CHAPTER 2-------------------UNPACKING THE SELF

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Identify the different aspects of self and identity

2. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and
identity through video presentation
3. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various
aspects of self and identity
4. Reflect on one’s self against the different aspects of self

2.1. The Physical Self

2.1.Sexual Self

It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of humans define the sex (female or
male) and their secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our
genetic make-up. It influences the way we treat ourselves and others. However, there are
individuals who do not accept their innate sexual characteristics and they tend to change their
sexual organs through medications and surgery. Aside from our genes, our society or the
external environment helps shape our selves.

Gonads – reproductive gland that produce the gametes: testis or ovary begin to form until
about the eighth week of embryonic development (Marieb, E.N., 2001)
Puberty – generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old – the period when the
reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence
of rising levels of gonadal hormones(testosterone in males and estrogen in females).
After, reproductive capability continues until old agein males and menopause in
females.

Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System

Infections – most common problems associated with the reproductive system in adults. Vaginal
infections are more common in young and elderly women and in those whose
resistance to diseases is low. The usual infections include those caused by Escherichia
coli which spread through the digestive tract; the sexually transmitted microorganisms
such as syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes virus; and yeast (a type of fungus). Vaginal infections
that are left untreated may spread throughout the female reproductive tract and may
cause pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility. Problems that involve painful or
abnormal menses may also be due to infection or hormone imbalance.
In males, the most common inflammatory conditions are prostatitis, urethritis, and
epididymitis, all of which may follow sexual contacts in which sexually transmitted
disease (STD) microorganisms are transmitted. Orchiditis, or inflammation of the testes,
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is rather uncommon but is serious because it can cause sterility. Orchiditis most
commonly follows mumps in an adult male.
Most women hit the highest point of their reproductive abilities in their late 20s. A natural
decrease in ovarian function usually characterized by reduced estrogen that causes
irregular ovulation and shorter menstrual periods. Consequently, ovulation and menses
stop entirely, ending childbearing ability. This event is called menopause, which occurs
when females no longer experience menstruation.
There is no counterpart for menopause in males. Although aging men show a steady decline in
testosterone secretion, their reproductive capability seems unending. Healthy men are
still able to father offspring well into their 80s and beyond.

Erogenous Zones – refers to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual
arousal when touched in a sexual manner.
- mouth, breasts, genitals, and anus
- may include the neck, thighs, abdomen, and feet

Human Sexual Behavior – any activity – solitary, between two persons, or in a group – that
induces sexual arousal (Gebhard, P.H. 2017).
1. Solitary Behavior – self-gratification means self-stimulation that leads to arousal and
generally, sexual climax
- generally beginning at or before puberty, is very common among young males but
becomes less frequent or is abandoned when sociosexual activity is available
- some adolescents become aggressive when responding to stimuli like advertising and
social media
- the rate of teenage pregnancy is increasing in our time
- develop self-control in order to balance suppression and free expression
- adolescents need to control their sexual response in order to prevent premarital sex
and acquire sexually transmitted disease
2. Sociosexual Behavior
Heterosexual behavior – male with female
Homosexual behavior – male with female or female with female
If three or more individuals are involved, it is possible to have heterosexual and
homosexual activity simultaneously

Physiology of Human Sexual Response

1. Excitement phase – cause by increase in pulse and blood pressure; a sudden rise in blood
supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature, flushing, and
swelling of all distensible body parts (particularly noticeable in the male reproductive
structure and female breasts), more rapid breathing, the secretion of genital fluids,
vaginal expansion, and a general increase in muscle tension. These symptoms of arousal
eventually increase to a near maximal physiological level that leads to the next stage.
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2. Plateau phase – generally of brief duration; if stimulation is continued, orgasm usually

occurs.
3. Sexual climax – marked by feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in pulse rate
and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contractions of the female
reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male. It is also characterized by
involuntary vocalizations. Sexual climax may last for a few seconds (normally not over
ten), after which the individual enters the resolution phase.
4. Resolution phase – the last stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal
physiologic state. Males and females are similar in their response sequence. Whereas
males return to normal even if stimulation continues, but continued stimulation can
produce additional orgasms in females. Females are physically capable of repeated
orgasms without the intervening “rest period” required by males.

Nervous System Factors

The entire nervous system plays a significant role during sexual response. The
autonomic system is involved in controlling the involuntary responses. In the presence of a
stimulus capable enough of initiating a sexual response, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves
transmit the sensory messages to the brain. The brain will interpret the sensory message and
dictate what will be the immediate and appropriate response of the body. After interpretation
and integration of sensory input, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves receive commands from the
brain and send them to the muscles; and the spinal cord serves as a great transmission cable.
The muscles contract in response to the signal coming from the motor nerve fibers while glands
secrete their respective products. Hence, sexual response is dependent on the activity of the
nervous system.
The hypothalamus and the limbic system are the parts of the brain believed to be
responsible for regulating the sexual response, but there is no specialized “sex center” that has
been located in the human brain.
Apart from brain-controlled sexual responses, there is some reflex (i.e., not brain-
controlled) sexual response. This reflex is mediated by the lower spinal cord and leads to
erection and ejaculation for male, vaginal discharges and lubrication for female when the
genital and perineal areas are stimulated. But still, the brain can over-rule and suppress such
reflex activity – as it does when an individual decides that a sexual response is socially
inappropriate.
Sexual Problems – classified as physiological, psychological, and social in origin.
- Physiological problems – least among the three categories. Some common physiologic
conditions include vaginal infections, retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal tumors,
diabetes, senile changes of the vagina, and cardiovascular problems
- Psychological problems – comprise by far the largest category; caused by socially induced
inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance, and sexual myths held by society. Premature
emission of semen is a common problem, especially for young males. Erectile impotence is
almost always of psychological origin in males under 40; in older males, physical causes are
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more often involved. In other cases, the impotence may be the result of disinterest in the
sexual partner, fatigue, and distraction because of nonsexual worries, intoxication, or other
causes – such occasional impotency is common and requires no therapy.

Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) – are infections transmitted from an infected person to an
uninfected person through sexual contact.
- STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites
- Include gonorrhea, chancroid, trichomonas vaginalis, genital herpes, human papillomavirus
infection, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS), chlamydia, and syphilis (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the
National Institute of Health of the United States 2017).

Methods of Contraception and the Reproductive Health Law

Contraception refers to methods that are used to prevent pregnancy. Some methods of
contraception such as the use of condoms can be used to prevent some STIs.
Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012, also known as Reproductive
Health Law or RH Law, guarantees universal access to methods of contraception,
fertility control, sexual education, and maternal care. The RH Law provides for the
“prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS and other STIs/STDs,” especially since the
number of HIV cases among the youth is increasing. Further, the RH Law aims to
keep couples and women especially, well-informed about available family planning
methods that they can freely use depending on their needs and beliefs. It also aims
to promote awareness among adolescent and youth on sexuality and reproductive
health through proper sex education.

Methods of Contraception
Natural Method – natural family planning methods do not involve any chemical or foreign body
introduction into the human body
a. Abstinence – refraining from sexual intercourse and is the best method in preventing
pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections or diseases. However, most people find it
difficult to comply with abstinence, so only a few use this method.
b. Calendar Method – also called the Rhythm method – the number of days in each menstrual
cycle is recorded for 6 months in order to calculate the woman’s safe days and the
couple avoids sex during the fertile period
c. Basal Body Temperature – the Basal Body Temperature (BBT) indicates the woman’s
temperature at rest. The woman must record her temperature before any activity. A
slight decrease in the BBT followed by a gradual increase in the BBT can be a sign that a
woman has ovulated.
d. Cervical Mucus Method – also called the Billings Ovulation Method – based on careful
observation of mucus patterns during the course of the menstrual cycle; the pattern
may help in determining when a woman is most likely to conceive or not.
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e. Symptothermal Method – a combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus
method. The woman records her temperature every morning and also takes note of
changes in her cervical mucus. She should abstain from sexual intercourse 3 days after a
rise in her temperature or on the 4th day after the peak of a mucus change.
f. Ovulation Detection – uses an over-the-counter kit that requires the urine sample of the
woman. The kit can predict ovulation through the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) that
happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation.
g. Coitus Interruptus –one of the oldest methods that prevents conception. A couple still goes
on with coitus or sexual intercourse, but the man withdraws the moment he ejaculates
to emit the spermatozoa outside of the female reproductive organ. A disadvantage of
this method is the pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a few spermatozoa that may cause
fertilization.

Artificial Methods
a. Oral Contraceptive Pills – also known as the pill, oral contraceptives contain synthetic
estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen suppresses the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
and LH to prevent ovulation. Progesterone also decreases the permeability of the
cervical mucus to limit the sperm’s access to the ova. It is suggested that the woman
takes the first pill on the first Sunday after the beginning of a menstrual flow, or as soon
as it is prescribed by the doctor.
b. Transdermal Patch – contains both estrogen and progesterone. The woman should apply
one patch every week for 3 weeks on these areas: upper outer arm, upper torso,
abdomen, or buttocks. The area where the patch is applied should be clean, dry, and
free of irritation. At the 4th week, no patch is applied because the menstrual flow would
then occur.
c. Vaginal Ring – release a combination of estrogen and progesterone and it surrounds the
cervix. This silicon ring is inserted into the female reproductive organ and remains there
for 3 weeks and then removed on the 4 th week, as the menstrual flow would occur. The
woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.
d. Subdermal Implants – two rod-like implants inserted under the skin of the female during
her menses or on the 7 th day of her menstruation to make sure that she will not get
pregnant. The implants are made with etonogestrel, desogestrel, and progestin and can
be helpful for 3 to 5 years.
e. Hormonal Injections – contains medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone, and is usually given
once every 12 weeks intramuscularly. The injection causes changes in the endometrium
and cervical mucus and can help prevent ovulation.
f. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – a small, T-shaped object containing progesterone that is
inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive organ. It prevents fertilization by
creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to prevent implantation of the zygote.
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The IUD is fitted only by the physician and inserted after the woman’s menstrual flow.
The device can be effective for 5 to 7 years.
g. Chemical Barriers – spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin films are used to
cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix and to lower the pH level of
the female reproductive organ so that it will not become conducive for the sperm.
h. Diaphragm – a circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before coitus
or sexual intercourse. Diaphragm works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the
female reproductive organ and it works better when used together with a spermicide.
The diaphragm should be fitted only by the physician, and should remain in place for 6
hours after coitus.
i. Cervical Cap – made of soft rubber and filled on the rim of the cervix. It is shaped like a
thimble with a thin rim, and could stay in place for not more than 48 hours.
j. Male Condoms – a latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on the erect male
reproductive organ before penetration into the female reproductive organ to trap the
sperm during ejaculation. It can prevent STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections) and can
be bought over-the-counter. Male condoms have an ideal fail rate of 2% and a typical
fail rate of 15% due to a break in the sheath’s integrity or spilling of semen.
k. Female Condoms – made up of latex rubber sheaths that are pre-lubricated with
spermicide. They are usually bound by 2 rings. The outer ring is first inserted against the
opening of the female reproductive organ and the inner ring covers the cervix. It is used
to prevent fertilization of the egg by the sperm cells.
l. Surgical Methods - vasectomy for male while tubal ligation for female. During vasectomy, a
small incision is made on each side of the scrotum. The vas deferens is then tied,
cauterized, cut, or plugged to block the passage of the sperm. The patient is advised to
use a backup contraceptive method until 2 negative sperm count results are recorded
because the sperm could remain viable in the vas deferens for 6 months.
In women, tubal ligation is performed after menstruation and before ovulation. The
procedure is done through a small incision under the woman’s umbilicus that targets
the fallopian tube for cutting, cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of both the
sperm and the ova.

2.1.3. The Material Self / Economic Self

According to William James (1980, p.291), Harvard psychologist in the late 19 th century,
the self is everything that an individual considers to be his or hers, not only his or her body and
material possessions but also his or her reputation and beliefs. The self, therefore, is composed
of the material self which is the manifestation of one’s identity through his material
possessions.
The basic component of the material self includes the body. One of the tasks of
adolescents is to accept and appreciate the physical characteristics of their body. However, a
few adolescents are able to do this successfully. They tend to worry about their bodies and
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physical appearance. Generally, girls are more concerned about the appearance of their body
than boys. Perceptions about what makes a body beautiful are usually influenced by the media
as shown in television and the social media.
Another component of the material self is the clothes that people wear as these
represent the self. The style and brand of clothes become significant symbols, particularly
among adolescents. The clothes they tend to wear are greatly influenced by their peer groups
because adolescents are anxious to conform to what their peer groups find fashionable and
attractive.
Apart from clothes, the material component of the self can include one’s house, car,
pets, and other things that he or she considers as his or her possession. The material
component of the self also includes people an individual has relationships with such as one’s
immediate and extended family members as well as close friends with whom one feels
psychologically connected. These people are likely to shape and influence the development of
one’s self and identity. Pets could also symbolically define a person’s identity. The pet could be
an expression of one’s social status, pride, and prestige, as in owning a dog or cat of a very
expensive breed.

The Role of Material Possession on the Sense of Self and Identity

- Russell Belk (1988) in his work Are We What We Own?, suggests that material
possessions act as an objective manifestation of the self. Material possessions can
be a reflection of hard work and success. People tend to measure success through
the amount of their material possessions
- Defining the self by material possessions can also be contribute to a feeling of well-
being, including a sense of personal growth and purpose or meaning in life.
However, the lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive to one’s mental
health, like people losing their houses and their possessions because of disasters and
calamities.
- The desire for material possessions also has negative effects on one’s sense of self
and identity. Materialism refers to giving more importance to material possessions
than intangible values. A materialistic person is one who is excessively concerned
with the acquisition of material possessions. The strong desire for material
possessions could lead to psychological dysfunction or impairment in functioning
such as compulsive buying disorder (CBD) which is characterized by an obsession
with shopping and buying behaviors that can cause adverse consequences (e.g.,
debts).
- When a person is about to make a purchase, he or she should ask himself or herself
a very important question: DO I REALLY NEED THIS?

Consumer Culture – a social system in which consumption is dominated by the consumption of

commercial products (Arnould, 2010)
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- Denotes a social arrangement in which the relations between lived culture and social
resources, and between meaningful ways of life and the symbolic and material
resources on which they depend on are mediated through markets. The
consumption of market-made commodities and desire-inducing marketing symbols
is central to consumer culture (Arnould& Craig, 2005). A consumerist society is one
in which people spend a great deal of time, money, and energy to “consume”
commercial products, goods, and services.

Consumerism – the consumption of material goods and services in excess of one’s basic needs.
This is closely tied to materialism. Both heavily influence the way individuals view
the self. It can be viewed positively or negatively. For instance, people tend to be
happier and more motivated when their wants and needs are met. On the other
hand, it encourages people to buy products and services that they do not really need
or afford. The state of needs and wants tends to be endless, and thus could cause
negative effects such as dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and depression.

As we grow older, putting importance to material possessions decreases. However,

material possession gains higher value in our lifetime if we use material possession to find
happiness, associate these things with significant events, accomplishments, and people in our
lives. There are even times when a material possession of a person that is closely identified to
the person gains acknowledgement with high regard even if the person already passed away.
Example, the chair in the dining room on which the person is always seated, the chair will be
the constant reminder of the person seated there; a well-loved and kept vehicle of the person,
which some of the bereaved family members have a difficulty to sell or let go of because that
vehicle is very much identified with the owner who passed away; the favorite pet or book,
among others, that the owner placed a high value, these favorite things are symbols of the
owner. The possessions that we dearly have tell something about who we are, our self-concept,
our past, and even our future.

2.1.3. Spiritual Self

Spiritual Self – one of the four constituents of the “self” according to William James in his book,
The Principles of Psychology in 1890
- The most intimate, inner subjective part of self
- The most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction experienced when
thinking of one’s ability to argue and discriminate, of one’s moral sensibility and
conscience, and of our unconquerable will (James 1890) is purer than all other
sentiments of satisfaction. (Green 1997)

The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen through the expressions
of religion, its beliefs and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and ceremonies are
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some manifestations what people believe in. Moreover, seeking the meaning of life is a journey
that the spiritual self is on.

Religion – a set of cultural beliefs and practices that usually includes some or all of basic
characteristics (Rebecca Stein, 2011). These characteristics are:
1. a belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods
2. a focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe
3. the presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as
physical beings and objects
4. the performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object to
communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events
5. the articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
6. provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control
within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of control for
individuals.

Ritual – the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law (Britannica
2017)
- A specific, observable mode of behavior by all known societies. It is thus possible to
view ritual as a way of defining or describing humans

Characteristics of rituals according to Penner (Britannica 2017):

1. a feeling or emotion of respect, awe, fascination, or dread in relation to the sacred
2. dependence upon a belief system that is usually expressed in the language of
myth
3. is symbolic in relation to its reference

The self can be described as a ritual being who exhibits a striking parallel between their
ritual and verbal behavior. Just as language is a system of symbols that is based upon arbitrary
rules, ritual may be viewed as a system of symbolic acts that is based upon arbitrary rules.
Participation to rituals is expressions of religious beliefs.

Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices

Religion Beliefs Customs and Practices
Buddhism Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses. Two types of mediation practices:
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Instead, there are suffering, pain and samathaandvipassana.

frustrations. When people suffer, they want to Samatha is practiced as mindfulness of
experience the goodness of life and avoid breathing and development of loving-kindness
disappointments. It becomes a habit known as (MettaBhavana).
the reactive cycle of wanting and thing, like and Vipassana practices aim at developing insight
dislike, and craving and aversion. This reactive into reality. Acquiring wisdomis by studying
cycle can be broken through the practice of Buddha’s teaching, the Dharma. Through the
mediation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper reflection of Dharma, Buddhists can achieve a
understanding, and acceptance of things as they deeper understanding of life. Buddhists believe
are. in non-violence principle.
Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are
Parinirvana Day in February; Buddha Day
(Wesak) in May; Dharma Day in July;
Padmasambhava Day in October; and Sangha
Day in November.
Christianity Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of
three personas: God the Father (Creator), God Communion are practiced by Christian
the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit churches. The Sacrament of Baptism
(Sustainer). Eternal life after death will be symbolizes the birth in Christian World, while
achieved through faith in Jesus Christ. Jesus the Sacrament of Communion is an act of
Christ is, God the Son, who came into flesh, to remembrance of Jesus Christ’s sacrificial love.
spread the Good News of Salvation. He died on Jesus Christ teaching in unconditional love that
the Cross for the sin of the humanity but is expressed in loving the poor, oppressed, and
resurrected from the death, so that anyone who outcast of the society.
believes in Him will be saved and have eternal Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the
life. The Holy Bible is a selection of Books, which two major celebrations in Christianity.
is divided into two, the Old Testament and New Christmas, usually on December 25,
Testament. commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ while
Resurrection Sunday (depends on the lunar
calendar), sometime in March or April)
celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ
from death.
Hinduism Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional Diwali, and Navrati are the most celebrated
beliefs and religious groups; thus, there is no festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is the Festival of
single founder or leader. Hindus believe that Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine
existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth, lights, which celebrates the triumph of good
governed by Karma, a concept where the over evil. Hindus have set dates to honor
reincarnated life will depend on how the past particular manifestations of God.
life was spent. Hindus believe that the soul
passes through a cycle of successive lives and its
next incarnation is always dependent on how
the previous life was lived. Vedas are sacred
scriptures of Hindus. Mahabharata and
Ramayana are two other important texts of the
Hindus.
Islam Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One Muslims believe in the 5 pillars of Islam, which
God.” They believe in the unity and universality are the foundation of Muslim life:
of God. Muslims also have a strong sense of 1. Shahadah – statement of faith: “There is no
community or “ummah” and an awareness of God but the one true God and Mohammed is
their solidarity with all Muslims worldwide. his messenger.”
Islam means “wiling submission to God.” 2. Salat – the prayer that is practiced five times
Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and a day.
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final prophet sent by God. Mohammed was 3. Zakat – the monetary offering for the
born in Mecca in 570 CE and received benefit ofthe poor. It comprises the 2.5% of a
revelations from God through the Angel Gabriel Muslim’sassets.
over a period of 23 years. The Holy Book of 4. Hajj – the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca.
Islam is called the Quran, which was taught to Muslims who can afford are asked to do the
be recited in Arabic because many translations pilgrimageat least once in their lifetime.
is seen as inadequate. 5. Sawm – the fasting. Muslims do fasting,
from food, drink, and sexual act, during the
celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the
ninthmonth of the Islamiclunar calendar. The
fast is from dawn to sunset.
Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eidul-
Fitr (the celebration at the end of Ramadan)
and Eidul-Adha (celebrated within the
completion of the Pilgrimage, the Hajj).
Judaism The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the Five major festivals observed by the Jews:
same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves 1. Rosh Hashanah – the New Year
from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land 2. Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement
through the leadership of Moses and later, 3. Pesach – Passover
Joshua. 4. Shavuot – Pentecost
The Jews believe in the coming of the Messiah, 5. Sukkot – Tabernacles. The Jewish Sabbath
the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jews is begins on Friday evening at sunset and is an
called the Torah or the Law. The Torah is the important time when families gather for
guide of the Jewish living. The study and theShabbat meal.
interpretation of Torah is part of the Jewish
culture.

Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

Viktor Frankl Institute in Vienna – created in 1992, has a website where there is a
synopsis of Dr. Viktor E. Frankl’s life and works and present programs.Dr. Viktor E. Frankl, a
psychiatrist, was born on March 26, 1905 in Vienna, Austria, where famous psychiatrists
Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler lived. At a young age, he wrote a short paper to Freud which
was published after three years. Dr. Frankl graduated with a medical degree from the University
of Vienna in 1930. He was assigned in Vienna Hospital suicide ward and headed the Rothschild
Hospital, eight years later.

A survivor of the Holocaust, Dr. Frankl published a book about logotherapy. The main
belief of logotherapy is that “man’s primary motivational force is search for meaning.”
Logotherapy aids individuals to find personal meaning of life, whatever life situation they may
be.

In logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a deed,

experiencing something or encountering someone and the attitude toward unavoidable
suffering. According to the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy, it uses the philosophy of
optimism in the face of tragedy, where people are capable of “turning suffering into human
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achievement and accomplishment; deriving from guilt the opportunity to change oneself for
the better; and deriving from life’s transitoriness an incentive to take responsible action.”

Basic Concepts of Franklian Psychology

 Life has meaning under all circumstances
 Main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life
 Freedom to find meaning

Furthermore, Franklian Psychology aims to: (1) become aware of spiritual resources, (2) make
conscious spiritual resources, and (3) use “defiant power of the human spirit” and stand up
against adversity.

Logotherapy Assumptions
1. The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind and spirit. This deals with the body
(soma), mind (psyche), and spirit (noos). According to Frankl, the body and mind are
what we have and the spirit is what we are.
2. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable. Assumption two is
“ultimate meaning.”This is difficult to grasp but it is something everyone experiences
and it represents an order in a world with laws that go beyond human laws.
3. People have a will to meaning. This is seen as our main motivator for living and acting.
When we see meaning, we are ready for any type of suffering. This is considered to
be different than our will to achieve power and pleasure.
4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning. This means
that we arefree to activate our will to find meaning, and this can be done under any
circumstances. This deals with change of attitudes about unavoidable fate. Frankl was
able to test the first four assumptions when he was confined in the concentration
camps.
5. Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be meaningful.
This assumption, the meaning of the moment, is more practical in daily living than
ultimate meaning. Unlike ultimate meaning, this meaning can be found and fulfilled.
This can be done by following the values of society or by following the voice of our
conscience.
6. The individual is unique. This deals with one’s sense of meaning and enhanced by the
realization that we are irreplaceable.

In essence, all humans are unique with an entity of body, mind, and spirit. We all go
through unique situations and are constantly looking to find meaning. We are free to do these
at all times in response to certain demands.

Frank’s Sources of Meaning

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1. Purposeful Work. To find the meaning of life starts with holding a future goal. Each individual
has his own future goal to achieve or a task to perform. That task or goal to fulfill
becomes the meaning of their life. Therefore, meaning of life is unique to every
individual.
2. Courage in the Face of Difficulty. A meaningful life is a life with suffering which is inevitable
part of life. To find meaning of life is to recognize suffering, pain, and death as part of
life and to have the courage to face these little difficulties.
3. Love. Costello (2015) captured Victor Frankl’s message: “The ultimate secret on the spiritual
foundation to life is that love is salvation and joy eternity.”The ultimate factor to find
the meaning of life is love.

2.1.4. The Political Self

Who is a Filipino?
According to the 1987 Constitution, Filipino citizens are “…those whose father or
mothers are citizens of the Philippines, those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers,
who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority, and those who are
naturalized in accordance with law.”

Filipino Values and Traits

- The Filipino hospitality - Colonial mentality
- Respect for elders - “Mañana” habit
- Close family ties - “Ningaskugon”
- Cheerful personality - Pride
- Self-sacrifice - Crab mentality
- Bayanihan - Filipino time
- “Bahalana” attitude

Filipino Markers
1. Proverbs or Salawikain– sayings that convey lessons and reflections on Filipino practices,
beliefs, and traditions. Damiana Eugenio, regarded as the Mother of Philippine Folklore,
classified proverbs into 6 categories (Eugenio, 2000):
a. proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and the laws that govern life;
b. ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices;
c. proverbs expressing a system of values;
d. proverbs expressing general truths and observations about life and human nature;
e. humorous proverbs; and
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f. miscellaneous proverbs.
2. Superstitions – influenced by beliefs from other cultures, but Filipinos have retold these
superstitionsaccording to their own experiences and they sometimes end up even more
interesting
3. Myths and Legends – sprung about things that are beyond one’s imagination. These stories
are aimed to explain the origin of things, at the same time, teach a valuable lesson.
Some of these stories stemmed in pre-Christianity period, but have evolved to the
stories we know today.
4. Heroes and Icons – heroes serve a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as they have
sacrificed their lives for the sake of their country’s freedom and progress.
Famous Filipino icons also serve as important Filipino markers as they have made the
Filipino name more pronounced worldwide through their own expertise.

Understanding Politics
Politics – Kendall (1998) defines politics as a social institution through which power is acquired
and exercised by people and groups.
- In Aristotle’s works, Politics, he describes the role that politics and the political
community must play in bringing about the virtuous life in the citizenry. He observes
that “man is by nature a political animal.”
- Politics is an important part of human development because it promotes ideologies
about democracy, citizenship, human rights, freedom, family, health, and other
social issues.
- Politics exists in all human societies. It serves as the mechanism by which individuals
develop power and understand proper functioning of a democratic society as a
citizen

Citizenship – the most basic identification with the nation and denotes the membership of a
citizen in a political society. As citizen, a person enjoys full civil and political rights, including
protection inside and outside the territory of the state.

Political Self and Identity

- as an essential part of the self, the political self organizes self-relevant information
about politics. It constitutes knowledge about the Constitution, government, and
governance.
- The political self helps in defining the structure and functions of the government, in
telling and understanding the relationship between the state and the citizens, and in
describing their rights, freedom, and obligations as citizens.
- The political self exemplifies the ideals and aspirations of the people, embodies the
rules and principles of the State, and determines the status and power of the
people.
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- One important component of political self is identity, the person’s understanding of

who and what he or she is. Citizenship becomes a salient basis for political self.
- The political self is often defined by citizenship. In her book, Democracy and
Citizenship, Ma. Serena Diokno (1997) mentions that citizenship is the most basic
identification with the nation and, as such, is oriented towards the state and its
expressions in law and policy.
- From the social and psychological perspectives, the individual’s claim to citizenship
means that the person relates himself or herself to a group of others who also see
themselves as citizen of a larger polity. As such, the political self is also in part
defined by reference to other members in the political group or community where
one belongs.
- The value component of identity construction is shaped by societal agencies that
enter the life of the individual from childhood all the way through adulthood
(Diokno, 1997). The political self and identity are developed through socialization,
through the ways people learn the knowledge, norms, values, motives, and roles
appropriate to their positions in a group or community.
- Throughout life, as individuals meet new people and join new groups, the political
self is influenced and modified by the opinions, comments, and suggestions of other
people.

Theories of Political Self

Social learning theory – a person can acquire learning through observation and
imitation. In imitation, the learner watches the behavior of another person (model) and then
performs the behavior in a similar way. Observation and imitation are important in a process
known as political socialization, the lifelong process by which individuals gain knowledge about
politics. In everyday life, social interaction significantly influences a person’s understanding of
politics. Through the process of identification, individuals (especially children and adolescents)
incorporate the characteristics or traits as well as the values, beliefs, and motives of the models
(parents or significant people) they look up to.
Cognitive theory – suggest that the mental activities (e.g., knowledge, perceptions,
ideas) of individuals are important determinants of behavior (e.g., political attitudes). For
example, individuals interpret the meaning of politics and then choose and decide the action
they will make.
Theory of symbolic interaction – suggests that behaviors are products of
communication, meaning, and symbols. People give meanings to symbols and they express
these meaning through language and communication. For example, children develop their
political attitudes according to the symbols and meanings that their parents communicate to
them. Based on the symbols and meanings that people ascribe to objects (e.g., politics, human
rights, freedom), people can formulate plans of action (e.g., election, demonstrations, rally).
Theory of political participation – political participation can be defined as citizens’ action
or activities anchored in politics. Thus, any activity concerning the government or governance of
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the state is an example of political participation. The extent and scope of political participation
may be an important criterion for assessing the value or quality of symbols and meanings that
people ascribe to politics. In order for political participation to work in a society, a covenant of
mutual trust and respect among members of the society must exist. To sustain this covenant,
there must be an open flow of communication and feedback from the members. All members
must also commit to and take responsibility for fostering and maintaining an environment in
which political participation can occur. For instance, ordinary Filipino citizens must be allowed
to take part in the policy and decision-making process regarding the administration of the
country which is in accordance to the democratic nature of the Philippine society.

How to be a Good Filipino

1. Be an active Filipino citizen
2. Study the Philippine history
3. Support local products
4. Speak the Filipino language
5. Do not spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent

2.1.5. The Digital Self (Self and Others in Cyberspace)

Digital Self
Among the Filipino youth, the use of digital technology has now become part of the self
– the digital self. The digital self is the aspect of the self that is expressed or shared with others
through online interactions on the internet, specifically in social networking sites. On such sites,
users normally disclose personal information such as their name, age, birthdate, address, and
contact details. Some users also provide very personal information about themselves such as
their likes and dislikes, hobbies, favorite food, favorite movies, places they have visited,
relationship status, thoughts and feelings, and important events in their lives. This sharing of
personal information on social networking sites may be related to the strong desire of
adolescents for social approval and acceptance. Similar can be said about adults.

Self-Presentation and Impression Management

John DeLamater and Daniel Myers (2012) cite that the self is heavily influenced by
feedback from others. The impact of others whom people interact with depends upon the
nature of one’s relationship with them. Interaction with significant others may be very
influential to how one presents himself or herself in a virtual space. The views of others through
online interactions (social networking) are so important that they become part of the self.
Personal information that individuals disclose through online interaction which others judge
favorably through “liking” and “reacting” contribute to positive self-concepts. Nevertheless,
people try to present themselves in such a way to impress – that is, to create positive
impressions in the eyes of other people. Self-presentation refers to an individual’s attempts,
both conscious and unconscious, to control how he or she projects himself or herself in social
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interactions. Some forms of self-presentation may be authentic, but some may be tactical or
selective.
Self-presentation is inherent in all situations. The widespread use of online interactions
has increased the opportunities to engage in self-presentation and impression management.
Most people strive to create images that are positive. Thus, individuals use several methods to
create positive impressions of them. Some individuals try to alter their appearances through
what they post on social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter by using
photo editing tools. The desire to impress other people on social media may lead to showing off
one’s work, achievements, and material possessions in a virtual place.
Nevertheless, the desire to create positive impressions and to be “liked” by others may
lead to consequences that can be risky to one’s security and mental health, such as identity
theft, cyberbullying, gossiping as well as anxiety and depression. Thus, individuals should be
very careful with what they post or share on social networking sites. People should still be
mindful of their privacy using social networking sites.

Expression of Gender and Sexuality Online

The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines sexuality as the quality or state of being sexual
while gender is the psychological identification of a person as masculine or feminine. Both
could affect not only how people think about themselves but also their relationships with other
and how others think of them as well (Cicarelli& White, 2012). Individuals tend to be
categorized based on their gender identities and sexuality in different types of situations that
are visible in different forms of media, especially social media. The portrayal of male and female
behaviors in media could affect the construction of appropriate sexual behaviors of people,
especially adolescents.
The internet and social networking sites provide channels for the dissemination of
information, including information about gender identity and sexuality. For this reason, better
and accurate information is now becoming available. For example, the Psychological
Association of the Philippines (PAP) provides scientific knowledge on the application of
psychological theories, concepts, and principles on gender identity and sexual orientation to
benefit society and improve the lives of the members of the LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender, queer, +) community. In the PAP website, online resources and publications on
LGBTQ+ issues, resources, and information addresses bias and discrimination issues. With the
increasing urgency to uphold human rights and to protect the dignity and equality of all persons
of various sexual orientations, a measure prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual
orientation or gender identity or expression is developed. In particular, the Anti-Discrimination
Act aims to protect the rights and welfare of the LGBTQ+ people in the Philippines. The act
recognizes the important role of telecommunications and social media in protecting,
particularly, the LGBTQ+ people from discriminatory acts.

The Importance of Digital Technology

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The use of technology is presently essential for individual survival and for
communication with other people. Just as the use of technology is becoming important for
individuals, it is also developing to be important for the development of society. There have
been so many technological advancements over the past years. Technology has changed the
social features of people’s lives. It has altered the way people view the social dimension of
relationships and dictated new ways for people to relate with one another. Advancements with
software technologies have reached an impressive level. These technologies improve not only
very common areas of people’s daily life, but also areas of education, health, and production
industries (Mishra, Misra, Mueller, Perez, Bhatia, & Wang, 2014).
Digital technology has enabled volumes of information to be compressed in compact
storage devices, so as to be easily contained and delivered, minimizing the time it takes for data
to be transmitted.
Digital technology has immensely changed the pattern of working as well as the learning of new
concepts, including communication. Innovations in mobile phones, for example, resulted in the
widespread use of the internet and social networking.

Impact of Online Interactions on the Self

The Philippines has the fastest growing internet population in Southeast Asia. This can
be rooted to majority of the Filipinos, particularly the youth, use the internet primarily for social
networking which is mostly used for communication, information, and entertainment (Estuar,
2003; Bristol, Caro, Mangaliman, &Bernarte, 2013; Ignatius &Hechanova, 2014).
Mobile phones are ever more becoming a very valuable part of the daily life of today’s
youth (Iqbal, Khan, & Malik, 2017). They allow the users to keep in touch, connect with people,
and be updated on the activities and whereabouts of others. However, the use of digital
technology and online interactions limit face-to-face interaction with others and has drawn
people away from meaningful and intimate communication with families and friends. Hence,
the growing use of the internet and social networking sites changes the social behaviors of
individuals, families, and societies as a whole.
Most users of social networking sites prefer to be anonymous may and sometimes use
false names. Privacy and confidentiality should be a major concern, especially for adolescents
who may not be entirely aware of the consequences of sharing private information online, for
anyone to see. They usually post pictures and videos of themselves, their friends, and their
family. Thus, adolescents are particularly susceptible to cyberbullying, gossips, and stalking. For
this reason, the government together with academic and even religious institution in the
Philippines, make efforts to prevent and effectively manage the spread of identity theft, false
information and fake news in the country.

Data Privacy Act

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To protect the people from invasion of privacy, Republic Act 10173, otherwise known as
the Data Privacy Act of 2012, was passed in the Philippines. It states that:
It is the policy of the State to protect the fundamental human right
of privacy, of communication while ensuring free flow of information to
promote innovation and growth. The State recognizes the vital role of
information and communications technology in nation-building and its
inherent obligation to ensure that personal information in information and
communications systems in the government and in the private sector are
secured and protected. Personal information in this context refers to any
information, whether recorded in a material form or not, from which the
identity of an individual is apparent or can be reasonably and directly
ascertained by the entity holding the information, or when put together
with other information would directly and certainly identify an individual.

Setting Boundaries to Your Online Self: Smart Sharing

Guidelines that will help you share information online in a smart way that will protect
yourself and not harm others. Before posting or sharing anything online, consider the following:
 Is this post/story necessary?
 Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm-hearted, teachable – or am I just
making noise online without purpose?
 Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this issue? An issue that is still being
worked out at home, or one that is either vulnerable or highly emotional, should not be
made public.
 Is it appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries of our family values?
 Will this seem funny in 5, 10 or 15 years? Or is this post better suited for sharing with a
small group of family members? Or maybe not at all?

Rules to Follow (New 2014)

 Stick to safer sites
 Guard your passwords
 Limit what you share
 Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there forever, even if you try
to delete it
 Do not be mean or embarrass other people online
 Always tell if you see strange or bad behavior online
 Be choosy about your online friends
 Be patient
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