ALGEBRAS,

LATTICES, VARIETIES
VOLUME I

RALPH N. MCKENZIE
GEORGE F. MCNULTY
WALTER F. TAYLOR

AMS CHELSEA PUBLISHING

 Algebras,
Lattices, Varieties
Volume I
 10.1090/chel/383

Algebras,
Lattices, Varieties
Volume I

Ralph N. McKenzie
George F. McNulty
Walter F. Taylor

AMS CHELSEA PUBLISHING

2010 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 08Axx, 08Bxx, 03C05, 06Bxx, 06Cxx.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.ams.org/bookpages/chel-383

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: McKenzie, Ralph, author. | McNulty, George F., 1945– author. | Taylor, W. (Walter),
1940– author.
Title: Algebras, lattices, varieties / Ralph N. McKenzie, George F. McNulty, Walter F. Taylor.
Description: Providence, Rhode Island : American Mathematical Society : AMS Chelsea Publish-
ing, 2018– | Originally published: Monterey, California : Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole Advanced
Books & Software, 1987. | Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017046893 | ISBN 9781470442958 (alk. paper : v. 1)
Subjects: LCSH: Algebra, Universal. | Lattice theory. | Varieties (Universal algebra) | AMS:
General algebraic systems – Algebraic structures – Algebraic structures. msc | General algebraic
systems – Varieties – Varieties. msc | Mathematical logic and foundations – Model theory –
Equational classes, universal algebra. msc | Order, lattices, ordered algebraic structures – Lattices
– Lattices. msc | Order, lattices, ordered algebraic structures – Modular lattices, complemented
lattices – Modular lattices, complemented lattices. msc
Classification: LCC QA251 .M43 2018 | DDC 512–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017046893

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 This volume is dedicated to our parents—
Annie Laurie and Milton, Helen and George, Portia and John
 Preface

This is the first of four volumes devoted to the general theory of algebras and
the closely related subject of lattice theory. This area of mathematics has grown
very rapidly in the past twenty years. Not only has the literature expanded
rapidly, but also the problems have become more sophisticated and the results
deeper. The tendency toward specialization and fragmentation accompanying
this growth has been countered by the emergence of new research themes (such
as congruence class geometry, Maltsev classification, and congruence classifica­
tion of varieties) and powerful new theories (such as general commutator theory
and tame congruence theory), giving the field a degree of unity it never had before.
Young mathematicians entering this field today are indeed fortunate, for there
are hard and interesting problems to be attacked and sophisticated tools to be
used. Even a casual reader of these volumes should gain an insight into the
present-day vigor of general algebra.
We regard an algebra as a nonempty set equipped with a system of finitary
operations. This concept is broad enough to embrace many familiar mathemat-
ical structures yet retains a concrete character. The general theory of algebras
borrows techniques and ideas from lattice theory, logic, and category theory
and derives inspiration from older, more specialized branches of algebra such as
the theories of groups, rings, and modules. The connections between lattice
theory and the general theory of algebras are particularly strong. The most
productive avenues to understanding the structure of algebras, in all their diver-
sity, generally involve the study of appropriate lattices. The lattice of congruence
relations and the lattice of subalgebras of an individual algebra often contain (in
a highly distilled form) much information about the internal structure of the
algebra and the essential relations among its elements. In order to compare
algebras, it is very useful to group them into varieties, which are classes defined
by equations. Varieties can in turn be organized in various ways into lattices (e.g.,
the lattice of varieties, the lattice of interpretability types). The study of such
lattices reveals an extraordinarily rich structure in varieties and helps to organize
our knowledge about individual algebras and important families of algebras.
Varieties themselves are elementary classes in the sense of logic, which affords
an entry to model-theoretic ideas and techniques.
vii
Vlll Preface

Volume 1 is a leisurely paced introduction to general algebra and lattice

theory. Besides the fundamental concepts and elementary results, it contains
several harder (but basic) results that will be required in later volumes and a final
chapter on the beautiful topic of unique factorization. This volume is essentially
self-contained. We sometimes omit proofs, but—except in rare cases—only those
we believe the reader can easily supply with the lemmas and other materials that
are readily at hand. It is explicitly stated when a proof has been omitted for other
reasons, such as being outside the scope of the book. We believe that this volume
can be used in several ways as the text for a course. The first three chapters
introduce basic concepts, giving numerous examples. They can serve as the text
for a one-semester undergraduate course in abstract algebra for honors students.
(The instructor will probably wish to supplement the text by supplying more
detail on groups and rings than we have done.) A talented graduate student of
mathematics with no prior exposure to our subject should find these chapters
easy reading. Stiff resistance will be encountered only in §2.4—the proof of the
Direct Join Decomposition Theorem for modular lattices of finite height—a
tightly reasoned argument occupying several pages.
In Chapter 4, the exposition becomes more abstract and the pace somewhat
faster. All the basic results of the general theory of algebras are proved in this
chapter. (There is one exception: The Homomorphism Theorem can be found in
Chapter 1.) An important nonelementary result, the decomposition of a com-
plemented modular algebraic lattice into a product of projective geometries, is
proved in §4.8. Chapter 4 can stand by itself as the basis for a one-semester
graduate course. (Nevertheless, we would advise spending several weeks in the
earlier chapters at the beginning of the course.) The reader who has mastered
Chapters 1-4 can confidently go on to Volume 2 without further preliminaries,
since the mastery of Chapter 5 is not a requirement for the later material.
Chapter 5 deals with the possible uniqueness of the factorization of an
algebra into a direct product of directly indecomposable algebras. As examples,
integers, finite groups, and finite lattices admit a unique factorization. The Jordan
normal form of a matrix results from the unique decomposition of the representa-
tion module of the matrix. This chapter contains many deep and beautiful results.
Our favorite is Bjarni Jonsson’s theorem giving the unique factorization of finite
algebras having a modular congruence lattice and a one-element subalgebra
(Theorem 5.4). Since this chapter is essentially self-contained, relying only on the
Direct Join Decomposition Theorem in Chapter 2, a one-semester graduate
course could be based upon it. We believe that it would be possible to get through
the whole volume in a year’s course at the graduate level, although none of us
has yet had the opportunity to try this experiment.
Volume 2 contains an introduction to first-order logic and model theory (all
that is needed for our subject) and extensive treatments of equational logic,
equational theories, and the theory of clones. Also included in Volume 2 are
many of the deepest results about finite algebras and a very extensive survey of
the results on classifying varieties by their Maltsev properties. Later volumes will
deal with such advanced topics as commutator theory for congruence modular
varieties, tame congruence theory for locally finite varieties, and the fine structure
of lattices of equational theories.
Preface ix

Within each volume, chapters and sections within a chapter are numbered
by arabic numerals; thus, §4.6 is the sixth section of Chapter 4 (in Volume 1).
Important results, definitions, and exercise sets are numbered in one sequence
throughout a chapter; for example, Lemma 4.50, Theorem 4.51, and Definition
4.52 occur consecutively in Chapter 4 (actually in §4.6). A major theorem may
have satellite lemmas, corollaries, and examples clustered around it and numbered
1, 2, 3 ,.... A second sequence of numbers, set in the left-hand margins, is used
for a catch-all category of statements, claims, minor definitions, equations, etc
(with the counter reset to 1 at the start of each chapter). Exercises that we regard
as difficult are marked with an asterisk. (Difficult exercises are sometimes ac-
companied by copious hints, which may make them much easier.)
The beautiful edifice that we strive to portray in these volumes is the product
of many hundreds of workers who, for over fifty years, have been tirelessly
striving to uncover and understand the fundamental structures of general algebra.
In the course of our writing, we have returned again and again to the literature,
especially to the books of Birkhoff [1967], Burris and Sankappanavar [1981],
Crawley and Dilworth [1972], Gratzer [1978, 1979], Jonsson [1972], Maltsev
[1973], and Pierce [1968].
We wish to thank all of our friends, colleagues, and students who offered
support, encouragement, and constructive criticism during the years when this
volume was taking shape. It is our pleasure to specifically thank Clifford Bergman,
Joel Berman, Stanley Burris, Wanda Van Buskirk, Ralph Freese, Tom Harrison,
David Hobby, Bjarni Jonsson, Keith Kearnes, Renato Lewin, Jan Mycielski,
Richard Pierce, Ivo Rosenberg, and Constantin Tsinakis. Thanks to Deberah
Craig and Burt Rashbaum for their excellent typing. Our editor at Wadsworth
& Brooks/Cole, John Kimmel, and Production Editor S. M. Bailey, Designer
Victoria Van Deventer, and Art Coordinator Lisa Torri at Brooks/Cole have all
taken friendly care of the authors and the manuscript and contributed greatly
to the quality of the book. Don Pigozzi’s contribution to the many long sessions
in which the plan for these volumes was forged is greatly appreciated. We regret
that he was not able to join us when it came time to write the first volume;
nevertheless, his collaboration in the task of bringing this work to press has been
extremely valuable to us.
We gladly acknowledge the support given us during the writing of this
volume by the National Science Foundation, the Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation, and the Philippine-American Educational Foundation through a
Fulbright-Hays grant. Apart from our home institutions, the University
of Hawaii, the University of the Philippines, and die Technische Hochschule
Darmstadt have each provided facilities and hospitality while this project was
underway. Finally, we are deeply grateful for the solid support offered by our
wives and children over the past five years.

Ralph N. McKenzie
George F. McNulty
Walter F. Taylor
 Contents

Introduction 1

Preliminaries 5

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 11

1.1 Algebras and Operations 11
1.2 Subalgebras, Homomorphisms, and Direct Products 19
1.3 Generation of Subalgebras 24
1.4 Congruence Relations and Quotient Algebras 27

Chapter 2 Lattices 36
2.1 Fundamental Concepts 36
2.2 Complete Lattices and Closure Systems 44
2.3 Modular Lattices: The Rudiments 53
2.4 Modular Lattices wit the Finite Chain Condition 61
2.5 Distributive Lattices 78
2.6 Congruence Relations on Lattices 90

Chapter 3 Unary and Binary Operations 100

3.1 Introduction 100
3.2 Unary Algebras 103
3.3 Semigroups 112
3.4 Groups, Quasigroups, and Latin Squares 118
3.5 Representations in End A and Sym A 128
3.6 Categories 133

Chapter 4 Fundamental Algebraic Results 142

4.1 Algebras and Clones 142
4.2 Isomorphism Theorems 149
4.3 Congruences 153
4.4 Direct and Subdirect Representations 159
4.5 The Subdirect Representation Theorem 168
4.6 Algebraic Lattices 181
4.7 Permuting Congruences 195
4.8 Projective Geometries 206
4.9 Distributive Congruence Lattices 218
4.10 Class Operators and Varieties 219
4.11 Free Algebras and the HSP Theorem 226
4.12 Equivalence and Interpretation of Varieties 244
4.13 Commutator Theory 250
xi
xii CONTENTS

Chapter 5 Unique Factorization 259

5.1 Introduction and Examples 259
5.2 Direct Factorization and Isotopy 268
5.3 Consequences of Ore’s Theorem 276
5.4 Algebras with a Zero Element 282
5.5 The Center of an Algebra with Zero 295
5.6 Some Refinement Theorems 300
5.7 Cancellation and Absorption 319

Bibliography 337
Table of Notation 342
Index of Names 348
Index of Terms 350

Additional Bibliography 363

Books and Reports 363
Selected Articles 363

List of Errata 365

 Preface to the Chelsea Edition

This is a reprinting of the original 1987 edition of Algebras, Lattices, Varieties,

Volume I. As we conceived it, this volume together with Volume II, as well as a
separate book on the commutator in congruence modular varieties—then soon to
appear and now available [Freese and McKenzie 1987]–and one on tame congruence
theory [Hobby and McKenzie 1988], would provide a foundation for anyone begin-
ning research in the general theory of algebraic systems. This field and its allied
field of lattice theory have experienced even more growth in depth and breadth
than we foresaw in 1987. Still, it seems to us that our conception of how to en-
ter this field of mathematics is still sound. So we are pleased that the American
Mathematical Society is publishing this Chelsea edition.
You will find here a very short Additional Bibliography. Its first part is de-
voted to books and reports. Most are directly concerned with topics found in the
book in your hands. Two topics we did not cover have found important places in
our field: namely the theory of natural dualties–see [Clark and Davey 1998] and
[Pitkethly and Davey 2005]—and the theory of quasivarieties, see [Gorbunov 1998].
The report [Shevrin 2017] gives an overview of the activities of just one center in
the field, with many pointers to the literature. The second part includes articles
that represent high points in the field. These include Ralph McKenzie’s solution to
Tarski’s Finite Basis Problem, J. B. Nation’s counterexample to Jónsson’s Finite
Height Conjecture, and the introduction by Libor Barto and Marcin Kozik of ab-
sorbing subuniverses. There are four entries by Keith Kearnes and Ágnes Szendrei
(one with Emil Kiss, one with Ross Willard) to represent the work of a leading
research team. Also in this part of the Additional Bibliography you will find [Bu-
latov, Jeavons, and Krokhin 2005], which gives an account of the link between the
computational complexity of constraint satisfaction problems and the general the-
ory of algebras. This link was made by Peter Jeavons and his collaborators around
2000. In the ensuing years, this connection to constraint satisfaction problems has
driven an explosive growth in research, contributing both on the computational
complexity side and on the side of the general theory of algebraic systems.
We have also incuded here a collection of errata.
Ralph N. McKenzie
George F. McNulty
Walter F. Taylor
 ALGEBRAS,
LATTICES, VARIETIES
VOLUME I
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H. P. Sankappanavar (See S. Burris and H. P. Sankappanavar)

E. T. Schmidt (See G. G rätzer and E. T. Schmidt)
E. Schröder [1890]. Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik ( exakte Logik), edited in part
by E. Müller and B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. Published in 4 volumes. Second edition in 3
volumes, Chelsea Publ. Co., Bronx, New York, 1966.
R. Seifert, Jr. [1971]. On prime binary relational structures, Fund. Math. 70, 187-203.
S. Shelah [1980]. On a problem of Kurosh, Jônsson groups, and applications, Word
problems I I (Adian, Boone, and Higman, Eds.), North-H olland, Amsterdam, pp. 373-
394.
W. Sierpinski [1934]. Sur les suites infinies de fonctions définies dans les ensembles
quelconques, Fund. Math. 24, 209-212.
--------- [1945]. Sur les fonctions de plusieurs variables, Fund. Math. 33, 169-173.
J. D. H. Smith [1976]. M a l’cev varieties, Lecture Notes in M athematics, Vol. 554,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin-New York.
M. H. Stone [1936]. The theory of representations for Boolean algebras, Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 40, 37-111.
S. Swierczkowski (See A. Hulanicki and S. Swierczkowski)

A. Tarski [1930]. Une contribution à la théorie de la mesure, Fund. M ath. 15, 42-50.
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--------- [1935]. D er Wahrheitsbegriff in den formalisierten Sprachen, Studia Philosophica
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--------- [1952]. Some notions and methods on the borderline of algebra and m eta-
mathematics, Proceedings o f the International Congress o f Mathematicians, Cam-
bridge, Massachussetts, 1950, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., pp. 705-720.
--------- (See also C. C. Chang, B. Jônsson and A. Tarski; J. M. G. Fell and A. Tarski;
L. Henkin, D. M onk, and A. Tarski; B. Jônsson and A. Tarski)
A. Tarski and S. Givant [1987]. A formalization o f set theory without variables, Collo-
quium Publicatiôns, Vol. 41, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I.
V. Trnkovâ (See A. Pultr and V. Trnkovâ)
J. Tûma (See P. Pudlâk and J. Tûma)

R. L. Vaught [1985]. Set theory, Birkhäuser, Boston.

B. L. van der W aerden [1931]. Moderne algebra, Julius Springer, Berlin.

E. A. W alker [1956]. Cancellation in direct sums of groups, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 7,
898-902.
D. L. Webb [1936]. Definition of Post’s generalized negative and maximum in terms of
one binary operation, Amer. J. Math. 58, 193-194.
J. H. M. W edderburn [1905]. A theorem on finite algebras, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 6,
349-352.
--------- [1909]. O n the direct product in the theory of finite groups, Ann. Math. 10, 173—
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T. P. Whaley [1969]. Algebras satisfying the descending chain condition for subalgebras,
Pacific J. Math. 28, 217-223.
A. N. Whitehead [1898]. A treatise on universal algebra, Cambridge University Press, U.K.
P. M. W hitman [1941]. Free lattices, Ann. Math. 42 (2), 325-330.
--------- [1942] Free lattices, II, Ann. Math. 43 (2), 104-115.
--------- [1946]. Lattices, equivalence relations, and subgroups, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 52,
507-522.
R. Wille [1977]. Eine Charakterisierung endlicher, ordnungspolynomvollständiger Ver-
bände, Arch. Math. (Basel) 28, 557-560.
 Table of Notation

Set-Theoretical Notation
O ur elementary set-theoretical notation is standard. It is described fully in the Preliminaries
and only the less commonly encountered features are recalled here.

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

co 7 the set { 0 ,1,2,...} of natural numbers.
Z 7 the set of integers.
Q 7 the set of rational numbers.
[R 7 the set of real numbers.
C 7 the set of complex numbers.
</•: iE iy 5 -6 sequence or function-builder notation
X 5 the sequence <x0, x x, • • • > where the length
is specified by the context.
f : A -+ B, A ± B 6 f is a function from A into B.
6 f is a function from A onto B.
f- .A ^ B 6 f is a one-to-one function from A into B.
6 the value of f at a.
k er/ 6 the kernel of f.
6 designates f by assignment— e.g., k ^ k 2
designates the squaring function.
Pi 22 the ith projection function.
P” 142 the ith n-ary projection function.
r u E M ,, i m 6 the direct product of the system A =
< A ,:ie/> .
BA 6 the set of all functions from A into B.
End A 21 the set of functions from A into A.
End A 21 the monoid of functions from A into A.
AutA , SymA 21, 119 the set of perm utations of A.
AutA, SymA 21, 119 the group of permutations of A.
P art A 112-113 the set of partial functions on A.
Part A 112-113 the monoid of partial functions on A.

342
Table of Notation 343

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

Bin A 112-113 the set of binary relations on A.
Bin A 112-113 the monoid of binary relations on A.
Eqv A 8 the set of equivalence relations on A.
EqvA 34 the lattice of equivalence relations on A.
ao ß 6 the relational product (composition) of a
and ß.
aonß 196 the n-fold relational product of a with ß.
au 6 the converse of the relation a.
A/a 8 the factor set of A modulo the equivalence
relation a.
a/oc 8 the equivalence class of a modulo a.
apb, a =p b, a = b (mod p) 8 a and b are related by p.
151 { (a ,a } :a e A }— i.e., the identity relation on
A. This is the smallest equivalence rela-
tion on A.
u 151 {(a,by: a ,b e A }— i.e., the universal rela-
tion on A. This is the largest equivalence
relation on A.
Card 315 the class of cardinals.

General Algebraic Notation

Generally, we have used boldface to indicate algebras, or sets equipped with additional
structure. For example, Aut A is the set of all permutations of the set A, Aut A is the group
of all permutations of A, and Aut A is the set of all automorphisms of the algebra A.

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

A = <A,F> 12 the algebra A with universe A and system
= <A,Fi(/e/)> 142 F = (Fp i e i y of basic operations.
<A,T> 154 a nonindexed algebra.
QA 12 the interpretation of the operation symbol
Q in the algebra A.
A£ B 19 A is a subalgebra of B.
sg Am 25 the subuniverse of A generated by X.
Sub A 19 the set of subuniverses of A.
Sub A 27 the lattice of subuniverses of A.
S(A) 252-253 a special subuniverse of A4.
C(A) 296 the center (subuniverse) of A, where A is an
algebra with zero.
h: A -> B, A À B 20 h is a homomorphism from A into B.
h: A ^ B , a A b 20 h embeds A into B.
h: A B, A B 20-21 h is a homomorphism from A onto B.
h: A ~ B , h: A s B 21 h is an isomorphism from A onto B.
hom(A, B) 20 the set of homomorphisms from A into B.
End A 21 the set of endomorphisms of A.
344 Table of Notation

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

End A 21 the monoid of endomorphisms of A.
Aut A 21 the set of automorphisms of A.
Aut A 21 the group of automorphisms of A.
/i(D, A) 319-320 the number of homomorphisms from D
into A.
m(D, A) 319-320 the number of embeddings ( = monomor-
phisms) from D into A.
n A , n M /’ n*ei a , 22 the direct product of the system A =
<Af: i e i y of algebras.
x /o 28 the quotient algebra of A modulo the con-
gruence relation 6.
y/(!) 150 the quotient of two congruence relations.
Be 151 { x e A : xdy for some y e B}.
@\b 151 the restriction of d to B.
Con A 28 the set of congruence relations on A.
Con A 34 the lattice of congruence relations on A.
c gAW 32 the congruence relation on A generated
by X.
CgA(a,b) 33 the (principal) congruence relation on A
generated by {(a, by}.
252 a centralizes P modulo rj.
M 252 the com m utator of the congruences a
and p.
(a:0 ) 252 the centralizer of ft modulo a.
Z(A) 250 the center (congruence) of A.
A(A) 252-253 a special congruence on A2.
h = g ( f0, ' ' ' 142 the composition of a /c-ary operation g with
k n-ary operations ' ,A -i •
CloA 143 the clone of term operations of A.
Clo„ A 143 the clone of n-ary term operations of A.
CIo„ A 148 the algebra of n-ary term operations of A.
Pol A 144-145 the clone of polynomial operations of A.
Pol„A 144-145 the clone of n-ary polynomial operations
of A.
(PolA )|x 156 A set of restrictions to X of polynomial
operations of A.
A|y 156 the algebra induced by A on X .
n r> r w 269(161) the product of a system T = <yf: ie /> of
congruences.
a x P 269(161) the product of the congruences a and p.
IND(A) 279 the family of all independent sets of con-
gruences on A.
A ~B 270 the algebras A and B are isotopic.
A B 270 the algebras A and B are isotopic over the
algebra C.
A ~ £ od B 273 A and B are modular-isotopic over C.
a B 273 A and B are modular-isotopic in one step.
Table of Notation 345

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

A ~ mod B 273 A and B are modular-isotopic.
A ~ fin B 322 A and B are isotopic over a finite C.
A -^ B 322 A and B are isotopic over a member of X .
Mx 260 the monoid of isomorphism classes of alge-
bras in X under direct product,
Sjr 262 the semiring of isomorphism classes of rela-
tional structures in X under direct pro-
duct and disjoint union.
302 unary operations derived from binary de-
composition operations.
< L, < R, < , and = 305 special relations derived from a binary rela-
tional structure.
W 219 the class of all isomorphic images of mem-
bers of X .
H(XT) 23 the class of all hom om orphic images of
members of X .
S (X ) 23 the class of all isomorphic images of sub-
algebras of members of X .
P (X ) 23 the class of all isomorphic images of direct
products of systems of algebras from X .
P fin W 222 the class of all isomorphic images of direct
products of finite systems of algebras
from X .
PAX') 219 the class of all isomorphic images of sub-
direct products of systems of algebras
from X .
m o 220 the variety generated by X .
221 the class of all subdirectly irreducible mem-
bers of X .
•^fin 222 the class of all finite algebras belonging
to X .
Spec X 124 the spectrum of X .
f A n) 241 the free spectrum function of X .
© (X ) 228 for a given algebra A, the meet of all the
kernels of homomorphism s from A into
algebras belonging to X .
TAX) 229 the set of terms of type cr over X.
TAX) 229 the term algebra of type cr over X.
FAX) 230 a free algebra in E (X ) with free generating
set X.
F A *) 230 an algebra F ^ X ) where |2f | = k .
p* 232 the interpretation of the term p in the alge-
bra A.
A, a\= p « q 234 the sequence a satisfies the equation p & q
in the algebra A.
A h p»q 234 the equation p & q is true in A.
X~\= p » q 234 the equation p & q is true in every algebra
in X .
346 Table of Notation

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

X |= £ 234 every equation in the set Z is true in every
algebra in X .
0 (X ) 236 the equational theory of X .
M od(Z) 236 the class of all models of Z.
239 the set of all words over X.
□ 113 the empty word.
AD 245 the application of the interpretation opera-
tor D to the algebra A.
X = W 246 X and X~ are equivalent varieties.
A = B 246 A and B are (term) equivalent algebras.
Ac, AwJc, and Az 104-106 Certain m ono-unary algebras.
SETS 134 The category of sets.
hom c (A, B) 133 The collection of morphisms in the cate-
gory C from object A to object B.
Alg„ 134 The category of all algebras of type p.
CAT/ 135 The category of all algebras belonging to
the variety X .
Clonec A 136 The clone of an object A in a category C.

Notation for Lattices and Ordered Sets

NOTATION PAGES DESCRIPTION

A , V 16-17, 36 the lattice operations of meet and join.
sup A, \ / X , \Z ,x , 37, 44 the join (least upper bound) of the set X =
{xf. i e l } of elements of an ordered set.
inf A, f \ X , f \ , x t 37, 44 the meet (greater lower bound) of the set
X = {xf: i e l } of elements of an ordered
set.
ci —< b 38 a is covered by b (in an ordered set).
La 40 the dual of the lattice L.
J[u, h] 38 the interval from a to b in an ordered set.
I [a, h] 38 the sublattice with universe I[a,b].
f(n] 38 the principal ideal determined by an ele-
ment a.
/[« ) 38 the principal filter determined by an ele-
ment a.
J(L ) 85 the ordered set of nonzero join irreducible
elements of the lattice L.
P(L ) 87 the ordered set of all proper prime ideals
ofL.
Iso(L, L') 85 the lattice of all isotone maps from the lat-
tice L into the lattice L'.
O rd (J) 85 the lattice of order ideals of the ordered
set J.
Idl L 48 the lattice of ideals of L.
FilL 48 the lattice of filters of L.
Cvx L 48 the lattice of convex subsets of L.
Table of Notation 347

N O T A T IO N PAGES D E S C R IP T IO N
IND(L) 66 the family of all directly join independent
subsets of L.
a© b 66 the direct join of a and b.
<K, and i/zt 56-57 the perspectivity maps.
I [a, 6] z I[a ',b '] 56-57 h] transposes up to /[ a ', h'].
I[a,b] \ I[ a ',b ’J 56-57 I[a,b] transposes down to I[a ',b '].
/[a , 6] Z wI [ a ',b '] 91 transposes weakly up into I[a ',b '].
I[a,b] \ 91 I[a,b] transposes weakly down into
I[a',b'J.
h(a) 64 the height of an element a of a lattice,
d(a) 65 the dimension of an element a of a lattice
with dimension function d.
m3 39, 79 the five element nondistributive m odular
lattice.
n5 39, 55 the five element nonm odular lattice,
F®(3) 39, 241 the free distributive lattice on three free
generators.
39, 241 the free m odular lattice on three free gener-
ators.
7i = <P, A>, L" 207 a projective plane and its associated lattice
of subspaces.
r = <P,A>, Lr 209 a projective geometry and its associated
lattice of subspaces.
dim T 210 the dimension of a projective geometry T.
BC(A) 187 the set of cardinalities of finite bases of X
with respect to the closure operator C.
Ba (A) 187 the set of cardinalities of finite bases of X
with respect to the closure operator SgA,
where X A.

Notation for Groups and Rings

N O T A T IO N PAG ES D E S C R IP T IO N
N, 118 the normal subgroup that is the coset of the
unit element of a group modulo the con-
gruence 3 on the group.
[>,y] 121 the com m utator of elements x and y of a
group.
StabK(r) 132 the stabilizer of t in K.
171 the infinite quasi-cyclic group.
F ^X ), F ^ X ) 120, 240 the free group generated by the free generat-
ing set X.
X 122 the variety of n-nilpotent groups.
122 the (Burnside) variety of groups of expo-
nent n.
ann(R), ann(x) 176, 251 the annihilator of the ring R; the annihila-
tor of the element x of R.
 Index of Names

Appleson, R. R., 325 Galois, E., 51-52

Artin, E., 16 Galvin, F., 109, 264
Gerhard, J. A., 115
Baldwin, J. T , 127 Givant, S., 18
Bernstein, F., 333 Glivenko, V., 1
Birkhoff, G., 1-2, 36, 50, 58, 62, 79, 85, 87, Grätzer, G., 3, 4, 36, 181,190
97,126, 130,168,173,183, 221, 236, Grassmann, R., 1
264, 276 Gumm, H. P., 250
Blok, W., 4
Boole, G., 1 Hagemann, J., 4, 250
Bruck, H., 124 Hajnal, A., 109
Burnside, W., 16, 110, 122 Hall, P., 136
Burris, S., 4, 35 Haimos, P., 5
Hamilton, W. R., 1
Cantor, G., 333 Hanf, W. A., 267, 331
Cayley, A., 119, 129 Hashimoto, J., 305
Chang, C. C., 109-110, 262, 305, 313, Hasse, H., 38
318 Hausdorff, F., 7
Cohn, P. M., 4 Henkin, L , 173
Corner, A. L. S., 261 Herrmann, C., 4, 241, 250, 257
Crawley, P., 36 Heyting, A., 181
Higman, G., 125
Dedekind, R., 1, 53, 55, 57-58, 62, 259 Hilbert, D., 16, 52
DeMorgan, A., 1 Holder, O., 58, 62, 75
Descartes, R., 259 Hulanicki, A., 148
Dilworth, R. P., 3, 36, 84,91, 95, 97, 318 Huntington, E. V., 318

Erdös, P., 109 Jonsson, B., 3, 18, 66, 70, 109-110,190,206, 248,
259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 266, 268, 276,
Fano, G., 208 278, 280, 283, 290, 291, 295, 299, 305,
Feit, W., 102 318
Fell, J. M .G .,317,318 Jacobson, N., 16, 175
Fitting, H., 286 Janov, Ju. L, 148
Fleischer, I., 203 Johnson, O. J., 110
Foster, A. L., 3 Jordan, C., 15, 52, 58, 62, 75, 281-282
Fraenkel, A., 18
Freese, R., 4, 77, 241, 250 Köhler, P., 4
Frink, O., 3, 183 Keisler, H. J., 110
Frobenius, G., 16 Ketonen, J , 116, 261
Fuhrken, G., 132 Kirkman, T., 124
Funayama, N., 78 Kronecker, L., 66, 259

348
Index of Names 349

Krull, W., 2, 66, 259 Quackenbush, R. W., 103

Kummer, E., 259
Kurosh, A. G , 59, 60, 66 Remak, R., 259
Kwatinetz, M., 35 Rhodes, G. L., 158
Rips, E., 110
Lachlan, A., 127 Rowbottom, F., 109
Lampe, W., 102
Lawvere, F. W., 137 Sankappanavar, H. P., 4
Lie, S., 1,15 Schmidt, E. T , 3,181, 190
Los, J., 3, 111,286 Schmidt, O., 2, 66, 259
Loväsz, L., 260, 262, 270, 319, 321, 322, 325, 331 Schreier, O., 75-76
Schröder, E., 1
MacNeille, H. M , 53 Scott, W. R., 266
Maltsev, A. L, 3, 4, 246, 247, 248 Seifert, R., 263
Marczewski, E., 3 Shelah, S., 110
Maurer, W. D., 158 Sierpihski, W., 101-102
McKenzie, R , 102, 103, 250, 261, 263, 265, 305, Smith, J. D. H., 4, 250
310, 313, 331 Steiner, J., 123-124
Menger, K., 1, 97 Stone, M. H., 3, 87, 88, 89
Monk, D., 173, 180 Swierczkowski, S., 148
Mucnik, A. A., 148
Tarski, A, 3,18, 50, 87,125, 173, 187, 189, 261,
Nachbin, L., 89 262, 263, 283, 290, 291, 295, 299, 305,
Nakayama, T., 78 317,318
Nation, J. B., 4 Trnkovä, V., 137
Neumann, B. H., 125 Turna, J., 4, 193
Noether, E., 16
Vaught, R. L., 5, 267, 331
Ol’shanskii, A. Ju., 110 van der Waerden, B. L., 1-2, 16
Ore, O., 1, 2, 59, 60, 62, 66, 75, 264, 276, 280 von Neumann, J., 1, 3

Pälfy, P. P., 156, 158 Walker, E. A., 266

Pasch, M., 217 Webb, D. L , 103
Peano, G., 1 Wedderburn, J. H. M., 16, 66, 175, 259
Peirce, C. S., 1 Whaley, T. P., 110
Pierce, R. S., 4, 16 Whitehead, A. N., 1
Pigozzi, D., 4, 225 Whitman, P. M., 3,190, 242
Pixley, A. F., 247, 248 Wille, R., 159
Post, E. L., 2,147
Priestley, H., 89 Zassenhaus, H., 75-76
Pudläk, P., 4,156, 158,181,193 Zermelo, E., 18
Pultr, A., 137 Zorn, M., 7
 Index of Terms

Abelian algebra, 250 finite, 142

absorption, under direct product, 331 finitely generated, 26
absorption laws, in lattice theory, 36 of finite type, 142
abstract class of algebras, 219 free (see free algebras)
abstract clone, 136 homomorphic images of, 21
addition, of cardinals, 8 homomorphisms of (see homomorphisms)
affine algebraic variety, 52 idempotent, 261
aleph, 8 index set of, 12
algebraic: induced by A on X, 156
closure operator, 46 infinitely divisible, 331
function, 145 irreducible:
geometry, 52, 84 < fl,h>-, 169
property, 21 subdirectly, 169
algebraic lattices: isomorphic, 21
compact elements in, 46 isotopy of, 270-273, 322
complemented modular, §4.8 Jonsson, 109
covering relation in, 182 locally finite, 221
defined, 46,181 Maltsev, 247
join continuity of [Exercise 4], 194 monolith of, 169
representation of, §4.6 nonindexed, 154
retracts of [Exercise 4], 194 nontrivial:
(see also closure operators (algebraic), an algebra with more than one element
Gratzer-Schmidt Theorem, lattices of partial, 143
(congruences, ideals, etc.)) perfect, 317
algebra(s): polynomially equivalent, 246
Abelian, 250, 252, 257 polynomial operations of, 145
arithmetical, 247 primal, 148
basic (fundamental) operations of, 12,142 prime in a class, 103, 263 [Exercise 10], 300
cancellable in a class, 321 pseudo-simple, 180
cardinality of, 142 quotient of, 28
centers of, 250, 296 rank function of, 12
congruence distributive, 196, 218, 304 reduct of, 13
congruence modular, 196, 276 residually finite, 178
congruence permutable, §4.7 residually less than k , 178
congruences of, 28 retraction of, 194
defined, 12, 142 similarity of, 13
directly indecomposable, 95, 165, 260 semi-simple, 179, 204
division between, 103 simple, 95,157
(term) equivalent, 246 solvable [Exercise 6], 258
expansion of, 13 subalgebra of, 19
extension of, 19 subdirectly irreducible, 169, 221

350
Index of Terms 351

<u, 6>-irreducible, 169 bounded lattice, 38

monolith, 169 Burnside varieties (of groups), 122
subuniverses of, 19
term operations of, 143 cancellation, for direct products, 262, 291, 319
that are zero divisors, 324 (see also isotopic (algebras))
(similarity) type of, 13,149 Cantor-Bernstein Theorem, 333
unary (see unary algebras) cardinality, 8
universe of, 12 cardinals, 8
weak isomorphism of, 246 Cartesian (or direct) products, 6, 22
with zero, 282, §§5.4—5.5 categories:
Algebra Universalis, a journal, 4 clone, a certain kind of category, 136
alphabet, 229 clone-map, 140
alternating groups: clone of a variety, 141, 245
defined, 131 subclone, 136
infinite [Exercise 11], 158 concrete, 135
simplicity of [Exercises 6-10], 132 coproducts in, 140
annihilator, in rings, 52, 251 defined, 133
anti-: domain (codomain) of an element, 133
chain, 38 equivalent, 135-136
homomorphism, 131 functors between, 133
symmetric element, 305, 313 equivalence functor, 135-136
Arguesian equation, for lattices, 193 faithful functor, 134
arity (rank): isomorphism, 134
of a closure operator, 183 universe functor, 135
of an operation, 11 groupoid, 139
of a relation, 5 isomorphic, 134
associative algebras, over a field, 15, 245 morphisms, or elements, 133
associative law, 112 domains (codomains) of, 133
atom, of an ordered set, 38 epimorphisms, 135
atomistic lattice, 210 equalizer of morphisms, 203
Aut A, the automorphism group of an algebra, homc(X, £), 133
21, 35 isomorphisms, 135
automorphism, of an algebra, 21 monomorphisms, 135
axiomatized by, 236 objects (unit elements), 133
Axiom of Choice, 6-7, 27, 43 opposite category, 140
Axiom of Constructibility, 109 products in, 135
axioms of lattice theory, 36 representation problems, 137
small, 134
band, or idempotent semigroup, 115 subcategories, 133
base (see generating set) Autc A, 136
base set (universe) of an algebra, 12 CIonec A, 136
basic (fundamental) operation, 12,142 Endc A, 136
basis (see generating set) full subcategories, 133
bilinear algebras: unit elements, 133
associative algebras, 15, 245 category of:
Lie algebras, 15, 245 algebras of type p: Algp, 134-135
Bin A, the monoid of binary relations on A, 113, algebras in t T : CAT tT, 135
119 distributive lattices, 139
Birkhoff-Ore Theorem [Theorem 5.3], 276 groups, 140
block, i.e., equivalence class, 8 sets, 134
Boolean: structures over C, 322
algebras, 17, 331 topological spaces, 141
free, 241 Cayley representation:
representation of, 85-88 of a group or semigroup, 129
Stone duality for (see Stone duality) Cayley’s Theorem, 129,137
groups, 268 center:
lattices, 84, 97 of an algebra with zero, 295
powers, 261 congruence of an algebra, 250, 297
products, 4 of a ring, 176
rings, 245 central element:
sum (symmetric difference), 245 of an algebra with zero, 296
 352 Index of Terms

central element (continued) in groups, 121-122

of a ring, 176 commutator theory, 4, 196, 250
centralizer: commuting:
of a congruence, 252 functions, 130
of a subset of a clone, 163, [Exercise 13] 149 operations, 149, 163 [Exercise 12]
centralizes: relations, i.e., permuting binary relations,
a centralizes ft modulo 77, 252 196
central subuniverse of an algebra with zero, compact:
295-296 closed set, i.e., finitely generated [Theorem
chain (see lattices, ordered sets) 2.16], 46
chain conditions (see lattices) element of a lattice, 46
Chinese Remainder Theorem, 248 comparable elements of an ordered set, 38
chain of sets, [Exercise 3] 27, [Exercise 10] 250 complement of an element in a lattice, 60
choice functions, 22 complementary factor relations and con-
class, in set theory, 5 gruences, 161
class operators: complementation operation, 17
I, H, S, P, Ps, Pfin, 23, 219, 222 complete lattices:
order monoid of [Exercise 12], 225-226 compact elements, 46
CIo„ A, the algebra of «-ary term operations connection to closure operators, §2.2
of A: continuous lattices [Exercise 4], 194
defined [Exercise 1], 148 infimum (greatest lower bound), 37
induced homomorphisms of [Exercise 6], 153 supremum (least upper bound), 37
quotients of [Lemma 4.98], 222 (see also closure operators, algebraic lattices,
is a relatively free algebra [Exercises 7 and 8], Dedekind-MacNeille completion)
242 components (see connected components)
clones (certain categories) (see categories) composition:
clones (sets of operations closed under of binary relations, 6
composition): of functions, 6
of all operations on A : of morphisms in a category, 133
CloA, Clo„A, 143 of operations, 142
centralizers of [Exercise 13], 149 (see also relational product)
lattices of, 4, 147 Con A, the lattice of all congruences of A, 34
of polynomial operations of A: concatenation of sequences, 113
Pol A, Pol„A, 144-145 congruence distributive and congruence
of term operations of A: modular (see algebras, varieties)
CloA, Clo„A, 143 Congruence Generation Theorem [Theorem
cl open set, 17 4.19], 155
closed: congruence lattice of an algebra, i.e., the lattice
under a class operator, 23, 220 of all congruences, 34
under composition by f, 143 congruence permutable variety (see Maltsev
under an operation, 52, [Exercise 7] 148 variety)
closed set system, 44 congruence relations, i.e. congruences
closure operator(s): congruence (s):
algebraic, 46 centralizers (annihilators) of, 252
connection to algebraic lattices classes (blocks or cosets) of, 28
[Theorem 2.16], 46 commutators of, 252
representation as SgA [Theorem 4.51], 182 complementary factor, 161
base of a subset for, 187 defined, 28
basis (or irredundant base), 187 factor, 161, 302
closed set system, related, 45 factorable [Exercise 9], 166
connection to complete lattices, §2.2 finitely generated, 33
defined, 44-45 generated by a set of ordered pairs, 32,152,
finitely generated closed set for, 46 155
independent subset for [Exercise 6], 50 indecomposable, 269
lattice of closed sets of, 45 isotopic, 271
«-ary (of rank « + 1), 183 joins (meets) of, 33-34
(see also Galois connections, Tarski’s Inter- «-permuting, 196
polation Theorem) permuting, 195, §4.7
commutators: principal, 33
in general algebras, 252 (inner direct) products of, 268
Index of Terms 353

strictly meet irreducible [Lemma 4.43], 171 irreducible element, 66-67

substitution property of, 27-28 isotopic elements, 66-67
type n — 1 joins of, 198 direct products:
connected: decomposition operations of:
components: binary, 115,162
of a graph, 328-329 [applied], 302-316
of a relational structure, 305 n-ary [Exercises 14-15], 167
of a unary algebra, 104, 107, [Exercise defined, 22
1-3] 110 factor congruences of, 161, 302
ordered set, 305 factors of, 22
relational structure, 305 projections to the factors, 22
unary algebra, 107, [Exercises 1-3] 110 refinement properties for:
constants, 11 intermediate refinement property, 311
Continuum Hypothesis (CH), 317 refinement property, 261, 300
convex: strict refinement property, 165, 301
(k-convex) set of natural numbers, 187 unique factorization property for, 116,165,
subset of an ordered set, 16, 31,48 260, Ch. 5
coproduct, in categories, 140 (see also absorption, cancellation, division
Correspondence Theorem [Theorem 4.12], 151 between algebras, factorable con-
cosets (see congruence (classes of)) gruences, isotopic algebras, kth roots,
coset: prime algebras, zero divisors)
structure, 325 distributive:
of a subgroup, 108 element of a lattice, 96
cover (upper, lower), of an element, 38 lattices:
covering relation: defined, 78
in algebraic lattices, 182 free, 39, 241-242
in lattices, 38, 61, 62 representation of, 85-87
cyclic decomposition of a permutation, 107 Priestley duality for (see Priestley duality)
cylindric algebras, 173 law, 78
division:
Dedekind-MacNeille completion, 53 between algebras:
Dedekind’s Transposition Principle [Theorem A is:
2.27], 57 divisible by B, 103
defined (or axiomatized) by a set of equations, infinitely divisible by B, 331
236 groups:
diagonal subuniverse of A", 200 defined, 244
dimension: single equational axiom for, 125
function of a lattice, 65 rings, 157, 175, 210
(or height) of a lattice, 65 domain and codomain:
of a projective geometry, 209 of a function, 6
direct: * of a morphism (see categories)
decompositions of algebras, i.e., direct duality:
representations, 159 for lattices, 40
factor of an algebra, 22 of Priestley (see Priestley duality)
join of elements in a lattice, 66 for projective planes [Exercise 2], 216
powers of algebras, 6, 23 of Stone (see Stone duality)
weak [Exercise 7], 317
products of algebras (see direct products) embeddings:
representations, 159 defined, 20,
sum (inner) of subalgebras, 283 meet, 192
directed: subdirect, 169
collection of sets [Exercise 3], 27 End A, the endomorphism monoid of an algebra,
subset of an ordered set, 46 21,35
Direct Join Decomposition Theorem End A, the monoid of selfmaps of A, 112, 119
[Theorem 2.47], 74, 279 equalizer of two homomorphisms, 203
directly: equations:
indecomposable algebra, 95,165 defined, 234
indecomposable congruence, 269 synonyms: identity, law, 234
join (meet): true in A (or valid in A, or obeyed by A, or
independent subset, 66-67 holds in A), 234
 354 Index of Terms

equational: free generators are called:

class, i.e., a variety, 236 letters, variables, indeterminates, 227, 239
theory: freely generated by X, 227
base of, 189 reduced terms, i.e., normal forms for elements,
of a class, 236 239
defined, 236 relatively free algebras, 239
nonrecursive, 241 universal mapping property of, 227
equationally complete variety (see varieties (see also terms. For free groups, e.g., see
(minimal)) groups (free))
equivalence relations: function (s):
complementary factor relations, 161 and allied concepts, 6, §3.2
defined, 8 choice, 22
equivalence classes (blocks, cosets), 8 commuting, 130
factor set of A modulo, 8 continuous, 21, 23, 141
joins (meets) of, 17, 33-34 fixed point of [Exercise 5], 50
partitions, correlated to, 8 idempotent, 287
relational product of, 6, 160 order-preserving, 40, 85
(see also congruences, lattices of (equivalence retraction [Exercise 2], 131
relations), relations (binary)) synonyms: map, mapping, system
equivalent: (see also unary algebras)
algebras, 246 functor (see categories)
categories, 135-136 fundamental (basic) operations, 12,142
varieties, 244-245 Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated
Eqv A, the lattice of all equivalence relations Abelian Groups [mentioned], 52
on A, 34, [Exercise 7] 18 (see also lattices
of (equivalence relations)) Galois connections (correspondences):
expansion, of an algebra, 13 established by polarities of a binary relation,
exponentiation, of cardinals, 8 51
extension, of an algebra, 19 examples of, 51-53, 147
Galois field, i.e., a finite field
factor: Generalized Continuum Hypothesis (GCH), 317
congruences of an algebra, 161, 302 generating set:
direct, of an algebra, 22 i.e., base, with respect to a closure operator,
of a factorable relation, 164 187
relations: basis, i.e., an irredundant (independent or
of a relational structure, 307 minimal) base, 187, [Exercise 6] 50
of a set, 161 of a congruence, 32, 152,155
subdirect, of an algebra, 159 the exchange property for bases, [Exercise 6]
factorable: 50
congruences, 164, [Exercise 9] 166 free, of an algebra, 227
relations, 164 of a subuniverse, 25,152
factorization, unique, 259 geometry (see algebraic, projective)
family, or set, 5 graphs:
Fano plane, 208 bipartite, 331
fields, 14,175, 208-209 directed, 328
filter, of a lattice, 48 weak direct product of, 330-331
finitary, 11 Gratzer-Schmidt Theorem [discussed], 3,181,
finitely generated: 190
closed set for a closure operator, 46 greatest lower bound, 37, 44
congruence, 33 groupoid, an algebra with one binary operation,
subuniverse, 26 103, 186
variety, 221 groupoid, a category with invertible maps,
fixed point, of an isotone map [Exercise 5], [Exercise 10] 139
50 group(s):
formal equality symbol (« ), 9 alternating (see alternating groups)
used with equations, 234 commutators in, 121, 250
free algebras: congruence lattices of, [Theorem 2.24] 53
absolutely free algebras, 228, 239 conjugate subgroups of, [Exercise 9] 111
the term algebra of type a, 229 defined, 14, 118
free algebras in familiar classes, 239-242 directly indecomposable, 132,168, 260
free for (or in) X ' over X , 227 finitely generated Abelian, 259
Index of Terms 355

free: subdirect embeddings, 169

compared, [Exercise 20] 243 surjective (onto) homomorphisms, 21
constructed, 119-120, [Exercise 4] 126 Homomorphism Theorem [Theorem 1.16],
revisited, [Examples 2-3] 240 28-29
inner automorphisms of, 132 H-spaces, 261
nilpotent, 122 HSP Theorem (of G. Birkhoff) [Theorem 4.131],
normal subgroups of, 30, 36, 118-119 237
perfect [Exercise 11], 317
permutation, 130 ideals:
quasi-cyclic: of a lattice, 48
as Jonsson groups, 110 order ideals, 85
as pseudo-simple algebras, [Exercise 3] 180 prime ideals, 86
as subdirectly irreducible Abelian groups, principal ideals, 48
[Example (e)] 171, [Exercises 2-7] 179- of a ring, 30,175
180 idempotent:
representations of, 128-130 (see also G-sets) algebra, 261
simple, [Exercise 14] 158-159 element of a ring, 176
subgroups of, 118 function, 287
symmetric (see symmetric groups) operation, 103
torsion-free, 266 semigroup, 115
words (reduced), 119 identities (see equations)
(see also Boolean groups, Burnside variety, image, of a set or relation under a mapping,
division groups, multiplication groups) 6, 152
G-sets: implication algebras, 205
congruence lattices of, 155-156 incomparable elements of an ordered set, 38
defined, 108 independent (irredundant) set (see generating
quotients of, 108, 111 set)
orbits of, 108 index set, of an algebra, 12
stabilizer (or isotropy) subgroups of, 108, 132 infimum, i.e., greatest lower bound, 37, 44
transitive, 108 integers:
finite ordinals, 7
Hasse diagrams, 38, 56 modulo n, 30
Hausdorff Maximality Principle, 7 ring of, 30
height of: interpretation:
an element, 64 of an operation symbol in an algebra, 12
a lattice, 64 of varieties, 245, §4.12
Heyting algebras: interval (s):
an arithmetical variety [remark], 248 defined, 38
defined [Exercise 18], 181 perspectivity map between, 57
simple and subdirectly irreducible [Exercise projective, 57 (see also Dedekind’s Trans-
18], 181 position Principle, isotopy)
Higman-Neumann-Tarski and a single equa- projectivity map between, 57
tional axiom for group theory, 125 sublattice, 151
Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz [mentioned], 52 transposed, 57
hom(A,B), 20 transposes down to an interval, 57
homc(X, B), where A and B are objects transposes up to an interval, 56-57
in a category C, 133 transposes weakly down into an interval,
homomorphisms: 91
anti-, 131 transposes weakly into an interval, 91
automorphisms, 21 transposes weakly up into an interval, 91
defined, 20 weakly projective, 91
endomorphisms, 21, 283 invariant, i.e., preserved by an operation, 19
equalizer of two, 203 inverse image, of a set or relation under a
finitely determined, 168 mapping, 6,152
hom(A,B), 20 irredundant (independent) set (see generating
injective (one-one) homomorphisms, i.e., set)
embeddings, 20 irreflexive structure, 325
isomorphisms, 21 isomorphic:
kernels of, 28 algebras, 21
retractions [Exercise 4], 194 categories, 134
separating points, 160 representations, 129, 160
356 Index of Terms

isomorphism, 21 complemented, 60, 84

Isomorphism Theorems, 58, 149 complete, 44
isomorphism type (or class) of algebras, 22 congruences of, §2.6
isotone map (or function) (see ordered sets) congruence lattices of [Theorem 2.50], 78
isotopic: continuous [Exercise 4], 194
algebras, 270 covering relation of, 38
relative to a class, 322 directly join (meet) independent subset of,
congruences, 271 66-67
elements of a lattice (i.e., directly join isotopic), directly join (meet) irreducible element of,
66-67 66-67
(see also isotopy) directly join isotopic elements of, 66-67
isotopy: distributive, 78
direct join (or meet) isotopy, 66-67 distributive element of, 96
join (or meet) isotopy map, 66-67 duality for:
modular isotopy, 273 dual of a lattice, 40
Isotopy Lemma (of Lovasz), 322 dual of a property, 42
isotropy subgroup (see G-sets) principal of duality for lattices, 40
selfdual class (or property), 42
Jacobson (theorem of), 175, 177 filters of, 48
join: finite dimensional, 65
continuous lattice [Exercise 4], 194 of finite height, 64
homomorphism (see meet (homomorphism)) free, 241-242
irreducible element, 41 Hasse diagrams of, 38
strictly, 49 height of, 64
irredundant set, 60 height of an element of, 64
operation of a lattice, 17, 36 ideals of, 48
direct, 66 intervals of, 38
prime element, 41 interval sublattices of, 151
semilattice, 114 lower covering property for [Exercise 4],
join independence family, 68 61
Jonsson algebras, 109 lower semimodular [Exercise 4], 61
Jonsson-Tarski Unique Factorization Theorem meet embedding of, 192
[Theorem 5.8], 290 modular, 53
Jonsson terms, 248 most significant, 44
Jordan-Holder Theorem [discussed], 58,62,66, neutral element of, 98, [Exercise 12] 166
75 point, line:
Jordan normal form: elements of a lattice, 207
[established, in Exercises 2-8], 281-282 projective geometry:
[mentioned], 52 a lattice, 216
relatively complemented, 60, 205, [Exercises
kernel of a function, 6, 28 12-13] 206
Krull-Schmidt Theorem [discussed], 58, 66, representation:
264 of finite lattices, 4
kth roots, for direct products, 261, 321 of lattices, 192-193
K urosh-O re Theorem: sectionally of finite height, 64
[discussed], 66, 84, 203 semimodular [Exercise 4], 61
[Theorem 2.33], 60 standard element of, 98
uniquely complemented, 318
Latin square, 123 upper covering property for [Exercise 4], 61
lattice diagram, i.e., Hasse diagram of a lattice, 38 (see also algebraic lattices, complete lattices,
lattice order, 37 distributive lattices, intervals, join, lattices
lattice ordered set, 37 of, meet, modular lattices)
lattice(s): lattice(s) of:
algebraic, 46 clones, 147
atomistic, 210 closed sets for a closure operator, 45
atom of (coatom of), 38 congruences, 33-34
Boolean, 84 of algebras of various types:
bounded, 38 [discussed], 54, 79, 196
chain (or antichain) in, 38 [Exercise 19], 167
chain conditions for: [Exercise 10], 195
ascending (or descending), 42 of finite algebras:
finite, 62 [Exercises 8-9], 158
Index of Terms 357

convex subsets of a lattice, 48 Mobius:

equivalence relations, 17, 34 function of an ordered set, 334
generation of [Exercise 13], 158 inversion formula, 334
representations in, 192 Mod(Z), the variety axiomatized by S, 236
simplicity of [Exercise 12], 158 modular lattice (s):
filters of a lattice, 48 complemented algebraic, 210
ideals of a lattice, 48 defined, 53
permuting equivalence relations, 196-197 dimension function of, 65
positive integers ordered by divisibility, 43 of finite height [Exercise 4], 275
submodules [Exercise 17], 217 free, 39, 241
subspaces of a projective geometry, 209 projective geometry (a modular lattice),
subuniverses, 27 216
varieties, 4 spanning «-frame in, [Exercise 15] 217
defined, 16 modular law:
law (see equation) of lattices, 53
least upper bound, 37, 44 of relational arithmetic, 198
Lie algebras (see bilinear algebras) module (see rings)
limitations of a single operation, 102 monadic algebras:
line: an arithmetical variety [remark], 248
element of height two, 207 defined, 173
projective line (a lattice), 210 a locally finite variety [Exercise 15], 243
locally finite: a nonfinitely generated variety [Exercise 3],
algebras, 221 226
varieties, 221 simple and subdirectly irreducible [lemmas
logic and model theory, 3 and corollary], 173-175
loops (see quasigroups) special, 173
Lovasz Isotopy Lemma [Theorem 5.24], 322 monoids:
lower covering property, 61 of class operators, 225
defined, 13
M 3 (a lattice), 39, 41,48, 59-60, 79-82, 84, 157, free, 113, 239-240
243, 254 indecomposable (prime) elements of, 262
Maltsev: of isomorphism classes (or types), 116, 137,
algebra, 247 260, 321
operation, 247 ordered [Exercise 12], 226
property, 3, 4, 248 (see also M-sets)
term, 247 monolith, i.e., the minimal congruence of a
variety, i.e., a congruence permutable variety, subdirectly irreducible algebra, 169
247 -morphisms (see homomorphisms)
map or mapping, i.e., a function, 6 morphisms, elements of a category:
matrices: codomain of, 133
elementary Jordan, 281 domain of, 133
Jordan normal form of, 281-282 epimorphisms, 135
monoids of, 13 isomorphisms, 135
multi-cyclic, 281 monomorphisms, 135
nilpotent, 281 units, 133
rings of, 14, 293-294 M-sets, 109
maximal: multiplication:
element of an ordered set, 7 of cardinals, 8, [Exercises 2-3] 316-317,
chain, 7 [Exercise 15] 318
measurable cardinals, 109 group, 118
meet: loop, 123
homomorphism, 190 quasigroup, 123
irreducible element, 41 nonpermuting congruences in [Exercises
strictly, 49, 171 8-9], 126
operation of a lattice, 17, 36
direct meet, 67 N 5 (a lattice), 39,41, 55, 56, 58, 79-80,170,
prime element, 41 243-244
semilattice, 114 «-nilpotent groups, 122
minimal: «-permuting congruences, 196
element of an ordered set (see maximal) [«]th power of an algebra [Exercise 18],
generating set, i.e., a basis, 187 167
variety [Exercise 17], 243 «-tuples (elements of A n), 5
 358 Index of Terms

natural numbers: defined, 7

a distributive lattice under divisibility, 43, directed subsets of, 46
[Exercise 1] 89 Hasse diagram of, 38
finite ordinals, 7 interval in, 38
neutral element of a lattice, 98, [Exercise 12] 166 isotone (order preserving) functions between,
nonindexed algebras, 154 40
normal forms, for elements of a relatively free lattice ordered, 37
algebra, 239 (see also Jordan normal least (greatest) element of, 7
form) linearly ordered (i.e., a chain), 7
normal subgroups, 30, 36, 118-119 maximal (minimal) elements of, 7
Mobius function of, 334
obeys the law, i.e., the equation is valid in, 234 tree (an ordered set), 106
objects, of a category, 133 upper (lower) bound of a subset in, 7
co (the set of natural numbers), 7 upper (lower) cover of an element in, 38
one-to-one (injective) map, 6 well-ordered, 7
onto (surjective) map, 6 (see also Hausdorff Maximality Principle,
operation (s): lattices, semilattices, Zorn’s Lemma)
acting coordinatewise, 22,163 ordinals, 7-8
arity of (i.e., rank), 11 Ore’s Theorem [Corollary 2.48], 75, 276
basic (fundamental), 12, 142
binary, 11, Ch. 3 Part A, the monoid of partial functions from A
commuting, 163, [Exercise 12] 149 into A, 112, 119
composition of, 142 partial order, i.e., an order relation, 7
constants, 11 partition:
decomposition operations, 115, 162, 302, 306 correlated to an equivalence relation, 8
[Exercise 14], 167 Pasch’s axiom for projective geometry
defined, 11 [Exercise 7], 217
depends on a variable, 101, 146 permutational algebra, 155
derived (i.e., term) operations, 101 permutation group, 130 (see also groups, G-sets)
essentially at most k-ary, 146 permutation (s):
Unitary, 11 cyclic (a cycle), 107
fundamental (basic), 12,142 cyclic decomposition of, 107
idempotent [Exercise 4], 103 defined, 14
Maltsev, 247 of finite support, 193
n-ary, 11 notation for, 107
partial, 11 product of, 107
polynomial, 144-145 support of, 193
preserves a relation, 19 transposition (a 2-cycle) [Exercise 2], 116
projection, 142 (see also groups, G-sets)
rank of, 11 permuting:
term, 100, 143, 231 binary relations, 160
ternary, 11 congruences, §4.7
unary, 11, Ch. 3 perspectivity map between intervals, 57
(see also algebras, clones) Pixley term for an arithmetical variety, 248
operation symbols, 12, 149, 229 point, i.e., an atom, 207
orbit: Pol„ A, the algebra of n-ary polynomial
connected component of a G-set, 108 operations of A [Exercise 6], 153
order (or ordering relation) over a set, 7 polarities, of a binary relation, 51
order: polynomial:
ideal, of an ordered set, 85 equivalence, 246
lattice-, 37 operation, 144-145
partial- (i.e., an order), 7 Post algebras [Exercise 11], 148-149
preserving map, 40 power set, 5
of a projective plane [Exercise 4], 216 preservation [discussed], 52, 147
semilattice-, 114 Priestley duality, between distributive lattices
ordered monoid of class operators [Exercise 12], and certain ordered topological spaces
226 [mentioned], 89
ordered set(s): primal algebra, 148
atoms (or coatoms) of, 38 prime:
bounded, 38 algebra (direct products), 103, 263, [Exercise
chain (or antichain) in, 38 10] 300
connected, 305 element of a lattice, 41
Index of Terms 359

element of a monoid, 262 relational structure (s):

ideal (or filter) of a lattice, 86 antisymmetric element of, 313
Prime Ideal Theorem for Distributive Lattices binary, 305
[Theorem 2.60], 87 connected, 305
principal: defined [Exercise 7], 166
congruence, 33 homomorphisms and products of, 306
filter, 48 irreflexive, 325
ideal, 48 reflexive, [defined] 305, 311
principal ideal domain, 52, 260 reflexive element of, 311, 325
product: thin, 306
in categories, 135 relation(s):
direct (see direct products) binary, 5
relational, or relative, 6,113,160 anti-symmetric, 7
subdirect, 160 converse of, 6
projection: n-permuting, 196
function, 22 reflexive, 7
operation, 142 relational product of, 6,160
projective: symmetric, 8
geometry: transitive, 7
a collection of points and lines, 209 transitive closure of, 6, 34
coordinatizable, 209, 210 (see also equivalence relations, functions,
dimension of, 209 graphs, ordered sets)
a lattice, 216 factorable, 164
intervals, 57 factors of, 164
line, 210 n-ary, 5
plane, 207 preserved by (or closed, or invariant, under)
projectivity map between intervals, 57 ' an operation, 52,147
projectivity property of a lattice, 92 relatively complemented lattice, 60, 205,
proper class, i.e., a class that is not a set, 134 [Exercises 12-13] 206
proper (congruence, filter, ideal, subuniverse), representation (s):
i.e., not the largest direct (or direct product decompositions),
159, 201, 268 (see also direct products)
quasi-cyclic group, 110,171, 180 faithful, 129
quasigroups: isomorphic, 129, 160
defined, 122-123 problems, 137
loops, 123 regular, i.e., the Cayley representation, 128—
permuting congruences in [Exercise 3], 205 129
Steiner loops, 127 subdirect, 160
Steiner quasigroups, 123 irredundant, 203
Steiner triple systems, 124 (for representations o f groups, e.g., see groups
quotient: (representation of))
algebra, 28 Representation Theorem:
map, 28 for Boolean Algebras [Theorem 2.62], 88
for Distributive Lattices [Theorem 2.61], 87
range (of a function), 6 for Finite Distributive Lattices [Theorem
rank (arity): 2.59], 85
of an operation, 11 residual properties (see algebras, varieties)
of a relation, 5 restriction:
rank function, of an algebra, 12 of congruences, 151, 156
reduced terms, 239 of operations, 156
reduct, of an algebra, 13 retract of an algebra [Exercise 4], 194
refinement, of a chain [Exercise 3], 76 retraction [Exercise 2], 131
refinement properties (see direct products) ring(s):
reflexive: annihilator in, 52, 251
binary relation, 7 Artinian, 62
element of a structure, 311, 325 Boolean, 245
regular: center of, 176
permutation group, 130 congruences of [Lemma 1], 175
representation (left or right), 128-129 defined, 14
relation algebras, 17-18 free, 240-241
relational (or relation, or relative) product of ideals of, 30, 175
binary relations, 6,113,160 idempotents in, 176
 360 Index of Terms

ring(s) (continued) type, of an algebra, 13, 149

of integers, 30 simple algebra, 95, 157
modules over: spectrum:
Abelian property of [Example 3], 251 free spectrum of a variety, 241
defined, 14-15 spectrum of a variety, 124
direct product decompositions of stabilizer subgroup (see G-sets)
[Exercises 10-14], 293-295 standard element of a lattice, 98
finitely generated, over a principal ideal Steiner (see quasigroups)
domain, 52, 260 Stone duality, between Boolean algebras and
representation module of a linear trans- Boolean topological spaces [mentioned],
formation, 281-282 89
Noetherian, 62 structures (see relational structures)
polynomials of, 144 Sub A, the subalgebra lattice of A, 27, 35
representation of [Exercise 6], 24 subalgebra, 19
with unit, 14 subalgebra lattice, i.e., the lattice of all sub-
zero, 252 universes of an algebra, 27, 35
(see also associative algebras, division rings, subdirect:
principal ideal domains) embedding, 169
root: factors, of an algebra, 159
k th root of an algebra (direct products), products, 160
261, 321 representation, 159-160
of a rooted tree, 106 unions (i.e., subdirect products), 169
subdirectly irreducible algebra, 169
Schreier Refinement Theorem, 76 Subdirect Representation Theorem (of
Second Isomorphism Theorem [Theorem 4.10], G. Birkhoff) [discussed], 50, 168, 221,
149 [Theorem 4.44] 171
semigroups: substitution property, 27-28
commutative: subuniverse(s):
behavior of class operators on [Exercise defined, 19
11], 226 diagonal, 200
finite, without unique factorization finitely generated, 26
[Exercise 4], 265 generated by a subset, 25, 152,182, 183,
forbidden congruence lattice of [Exercise [Exercise 7] 148
17], 180 lattice of, 27
simple [Exercise 16], 180 supremum, i.e., least upper bound, 37, 44
defined, 13 symmetric difference, 245
free, 113 symmetric groups:
idempotent, i.e., bands, 115 defined, 119
left (right) zero, 115 representations in, §3.5
rectangular, 115 universality of the lattices of subgroups
representation of, 128-130 of symmetric groups [Theorem 4.63],
residually large, finitely generated variety of 193
[Exercise 28], 244 symmetry, 130
with unit, 112 Sym X, the symmetric group on X, 119
(see also semilattices, monoids) system, i.e., a function, 6
semilattices:
defined, 16 tame congruence theory [mentioned], 4, 155
free, 115, 240 Tarski’s Interpolation Theorem [Theorem 4.59],
join (meet)-, 114 187
representation of [Theorem 3.7], 114 term algebra of type cr over X, 229
semilattice order, 114 term operation, 143
semiring, 262 defined by a term, 232
semi-simple algebra, 179, 204 term(s):
separation of points by homomorphisms, 160 defined, 231
set theory: depends on a variable, 232
fundamentals and notation, 5-9 Jonsson, 248
Sheffer’s stroke operation, of Boolean algebras, Maltsev, 247
249 n-ary term of type cr (or n-ary rr-term), 232
similar algebras, 13 n-ary term of YS 238
similarity: n-ary Y -term, 238
class, of algebras, 13,149 operations, 143
Index of Terms 361

Pixley, 248 clone of a variety [Exercise 23], 141

reduced, 239 congruence distributive, 223
unique readability of, 229 centers of algebras in, [Exercises 7-8] 258,
universal [Exercise 15], 111 [Exercise 4] 300
Third Isomorphism Theorem [Theorem 4.14], characterized by a Maltsev property
151-152 [Theorem 4.144], 248
torsion free Abelian group with non-unique discussed, 4, 196, 218
square root [Exercise 6], 266 congruence modular, 4, 223
transitive: Abelian algebras in, 257
binary relation, 7 commutator theory for, 196
closure: congruence permutable, i.e., Maltsev, 247
of a binary relation, 6 defined, 23, 220
G-set, 108 equationally complete, i.e., minimal, 243
permutation group [Exercise 5], 132 equational theories of, 236
representation of a group, 129 equivalence of, 246
transpose (see intervals) finitely generated, 221
tree, an ordered set, 106 free spectra of, 241
true in A, 234 generated by a class of algebras, 220
type of an algebra, i.e., similarity type, 13, 149 interpretation of, 245, §4.12
locally finite, 4, 221
ultraproducts, 3 Maltsev, 247
unary algebras (see §3.2): minimal [Exercise 17], 243
automorphism groups of [Theorem 3.14], nontrivial:
130 possessing an algebra that has more than
connected, 107, [Exercises 1 and 2] 110 one element
direct products of [Exercises 1-3], 264-265 residually finite, 178
endomorphism monoids of [Theorem 3.14], residually large, 179
130 residually less than k , 178
lattices of subuniverses of [Exercise 4], 27, residually small, 179
[Theorem 4.55] 184 spectrum of, 124
mono-: vector space (s):
automorphism groups of [Exercise 12], bases of, 187
132-133 defined, 15
connected components of, 104 duality for finite dimensional, 217
cores of, 105 Jordan normal form of a linear transformation
decomposition into connected components [Exercises 2-8], 281-282
[Theorem 3.3], 106 lattice of subspaces of, 209-210
graphical depiction of, 104-106
(see also G-sets, M-sets) weakly isomorphic algebras, 246
unique: Wedderburn’s theorem [applied], 175
complements, lattices with, 318 well-ordered set, 7
factorization property (see direct products) Well-Ordering Theorem, 8
readability of terms, 229 Whitman’s Theorem, 190
solution property, 118, 123 word(s):
universal: concatenation of, 113
mapping property (see free algebras) problem for free modular lattices [negative
term [Exercise 15], 111 solution discussed], 4, 241
universe: of an algebra, 12 reduced group words, 119
or sequences, 113, 229
valid in A, 234
variables, 231 Zassenhaus Butterfly Lemma [Exercise 3], 76
varieties: Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of set theory, 18
arithmetical, 247 zero, algebras with, 282, §§5.4-5.5
axiomatized (or defined) by a set of equations, zero divisor in a class (direct products), 324
236 zero ring, 252
classification of, 244 Zorn’s Lemma, 7, [Exercise 3] 27
 Additional Bibliography

Books and Reports

[1] Libor Barto and Marcin Kozik, Absorbing subalgebras, cyclic terms, and the constraint sat-
isfaction problem, Log. Methods Comput. Sci. 8 (2012), no. 1, 1:07, 27, DOI 10.2168/LMCS-
8(1:7)2012. MR2893395
[2] Andrei Bulatov, Peter Jeavons, and Andrei Krokhin, Classifying the complexity of
constraints using finite algebras, SIAM J. Comput. 34 (2005), no. 3, 720–742, DOI
10.1137/S0097539700376676. MR2137072
[3] Keith A. Kearnes, Emil Kiss, and Ágnes Szendrei, Varieties whose finitely generated members
are free, (2017), 1–12.
[4] Keith A. Kearnes and Ágnes Szendrei, A characterization of minimal locally finite varieties,
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 349 (1997), no. 5, 1749–1768, DOI 10.1090/S0002-9947-97-01883-7.
MR1407494
[5] J. W. Snow, Maltsev conditions and relations on algebras, Algebra Universalis 42 (1999),
no. 4, 299–309, DOI 10.1007/s000120050005. MR1759488
[6] Keith Kearnes, Ágnes Szendrei, and Ross Willard, A finite basis theorem for difference-term
varieties with a finite residual bound, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 368 (2016), no. 3, 2115–2143,
DOI 10.1090/tran/6509. MR3449235
[7] Ralph McKenzie, The residual bound of a finite algebra is not computable, Internat. J. Algebra
Comput. 6 (1996), no. 1, 29–48, DOI 10.1142/S0218196796000039. MR1371733
[8] Ralph McKenzie, The residual bounds of finite algebras, Internat. J. Algebra Comput. 6
(1996), no. 1, 1–28, DOI 10.1142/S0218196796000027. MR1371732
[9] Ralph McKenzie, Tarski’s finite basis problem is undecidable, Internat. J. Algebra Comput.
6 (1996), no. 1, 49–104, DOI 10.1142/S0218196796000040. MR1371734
[10] Ralph McKenzie, Recursive inseparability for residual bounds of finite algebras, J. Symbolic
Logic 65 (2000), no. 4, 1863–1880, DOI 10.2307/2695083. MR1812188
[11] J. B. Nation, A counterexample to the finite height conjecture, Order 13 (1996), no. 1, 1–9,
DOI 10.1007/BF00383963. MR1402646

Selected Articles
[1] Clifford Bergman, Universal algebra, Pure and Applied Mathematics (Boca Raton), vol. 301,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2012. Fundamentals and selected topics. MR2839398
[2] George M. Bergman, An invitation to general algebra and universal constructions, 2nd ed.,
Universitext, Springer, Cham, 2015. MR3309721
[3] David M. Clark and Brian A. Davey, Natural dualities for the working algebraist, Cambridge
Studies in Advanced Mathematics, vol. 57, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.
MR1663208
[4] B. A. Davey and H. A. Priestley, Introduction to lattices and order, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 2002. MR1902334
[5] Ralph Freese, Jaroslav Ježek, and J. B. Nation, Free lattices, Mathematical Surveys and
Monographs, vol. 42, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1995. MR1319815
[6] Ralph Freese and Ralph McKenzie, Commutator theory for congruence modular varieties,
London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series, vol. 125, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1987. MR909290

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[7] Bernhard Ganter and Rudolf Wille, Formale Begriffsanalyse (German, with German sum-
mary), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996. Mathematische Grundlagen. [Mathematical founda-
tions]. MR1715047
[8] Bernhard Ganter and Rudolf Wille, Formal concept analysis, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1999.
Mathematical foundations; Translated from the 1996 German original by Cornelia Franzke.
MR1707295
[9] O. C. Garcı́a and W. Taylor, The lattice of interpretability types of varieties, Mem. Amer.
Math. Soc. 50 (1984), no. 305, v+125, DOI 10.1090/memo/0305. MR749524
[10] Viktor A. Gorbunov, Algebraic theory of quasivarieties, Siberian School of Algebra and Logic,
Consultants Bureau, New York, 1998. Translated from the Russian. MR1654844
[11] George Grätzer, Lattice theory: foundation, Birkhäuser/Springer Basel AG, Basel, 2011.
MR2768581
[12] , The congruences of a finite lattice, second edition ed., Birkhäuser/Springer (Cham.),
2016, A “proof-by-picture” approach. MR3495851
[13] David Hobby and Ralph McKenzie, The structure of finite algebras, Contemporary Mathe-
matics, vol. 76, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1988. MR958685
[14] Peter Jipsen and Henry Rose, Varieties of lattices, Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 1533,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1992. MR1223545
[15] Kalle Kaarli and Alden F. Pixley, Polynomial completeness in algebraic systems, Chapman
& Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, FL, 2001. MR1888967
[16] Keith A. Kearnes and Emil W. Kiss, The shape of congruence lattices, Mem. Amer. Math.
Soc. 222 (2013), no. 1046, viii+169, DOI 10.1090/S0065-9266-2012-00667-8. MR3076179
[17] Ralph McKenzie and Matthew Valeriote, The structure of decidable locally finite varieties,
Progress in Mathematics, vol. 79, Birkhäuser Boston, Inc., Boston, MA, 1989. MR1033992
[18] Jane Pitkethly and Brian Davey, Dualisability, Advances in Mathematics (Springer), vol. 9,
Springer, New York, 2005. Unary algebras and beyond. MR2161626
[19] M. V. Volkov, Lev Naumovich Shevrin: fifty years in the service of mathematics, Semigroup
Forum 76 (2008), no. 2, 185–191, DOI 10.1007/s00233-007-9035-3. MR2377582
[20] W. Taylor, The clone of a topological space, Research and Exposition in Mathematics, vol. 13,
Heldermann Verlag, Berlin, 1986. MR879120
 List of Errata

Page 15:
The display in the upper half of the page describes the equations that
must be added to those for Abelian groups to define the class of (unitary)
R-modules. The following equations should be added:

fr (0) = 0 for all r ∈ R

f0 (a) = 0 for all a ∈ M

Page 27:
In Exercise 1.13.3 Replace the sentence “Let A be an algebra.” by “Let
A be an algebra and let B be a subuniverse of A.”
Page 35:
In Exercise 1.25.5, change “join” to “union”.
Page 46:
On lines 18–19, in Theorem 2.14 add the word “nonempty” so that it
reads “. . . the union of any nonempty collection . . ..”
Page 53:
The sentence on lines 5–7 needs to be expanded to read “The Dedekind-
MacNeille completion of the ordered set of rational numbers is (isomorphic
to) the ordered set of real numbers with +∞ and −∞ adjoined.”
Exercise 2.23.2 should read as follows:
Prove that the Dedekind-MacNeille completion of the rationals
in the open interval (0, 1) with their usual order is isomorphic
to the closed interval [0, 1] of real numbers with its usual order.
Page 60:
At the bottom of the page, replace the long sentence beginning with “L is
said to be . . .” and ending at “is a complemented lattice.” by: “A lattice
K is said to be complemented iff K is bounded and every element of K
has a complement; K is said to be relatively complemented iff every
interval I[a, b] in K, when construed as a sublattice, is a complemented
lattice.”
Page 61:
In Exercise 2.35.5, add the word “non-zero” so that it reads “Prove that
the non-zero join irreducible elements of a . . . ”
Page 86:
On the line just below CLAIM 3. Delete “ρa (h)”.
Page 97:
On lines 15–16 add the word “modular” and add two commas, so that it
reads “ G. Birkhoff [1935b] and K. Menger [1936] had earlier established
365
366 LIST OF ERRATA

that every complemented, finite dimensional, modular lattice is isomor-

phic to a direct product of simple lattices.”
Page 108:
On line 18 change the word “identities” to “equations” so that it reads
“Although we asserted above that the unary equations . . . ”
Page 111:
On line 10 add the words “finite, nontrivial” so that it reads, “Prove that
for every finite, nontrivial, unary algebra A there exists . . .”
Page 121:
On line 4 change “G” to “FG (X)”.
Page 132:
Near the end of Exercise 3.15.5, replace “ψ(K)” by ψ(G)”.
Page 137:
On line 27 change period to question mark: “. . . for some A in a given
class K of algebras? (For instance, . . . ”
Also, on the last line of page 137, replace “e · x” and “f · x” by “x · e”
and “x · f ”, respectively.
Page 143:
On line 18 remove one of the two dots at the end of this sentence.
Page 149:
Near end of Exercise 4.9.13, the sentence should read “. . . then the set of
maps of Clone A, whose co-domain is A, is identical with the centralizer
of Clo A in Clo A.”
Page 155:
In THE CONGRUENCE GENERATION THEOREM, the “P ol1 A”
should be “Pol1 A”.
Page 155:
On lines −12, −13 change “An equivalent condition is that” to “If A is
finite, an equivalent condition is that”
Page 181:
In the displayed formula on line 8, replace “b, c ∈ H” by “b, c ∈ H 2 ”.
Page 195:
In Exercise 4.64.9, replace “for x > 0” by “for all x”.
Page 202:
On the last line of the page replace “1-element” by “one-element” to
achieve consistency within the sentence.
Page 206:
In Exercise 4.77.12, delete “(Theorem 2.68 may be useful.)”
Page 230:
In part (iii) of Theorem 4.117, replace the entire statement by “If X ∩I =
∅, then if V has a nontrivial member there exists an algebra free in V over
the set X.”
Page 238:
Definition 4.133 (lines 18–19) should be restated as follows:

DEFINITION 4.133. We define q A , where q ∈ FV (n), A ∈ V and V

is a variety, as follows. Let x0 , . . . , xn−1 be the free generators of FV (n)
and let q = p(x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) where p ∈ Tσ (n). Then we put q A = pA .
 LIST OF ERRATA 367

Page 239:
In the last sentence before the line of bold type, at the middle of the page,
replace “three” by “two”.
Page 248:
The equations listed in Theorem 4.144 that provide a Maltsev charac-
terization of varieties that are congruence distributive are not actually
those framed by Bjarni Jónsson in the paper cited. The difference is
that the two cases when i is even and when it is odd have been reversed.
Theorem 4.144, in effect, provides a second Maltsev characterization of
congruence distributive varieties.
Page 250:
On lines −8, −9 change “R. Freese and R. McKenzie [forthcoming]” to
“R. Freese and R. McKenzie [1987].”
Page 333:
The two words in the roman typeface, “countable and” in COROL-
LARY 2 should be italicized like the rest of the statement.
Page 343:
On line 14 we are defining 0A which first occurs on page 151. Replace
“{a, a} :” by “{a, a :”.
Page 357:
On line 14 in the left-hand column, remove “defined, 16”.
This book presents the foundations of a general theory of algebras. Often
called “universal algebra,” this theory provides a common framework for
all algebraic systems, including groups, rings, modules, fields, and
lattices. Each chapter is replete with useful illustrations and exercises
that solidify the reader’s understanding.

The book begins by developing the main concepts and working tools of
algebras and lattices, and continues with examples of classical algebraic
systems like groups, semigroups, monoids, and categories. The essence
of the book lies in Chapter 4, which provides not only basic concepts and
results of general algebra, but also the perspectives and intuitions shared
by practitioners of the field. The book finishes with a study of possible
uniqueness of factorizations of an algebra into a direct product of
directly indecomposable algebras.

There is enough material in this text for a two semester course sequence,
but a one semester course could also focus primarily on Chapter 4, with
additional topics selected from throughout the text.

CHEL/383.H