DPCV / PICV
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOW RATE
AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

Appendix 2 – Relationship between

Flow Rate and Differential Pressure
As water flows through any system component; pipework / chiller / boiler / valve etc,
we know that there is a relationship between flow rate and pressure drop.

The pressure drop is often referred to as the differential pressure or delta p. As the
symbol for delta is Δ, the symbol for differential pressure becomes Δp.

To calculate the pressure drop at a different flow rate, we use;

2
h1 q1 where h1 = initial pressure in kPa
= h2 = new pressure in kPa
h2 q2
q1 = flow rate in l.s-1
q2 = new flow rate in l.s-1

Pressure vs flow rate equation

therefore;

2
q2
h2 = h 1 x
q1

Transposition of basic equation

It can be seen that the differential pressure increases / decreases to the square of the
increase / decrease in flow rate, ie q1& q2.

example;

If the flow rate increases by 10% from 0.150l.s-1 to 0.165l.s-1 and the original pressure
drop was 22kPa, what is the pressure drop at the new flow rate?

new pressure h2 = h1 x (q2 / q1)2

that is Δp2 = original Δp1 x (new flow rate / original flow rate)2

Δp = 22 x (0.165/0.150)2

Δp = 22 x 1.12

Δp = 22 x 1.21 = 26.62kPa

The differential pressure has therefore increased by 21%, ie 22 26.6kPa.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 64
KIRCHHOFF’S 2ND LAW

Appendix 3 – Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law

Building Service Engineers often talk about balancing flow rates,
however, what we are actually doing is balancing pressure drops
created by the flow rate.

The pressure drop through a pipework component, a valve in our

case, is relative to the flow rate passing through the valve. The
higher the flow rate the higher the pressure drop and conversely,
the lower the flow rate the lower the pressure drop.

The theory behind balancing pressure drops in circuits caused by

flowing water is derived from work carried out by Gustav Kirchhoff. Gustav Kirchhoff
Kirchhoff, a physicist, was born in the Kingdom of Prussia
(German Confederation) 12 March 1824 and died in 1887 aged 63.

Although Kirchhoff’s work relates to electrical circuits, his Laws apply equally to the flow
of liquids, in our case, water.

Kirchhoff’s Law that applies to pressure drops in pipework is his Second Law which states;

“the total head loss in each parallel path (circuit)

caused by the flowing fluids must be equal
”
If we consider a simple circuit with four terminal units, by appying Kirchhoffs Law we know
that the pressure drop through each of the circuits must be equal.

Equal head loss in parallel circuits

A terminal 1 B=A terminal 2 B=A terminal 3 B=A terminal 4 B

Although flow rates may be different and coil and control valve pressure drops may also differ
in each of the circuits, the total pressure drops through each circuit must be the same.

By installing a balancing valve, like the Hattersley Fig1732 FODRV, the pressure drops and
consequently the % flow rates can be balanced against each other.

65 DPCV / PICV
 HEAT OUTPUT FROM TERMINALS

Appendix 4 – Heat Output from Terminal Units

In the systems we are considering, the terminal unit performs the heat exchange
between the water and the air.

The power emitted from the terminal can be calculated using the formula;

P = k.ΔTm where P = Power in watts

k = coefficient of terminal unit
ΔTm = log mean temperature difference

k, the terminal coefficient, depends upon;

the coil in the terminal unit

velocity of air

water flow state (turbulent, intermediate or laminar).

ΔTm the logarithmic mean temperature difference is;

ΔTm ≈ √H.B where ≈ is approximately equal to

H = largest difference between water / air contact temperature
B = smallest difference between water / air contact temperature

In constant temperature (CT) circuits, control over the heat emitted from the terminal unit
is achieved by keeping the supply water temperature constant and changing the flow rate.

Because the power (P) is a function of:

the individual terminal coefficient

water and air temperatures

there is a performance curve for each installed condition, ie individual coil,

water and air temperature.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 66
HEAT OUTPUT FROM TERMINALS

We therefore consider a typical performance curve.

If we plot percentage heat output against percentage flow rate to produce a heat output
characterise curve, it will look something like this;

Typical heat output curve

There will be a difference

between heating and chilled water output curves because of the larger variation between
water and air temperatures, and indeed within each service as design differential
temperature (Δt) changes.

Traditionally, Δt is about 11K for oil and gas fired boiler systems but with the new
sustainable heat sources, solar / ground source heat pumps etc, Δt is moving towards 20
to 30K.

Graph for heat output vs flow rate

If we look at the typical curve, we will see that for a heat output of 50% the required flow
rate is only about 20%.

Because heating systems are being designed with greater Δt values, if we plot heat
output against flow rates at various Δt values, the resultant curves will look something like
this;

Heat output for various Δt

67 DPCV / PICV
 PREFERRED NUMBERS

Appendix 5 – Preferred Numbers

A French army engineer, Colonel Charles Renard, proposed a series of Preferred
Numbers for the metric system in the 1870s.

This series was adopted in 1952 as International Standard ISO 3.

Renards most basic series is R5 (having 5 variants between 0 & 10);

1.00 / 1.60 / 2.50 / 4.00 / 6.30

The pattern then repeats in multiples of 10;

10.0 / 16.0 / 25.0 / 40.0 / 63.0

Patterns repeating in multiples of 10 are ideally suited to the

metric system,
which is of course based on multiples of 10.

Renard also devised finer series, with other series being added Charles Renard
subsequently. (1847 - 1905)

For example, a finer series would be R10 (having 10 variants

between 0 and 10);

1.0 / 1.25 / 1.6 / 2.0 / 2.5 / 3.15 / 4.0 / 5.0 / 6.3 / 8.0

The pattern then repeats in multiples of 10;

10 / 12.5 / 16 / 20 / 25 / 31.5 / 40 / 50 / 63 / 80

Renards Preferred Numbers (also known as Preferred Values) are used by

manufacturing companies where they are producing the same product in different
sizes.

If we consider a valve manufacturing company producing a range of control valves,

they would use a Renards Preferred Number sequence to establish the ‘ideal’ flow
coefficient (Kv) for control valves.

This means that the company can cover all requirements with the least possible
variations, giving an acceptable differential pressure change between sizes.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 68
PREFERRED NUMBERS

Of course, Preferred Number sequences are not only related to the engineering industry.

Preferred Numbers affect all aspects of our life;

Paper size uses a metric version of Preferred Numbers

Computer engineering uses a x2 sequence;

2/4/8/16/32/ etc

Camera film speeds are based on a Renards R10 series;

100/125/160/200/250 etc

Other items include sizes of nails, screws, wood, etc, etc

Within the UK, our monetary values follow a Preferred Number sequence;

1p/2p/5p/10p/20p/50p

£1/£2/£5/£10/£20/£50

Preferred sequence of currency

69 DPCV / PICV
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONTROL VALVES

Appendix 6 – Control Characteristic

of Control Valves
The reason behind having a particular flow rate to individual terminal units is because
we are using the system water, heating or chilled, to distribute energy from the plant
room out to the terminal units.

In a Constant Temperature (CT) circuit, the water remains at a constant temperature

and the flow rate is varied to change the heat output from the terminal unit.

Systems, both constant and variable volume design, are commissioned at full flow,
ie at full design flow rate, often referred to as 100%DFR (Design Flow Rate).

Valves, commissioning and control, are sized based on the full design flow rate.

During operation the control valve open position will be changed in response to
commands from the BMS (Building Management System).

To enable the BMS to have control over the flow rate via the control valve,
the control characteristic of the control valve must be known.

Control valve manufacturers design their valve combinations, control valve plus
actuator, to a known control characteristic.

There are two circumstances that change the characteristic of the control valve;

1. Change in distribution pipework pressures

2. Reduction in control valve stem travel when setting

1 - The control valve will perform to its control characteristic when the distribution
pipework pressures remain constant.

Within Variable Volume systems we know that as control valves open and close
throughout the system, the distribution pipework pressures fluctuate. These changing
pressures undermine the control valve control characteristic, which changes the
relationship between valve open position, flow rate and terminal unit heat output.

For instance, when the BMS command to the control valve is for 50% heat output from
the terminal unit, the control valve will close to a corresponding position, possibly about
20% flow rate depending on the actual design of the control valve.

If the control characteristic is changed, then the corresponding valve position changes
for the revised heat output requirement.

It follows that when the BMS command is for 50% heat output, the control valve
closes to the position corresponding to a flow rate that would give 50% heat output,
but because the control valve characteristic has been changed the control valve could
allow a higher, or lower, flow rate than required for 50% heat output.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 70
CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONTROL VALVES

Loss of control characteristic

For heating, a higher flow rate through the terminal unit gives a higher heat output
therefore the room temperature remains too high and for chilled water, the room
temperature remains too low. The BMS will again sense the room temperature and
command the control valve to close to another position to further reduce the flow rate
with the corresponding reduction in heat output.

DPCVs are installed within systems to protect control valves from pressure fluctuations in
distribution pipework. PICVs, having a built in pressure controller, are ‘self ‘protecting.

2 – For PICVs designed with an equal percentage (=%) disk, where the stem of the valve
is used to regulate the flow rate during the commissioning process, the total amount of
stem travel for flow control is reduced resulting in a change to the valve characteristic.

If we consider a valve with a fully open stem travel of

6mm, during commissioning, 2mm of the stem travel
may be used by the Commissioning Engineer to set the
flow rate to 100%DFR.

This leaves 4mm of the stem travel to control the flow

rate from fully open (full flow) to closed (no flow).

Effect of flow setting on stem length

71 DPCV / PICV
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONTROL VALVES

In our example the original design control characteristic was based on full stem
travel of 6mm.

Now, in operating conditions the travel is reduced to 4mm and the control characteristic
has been changed. As a consequence of this change, the relationship between valve
open position, flow rate and terminal unit heat output changes.

Control characteristic

Systems where the control valve characteristic has been changed results in poor control over
the indoor climate with fluctuating room temperatures. They are inefficient with increased
running costs and could create unacceptable environmental (room space) conditions.

Control Valves designed with a ‘linear’ design control characteristic and fitted with an
equal percentage (=%) control actuator, will always have the correct design control
characteristic irrespective of set position, including part load conditions.

TECHNICAL GUIDE 72
EQUAL PERCENTAGE
CHARACTERISTICS

Appendix 7 – Equal Percentage

Characteristic (=%)
The characteristic of a control valve is the term given to the relationship between the flow
rate through the valve and its open position.

The characteristic is dictated by the design of the control valve or by the control valve and
actuator assembly.

Those control valves using an equal percentage disk design can be fitted with a relatively
simple linear actuator.

Control valves with a linear design disk need to be fitted with an actuator that converts the
linear characteristic of the valve to an equal percentage characteristic.

Both designs are used in the Building Services industry for control valves. It is important
that this is fully understood as the combined control valve / actuator assembly dictates
system efficiency.

The term ‘equal percentage’ refers to the relationship between the valve open position and
the flow rate.

For every percentage the valve opens, say from 30% to 40% open, the result is an increase
in the flow rate by a constant percentage, eg if the flow rate is 1.0l/s at 30% open at 40%
open the flow rate might be 1.7l/s, an increase of 70%. If the valve is opened from 60% open
to 70% open, another 10% increase in open position, the result is also an increase in flow
rate by 70% - hence equal percentage.

From a fully closed position, any opening of the valve results in a relatively small increase in
flow rate, whereas when the valve is nearing fully open, small opening movements result in
relatively large increases in flow rate.

=% curve

We can create an equal percentage characteristic curve for our example by plotting an
increase of 70% in flow rate for every 10% increase in valve open position.

73 DPCV / PICV
 NOTES

TECHNICAL GUIDE 74
AN OVERVIEW

This Guide on the principles of DPCVs (Differential Pressure Control Valves)

and PICVs (Pressure Independent Control Valves) is the latest in the series from
Hattersley specifically for Building Services engineers.
The author, Andy Lucas, left school at 15 years old with no formal qualifications.
He returned to study in his late 20s, working within various manufacturing industries,
culminating in the position of Technical Development Manager for Hattersley.
This Guide is written in a ‘practical language’ that is easy to read, being relevant to practicing
engineers at all levels of knowledge and experience including fitters, commissioning
technicians, contractors, consultants and system designers.
Andy explains, as everyone becomes more aware of the consequences of global warming,
system design has changed to ensure energy use is uppermost in the designer’s mind.
This Guide describes, in detail, changes in system design which made it necessary to
introduce DPCVs and PICVs into variable volume heating and chilled water systems.
It covers:
System Design Change
Differential Pressure Control
Typical Circuits
Commissioning
Trouble Shooting
The Guide includes, as appendices, explanations of some of the ‘every day’ terms and some of
the hydraulic principles used by Building Services engineers but perhaps rarely understood.

HEAD OFFICE – UK MIDDLE EAST &

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FAX: +44 (0)1473 277421
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ISSUE 2 5. 2019

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TECHNICAL GUIDE 75