5-Chapter Five - Sem1 Session 2023 - 2024

NMK 41003-Satellite Technology
CHAPTER FIVE
PROPAGATION EFFECTS AND THEIR

IMPACT ON SATELLITE-EARTH LINKS
EARTH ATMOSPHERE
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES
• The natural phenomena that lead to signal loss on transmission through the
earth`s atmosphere are:
1. Atmospheric absorption, e.g. gaseous effects.
2. Cloud attenuation, e.g. liquid water content, aerosol and ice particle
effects.
3. Atmospheric attenuation, e.g. rain, hail and ice effects.
4. Ionospheric disturbance, e.g. ionospheric scintillation and polarization
rotation effects.
5. Tropospheric disturbance, e.g. tropospheric scintillation effects.
ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES
• International Telecommunication Union-Radiocommunication sector (ITU-R)
has a role to manage the international radio-frequency spectrum and
satellite orbit resources plus to develop standards for radiocommunication
systems with the objective of ensuring the effective use of the spectrum.
• Gaseous absorption due to oxygen and water vapour: This effect is almost
constant over time and its statistics can be calculated with the help of the
model in Recommendation ITU-R P.676.
• Cloud attenuation: This effect is very slowly varying over time (in minutes or
hours) and its statistics can be calculated with the help of the model in
Recommendation ITU-R P.840.
• Rain attenuation: It varies slowly over time (order of minutes or few seconds)
and its statistics can be calculated with the help of the relevant model in
• Scintillations: These are very fast variations (order of milliseconds) and their
statistics can be calculated with the help of the relevant model in

CLOUD ATTENUATION
• At Ku and Ka-frequencies, radio signals are expected to experience
losses due to cloud at any time of the day, depending on the type of
season and the climate of the location.
• The liquid water content of clouds is the physical cause of cloud
attenuation.
• Cloud attenuation is primarily due to absorption by the cloud droplets;
scattering losses were secondary.
• In order to understand the concept of absorption by cloud droplets, the
liquid water content of the cloud formation must equally be
ascertained.
• The large Cumulonimbus and Cumulus Congestus that accompany
thunderstorms have especially high values of liquid water content.
• Fair weather Cumulus clouds generally have liquid water content of
less than 1 g/m3.

CLOUD ATTENUATION
• Stratiform or layered clouds display ranges of 0.05 to 0.25 g/m3.
• Stratocumulus is the densest of this cloud type (0.3 to 1.3 g/m3).
• Sometimes, the values of liquid water content exceed 5 g/m3 in
Cumulus Congestus; an average value of 2 g/m3 for Cumulus
Congestus and 2.5 g/m3 for Cumulonimbus clouds.
• The cloud attenuation estimation depends mainly on the accuracy
of radiosonde measurements.
• The radiosonde is a small, expendable instrument package that is
suspended below a six ft wide balloon filled with hydrogen or
helium.
• As the radiosonde rises at about 1,000 ft/min (300 m/min),
sensors on the radiosonde measure profiles of pressure,
temperature, and relative humidity.

CLOUD ATTENUATION
• The attenuation properties of the cloud can be related to the cloud

liquid water content rather than the individual drop sizes.
• The profiles of liquid water density and the temperature within the
cloud are required for the accurate measurement of cloud attenuation.
• Cloud liquid water density profile can be obtained from the radiosonde
observation using various cloud attenuation models.

ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION
• Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation.

• Hail, ice and snow have little effect on attenuation because
of their low water content.
• Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
𝐴 = 𝛾𝑅 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 dB
• Where 𝛾𝑅 dBΤkm is called the specific attenuation and
can be calculated from specific attenuation coefficients in
tabular form that can be found in a number of
publications.
•𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 km is the effective path length of the signal through
the rain; note that this differs from the geometric path
length due to fluctuations in the rain density.
• Simplifications:
1. Rainfall measured at the earth surface is correlated to
the rainfall along the path.
2. The actual path length can be adjusted to the effective
path lengths.
𝐿
𝐴 = න 𝑓 𝑅𝑙 ⅆ𝑙 ≈ 𝛾𝐿
0
• Note: rain rate (and losses) vary along the path

• A power law equation describes the relationship between

point rainfall rate, 𝑅 and specific attenuation, 𝛾𝑅 , the
attenuation measured over 1 km:
𝛾𝑅 = 𝑘 𝑅0.01 𝛼 dBΤkm
• Where the suffix 0.01 to 𝑅 denotes the rainfall rate
measured for 0.01% of the average year, and the
parameters 𝑘 and 𝛼 are frequency dependent for
frequencies between 4 to 50 GHz based on the ITU-R
model as enlisted in the Table in the next slide.


• The suffices V and H refer to vertical and horizontal

polarization, respectively.
• For linear and circular polarization, and for all path
geometries:
𝑘 = 𝑘𝐻 + 𝑘𝑉 + 𝑘𝐻 − 𝑘𝑉 cos2θ cos 2𝜏 /2
𝛼 = 𝑘𝐻𝛼𝐻 + 𝑘𝑉𝛼𝑉 + 𝑘𝐻𝛼𝐻 − 𝑘𝑉𝛼𝑉 cos2θ cos 2𝜏 /2𝑘
• Where 𝜃 is the path elevation angle and 𝜏 is the
polarization tilt angle relative to the horizontal and 𝜏 =
45° for circular polarization.
• Exercise 5.2: Based on Table, what is the specific
attenuation at 10 GHz if the rainfall rate is 40 mm/h when
linear vertical polarization is used?
• Exercise 5.2 Solution: Based on Table, 𝑘𝑉 = 0.00887
and 𝛼𝑉 = 1.264 at a frequency of 10 GHz, therefore:
𝛾𝑅 = 0.00887 40 1.264 = 0.94 dBΤkm

(a) Stratiform Rain (b) Convective Rain

❑Most significant source of attenuation in C, Ku and
Ka-satellite bands.
• Stratiform rain is generated in cloud layers containing ice, and
results in widespread rain or snow at rainfall rates of less than 10
mm per hour.
• Convective rain is generated by vertical air currents that can be
very powerful leading to thunderstorms and high rainfall rates.
• Convective rain is very important because it is the major cause of
link outages.
• Stratiform rain consists of a generally constant rainfall rate over a
very large area while convective rain is generally confined to a
narrow but tall column of rain.
• Stratiform rain occurs typically ahead of a warm front in an area of
low pressure.
• The melting layer is the region of the atmosphere where the
temperature transitions from below 0 oC to above 0 oC.
• Snow falling into air at a temperature greater than 0 oC

melts and forms raindrops.
• If the earth’s surface is below 0 oC the snow does not
melt but continues to the ground.
• The stratiform cloud mechanisms generate widespread
rain or snow, hence, leads to constant attenuation of the
slant-path over the entire path length from the ground to
the melting layer.

(a) Stratiform Rain (b) Convective Rain

• Example 5.3: An earth station (ES) at sea level

communicates at an elevation angle of 35o with a GEO
satellite. The melting level height of the stratiform rain is
3 km. Find:
a) The physical path length through the rain.
b) The path attenuation if the specific attenuation is
2 dB/km.

• Example 5.3 Solution:

a) The physical path length through the rain.
𝐿 = ℎ𝑟/sin 𝜃; ℎ𝑟 = 3 km; 𝜃 = 35°
𝐿 = 3/sin 35° = 5.23 km
b) The path attenuation if the specific attenuation is
2 dB/km.
𝐴 = 2 dB/km × 5.23 km = 10.46 dB

• Below is the schematic presentation of an earth-space path giving
the parameters to be input into the ITU-R rain attenuation
prediction procedure.

• Step 1: Calculate the rain height, ℎ 𝑅 ′ , which is equivalent to ℎ0 as
given in Recommendation ITU-R P.839.
• Step 2: For 𝜃 ≥ 5° compute the slant-path length, 𝐿𝑆, below the
rain height from:
ℎ𝑅′−ℎ𝑆
𝐿𝑆 = km
sin 𝜃
For 𝜃 < 5°, the following formula is used:
2 ℎ𝑅′−ℎ𝑆
𝐿𝑆 = 1/2
km
′
2 2 ℎ 𝑅 −ℎ𝑆
sin 𝜃 + + sin 𝜃
𝑅𝑒
• Step 3: Calculate the horizontal projection, 𝐿𝐺 of the slant-path
length from:
𝐿𝐺 = 𝐿𝑆 cos 𝜃 km
• Step 4: Obtain the rainfall rate, 𝑅0.01 exceeded for 0.01% of an
average year (with an integration time of 1 min). If this long-term
statistic can be obtained from Recommendation ITU-R P.837.
• Step 5: Obtain the specific attenuation, 𝛾𝑅 based on
Recommendation ITU-R P.837 and the rainfall rate, 𝑅0.01 from
Step 4:
𝛾𝑅 = 𝑘 𝑅0.01 𝛼 dB/km
• Step 6: Calculate the horizontal reduction factor, 𝑟0.01 for 0.01%
of the time:
1
𝑟0.01 =
1 + 0.78 𝐿𝐺𝛾𝑅 − 0.38 1 − 𝑒−2𝐿𝐺
𝑓

• Step 7: Calculate the vertical adjustment factor, 𝑣0.01 for 0.01% of
the time:
′
−1
ℎ 𝑅 − ℎ𝑆
𝜁 = tan deg
𝐿𝐺 𝑟0.01
For 𝜁 > 𝜃,
𝐿𝐺 𝑟0.01
𝐿𝑅 = km
cos 𝜃
Else
ℎ𝑅′−ℎ𝑆
𝐿𝑅 = km
sin 𝜃
If ∅ < 36
𝜒 = 36 − ∅ deg
Else
𝜒 = 0 deg
1
𝑣0.01 =
𝜃 / 1+𝜒 𝐿𝑅𝛾𝑅
1 + sin 𝜃 31 1 − 𝑒− − 0.45
𝑓2
• Step 8: The effective path length is:
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿𝑅𝑣0.01 km
• Step 9: The predicted attenuation exceeded for 0.01% of an
average year is:
𝐴0.01 = 𝛾𝑅𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 dB

• If long-term data already exist at a site, it is more accurate to scale
measured results to another frequency and/or elevation angle
instead of predicting the path attenuation at the new
frequency/elevation angle from rainfall rate data.
• Two rules of thumb exist for scaling over small changes in
frequency and elevation angle are:
1. For a uniform rainfall rate environment (e.g. stratiform rain)
and assuming a “flat earth”, path attenuation in decibels
scales with the path length through the rain (e.g. it follows a
cosecant law).
2. Between about 10 and 50 GHz, attenuation in decibels scales
as the square of the frequency. These two laws are expanded
in the next few slides.

• Cosecant law: The attenuation in decibels at the same frequency at
elevation angles 𝐸𝑙1 and 𝐸𝑙2 from the same site are approximately
related by:
𝐴 𝐸𝑙1 csc 𝐸𝑙1
=
𝐴 𝐸𝑙2 csc 𝐸𝑙2
• The formula breaks down when the elevation angle is low < 10°
where its implicit flat earth and uniform rainfall rate assumptions
fail to hold.
• Suffix 1 refers to the new elevation angle and suffix 2 refers to the
old elevation angle.

• Squared frequency scaling law: If 𝐴 𝑓1 and 𝐴 𝑓2 are the
attenuations that would be measured on the same path at
frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 GHz, they are are approximately related by:
𝐴 𝑓1 𝑓1 2
=
𝐴 𝑓2 𝑓2 2
• Suffix 1 refers to the new frequency and suffix 2 refers to the old
frequency.
• This formula relates the long-term statistics (e.g. annual statistics).
• It should not be used for short-term frequency scaling (e.g. second
to second) on a link or for frequencies that are close to any
resonant absorption line.
• A more accurate form of frequency scaling can be found in

• ITU-R Long-Term Frequency Scaling of Rain Attenuation: If 𝐴1
and 𝐴2 are the equiprobable values of rain attenuation in dB at
frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 GHz , respectively, the attenuation at
frequency 𝑓2 can be found from that at frequency 𝑓1 from:
𝐴2 = 𝐴1 ∅2Τ∅1 1−𝐻 ∅1,∅2,𝐴1
• Where
𝑓2
∅ 𝑓 =
1 + 10−4𝑓2
𝐻 ∅1, ∅2, 𝐴1 = 1.12 × 10−3 ∅2Τ∅1 0.5 ∅1𝐴1 0.55

• Rain affects two polarizations in a
different way.
• Rain attenuates horizontal
component more than the vertical
one.
• If a linearly polarized wave has a
general orientation with respect to
rainfall, the wave tilts towards
vertical polarization.
• In a non-wind condition,
raindrops have elliptical shape
with minor axis in the vertical
direction.
• In wind-conditions, the
orientation of the raindrop ellipse
changes – canting angle.
Definition of
canting angle
IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE
• The ionosphere is the ionized part of
Earth's upper atmosphere, from about
60 km to 1,000 km altitude that
includes the thermosphere and
parts of the mesosphere and exosphere.
• The ionosphere is ionized by solar
radiation, which plays an important role
in atmospheric electricity and forms the
inner edge of the magnetosphere.
• It has practical importance because,
among other functions, it influences radio
propagation to distant places on the
Earth.
• The region below the ionosphere is
called neutral atmosphere,
or neutrosphere.

➢Energy from the sun causes the ionosphere to “grow” during the day, increasing
the Total Electron Content (TEC).
➢The TEC value rapidly change from the day time to the night time, that gives rise
to irregularities in the ionosphere.
➢The irregularities cause the signal to vary rapidly in amplitude and phase, which
leads to rapid signal fluctuations.
• Traveling ionospheric disturbances are clouds of electrons
in the ionosphere that provoke radio signal fluctuations,
which can only be determined on a statistical basis.
• The two disturbances of major concern are:
1. Ionospheric scintillation.
2. Polarization rotation.
• Scintillations are variations in the amplitude, phase,
polarization, or angle of arrival of radio waves caused by
irregularities in the ionosphere, which change over time.
• The main effect of scintillations is fading of the signal.

• Energy from the sun causes variations to total electron content in the
ionosphere.
• Typical range ~1018 during day to ~1016 during night.
• At the local sunsets/sunrises there are rapid changes of concentration that
cause changes of magnitude and phase of radio waves.
• The changes are further modulated by the antenna pattern.
• The net result are variations of the receive signal level at sunset and down.
• Magnitude of the ionospheric scintillation varies with sun activity.

• Polarization is the property of electromagnetic waves that
describes the direction of the transverse electric field.
• Since electromagnetic waves consist of an electric and a
magnetic field vibrating at right angles to each other, it is
necessary to adopt a convention to determine the
polarization of the signal.
• Conventionally, the magnetic field is ignored and the plane
of the electric field is used.

• Linear Polarization (horizontal

or vertical):
• The two orthogonal
components of the electric
field are in phase;
• The direction of the line in
the plane depends on the
relative amplitudes of the
two components.
• Circular Polarization:
• The two components are
exactly 90º out of phase and
have exactly the same
Linear Circular Elliptical
amplitude.
Polarization Polarization Polarization
• Elliptical Polarization:
• All other cases.
• Alternating vertical and
horizontal polarization is
widely used on satellite
communications
• This reduces interference
between programs on the same
frequency band transmitted
from adjacent satellites (one
uses vertical, the next
horizontal, and so on)
• Allows for reduced angular
separation between the
satellites.

• Radio waves propagate through the earth magnetic field.

• Magnetic field changes the polarization of the wave.
• Two negative effects:
1. Increased losses due to polarization mismatch
between receiver antenna and radio wave.
2. Increased adjacent channel interference.
• The rotation angle depends on:
1. Length of the path through ionosphere.
2. Concentration of ionosphere charges.
3. Operating frequency.
• The effects becomes smaller with frequency increase.
• The ionosphere consists of a plasma containing free electrons,
which contribute to ionospheric disturbance, whereas the
positive ions are relatively massive and have little influence.
• The wave that leaves the ionosphere has a different polarization
from the linearly polarized (LP) wave that was transmitted.
• This is called Faraday rotation, and its effect is essentially the
same as if the field vector of the transmitted LP wave had been
rotated by an angle 𝜃𝐹.
• The depolarization effect can be caused either by Faraday
rotation or by precipitation scatter.
• Faraday rotation is only significant below 10 GHz and can be
ignored for frequencies at or above 10 GHz.

• A LP field propagating through the ionosphere rotates from its
initial direction by Faraday rotation angle 𝜃𝐹.
• This means that the field can be split into two components:
1. One component oriented along direction of initial
polarization and having value proportional to cos 𝜃𝐹.
2. Another component orthogonal to the initial direction and
having a value proportional to sin 𝜃𝐹.
• Figure in the next slide illustrates transmitted LP orthogonal
field vectors 𝐸𝑣, 𝐸ℎ undergoing Faraday rotation to produce
received orthogonal vectors 𝐸 𝑣 ′ , 𝐸 ℎ ′ .

• Cross-polar attenuation and co-polar attenuation, 𝐴𝑋𝐹 and 𝐴𝐶𝐹 ,

respectively, due to Faraday rotation are given by:
𝐴𝑋𝐹 = −20 log10 cos 𝜃𝐹
𝐴𝐶𝐹 = −20 log10 sin 𝜃𝐹
𝐵 𝑁
𝜃𝐹 = 2.36 × 10−14 𝑎𝑣2 𝑇
𝑓
electrons
𝑓: frequency in GHz; 𝑁𝑇: total electron density in 2
;
𝑚
′
𝐵𝑎𝑣: Earth s magnetic field in Tesla
2𝑛+1 𝜋
• Note, 𝐴𝑋𝐹 → ∞ as 𝜃𝐹 → for 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … and
2
𝐴𝐶𝐹 → ∞ as 𝜃𝐹 → 2𝑛𝜋 for 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
• Typical values for 𝜃𝐹 are given in figure below of
Recommendation ITU-R P.531-13.

• The matrix equation can be used to recover values of transmitted
linearly polarized vectors 𝐸𝑣, 𝐸ℎ from the corresponding
received values 𝐸𝑣′, 𝐸ℎ′ after undergoing Faraday rotation:
𝐸𝑣 cos 𝜃𝐹 sin 𝜃𝐹 𝐸𝑣′

= cos 𝜃𝐹
𝐸ℎ − sin 𝜃𝐹 𝐸ℎ′

• Two propagation mechanisms can cause the polarization angle
of a radio signal to change:
1. Faraday rotation.
2. Hydrometeor scattering.
• Hydrometeor depolarization is usually described by the
cross-polarization discrimination (XPD), which is the ratio of
the power with the expected polarization the power with the
orthogonal polarization in dB units as reported in
• 𝑋𝑃𝐷 → +∞ dB as the power with orthogonal polarization
reaches zero.
• 𝑋𝑃𝐷 → −∞ dB as the power with expected polarization has
null values.

• By considering the expected polarization direction, 𝑞 as the

direction of like polarization, the propagation loss factor,
𝐴𝑋𝑞 due to hydrometeor depolarization can be written as:
−𝑋𝑃𝐷𝑞
𝐴𝑋𝑞 = −20 log10 cos tan−1 10− 20 , 𝑞 = 𝑣, ℎ, 𝑐
• In the above, 𝑣, ℎ and 𝑐 stand for vertical polarization,
horizontal polarization, and circular polarization, respectively.
• When the polarization of propagating signal align along
expected polarization direction, 𝑋𝑃𝐷𝑞 → ∞ and 𝐴𝑋𝑞 → 0.
• On the other hand, when polarization of propagating signal is
orthogonal to direction of expected polarization,
𝑋𝑃𝐷𝑞 → −∞ and 𝐴𝑋𝑞 → ∞.

• For a path length through the ionosphere of 𝑍 meters, the
rotation angle ∅ is given by:
∅ = ∫ 2.36 × 104/𝑓2 𝑍 × 𝑁 × 𝐵0 × cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 rad
Where 𝜃 is the angle between the geomagnetic field and the

direction of propagation, 𝑁 is the electron density in
electrons/cubic meter, 𝐵0 is the geomagnetic flux density in
Teslas, and 𝑓 is the operating frequency in Hz.
• The cross-polarization discrimination (XPD) that results when
the polarization angle of an LP wave changes by an amount ∆∅
is given by:
𝑋𝑃𝐷 = 20 log10 cot ∆∅

• Polarization mismatch can occur for several reasons, and are
sometimes quantified in terms XPD, which is defined as the
ratio of co-polar to cross-polar signal strength, normally
expressed in dB.

• Exercise 5.4: Find the cross-polarization discrimination (XPD)
when the polarization angle of an LP wave changes by an
amount ∆∅ of 6°.
𝑋𝑃𝐷 = 20 log10 cot ∆∅

• Exercise 5.4 Solution:
𝑋𝑃𝐷 = 20 log10 cot ∆∅ = 20 log10 cot 6°

𝑋𝑃𝐷 = 20 log10 9.5144 = 19.57 dB

TROPOSHERIC PROPAGATION
• The tropospheric propagation describes electromagnetic (EM)
propagation in relation to the troposphere.
• The service area from a VHF or UHF radio transmitter extends to just
beyond the optical horizon, at which point signals start to rapidly
reduce in strength.
• Viewers living in such a "deep fringe" reception area will notice that
during certain conditions, weak signals normally masked by noise
increase in signal strength to allow quality reception in the
troposphere.
• Tropospheric propagated signals travel in the part of the atmosphere
adjacent to the surface and extending to some 25,000 feet (7,620 m),
hence, directly affected by weather conditions extending over some
hundreds of miles.
• During very settled, warm anticyclonic weather (i.e., high pressure),
usually weak signals from distant transmitters improve in strength.
TROPOSHERIC PROPAGATION
• A settled high-pressure system gives the characteristic conditions for
enhanced tropospheric propagation, in particular favouring signals,
which travel along the prevailing isobar pattern (rather than across it).
• An isobar (from βάρος or baros, meaning 'weight') is a line of equal
or constant pressure on a graph, plot, or map; an isopleth or contour
line of pressure.
• Such weather conditions can occur at any time, but generally the
summer and autumn months are the best periods.
• In certain favourable locations, enhanced tropospheric propagation
may enable reception of ultra high frequency (UHF) TV signals up to
1,000 miles (1,600 km) or more.

TROPOSHERIC DISTURBANCE
• Lowest region of the atmosphere close to the ground where the

refractive index is ~1.0003 at sea level.
• Consists of neutral gases and water vapour that cause a delay in
signal propagation.
• Due to weather conditions (heating and cooling), the refractive index of

the atmosphere changes.
• Change of refractive index alters the direction of signal propagation
• Change of direction of arrival is “modulated” by antenna pattern causes
signal fluctuation.
• Tropospheric scintillation is more pronounced for higher frequencies,
which does not cause depolarization.
• At low elevation angles (< 10 degrees), trophospheric scintillation may
cause path loss behavior similar to terrestrial multipath fading.

• Trophospheric scintillation losses Example. Tropospheric scintilation
depend on: losses may be modeled as a random
1. Operating frequency variable with a PDF given by:
2. Climate
 1  l2 
exp− ,
f (l)= 2 l0
3. Satellite elevation
 2 
 2
2 2
4. Antenna beam 
 ,l  0
• Modeled as additional random path  0
loss Where 𝜎 is 1.2 dB.
• Mitigation approaches: Estimate required design margin to
1. Fade margin guarantee reliability of 90% with
2. Error control coding respect to the scintillation losses.
Answer: 2 dB

-0 . 5
RSL attenuation due to scintilation
-1
-1 . 5
-2
-2 . 5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time

TROPOSHERIC REFRACTION
• The frequency independent variations are stemming from variations of

the pressure, 𝑃, water vapour pressure, 𝑒, and temperature, 𝑇 can be
applied at frequencies up to 100 GHz is given by:
77.6 𝑒
1 + 10−6 × 𝑁 = 1 + 10−6 × 𝑝 + 𝑒 + 4810
𝑇 𝑇
where 𝑁 is the refractivity, 𝑃 and 𝑒 are in hectopascal (hPa) units, and 𝑇 is
in Kelvin.
• The tropospheric refracted rays can be represented as straight lines then
compensation is done by assuming an imaginary earth radius, otherwise
referred to as effective earth radius, 𝑅𝑒.
• The ratio between the 𝑅𝑒 and true earth radius, 𝑎 is referred to as the
effective earth radius factor (𝑘-factor) and is given by:
𝑅𝑒 𝑑𝑛 1
𝑘= =1+𝑎 =
𝑎 𝑑ℎ 1 + 𝑑𝑁Τ𝑑ℎ
where 𝑑𝑛 is the the refractive index gradient with atmospheric height, ℎ.

𝑑ℎ
• When 𝑘 = 4 normal or standard refraction occurs, and radio frequency

3
(RF) rays travel on a straight line path along the earth’s surface and go
out to space unobstructed.
• If 43 > 𝑘 > 0 sub-refraction occurs, meaning that radio waves propagate

away from the earth’s surface.
• When ∞ > 𝑘 > 4 super-refraction occurs and RF rays propagate
3
towards the earth’s surface, thus extending the radio horizon.
• Finally, if 0 > 𝑘 > −∞ ducting occurs and the RF rays bend
downwards with a curvature greater than that of the earth, and this is
called trapping.

IONOSPHERIC REFRACTION
• Rays propagating at vertical incidence into the ionosphere with

frequencies above the maximum critical frequency, 𝑓0𝐹2 of the 𝐹2
ionospheric layer, pass through the ionosphere.

IONOSPHERIC REFRACTION
• If the propagation direction of those rays deviates away from the vertical
incidence direction, the rays undergo refraction before passing through
the ionosphere as shown by ray 4 and ray 5.
• Some of those rays may be refracted enough to be reflected back to the
ground as shown by ray 6.
• Rays propagated obliquely into the ionosphere at frequencies below 𝑓0𝐹2
are refracted and can be reflected back to the ground after a skip distance
depending on both the (oblique) initial elevation angle of the rays, and
the frequency as illustrated by ray 2 and ray 3.
• Rays propagating with frequencies below the plasma frequency at the
bottom of the lower ionospheric layer (𝐸 layer), are reflected back to the
ground at the bottom of the 𝐸 layer as shown by ray 1.

INTERFERENCE
Satellite Network 1 Satellite Network 2
E
E
C1
B1
C2
A1 B2
A2 F
Terrestrial Earth Earth

Station 1 Station 2
Station
A1- Terrestrial-station transmissions, possibly causing interference to

reception by an earth station.
A2- Earth-station transmissions, possibly causing
interference to the reception by a terrestrial station

INTERFERENCE
E
E
C1
B1
C2
A1 B2
A2 F

Station 1 Station 2
Station
B1- Space-station transmission of one space system, possibly causing

interference to reception by an earth station of another space system.
B2- Earth-station transmissions of one space system, possibly causing

interference to reception by a space station of another space system.
INTERFERENCE
E
E
C1
B1
C2
A1 B2
A2 F

Station 1 Station 2
Station
C1- Space-station transmission, possibly causing interference to reception

by a terrestrial station.
C2- Terrestrial-station transmission, possibly causing interference to

reception by a space station
INTERFERENCE
E
E
C1
B1
C2
A1 B2
A2 F

Station 1 Station 2
Station
E- space-station transmission of one space system, possibly causing

interference to reception by a space station of another space system.
F- Earth-station transmission of one space system, possibly causing

interference to reception by an earth station of another space system.

5-Chapter Five - Sem1 Session 2023 - 2024

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NMK 41003-Satellite Technology

PROPAGATION EFFECTS AND THEIR

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• The attenuation properties of the cloud can be related to the cloud

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation.

• Note: rain rate (and losses) vary along the path

• A power law equation describes the relationship between

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• The suffices V and H refer to vertical and horizontal

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

(a) Stratiform Rain (b) Convective Rain

• Snow falling into air at a temperature greater than 0 oC

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

(a) Stratiform Rain (b) Convective Rain

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 5.3: An earth station (ES) at sea level

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 5.3 Solution:

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Linear Polarization (horizontal

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Radio waves propagate through the earth magnetic field.

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Cross-polar attenuation and co-polar attenuation, 𝐴𝑋𝐹 and 𝐴𝐶𝐹 ,

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

𝐸𝑣 cos 𝜃𝐹 sin 𝜃𝐹 𝐸𝑣′

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• By considering the expected polarization direction, 𝑞 as the

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

Where 𝜃 is the angle between the geomagnetic field and the

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

𝑋𝑃𝐷 = 20 log10 cot ∆∅ = 20 log10 cot 6°

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Lowest region of the atmosphere close to the ground where the

• Due to weather conditions (heating and cooling), the refractive index of

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)