Chaper Three 1

Hydropower Engineering – II Chapter – Three
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CHAPTER THREE
UNDER GROUND POWER HOUSE
3.1. Introduction
If there is a gorge and a valley, an underground power house may be economical. Other factors
for choosing underground power stations are frequent seismic activities landslides and snow
avalanches. An important characteristic of the underground power plant station is its flexibility
of layout. The shortest possible layout through various feasible alignments can be draw up with
minimum size of pressure conduits and omissions of anchors and valves.
The basic requirement for the feasibility of the underground power house is the availability of
good sound rock at the desired location and depth. Underground power house are also safer
during war attacks.
3.2. Location of Underground Power Stations

Depending upon the rock quality, tunneling ease and overall economics, the power houses may
be located in various ways.
1. The whole power house may be totally underground
2. The generator may be in a pit but the super structure may be on the surface
3. Semi-Underground, here the generator may be located on the surface while other units,
such as turbines may be under ground
4. The power house may be placed in a cut where the stable rock exists, the units may be
placed in a cut in the rock
3.3. Arrangements of Underground Power Stations

The type of layout of underground power plants depends largely on the positions of head and
tail water levels, control valves, turbines, generators, transformers, control room, access shafts
and ventilation shaft. The Other factors responsible for the location of such a plant are the
topography, geology and the head to be developed.
According to Mosonyi, the various characteristic types and layouts of the power station could
be described with reference to head and tail water levels as follows.
Characteristics types of underground power development
i. Upstream Station or head development
ii. Downstream station or tail development
iii. Intermediate station development
iv. Diagonal Tunnel alignment with air cushion surge tank
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Dept.: Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering Prep. By: Tesfaye Daba
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The upstream station or Head development (Swedish type of development): in this type of
development, the power station is located close to the intake and thus water is directly fed from
the reservoir/forebay to the generating units.
This arrangement is suitable for low head (25-50 m) and high discharge condition in the
continuously sloping or mildly rolling terrains. A surge tank could be provided at the entrance
to the tunnel to protect it from the water hammer during sudden opening and closure of
turbines.
Figure 3. 1: The upstream power station or Head development (Swedish type of development)
Downstream Development or Tail race development (Swiss type of development): this type of
Development has its characteristics in a long and nearly horizontal pressure tunnel together
with pressure shafts and a short tail race tunnel. Such a development is most suited for a rugged
terrain and where high heads of the order of several hundred meters can be utilized.
Figure 3. 2: Downstream or Tail-race development power station arrangement (Swedish type of

development)
Intermediate station Development (Italian arrangement): the characteristics of this type of
arrangement are a long head-race tunnel and a long tail race tunnel. The consequent pressure
variations due to long tunnels are taken care of by surge tank both upstream and downstream of
the power house.
Figure 3. 3: Intermediate power station arrangement (Italian type of development)

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Diagonal Tunnel alignment with air cushion surge tank (Norwegian solution):
Figure 3. 4: Diagonal alignment with air cushion surge tank (Norwegian Solution)
3.4. Comparing Aboveground and Underground Power House Stations
(Basics for comparison of power station alternatives)

 An underground power house is more costly than a powerhouse on the surface, implying
that underground powerhouse should be considered only when this solution is the only
option available due to site topography
 In many cases a number of parameters concerning investment costs, risks, operation and
maintenance will have to be considered before a conclusion can be drawn as to whether
the optimum layout of a hydropower plant shall have powerhouse on the surface or
underground
 In some case the assessment of rock conditions will be decisive in determining whether
an underground or a surface powerhouse is the most favorable solution. However, in
general the type, head, and capacity of the power plant and the topography of the project
site provide more important parameters for the decision
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gate hoist
Intake gate
Intake trashrack Tunnel Inlet Surge tank

Tunnel Inlet
trashrack Penstock inlet
Valve
Desilting basin
Headrace tunnel
Anchor block
Anchor block
Shaddle
Power house
Exp. joint
DT end gate
IV G
Tailrace
SC
IV -inlet valve
R -turbine runner
SC -spiral case R
DT
G -generator
Typical Power House with Francis Turbine
Figure 3. 5: The development of the general layout of high power plant
3.5. Main Characteristics of Underground Power Plants
 Flexibility in powerhouse Location and plant layout:

 Cost saving potential:
 Total plant Efficiency:
 Operational stability:
 Deference, operational Reliability and personnel safety:
 Structural Design:
 Operation and Maintenance:
 Conditions for Construction and Erection:
 Environmental impacts:
3.6. Overall Plant Layout

An underground hydropower plant will consist of:
i. headrace system with intake tunnel
ii. tailrace system with tailrace tunnel and outlet structure
iii. power house in one or more caverns with a system of tunnels serving various functions
iv. certain facilities on the surface
The location and alignment of the power plant will depend on the conditions of rock cover, rock
type, access roads, construction adits, (Topography and geological conditions)

Minimum need for heavy rock support
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 Adjusting the vertical alignment to follow favorable strata of sedimentary rocks or

locate the headrace as pressurized tunnel in igneous rock below weaker sedimentary
rocks
The general design criterion, which has to be satisfied at any point in an unlined pressurized
tunnel or shaft, is that the minimum principal stress in the adjacent rock mass is higher than the
maximum future water pressure.
Figure 3. 6 over all plant layout
3.7. Powerhouse Tunnel System
The powerhouse needs a tunnel system to serve various needs, which can be divided in to two
sets of requirements, one set, related to the period of construction and the other for the future
operation of the power plant.
During construction the tunnel system will have to serve as access for excavation of all parts of
the Power House, for transport of excavated material and ventilation, supply of electricity,
water, compressed air and other support from the outside for performance of the civil works and
erection. Further, the main access tunnel has to be designed for the largest electromechanical
components to be transported in to the power house.
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After commissioning, the tunnel system around the powerhouse will need to serve a different
set of functions, the main ones being:
 Main access in to the powerhouse
 Branch-off tunnels to other installations like transformer cells or separate transformer
cavern , tailrace gate chamber, concrete plug with steel bulkhead , etc,
 Alternative emergency exit from the power house to the surface
 Routing of high voltage cables from the generators to the transformers and from the
transformers to the switchyard on the surface
 Routing of signal and control cables
 Supply and evacuation of air for ventilation
 Tailrace surge chamber, etc
3.8. Transformer Arrangements and Locations

The transformer location will greatly influence the arrangement of an underground powerhouse.
Due to the cost of high amperage connection between generators and transformers, transformers
location at surface may only be economically viable by the shallowest seated power house.
Aspects of maintenance, operation and deference all favour transformers underground, hence
the transformers are located within the machine hall or in an adjacent separate cavern.
 In a machine hall
 Between generators
 In extension of power house cavern
 In separate cavern
3.9. Hydropower Tunnels

Tunnels are underground conveyance structures constructed by special tunneling methods
without disturbing the natural surface of the ground. In many modern high head plants, tunnels
form an important engineering feature.
Tunnels have the advantages of:
i. Providing direct and short route for the water passage thus resulting in considerable
saving in cost
ii. Quicker completion due to simultaneous tunneling work at many points
iii. Protection of natural land scape
Tunnels of hydropower projects fall into two categories: water carrying tunnels and service
tunnels.
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a) Water carrying tunnels: these include head race or power tunnels, tail race tunnels or
diversion tunnels. Flows in water tunnels are usually under pressure (pipe flow), but
sometimes free-flow (open channel flow) can be experienced,
b) Especially, in tailrace tunnels. The design of free-flow tunnels follows the same principles
as used in the design of open canals.
- Head race tunnels: are tunnels that convey water to the surge tank. These are pressure
tunnels
- Tail race tunnels: could be free flowing or pressure tunnels depending on the relative
position of turbine setting and tail water level.
c) Diversion tunnels: are constructed for the purpose of diverting the stream flow during
construction period
d) Service tunnels: these may be:
- Cable tunnels: to carry cables from underground power house to the switch yard
- Ventilation tunnels: fitted with fans at the open end to supply fresh air to the underground
- Access or approach tunnels: these are passage tunnels from surface to underground power
house.
Shape: Tunnels are either circular or non-circular in shape.
Circular tunnels: are most suitable structurally. They are more stable when the internal pressure is
very high.
Non-circular tunnels: have a flat floor, nearly vertical or gently flaring walls and arching roofs.
The horse-shoe shape is the most popular and convenient from construction point of view.
Commonly adopted shapes:
a) Circular shape b) Horseshoe shape

Alignment: Tunnels have generally small bottom slopes, i.e. tunnels or aligned nearly horizontal.
Shaft is a tunnel with vertical alignment or inclined shaft when it is steeply inclined to the
horizontal. It is very crucial to investigate in detail the geology of the strata through which a
tunnel would be passing. Sound, homogenous, isotropic, and solid rock formations are the most
ideal ones for tunneling work.
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Lining: Lining is a protective layer of concrete, R.C. or steel on the inner surface of the tunnel to
improve the efficiency and structural stability of the tunnel. Tunnels in good, sound rock may
be left unlined.
Lining of tunnels is required:
i. For structural reasons to resist external forces particularly when the tunnel is empty and
when the strata is of very low strength.
ii. When the internal pressure is high, i.e. above 100m
iii. When reduction in frictional resistance and therefore the head loss is required for
increasing capacity
iv. For prevention or reduction of seepage losses
v. For protection of rock against aggressive water
Tunnel Design Features: the design of hydropower tunnels include alignment; choosing the
appropriate geometric shape, longitudinal slope and flow velocity; computation of head loss,
rock cover (overburden), lining requirements and economic x-section come in to play.
Alignment: in aligning water tunnels, the following points should be taken in to account:
 Length of the tunnel
 Location of surge tanks & adits
 Rock cover (overburden)
 Discontinuities
 Rock quality
Geometrical Shape:
 The choice of the cross-sectional profile of a tunnel depends on:
 Hydraulic considerations: Circular is preferable
 Stability considerations: Circular is preferable
 Convenience for construction: D-shaped is preferable
Longitudinal Slope: the minimum slope for a pressure tunnel is limited on the basis of dewatering
requirements. And also the longitudinal profile of the tunnel should be such that the roof
remains below the hydraulic pressure line by 1 to 2 m.
Flow Velocity: the allowable velocities in tunnels depend upon whether it is lined or unlined. In
unlined tunnels, a velocity of 2 to 2.5 m/s is the upper limit, while in concrete lined tunnels 4 to
5 m/s is often employed.
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Rock Cover (overburden): for pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the overburden on the roof of the
tunnel serves to balance the effect of upward force due to internal pressure. The required depth
of overburden may vary for lined and unlined tunnels.
In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internal water pressure is resisted by the overburden rock
pressure. Where a steep valley side constitutes the overburden above the tunnel, the rule of
thumb equation, H= (0.4 to 0.8)*hr has to be modified and given by:
1 r
hw  L cos 
 w
Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the studied point of the tunnel (or
shaft) and  is the average inclination of the valley side with the horizontal (see figure below).
 r L cos    w h w
hw
hr
Figure 3. 7: Overburden requirement in a steep valley side

In the case of concrete or steel lined tunnels, the linings are usually designed to carry part or full
load of the internal water pressure, and the above equations, given for unlined tunnels, are
modified accordingly in determining the required overburden depth.
Head Loss: head losses in tunnels can be computed using Manning’s, Darcy-Weisbach, or Hazen-
Williams formulas.
lv 2
hf  n2
Manning formula: R4/3
l v2
hf  
Darcy-Weisbach formula: 2 g Deq
l v1.85
h f  6.84 1.17
Hazen-Williams formula (rarely used): C 1.85 Deq
Where, hf is head loss due to friction, L is tunnel length, V is mean velocity of flow, R is hydraulic
radius, Deq is equivalent diameter ( Deq  4A /  ), A is area of the tunnel x-section, n is

Manning’s roughness coefficient,  is Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (can be obtained from
Moody diagram), and C is Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient.
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Optimum X-section: the optimum x-section of a tunnel or a shaft is one for which the sum of
tunnel construction cost and the economic loss due to head loss is minimum.
Total cost
Cost Economic Construction

loss cost
X-section
Figure 3. 8: Optimum tunnel cross-section

For a quick initial estimate of the diameter of pressure tunnels, the empirical formula suggested by
Fahlbusch can be used:
For concrete-lined tunnels: D  0.62 Q 0.48
Q 0.45
D  1.12
For steel-lined tunnels: H 0.12
3.10. Rock Stresses

Most stress related problems are caused by stresses which are greater than the critical limit for
the rock mass in question. However, the problem may also be caused by too low stresses.
Generally, the stresses surrounding underground openings are defined are:
1. The stress situation prior to excavation (the “Virgin” stresses)
2. The geometry of the opening
Origin of Rock Stresses: the virgin stress generally represents the resultant of the following
components:
 Gravitational stresses
 Topographic stresses
 Tectonic stresses
 Residual stresses
Gravitational Stresses: this component is a result of the gravity alone. When the surface is
horizontal, the vertical gravitational stress at a depth Z is: σ = ρ.g..Z
When ρ.g = specific gravity of the rock
The magnitude of the total vertical stress is often identical to the magnitude of the gravitational
vertical component. However, at great depths, particularly, there are considerable deviations
from this trend.
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Figure 3. 9: Vertical and horizontal rock stresses as a function of depth below the rock surface
In anelastic rock mass with Poisson’s ratio of v, the horizontal stresses induced by gravity are:

x  y  Z
1 
For a Poisson’s ratio of 0.25, which is fairly common for rock masses, this means that the
horizontal stress induced by gravity is approximately 1/3 of the vertical stress.
Topographic stresses: when the surface is not horizontal, the topography will affect the rock
stress situation. Stresses caused by topographic effects are generally referred to as
topographically induced stresses or simply topographic stresses.
In high valley sides, where hydropower plants are often located, the stress situation is totally
dominated by the topographic effects. In such cases the major principal stress (σ1 ) near the
surface will be more or less parallel to the slope of the valley, and the minor principal stress
(σ3 ) will be approximately perpendicular to the slope.
Figure 3. 10: Magnitudes and directions of directions of the major and minor principal stresses
in a valley side as computed by a Finite Element Analysis
Tectonic Stresses: evidence of tectonic stresses is represented by dramatic incidents like
faulting and folding and also by movements such as heave of the Scandinavian Peninsula after
the last glaciations. The main cause of faulting and folding as well as tectonic stress is the
action of plate tectonics; drifting and tectonic activity along the margins of some 20 rigid plates
that constitute the earth’s outer shell.
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Figure 3. 11: Variation of ratio of average horizontal stress to vertical stress with depth below
surface
Residual Stresses: residual (or remnant) stresses are generally defined as stress which has been
locked in to rock material during earlier stages of its geological history. Stress caused by
contraction during cooling of a rock melt (magma) is probably the most relevant example of
this category. Vertical stresses which are abnormally high are often explained as being caused
by residual stress. Stresses Surrounding Underground Openings
When analyzing potential problems due to rock stresses, the stress situation close to the contour
of the tunnel or rock cavern is of particular interest.
 Stresses surrounding Circular opening
The simplest case is represented by the following idealized conditions:
 Homogeneous and isotropic, elastic material
 Isotropic virgin stresses (σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ)
If the radius of the opening is a, the radial and tangential stresses of a cross section (σ r and σt,
respectively) will be the following as function of the distance r from the circle center.
a2
 r   (1  )
r2
a2
 t   (1  2 )
r
In the figure below these equations are shown graphically. It is particularly important to notice
the rapid increase in tangential stress close to the contour. Generally, in a case like this, a
tangential stress with a magnitude of twice the magnitude of the isostatic stress will be induced
all around the periphery.
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Figure 3. 12: Tangential and radial stress surrounding a circular opening in isostatic stress field.
For an anisotropic stress condition the so-called Kirsch’s equations are used for evaluating the
tangential stresses. According to Kirsch the tangential stress will reach the maximum value
(σt(max )) where the σ 1 direction is tangent to the contour, and its minimum value (σ t(min)) where
the σ3 direction is tangent.
The actual values will be:
 t (max)  3 1   3
 t (min)  3 3   1
Figure 3. 13: The influence of rock anisotropy on the stress surrounding of a circular opening.
Potential problems due to the stresses are indicated
The above figure illustrates that the distribution of tangential stress is strongly influenced by the
degree of stress anisotropy. If the stresses are very anisotropic the minimum tangential stress,
as illustrated, may even be negative, i.e. tensional
3.10.1. Stresses near Corners

Non symmetrical geometry and sharp corners in particular, will strongly affect the magnitude of
the tangential stress as described by Jaeger & Cook and others.
When the curvature radius is reduced, the magnitude of the tangential stress will increase. This
means, for instance, that the sharper the corner between the wall and the roof of a cavern, the
higher the stress concentration will be in that corner. In extreme cases such stress concentration
may reach magnitudes of more than 10 times the major principal stress value.
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In cases with benches or protruding corners the stress situation will be the opposite. Here the
stabilizing stresses, or the confinement, will be reduced, and stability problems will often result.
Influence of the Rock properties:
In a TBM-bored tunnel or in a carefully blasted tunnel the tangential stress will have a distinct
maximum at the tunnel contour as illustrated figure below. As a result of blasting damage to the
rock, however, the situation in most drill and blast tunnel will be very different from this
idealized picture. In such case the extra joining close to the contour caused by blasting reduces
the capability of the rock mass to transfer stress, and the distribution of tangential stress will in
principle be as shown in the figure with a maximum value some distance from the contour.
Figure 3. 14: Principle sketch illustrating the concentration of tangential stress in a tunnel when:
1) The contour rock is undisturbed
2) It is fractured as a result of blasting damage ( the virgin stress is assumed isostatical,
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ)
Stability problems Due to stresses:
In the contour of an underground opening, there are normally two diametrically opposed areas
of tangential stress concentration and two areas of minimum tangential stress as illustrated in
Figure 8 when rock stresses are causing problems. The problems are normally confined to the
areas of maximum tangential stress. However, if the minimum tangential stress is very low, this
may also be a problem.
Problems Due to Tensile stress:
In most cases a tensile jointing will not have much influence on the rock stability. For high
pressure tunnel it is more important that secondary jointing and opening of existing joints may
increase the risk of water leakages out of the tunnel.
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Problems Due to High Compressive Stress:

If the compressive tangential stress exceeds the strength of the rock, fracturing parallel to the
tunnel contour will be the result in hard rock. The situation has a certain similarity of fracturing
in point load testing, in which the fracture is also induced by a compressive stress in the
direction of fracturing.
When the stresses are very high, rock bursts may be a major threat to safety if the right type of
rock support is not installed at the right moment. In such cases extensive rock support is
necessary.
The Influence of Rock Mass properties:
The character of the rock stress problem will largely depend on the rock mass properties.
Important aspects such as primary jointing and strength properties have already been discussed.
However, anisotropy and elastic properties may also be influential.
The orientation of the major principal stress relative to the direction of major joints sets and
important structural features, such as bedding and schistosity, will have a major influence on
rock burst activity. Severe problems may occur if the schistosity runs parallel to the tunnel axis,
and the major principal stress acts perpendicular to the axis and in the dip direction of the
schistosity.
3.10.2. Norwegian Experience, Examples

An old Norwegian rule of thumb states that if heights above the tunnel of 500m or more are
reached at an angle of 250 or steeper in a valley side, one should always be prepared for stress
induced stability problems. Although this simple rule does not consider the influence of for
instance tectonic stress, it still reflects general experience from the majority of Norwegian
hydropower plants.
Figure 3. 15: The Consequence of high horizontal stress and an isotropic condition.
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As an example, the major principal stress in figure 10 is approximately horizontal and
perpendicular to tunnel axis. The vertical stress (  3 ) is only one quarter of the value of the
major principal stress. And according to Kirsch’s equation, the tangential stress is therefore
2.75 times the maximum horizontal stress.
In water tunnels it has occasionally been experienced that spalling may continue for many
years. This long-term effect is probably caused by a combination of high stresses, a reduction of
rock strength due to water saturation, creep effects and hydraulic pressure variations.
3.10.3. Rock Stress Measurements

To be able to analyze the potential problems due to rock stresses, it is necessary to obtain
information about magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses. Reliable information on
this issue can be obtained only by carrying out rock stress measurements.
Methods:
Throughout the years a considerable variety of different equipment for in-situ rock stress
measurements has been developed. However, for hydropower projects the following methods
are most relevant.
 Triaxial stress measurements by drill hole over coring
 Hydraulic fracturing
The drill hole over coring technique has the longest tradition, and there are several versions of
this method. Figure 11 illustrates the principles of the version which is most commonly used.
As can be seen, what is actually being recorded are the strains. To be able to compute the
stresses, laboratory analyses of the elastic properties have to be carried out.
1. A diamond drill hole is drilled to the

required depth. A concentric hole with a
smaller diameter is drilled approximately
30 cm further.
2. A measuring cell containing three strain

rosettes is inserted, and the rosettes are
glued to the walls of the small hole.
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3. The Small hole is over cored by the

larger diameter bit, thus stress relieving the
core. The Corresponding strains are
recorded by the rosettes. When the elastic
constants are known, the triaxial state of
stress can be computed.
Figure 3. 16: The principle of three dimensional rock stress measurements by overcoming
The basic principle of hydraulic fracturing is to isolate a section of a drill hole and, by gradually
increasing the pressure of water which is pumped into the hole, to obtain fracturing of the
surrounding rock. By recording water pressure and flow, the principle stress situation can be
evaluated.
3.10.4. Tunneling Methods

There are two commonly used types of tunneling techniques:
 Conventional “Drill and Blast”
 Use of tunnel boring machines (TBM)
Conventional “Drill and Blast” Method:
In this method of tunneling, the main equipment used is the so-called drilling jumbo or drilling rig,
which performs the main operation.
The following are the main sequences to be followed during excavation of each round:
i) Drilling
ii) Charging
iii) Blasting
iv) Ventilating
iii) Scaling
iv) Mucking and hauling
v) Tunnel supporting
Drilling is carried out by the percussion method. The principle is to force a drill rod with a suitable
drill bit against the tunnel face, generate a stroke in order to obtain rock spalling, and then rotate the
rod before it is once again forced against the hole and a new stroke is generated. The power for the
drilling thrust and rotation is transmitted by hydraulic systems. In tunneling, blast hole diameters of
45 to 50 mm are most common. Medium size tunnels (about 40 m2 ) may require about 60 to 70
drill holes. The length of the drill holes usually varies from 3 to 5 m.
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Once the drilling operation is completed, charging of the drill holes with explosives will be
performed. There are different types of explosives, the most common one being dynamite.
If the holes close to the planned contour of the tunnel are too heavily loaded with explosives, a
considerable “over-break” and a rough, uneven contour may result. This over-break greatly
increases the need for scaling and tunnel support. If the tunnel is unlined, it will also greatly
increase the head loss. In order to minimize the over-break in the walls and roof of the tunnel,
reduced charges are used close to the contour.
In rock blasting the main principle is to break the rock and push the rock fragments towards a free
surface. In a tunnel the degree of confinement of the blast volume is far higher than in a quarry. In
order to obtain a satisfactory result from a tunnel blast it is, therefore, necessary to include the so-
called “cut” in the blast hole design. These consist of holes of larger diameter than the blast holes
and are usually left unloaded.
After blasting the round, ventilation has to be carried out to lower the concentration of blasting
fumes to a satisfactory level. The fans are usually started just after the explosion. It is very seldom
possible to enter the working face area until 15-20 minutes after the blast, but this depends on the
ventilation equipment.
After each blast round, scaling (removing loose rocks from the roof and walls of the tunnel) is done
for the sake of safety. For small tunnels the scaling is made directly from the muck pile, in larger it
is often carried out from the wheel loader.
The selection of equipment for mucking and hauling largely depend on the cross-sectional area
and the gradient of the tunnel. For tunnels with cross-sections smaller than 16 m2 , the only
alternative for transportation is rail transport system. In larger tunnels, wheel transport system
shall be used. For wheel transport in cross-sections between 16 and 30 m2 “niches” are required
every 100 to 150 m for the purposes of loading and turning trucks.
A major restriction for the rail transport alternative is that the maximum gradient has to be less than
2%. For wheel transport gradients up to 15% may be tolerated.
Use of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM):
A tunnel boring machine (TBM) is a complex and very advanced piece of machinery designed to
excavate the entire cross-section in a single operation without the use of explosives. Tunnels with
diameters of about 1.8 m to more than 11 m have been excavated with tunnel boring machines.
TBM consists of a wheel cutter head fitted with teeth or rollers to cut or spall the rock. The wheel is
slightly smaller than the bore of the tunnel and is equipped with disc-cutters to produce the
designed bore. The wheel is forced against the tunnel face by hydraulic jacks and is made to rotate.
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As excavation proceeds, the rock-cuttings are picked up in buckets attached around the rim of the
wheel and are discharged on to a conveyor belt incorporated with the machine.
The diameter of the cutters is normally within the range of 45 to 50 cm, and the total number of
cutters varies from 20 for smallest machines to more than 70 for the largest.
Figure 3. 17: Typical sketch for TBM tunneling

Compared to conventional D & B tunneling technique, TBM tunneling has the following
advantages:
 For long tunnels (> 3 km) the excavation time and the costs in many cases are
considerably lower due to a higher advance rate combined with reduced requirement for
tunnel support and ventilation.
 The tunnel will have a circular profile with a smooth contour, which is of particular
importance in reducing head loss in unlined water tunnels.
 Potential problems due to blast vibrations are eliminated, especially in populated areas.
 Less number of “adits” is required.
There are, however, some limitations in connection with the use of TBM in tunneling. These
include:
 Initial cost of the machine is high
 Requires detail geological investigation than the D & B alternative
 Less flexible than Conventional D & B technique in tackling stability problems
o maximum gradient is restricted to approximately 2% for railroad transport
o the maximum curve radius is restricted to 150-450 m
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3.10.5. Tunnel Supports
A basic philosophy in tunneling is that the extent of installed tunnel support should reflect the
actual rock conditions. In good quality rock the self-supporting capacity of the rock mass should be
used to its advantage, and the amount of tunnel support kept at a minimum. In poor quality rock the
design of support should be based on a sound understanding of the character and extent of the
stability problem.
The various geological factors which may influence the stability are:
 The strength and quality of the intact rock
 The degree of jointing and their character
 Weakness zones and faults
 Rock stresses
 Water inflow
Tunnel support may be installed either at the working face (immediate support), or behind the face
(permanent support). Whenever possible the design for the immediate support should be chosen
which makes it possible to act later as permanent support.
The following support methods are the most commonly used in hydropower tunneling today:
 Rock bolting  Grouting
 Shotcreting  Concrete lining
Rock Bolting:
A rock bolt is a steel bar, which is inserted into a hole drilled in a rock to improve the rock
competency. The distant end has a device which permits it to firmly anchored in the hole and the
projecting end is fitted with a plate which bears against the rock surface. The bolt is placed in
tension between the anchor and the plate, thereby exerting a compressive force on the rock.
Figure 3. 18: Principle of rock bolting

Rock bolting in tunnels is carried out according to one of the following two main principles:
 Spot bolting of individual, unstable blocks
 Systematic bolting of a section of the tunnel or the cavern in a defined pattern
On average, the length of rock bolts in water tunnels is 1.5 to 4 m and the diameter is 16 to 25 mm.
Rock bolting is usually used for an immediate support near the tunnel face.
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pg. 20
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Shotcreting:
A shotcrete is a quick-setting concrete plaster shot at rock surfaces pneumatically. It creates the
best possible rock support condition, which makes it an economical, rapid, and effective means of
providing tunnel support. In practice the shotcrete is placed in 5 cm layers until a desired thickness
is attained.
The use of steel fibres in the concrete mix has an effect of increasing the strength of the shotcrete.
For an immediate support in areas of heavily jointed rock masses or in areas of high rock stresses,
steel fibre reinforced shotcrete is commonly used.
Figure 3. 19: Principle of shotcreting

In many cases, the shotcrete is combined with rock bolting for use as a permanent support. A
combination of steel fibre reinforced shotcreting and systematic rock bolting can replace concrete
lining alternative, provided that water inflow and active gouge material in the discontinuities are
minimal or absent.
A general restriction in the use of shotcrete is in areas with water leakage. The main restriction,
however, is where weakness zones contain swelling clay (smectite). If shotcrete is applied on such
zones, there will be no room for expansion of the swelling clay, and high swelling pressure will be
activated when the zones are exposed to water. This may easily destroy the shotcrete lining.
Grouting: A grout is a mixture of cement and water forced in to rocks around the tunnel periphery.
Grouting may be performed ahead of the tunneling face (pre-grouting) or behind the tunneling face
(post-grouting). Pre-grouting is necessary in areas where groundwater inflow makes tunnel driving
difficult. Probe holes are drilled ahead of the tunnel face to perform permeability testing before
deciding the necessity of pre-grouting. Post-grouting is done to improve the stability of the rock
mass behind the tunnel face.
Figure 3. 20: Principle of pre-grouting in a water-bearing zone
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pg. 21
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Hydropower Engineering – II Chapter – Three

3.2. Location of Underground Power Stations

3.3. Arrangements of Underground Power Stations

Figure 3. 2: Downstream or Tail-race development power station arrangement (Swedish type of

Figure 3. 3: Intermediate power station arrangement (Italian type of development)

3.4. Comparing Aboveground and Underground Power House Stations

(Basics for comparison of power station alternatives)

Intake trashrack Tunnel Inlet Surge tank

Typical Power House with Francis Turbine

Figure 3. 5: The development of the general layout of high power plant

3.5. Main Characteristics of Underground Power Plants

 Flexibility in powerhouse Location and plant layout:

3.6. Overall Plant Layout

 Adjusting the vertical alignment to follow favorable strata of sedimentary rocks or

Figure 3. 6 over all plant layout

3.7. Powerhouse Tunnel System

3.8. Transformer Arrangements and Locations

3.9. Hydropower Tunnels

a) Circular shape b) Horseshoe shape

Figure 3. 7: Overburden requirement in a steep valley side

radius, Deq is equivalent diameter ( Deq  4A /  ), A is area of the tunnel x-section, n is

Cost Economic Construction

Figure 3. 8: Optimum tunnel cross-section

For concrete-lined tunnels: D  0.62 Q 0.48

3.10. Rock Stresses

3.10.1. Stresses near Corners

Problems Due to High Compressive Stress:

3.10.2. Norwegian Experience, Examples

As an example, the major principal stress in figure 10 is approximately horizontal and

3.10.3. Rock Stress Measurements

1. A diamond drill hole is drilled to the

2. A measuring cell containing three strain

3. The Small hole is over cored by the

3.10.4. Tunneling Methods

Figure 3. 17: Typical sketch for TBM tunneling

3.10.5. Tunnel Supports

Figure 3. 18: Principle of rock bolting

Figure 3. 19: Principle of shotcreting

Figure 3. 20: Principle of pre-grouting in a water-bearing zone

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