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    16.1 Operating System (0S)

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    Sevara Kazimova
    The document discusses how operating systems manage computer resources and processes. It describes how the OS maximizes CPU, memory, and I/O utilization through techniques like process scheduling, virtual memory management, and page replacement. It also explains the different states a process can be in and common scheduling algorithms like round robin that help allocate CPU time between ready processes.

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    16.1 Operating System (0S)

    Uploaded by

    Sevara Kazimova
    24 views52 pages
    The document discusses how operating systems manage computer resources and processes. It describes how the OS maximizes CPU, memory, and I/O utilization through techniques like process scheduling, virtual memory management, and page replacement. It also explains the different states a process can be in and common scheduling algorithms like round robin that help allocate CPU time between ready processes.

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    16.1 operating system (0S)

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    The document discusses how operating systems manage computer resources and processes. It describes how the OS maximizes CPU, memory, and I/O utilization through techniques like process scheduling, virtual memory management, and page replacement. It also explains the different states a process can be in and common scheduling algorithms like round robin that help allocate CPU time between ready processes.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    24 views52 pages

    16.1 Operating System (0S)

    Uploaded by

    Sevara Kazimova
    The document discusses how operating systems manage computer resources and processes. It describes how the OS maximizes CPU, memory, and I/O utilization through techniques like process scheduling, virtual memory management, and page replacement. It also explains the different states a process can be in and common scheduling algorithms like round robin that help allocate CPU time between ready processes.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 52

    Purpose of an operating system

    16.1
    16.1.1 How an operating system can maximise the use of
    computer resources
    When a computer is first switched on
    BIOS (basic input/output system) in ROM starts A BOOTSTRAP
    PROGRAM
    BOOTSTRAP PROGRAM loads OS in hard disk/SSD into RAM
    Flash memory
    Although tablets and mobile phones use RAM, that process is less obvious
    (instantaneous).
    Because their main internal memory is supplied by FLASH MEMORY
    Flash memory is split into two parts
    1. The part where the OS resides. It is read only. This is why the OS can be updated
    by the mobile phone/tablet manufacturers but the user cannot interfere with the
    software or ‘steal’ memory from this part of memory.
    2. The part where the apps (and associated data) are stored.

    The user does not have direct access to this part of memory either.
    RAM stores the apps executing and data currently in use.
    Resource management
    OS’s task is to maximize the utilization of computer resources
    1. the CPU
    2. memory
    3. the input/output (I/O) system.
    Scheduling for better utilization of CPU time and resources
    OS will do:
    ● any I/O operation which has been initiated by the computer user
    ● any I/O operation which occurs while software is being run and resources, such as
    printers or disk drives, are requested.
    DMA
    The direct memory access (DMA) controller is needed to allow hardware
    to access the main memory independently of the CPU.

    ● The DMA initiates the data transfers.


    ● The CPU carries out other tasks while this data transfer operation is
    taking place.
    ● Once the data transfer is complete, an interrupt signal is sent to the
    CPU from the DMA.
    DMA - Direct memory access controller
    KERNEL
    Central component of OS
    which is responsible for
    communication between
    hardware, software and
    memory
    OS hides the complexities of hardware from user
    This can be done by

    ● using GUI interfaces rather than CLI


    ● using device drivers (which simplifies the complexity of hardware
    interfaces)
    ● simplifying the saving and retrieving of data from memory and storage
    devices
    ● carrying out background utilities, such as virus scanning which the user
    can ‘leave to its own devices’
    16.1.2 Process management
    Multitasking allows computers to carry out more than one task at a time.
    Low level scheduling
    SCHEDULING - scheduling is used to decide which processes should be

    carried out

    ● Determines CPU allocation for processes in the ready state after OS calls.

    ● Aims to maximize system throughput, maintain acceptable response times, and

    ensure system stability.

    ● Resolves conflicts between processes vying for the same resources.


    Process scheduler
    ● Process Priority Determinants:
    ● Category:
    ● CPU:
    ● Resource Requirements:
    ● Turnaround, Waiting, Response Times:
    ● Interruptibility:
    Factors Affecting Prioritized Tasks:

    ● Deadline:

    ● CPU Time Needed:

    ● Memory Requirements:
    16.1.3
    Process states
    16.1.3 Process states
    Process control block (PCB) – data structure which contains all the data
    needed for a process to run.

    The PCB will store:

    ● current process state (ready, running or blocked)


    ● process privileges (such as which resources it is allowed to access)
    ● register values (PC, MAR, MDR and ACC)
    ● process priority and any scheduling information
    ● the amount of CPU time the process will need to complete
    ● a process ID which allows it to be uniquely identified.
    Process state conditions
    Running, ready, blocked
    Round robin process
    ● Each process has an equal time slice (known as a quantum).
    ● When a time slice ends, the low level scheduler puts the process back into the
    READY QUEUE allowing another process to use CPU time.
    ● Typical time slices are about 10 to 100ms long (a 2.7GHz clock speed would
    mean that 100ms of CPU time is equivalent to 27 million clock cycles, giving
    considerable amount of potential processing time to a process).
    ● When a time slice ends, the status of each process must be saved so that it can
    continue from where it left off when it is allocated its next time slice.
    ● The contents of the CPU registers (PC, MAR, MDR, ACC) are saved to the process
    control block (PCB); each process has its own control block.
    ● When the next process takes control of the CPU (burst time), its previous state is
    reinstated or restored (this is known as context switching).
    Scheduling routine algorithms
    1. first come first served scheduling (FCFS)
    2. shortest job first scheduling (SJF)
    3. shortest remaining time first scheduling (SRTF)
    4. round robin
    First come first served scheduling (FCFS)
    It is similar to queue structure uses FIFO principle
    Shortest job first scheduling (SJF) and shortest remaining
    time first scheduling (SRTF)
    ● Best approaches to minimize waiting time
    ● SJF is non-preemptive
    ● SRTF is preemptive
    shortest remaining time first scheduling (SRTF)
    the processes are placed in the ready queue as they arrive; but when a process with a shorter burst time
    arrives, the existing process is removed (pre-empted) from execution. The shorter process is then executed
    first.
    Round robin
    A fixed time slice (a quantum) is given to each process.

    Once a process is executed during its time slice, it is removed and placed in
    the blocked queue; then another process from the ready queue is executed
    in its own time slice.

    Context switching is used to save the state of the pre-empted processes.

    The ready queue gives each process its time slice in the correct order (if a
    process completes before the end of its time slice, then the next process is
    brought into the ready queue for its time slice).
    Average waiting times for the four scheduling routines
    Interrupt handling with OS kernels
    Types of interrupts:

    ● Device interrupt (for example, printer out of paper, device not present,
    and so on).
    ● Exceptions (for example, instruction faults such as division by zero,
    unidentified op code, stack fault, and so on).
    ● Traps/software interrupt (for example, process requesting a resource
    such as a disk drive).
    When an interrupt is received, the kernel will consult the interrupt dispatch
    table (IDT) – this table links a device description with the appropriate
    interrupt routine.
    Interrupts will be prioritised using interrupt priority levels (IPL) (numbered 0
    to 31). A process is suspended only if its interrupt priority level is greater
    than that of the current task. The process with the lower IPL is saved in the
    interrupt register and is handled (serviced) when the IPL value falls to a certain
    level.
    Examples of IPLs include:
    31: power fail interrupt
    24: clock interrupt
    20-23: I/O devices
    16.1. 4
    Memory
    Management
    16.1.4 - Memory Management

    ● Memory management optimizes CPU processes, preventing

    fragmentation.

    ● Allocates memory for processes and deallocates upon completion.


    Single (Contiguous) Allocation

    ● Dedicates all memory to a single application.

    ● Leads to inefficient use of main memory due to fragmentation.


    Paged Memory / Paging
    ● Memory split into fixed-size partitions (pages).

    ● Logical divided into pages and and physical memory - frames.

    ● Processes allocated more pages than needed and loaded into frames

    during execution.
    Segmentation
    Segmented memory
    address of segment in physical memory space = segment number + offset value
    Summary of the differences between paging and segmentation
    Video - OCR A Level (H046-H446) SLR4 - 1.2
    Paging, segmentation and virtual memory

    One more presentation


    16.1.5 Virtual memory
    ● RAM is the physical memory

    ● Virtual memory is RAM + swap space on the hard disk (or SSD)
    Problem Solution
    ● Multiple processes running-> separately mapping each program’s
    no available memory in RAM. memory space to RAM and utilising
    HDD
    Without Virtual Management:
    With Virtual Management:
    The main benefits of virtual memory are

    » programs can be larger than physical memory and can still be executed

    » it leads to more efficient multi-programming with less I/O loading and


    swapping programs into and out of memory

    » there is no need to waste memory with data that is not being used (for
    example, during error handling)

    » it eliminates external fragmentation/reduces internal fragmentation

    » it removes the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory.
    Disk Thrashing: Thrash point:
    More and more data pages move More time spent on moving
    in/out of virt.mem->more read/write pages;speed decreases,process
    movements. comes to a halt.

    Some suggestions to improve:

    ★ installing more RAM;


    ★ reducing the number of programs running at a time;
    ★ reducing the size of the swap file.
    Process of accessing data using VM.
    ➢ The program executes the load process with a virtual address (VA).
    ➢ The computer translates the address to a physical address (PA) in memory
    ➢ If PA is not in memory, the OS loads it from HDD.
    ➢ The computer then reads RAM using PA and returns the data to the program
    16.1.6 Page replacement
    Description and algorithms of page replacement
    occurs when a requested page is not
    in memory and a free page cannot When P flag=0
    be used to satisfy allocation.

    Page fault occurs when OS replaces


    It is an interrupt raised by
    one of the existing pages with the
    hardware
    new page(s)

    Page replacement is done by swapping


    pages from back-up store to main memory
    Page Replacement:
    FIFO (First In, First Out)
    ● Mechanism: FIFO works like a queue. The oldest page in memory is the first to be replaced when a new page needs to
    be brought in.

    Optimal Page Replacement (OPR)


    ● Mechanism: OPR looks ahead to see which page will be least used in the future and replaces it.

    LRU (Least Recently Used)


    ● Mechanism: LRU replaces the page that has not been used for the longest time.

    Clock Page Replacement / Second-Chance


    ● Mechanism: It uses a circular queue structure and a pointer to identify and replace pages.
    16.1.7 Summary of the basic differences between
    processor management and memory management
    Processor management decides which processes will be executed and in
    which order (to maximise resources).

    Memory management will decide where in memory data/programs will be


    stored and how they will be stored.

    Both are essential to the efficient and stable running of any computer system.

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