MODULE 2

UNIT TITLE: CELL BIOLOGY

TITLE OF THE LESSONS: CELL STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS, AND DIVISIONS

DURATION: 6 HOURS

INTRODUCTION:
The CELLS, is taken from a Latin word, cella which means the ‘small room’ is
the simplest structural, functional, and biological unit of all living forms. The human
body contains more than 100 trillion cells, with 200 different types of cells, and with an
average diameter of 7.5 microns that works together to form a functional unit. These
cells differ in structures, functions, activities, sizes, and shapes to perform its particular
role in the human body, and can be described as jelly-like, granular, grayish to
colorless, transparent, translucent, microscopic, sticky, slippery, viscous, heavier and
denser than water.

Cells provide six main functions. They provide structure and support,
facilitate growth through mitosis, allow passive and active transport, produce energy,
create metabolic reactions and aid in reproduction.

Cell divisions is that they make new cells. A single cell divides to make two cells
and these two cells then divide to make four cells, and so on. We call this process "cell
division" and "cell reproduction," because new cells are formed when old cells divide.
The ability of cells to divide is unique for living organisms.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define what cells are.
2. Enumerate the parts and give the functions/activities of each part.
3. Differentiate animal from plant cells.
4. Illustrate the animal
5. Enumerate the different processes involve in the passive and active transport
6. Illustrate and differentiate mitosis from meiosis

CONTENTS:
1. Brains Behind the Discovery of Cells
2. Structures Common to Animal Cells
a. Cytoplasmic Organelles
i. Membranous
ii. Non-membranous
3. Physiology of Cells
a. Passive transport
b. Active transport
4. Cell Divisions
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Brains Behind the

Lesson

3 Discovery of Cells
PRE-TEST.
Matching Type: Match contribution in column A with the name of scientists in column
B. Write the letters on the space provided before each number.

A B

____ 1. Observe that cells arise from pre-existing cells A. Leeuwenhoek

____ 2. He devised his own microscope B. Hooke

____ 3. The first to viewed a living cells in a C. Brown

microscope

____ 4. All animals arise from animal cells D. Schleidan

____ 5. He established the Cell Theory E. Schwann

____ 6. He was known to introduce minute organisms F. Virchow

in the science world

____ 7. Compared of what he saw in a honeycomb G. Dujardin

____ 8. He discovered the nucleus

____ 9. All plants are made from plant cells

____10. Coined the term cells

 LESSON 3
BRAINS BEHIND THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS

Major Contributors to the Discovery of a Cell

Scientists Contributions
● A Dutch inventor
● First to device his own light microscope
● Revealed a wide variety of organisms not
visible to the naked eyes
Antoni Van ● His contributions is the beginning to
Leeuwenhoek understand the chemical reactions
involved in the living material.

● A British scientist
● Observed tiny slices of cork through a
microscope
● Described it as a mass of tiny cavities
Robert Hooke similar to honeycomb
● Compared it to small rooms in the
monastery and coined the term CELLS.

● Scottish botanist
● He discovered the nucleus of a cell
● He is perhaps best known for the
discovery of the random movement of
Robert Brown microscopic particles in a surrounding
solution called Brownian Movement
● He developed alternative plant
classifications.

● French biologist and cytologist born in

Tours
● Noted for his studies in the classification
of protozoans and invertebrates.
Felix Dujardin ● He viewed living cells with a microscope

● A German botanist and a co-founder of

cell theory
Matthias ● He proposed that all plants are made up
Jacob of cells.
Schleidan ● Recognized the importance of cell
nucleus and sensed its connection with
cell division
 ● First German botanist to accept Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution

● A German physiologist
● All animals are composed of animal cells
and that within an individual organisms all
the cells are identical.
Theodore ● Founded modern histology be defining
Schwann the cell as the basic unit of animal
structure.

● Viennese pathologist
● Published his observation that new cells
arise only from pre-existing cells (Omnis
cellula e cellula)
Rudolf ● Works with the other scientist to
Virchow established the Cell Theory
● Used the theory to lay the groundwork for
cellular pathology or the disease at the
cellular level.

Cell Theory
1. All living things are made up of cells
2. The cell is the basics structure and function of all living things. That is, the cell
carries all the processes that are characteristics of all living things.
3. Cells arise from one another cell through the process of cell division.

Contributors to the Discovery of Cells

1595 Janssen credited with 1st compound microscope

1840 Albrecht von Rolliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also
cells.

1856 N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.

1857 Kolliker described mitochondria.

1879 Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis.

1898 Golgi described the golgi apparatus.

SOURCCES:
https://www.britannica.com
https://bitesizebio.com/166/history-of-cell-biology/
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Brains Behind the

Lesson

3 Discovery of Cells
POST-TEST.
Fill out the table below by supplying the correct contributions of the following scientists.
Write your answers on the box provided.

1 Cells in cork

2 Virchow

3 Invented the microscope

4 Flemming

5 Observation of egg and sperm cell

6 Golgi

7 First to accept Darwin’s Theory

8 Kolliker

9 Alternative plant classification

10 Roelliker
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Common Structure
Lesson

4 of a Cell
PRE-TEST.
Provide an illustration of an animal cell and be able to identify its parts.
 LESSON 4
COMMON STRUCTURE OF A CELL

Common parts of a typical cell

1. Cell membrane/plasma membrane/plasmalemma
● For support and protection the outermost covering of animal cell, semi-
permeable, thin and flexible
● It is composed of protein and phospholipids
● Functions
o Maintains the shape of the cell
o Contains the cell contents
o Prevents the contents of one cell from mixing with those of other cells
o Controls the entrance and exit of materials in the cell

Cell membrane

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/533535887098157889/

2. Nucleus
● Rounded, darkly stained structure separated from the cytoplasm by a double-
walled nuclear membrane.
● Functions:
o Control center of the cell which directs cell division since it contains the
heredity information in the form of genes
o Control protein synthesis and other metabolic activities of the cell
● Parts:
o Nuclear membrane
▪ Outer nuclear membrane
🗆 Nuclear membrane that is continuous with a system of the
endoplasmic reticulum.
🗆 It is perforated with pores, which facilitates the passage of
large organic molecules between the nucleus and the rest of
the cell.
▪ Inner nuclear membrane
🗆 Nuclear membrane that is continuous and composed of
membrane system with DNA as the principal nucleic acid,
some RNA, and protein.
 🗆 It is impermeable to the exit of DNA but permeable to m-
RNA.
o Nucleoplasm/nuclear sap/karyoplasm – gel-like, no organelles, rich in
nucleic acid. Inside the nucleoplasm are the following:
● Nucleoplasm is a darkly stained spherical body which produced
mRNA.
● Chromatin is clumped of a dense granular, threadlike network
which is transformed into chromosomes during mitosis. It also
contains the genes which carry the genetic information necessary
for replication and protein synthesis.

https://pixels.com/featured/3-animal-cell-diagram-science-source.html

3. Cytoplasm
● The living substance of the cell
● The protoplasm that surrounds the nucleus of the cell which contains the
organelles and inclusion bodies.
● Physiological properties of the cell

Physiology of cell membrane

Cell division This is the ability of the cell to grow to a limited extent
and produce new cells

Contractility The ability of the cell to be stimulated so as to shorten

and return to its original length when stimulus is removed
 Conductivity The ability to transmit a wave of excitation throughout the
substance of the cell

Irritability This is the property that enables the cell to respond to

stimulus

Secretion Cells that can synthesize useful substances from those

that they absorb and can give of these substances as
secretory products.

Absorption and Living cells can take food and other substances and
Assimilation utilize it

Excretion The ability of the cell to eliminate waste materials

Respiration This is taking in of oxygen and using this for oxidation of

food substances with resulting liberation of energy

Cytoplasmic Organelles
Illustrations Descriptions
MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
Mitochondria/Chondrisomes ● Spherical, rod-shaped, cigar or sausage-
shaped hollow structure
● Composed of double membrane, where the
outer membrane is smoothly and tightly
stretched while the inner membrane is
invaginated with folds forming shelves called
‘cristae’ (this folds contain enzymes which are
used in the conservation of food energy by the
cell to do cellular work
● Functions: Serve as the power of the cell
(production of energy in the form of ATP;
support the mechanical and chemical work
performed by the cell.
Golgi apparatus/dictyosomes ● Series of smooth membrane that is continuous
with eth endoplasmic reticulum.
● Enzymes are concentrated along the surface
of the membranes.
● Consists of several flatten tubular membranes
known as “cisternae” which are stacked upon
each other. Vacuoles are found at the dilated
terminal are either end of the cisternae.
● Function: for packaging of food materials

Endoplasmic reticulum ● Series of parallel arrays of membrane creating

Rough ER canals like membranous tubules and vesicles
that runs throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
 ● The canal carry substances from the cell
membrane or throughout the cytoplasm.
● Function: Transport substances throughout
the cell.
● Types of ER:
(1) Rough or granular ER – canals are studded
with ribosomes. The proteins produced in the
ribosome are secreted from the cell through
Smooth ER the canals. Function RER is active in the
secretion of protein such as pancreatic
exocrine cells and liver cells.
(2) Smooth or granular ER – does not contain
ribosome. Function: site of the synthesis of
steroid hormones such as that of the adrenal
glands; involved with lipid or fat synthesis as
in striated muscles and concerned with rapid
transport of metabolites needed for muscular
contraction
Lysosome ● Large spherical body which is membrane
bound and dense appearing structures that
contain enzymes which are collectively
referred to as acid hydrolases, that is capable
of breaking down intracellular molecules and
digesting like bacteria that enter the cells.
● Function: phagocytosis and cellular digestion
or breaking down complex particles and
cellular products

Peroxisome ● Similar to lysosome in the way that they are

membrane bound sacs containing enzymes.
● The enzymes in this organelle involves in
either the production of hydrogen peroxide or
destruction of hydrogen peroxide to water.
● Function: involved in purine catabolism, the
breaking down of nucleic acid and conversion
of fats to glucose.

Vacuoles ● Spherical, empty sacs for storage of food

(food vacuole in animals), water vacuole (as in
for plants), and contractile vacuole
(nitrogenous waste, in amoeba).
● Vacuoles have a simple structure: they are
surrounded by a thin membrane and filled with
fluid and any molecules they take in. They
look similar to vesicles, another organelle,
because both are membrane-bound sacs, but
vacuoles are significantly larger
 than vesicles and are formed when
multiple vesicles fuse together.

NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
Ribosomes ● Tiny spherical structure scattered throughout
the cytoplasm.
● Types of ribosomes: (1) attached ribosomes –
found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum;
(2) free-living ribosome - found scattered
throughout the cell’s cytoplasm
● Function: site of protein synthesis within the
cell. It is in the ribosomes that amino acids are
linked together to form protein.

Centrosome ● Organelle that is only present in an animal

cells, which mean ‘cell center’.
● The region of centrosome is near the nucleus.
within it are pair of small rod-like structures
called centrioles. Around the centrioles
(distinct minute cylindrical structure) are single
microtubules called aster.
● Functions: Centrioles are active in the process
of animal cell division since they serve as poles
which are sources of spindle fibers and
determine the plane of cell reproduction;
Asters is the one that initiates the formation of
spindle fibers during cell division.

Microtubules ● Hollow microscopic tubules which are made up

of protein molecules.
● Function: form the cytoskeleton of the cell
which serve as supportive structure and
maintains the shape of the cell; form spindle
fiber (chain of microtubules) which control the
movement of the chromosome; form the
centrosome of animal cell.
Microfilaments ● Solid microscopic tubules with a property of
contractility.
● These are the structural units of cilia and
flagella, the locomotory structures of the cell.
● Cilia – microscopic hair-like projection as in
paramecium
● Flagellum – a long whip-liked structure of the
cell as in euglena and bacteria
● Function: control of the movement of the cell.

Illustration of an Animal Cell

 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Common Structure
Lesson

4 of a Cell
POST-TEST.
Complete the table below by supplying the functions of the following organelles.

Organelles Functions

Lysosome

Microtubules

Golgi bodies

Ribosomes

Mitochondria

Vacuoles

Microfilaments

Peroxisomes

ER

Centrosome
 LESSON 5
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
● Means “before nucleus” ● Means “true nucleus”

● No membrane-bounded nucleus ● Nucleus is bounded by a membrane

● Circular strands of DNA ● DNA in several linear chromosomes

● Few cell organelles ● Many specialized organelles

● Unicellular ● Multicellular, except for unicellular

protist like Euglena
● Small ribosomes ● Large ribosomes

● Microtubules are usually absent ● Microtubules are present

● Cell wall contains murein ● Cell wall, when present as in plants

does not contain murein

● May contain chlorophyll but not within ● Chlorophyll, when present as in plant
the chloroplast cells, is within the chloroplast

● Cell reproduction: undergo direct cell ● Cell reproduction: undergo indirect

division (amitosis) cell division (mitosis)

● Intercellular links: pili for DNA ● Does not contain pili

exchange
● Flagella, when present, have 9 + 2
● Flagella: lack 9 + 2 tubular structure tubular structure

Anatomy of a Bacterial Cell

 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic

Lesson

5 Cells
POST-TEST.
Answer the following questions in 3 to 5 sentences only.

1. Give at least 3 point differences of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. Explain the difference of a prokaryotic flagellum from eukaryotic flagellum.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. Explain the difference of cell reproduction in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
 LESSON 6
PHSIOLOGY OF THE CELLS

Physiology of Cells
● Cells are regarded as highly organized unit engaged in ceaseless chemical
activities. These activities are dependent on the continuous reception of the
substances from the so-called internal environment and the elimination of
substances to the tissue fluid.
● Walter C. Canon, an American physiologist, coined the term homeostasis, which
is defined as the overall process of maintaining optimum internal environmental
conditions.
● Intercellular materials are the materials located or occurring between cells and
also known as interstitial fluid. Described as a viscous solution containing
inorganic chemicals, proteins, carbohydrate, and lipids. The primary difference
from intercellular material is the kind of protein and amounts of various chemicals
present.

Physical Processes that Govern the Movement of Materials Across Cell

Membrane
1. Passive Transport – those that do not require a source of energy.
a. Diffusion
● Diffusion is the movement of the solute to spread thru the solution until
the composition is homogenous.
● The movement of the region of higher concentration to that of the lower
concentration.
● The net movement of molecules from the area where they are higher
concentration to an area where they are more scarce.
● Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
o Size of molecules and ions – the smaller the size, the faster the rate
of diffusion
o The concentration of gradient – the greater the difference in a
concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion
o Temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster the
movement of the molecules.

b. Osmosis
● The passage of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane.
● Osmosis is the given name to the diffusion of water through a semi-
permeable membrane, such membrane is permeable only to the solvent,
not to the solute.
● The pressure applied to the solution to prevent solvent flow through the
membrane is called osmotic pressure.
● Osmotic pressure is vital to living cells because of the enclosing semi-
permeable membrane of the cells through which they communicate with
their environment.
● Osmotic Characteristics of Solutions
o Isotonic – have the same osmotic characteristics to the blood
serum. This will not affect the size and shape of RBC.
o Hypertonic – have a higher osmotic characteristic than that of the
blood serum. In this type of solution, the RBC will shrink. This
process is called crenation in animals and plasmolysis in plants.
Shrinking of plant cell result to wilting
o Hypotonic – have lower osmotic characteristic than that of the blood
serum. In this solution, the RBC will swell and may burst. The
 process is called hemolysis in animals and plasmoptysis in plants.
In plants, swelling of the cell does not result to bursting since plant
cell is covered with cell wall. Instead, the plant becomes turgid and
crisp.

c. Dialysis
● Dialysis is a common biological chemical method of separating and
purifying by selective passage of ions and minute molecules through a
semi-permeable membrane that will not allow proteins to pass through.
● Rate of dialysis depends of the following factors:
o The area of dialyzer
o The size of the pores
o Temperature
o Electric charges
o The relative concentration of solution on the two sides of the
membrane

d. Filtration
● The passage of solution across a semi-permeable membrane as a result
of mechanical force (gravity).

2. Active Transport – those that require a source of energy, involves the movement
of substances regardless of concentration gradient. (ex. Sodium and potassium
pump)
1. Endocytosis
● An active process wherein the cell encloses the substance in
membrane-bounded vesicles pinched off from the cell membrane.
● Term for a phenomena involving the surrounding and ingestion of
various substances by the plasma membrane.
● Types of Endocytosis
o Phagocytosis
▪ A process wherein the material is in a form or large particles
or chunks of matter.
▪ It is also known as “cell eating” process.
▪ The vacuoles formed within the cell are called “phagosomes”
and are attached to lysosome. The hydrolytic enzymes of
lysosome digest the particular matter.
▪ For instance, in amoeba, arm-liked processes called
“pseudopodia” flow around the material, enclosing it within a
vesicle which then becomes detached from the plasma
membrane and migrates into the interior of the cell.
o Pinocytosis
▪ Is a process of engulfing liquid materials or small particles, it
is also known as the “cell drinking” process.
▪ The steps in pinocytosis is that the material first becomes
attached to the cell membrane, on a selective binding site.
Then the loaded membrane either flows inward to form a deep
narrow channels. At the end of which vesicles are simple
detached directly from the membrane at the cell surface.

2. Exocytosis
● An energy requiring process by which secretory granules discharged
their contents by fusing with the cell membrane.
● It is a reverse of endocytosis, materials contained in a membranous
vesicles are carried to the side of the cell where the vesicular membrane
 fuses with the cell membrane and the bursts, releasing the materials to
the exterior.
● This is the way by which hormones and waste materials are released
from the cell.
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

6 Physiology of the Cells

POST-TEST.
Answer the following in 2 to 3 sentences only.

1. What is the difference of the following:

a. Passive from active transport
b. Diffusion from osmosis
c. Hypotonic from hypertonic
d. Phagocytosis from pinocytosis

2. Who is Walter C. Canon, and what processed did he described?

 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

7 Cell Divisions
PRE-TEST.
Look for an illustration of mitotic cell division, and identify its stages and parts.
 LESSON 7
CELL DIVISIONS

Introduction
● All living forms on earth have their own life cycles: a series of progressive stages
of an individual that goes through from the time it is born until the time it
reproduces.
● The cell cycle can be thought of as the life cycle of a cell. A series of growth and
development steps a cell undergoes between its “birth”—formation by the division
of a mother cell—and reproduction—division to make two new daughter cells.

Stages of the Cell Cycle

● A cell must complete several important tasks: it must grow, copy its genetic
material (DNA), and physically split into two daughter cells.
● The cells do the tasks in a systematic, predictable series of stages that make up
the cycle.
● It is a cell cycle because, at the end of each go-round, the daughter cells will start
the same process over again from the beginning.
● In eukaryotic cells or cells with a nucleus, cell cycle stages are divided into two
major phases: interphase and the mitotic (M) phase. The interphase, the cell
grows and copies the DNA; during the mitotic (M) phase, the cell separates its
DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm, forming two new cells.

Interphase
● Let’s enter the cell cycle just as a cell form by the division of its mother cell. What
must this newborn cell do next if it wants to go on and divide itself?
● Preparation for division happens in three steps:
o G1 starts subscript, 1, end subscript phase. During G1 start subscript, 1, end
subscript phase, known the primary gap phase, the cell grows larger,
organelles becomes two in number and makes the molecular building blocks
it will need in later steps.
o S phase. In the S phase, the cell produces a complete and the same copy of
deoxyribonucleic acid in its nucleus. It also copies a microtubule-organizing
structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help separate DNA during
the M phase.
o G2 starts subscript, 2, end subscript phase. During the second gap phase or
G2 start subscript, 2, end subscript phase, the cells develops more, produce
proteins and organelles, and begin to reorganize its contents in preparation
for mitosis. G2 starts subscript, 2; end subscript phase ends when mitosis
begins.
● The G11 start subscript, 1, end subscript, S, and G2 start subscript, 2, end
subscript phases together are known as interphase. The prefix inter- means
between, reflecting that interphase occurs between one mitotic (M) phase and the
next.
Image of the cell cycle. Interphase is composed of G1 phase (cell growth), followed by S phase (DNA
synthesis), followed by G2 phase (cell growth). At the end of interphase comes the mitotic phase, which
is made up of mitosis and cytokinesis and leads to the formation of two daughter cells. Mitosis precedes
cytokinesis, though the two processes typically overlap somewhat.

Image credit: "The cell cycle: Figure 1" by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0).

M phase
● During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to
make two new cells. M phase involves two distinct division-related processes:
mitosis and cytokinesis.
● In mitotic division, the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible
chromosomes. It is pulled apart by the mitotic spindle, a specialized structure
made out of microtubules.
● Mitosis occurs in four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase
and prometaphase), metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
● In the process of cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is split into two, making two
new cells. Cytokinesis usually begins just as mitosis is ending, with a little overlap.
Importantly, cytokinesis takes place differently in animal and plant cells.
Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells
● In an animal cell, a contractile ring of cytoskeletal fibers forms in the middle of the
cell and contracts inward, producing an indentation called the cleavage furrow.
Eventually, the contractile ring pinches the mother cell in two, creating two
daughter cells.
● In a plant cell, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move to the middle of the
cell, where they fuse to form a cell plate structure. The cell plate expands outwards
and connects with the cell’s sidewalls, creating a new cell wall that partitions the
mother cell to make two daughter cells.

What is mitosis?
● Mitosis is a cell division wherein one cell (the mother) undergoes division to have
genetically identical daughters. In a cell cycle, mitosis is the division process
where the nucleus’s DNA is dividing into two equal sets of chromosomes.
● The majority of the cell divisions that are happening in the body involves mitosis.
During development and growth, mitosis increases in the body of an organism
within cells, and throughout an organism’s life, it changes old cells with new ones.
For eukaryotes (a single-celled organism) such as the yeast, mitotic cell divisions
are a form of reproduction, that adds individuals to the population of that certain
organisms.
● In these cases, the “aim” of mitotic division is to make sure that the daughter cell
gets a complete sets of chromosomes with too few or too many chromosomes that
is typically doesn't function well: this may not endure, or cause tumor or cancer.
When these cells undergo mitosis, they don’t just divide their DNA at random and
piles it into the two daughter cells. But, they divides their duplicated chromosomes
in an organized series of stages.

Phases of mitosis
● Mitotic cell divisions have four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase. In some books it has five stages, the breaking of prophase into
an early prophase and a late prophase. These phases occur in strict consecutive
order, and the division of cytoplasm - the process of dividing the cell contents to
make two new cells - starts in anaphase or telophase.
Stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Cytokinesis typically
overlaps with anaphase and/or telophase.

● You can remember the order of the phases with the famous mnemonic:
[Please] Pee on the MAT. But don’t get too hung up on names – what’s most
important to understand is what’s happening at each stage, and why it’s important
for the division of the chromosomes.

Late G2 phase
● The cell has two centrosomes, each with two centrioles, and the DNA has been
copied. At this stage, the DNA is surrounded by an intact nuclear membrane, and
the nucleolus is present in the nucleus.
● This cell is in interphase (late G22start subscript, 2, end subscript phase) and has
already copied its DNA, so the chromosomes in the nucleus each consist of two
connected copies, called sister chromatids. You can’t see the chromosomes very
clearly at this point, because they are still in their long, stringy, decondensed form.
● This animal cell has also made a copy of its centrosome, an organelle that will
play a key role in orchestrating mitosis, so there are two centrosomes. (Plant cells
generally don’t have centrosomes with centrioles, but have a different type
of microtubule organizing center that plays a similar role.)
Early prophase.
● The mitotic spindle starts to form, the chromosomes start to condense, and the
nucleolus disappears.
● In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others
up, setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.
● The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on).
● The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of
microtubules, strong fibers that are part of the cell’s “skeleton.” Its job is to
organize the chromosomes and move them around during mitosis. The spindle
grows between the centrosomes as they move apart.
● The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are
made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break down.

Late prophase (prometaphase).

● The nuclear envelope breaks down and the chromosomes are fully condensed.
● In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic spindle begins
to capture and organize the chromosomes.
● The chromosomes become even more condensed, so they are very compact.
● The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
● The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes.

Metaphase
● Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, under tension from the mitotic
spindle. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
● In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up
at the middle of the cell, ready to divide.
● All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a physical structure, just a
term for the plane where the chromosomes line up).
● At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
● Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the
chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly
attached to microtubules. This is called the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure
that the sister chromatids will split evenly between the two daughter cells when
they separate in the next step. If a chromosome is not properly aligned or attached,
the cell will halt division until the problem is fixed.
Anaphase
● The sister chromatids separate from one another and are pulled towards opposite
poles of the cell. The microtubules that are not attached to chromosomes push
the two poles of the spindle apart, while the kinetochore microtubules pull the
chromosomes towards the poles.
● In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled
towards opposite ends of the cell.
● The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down,
allowing them to separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes
of each pair are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
● Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating
the poles and making the cell longer.
● All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines that can
“walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry
chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.
Telophase
● The spindle disappears, a nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of
chromosomes, and a nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus. The
chromosomes also start to decondense.
● In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal
structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place.
● The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
● Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and
nucleoli reappear.
● The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their “stringy” form.
Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
● Cytokinesis in an animal cell: an actin ring around the middle of the cell pinches
inward, creating an indentation called the cleavage furrow.
● Cytokinesis in a plant cell: the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, creating
a new wall that partitions it in two.
● Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the
final stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase, depending on
the cell, and finishes shortly after telophase.
● In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse
with a drawstring. The “drawstring” is a band of filaments made of a protein called
actin, and the pinch crease is known as the cleavage furrow. Plant cells can’t be
divided like this because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure
called the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter
cells separated by a new wall.

● When division is complete, it produces two daughter cells. Each daughter cell has
a complete set of chromosomes, identical to that of its sister (and that of the
mother cell). The daughter cells enter the cell cycle in G1.
● When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete
set of chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can
now begin their own cellular works.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-biology/mitosis/a/phases-of-mitosis
Meiosis
● Meiosis, on the other hand, is used for just one purpose in the human body: the
production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter
cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
● To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a division process that takes us
from a diploid cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones
with a single set of chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis
are sperm and eggs. When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two haploid
sets of chromosomes form a complete diploid set: a new genome.

Phases of meiosis
● In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar stages
and uses similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis,
however, the cell has a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister
chromatids (the two halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must
also separate homologous chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical
chromosome pairs an organism receives from its two parents.
● These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division process.
Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I.
Sister chromatids separate during a second round, called meiosis II.
● Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can produce four
gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go through four stages:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis I
● Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in mitosis,
the cell grows during G11start subscript, 1, end subscript phase, copies all of its
chromosomes during S phase, and prepares for division during G22start
subscript, 2, end subscript phase.
● During prophase I, differences from mitosis begin to appear. As in mitosis, the
chromosomes begin to condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each
chromosome carefully aligns with its homologue partner so that the two match up
at corresponding positions along their full length.
● For instance, in the image below, the letters A, B, and C represent genes found at
particular spots on the chromosome, with capital and lowercase letters for different
forms, or alleles, of each gene. The DNA is broken at the same spot on each
homologue—here, between genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-cross
pattern so that the homologues exchange part of their DNA.

● Image credit: based on "The process of meiosis: Figure 2" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 3.0
Image of crossing over
● Two homologous chromosomes carry different versions of three genes. One has
the A, B, and C versions, while the other has the a, b, and c versions. A crossover
event in which two chromatids—one from each homologue—exchange fragments
swaps the C and c genes. Now, each homologue has two dissimilar chromatids.
● One has A, B, C on one chromatid and A, B, c on the other chromatid.
● The other homologue has a, b, c on one chromatid and a, b, C on the other
chromatid.
● This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called crossing
over. It's helped along by a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex that
holds the homologues together. The chromosomes would actually be positioned
one on top of the other—as in the image below—throughout crossing over; they're
only shown side-by-side in the image above so that it's easier to see the exchange
of genetic material.

Image of two homologous chromosomes, positioned one on top of the other and held
together by the synaptonemal complex.

Image credit: based on "The process of meiosis: Figure 1" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 3.0
 The phases of meiosis I.
● Prophase I: The starting cell is diploid, 2n = 4. Homologous chromosomes pair up
and exchange fragments in the process of crossing over.
● Metaphase I: Homologue pairs line up at the metaphase plate.
● Anaphase I: Homologues separate to opposite ends of the cell. Sister chromatids
stay together.
● Telophase I: Newly forming cells are haploid, n = 2. Each chromosome still has two
sister chromatids, but the chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical
to each other.
● When the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, the orientation of each
pair is random. For instance, in the diagram above, the pink version of the big
chromosome and the purple version of the little chromosome happen to be
positioned towards the same pole and go into the same cell. But the orientation
could have equally well been flipped, so that both purple chromosomes went into
the cell together. This allows for the formation of gametes with different sets of
homologues.
● In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends
of the cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached
to one another and don't come apart.
● Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In some
organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes decondense,
although in others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go through another
round of division, meiosis II2,32,3start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript.
Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I, forming two haploid
daughter cells.

Meiosis II
● Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a
shorter and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may find it helpful to think of
meiosis II as “mitosis for haploid cells."
● The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells are
haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but their
 chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister
chromatids separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.

Phases of meiosis II
● Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I. Chromosomes
condense.
● Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
● Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.
● Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each chromosome now has
just one chromatid.
● During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks
down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them,
and the spindle microtubules begin to capture chromosomes. The two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from opposite
spindle poles.
● In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate.
● In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite
poles of the cell.
● In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and
the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into new
cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which each
 chromosome has just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are
sperm or egg cells.

● How meiosis "mixes and matches" genes

● The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically
identical. For example, take a look the meiosis II diagram above, which shows the
products of meiosis for a cell with 2n=42n=42, n, equals, 4 chromosomes. Each
gamete has a unique "sample" of the genetic material present in the starting cell.

● As it turns out, there are many more potential gamete types than just the four
shown in the diagram, even for a cell with only four chromosomes. The two main
reasons we can get many genetically different gametes are:

● Crossing over. The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic
material are chosen more or less at random, and they will be different in each cell
that goes through meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as in humans,
crossovers will happen at many different points.

● Random orientation of homologue pairs. The random orientation of homologue

pairs in metaphase I allows for the production of gametes with many different
assortments of homologous chromosomes.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-biology/meiosis/a/phases-of-meiosis
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

7 Cell Division
POST-TEST.
Draw and label the stages of Meiosis and be able to explain each stages in 3

to 5 sentences only.