‘O’-Level Physics Notes

Ng Kang Zhe

2018

Abstract
These notes are for the ‘O’-Level Physics syllabus [6091]. They might be similar in content to other physics
courses too, though structured differently.
These notes are written by myself, which means they are prone to typos and errors. If you find errata, do contact
me so I can remedy. or give you access to the GitHub repository for you to push any changes.
Some code (especially the tcolorboxes) are copied from 4yn’s a-lv-notes repository1 .
Do whatever you want with these notes. Reproduce them, distribute them, use material from them, go crazy. I
don’t mind. Unless you republish it without any changes under your own name, we won’t have a problem.
Use these notes with caution.

Contents 11 Thermal Properties of Matter 12

I Measurement 2 IV Waves 12
1 Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement 2 12 General Wave Properties 12

13 Light 14
II Newtonian Mechanics 3
14 Electromagnetic Spectrum 16
2 Kinematics 3
15 Sound 16
3 Dynamics 5

4 Mass, Weight, and Density 7

V Electricity and Magnetism 17
5 Turning Effect of Forces 7
16 Static Electricity 17
6 Pressure 8
17 Current of Electricity 18
7 Energy, Work, and Power 9
18 DC Circuits 20

III Thermal Physics 9 19 Practical Electricity 21

8 Kinetic Model of Matter 9 20 Magnetism 22

9 Transfer of Thermal Energy 11 21 Electromagnetism 24

10 Temperature 11 22 Electromagnetic Induction 25

This document consists of 26 pages including the cover page.

1
Part I A number is expressed in standard form as

10N
Measurement A × |{z}
|{z}
base factor

where 1 6 A < 10 and N ∈ Z.

1 Physical Quantities, Units and
Measurement A unit can be rewritten with any of these prefixes pre-
ceding its symbol:
Preamble
Prefix Symbol Factor Order of Magnitude
Measurement is a tool that we use in physics a lot.
tera T 1012 12
It is difficult to get fully accurate measurements due
giga G 109 9
to how well we can create instruments, control random
mega M 106 6
errors, and other factors. Nonetheless we try to min-
kilo k 103 3
imise these errors by practising proper measurement
deci d 10−1 −1
techniques. We use measurements to determine phys-
centi c 10−2 −2
ical quantities, and these quantities are communicated
milli m 10−3 −3
with units.
micro µ 10−6 −6
nano n 10−9 −9
pico p 10−12 −12
1.1 Physical Quantities
Definition 1.1.1: Physical Quantity
1.3 Scalars and Vectors
A physical quantity is a quantity consisting of a nu-
merical and a unit. Definition 1.3.1: Scalar Quantity
A scalar quantity has a magnitude but no direction.
The numerical magnitude tells us the size of the quantity,
and the unit tells us what the quantity is expressed in.
Definition 1.3.2: Vector Quantity
Physical quantities can be either a basic quantity):
A vector quantity has a magnitude and direction.
Physical Quantity SI Unit
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
temperature T kelvin K 1.4 Vector Analysis
length l metre m
Vectors can be added by using the trigonometric method
current I ampere A
or the graphical method.
amount n mole mol

or a derived quantity, which are derived from basic quan- Equation 1.4.1: Components
tities. A two-dimensional vector v can be broken down into
components vx and vy , with magnitudes of
1.1.1 Dimensional Analysis
vx = |v| cos θ, vy = |v| sin θ
This is not explicitly taught in syllabus, but it is a very
important tool to help you if you are stuck in a problem.
Equation 1.4.2: Magnitude of Vectors
The main idea is to treat units like algebraic terms, and
The magnitude of a vector v with components vx and
manipulate them accordingly to get the right derived unit
vy is given by q
for the quantity. Usually, a single unit is written in
square brackets [ ] to avoid confusion with units with mul- |v| = vx2 + vy2
tiple letters (e.g. [mol] and [m]).

1.2 Prefixes, Standard Form, and Order of v

vy
Magnitude
If a number is too large or too small, it will get very an- θ
noying to write a lot of digits. That is what prefixes and vx
standard form aim to solve. The former will be written
with the unit, while the latter will be written with the Observer that when you add the two components together,
numerical magnitude. they form the vector itself.

2
 2. Place the object in between the anvil and the spin-
u dle.
translated v 3. Close the jaws on the micrometer screw gauge un-
til the object is in contact. Turn the ratchet until a
‘click’ sound is heard.
u+v
4. On the datum line (with 0.5 mm subdivisions), take
the reading that is on the left of the circular scale,
v xdatum .
translated u
5. On the circular scale (with 0.01 mm subdivisions),
take the reading that coincides with the datum line,
xcircular .
Bring a protractor with you to the examination.
6. The measurement is the sum of the reading on the
datum line and circular scale, and then subtracting
the zero error, x − ∆x.
1.5 Measurement
1.5.1 Precision and Accuracy
1.5.3 Simple Pendulum
Definition 1.5.1: Precision A simple pendulum is one on the premises that the string
Precision is how well a set of readings of the same is massless, and the bob is a point mass.
physical quantity agree with each other.
Equation 1.5.1: Period of Simple Pendulum
Definition 1.5.2: Accuracy θ2
Using the approximation cos θ ≈ 1 − 2 , for a reason-
Accuracy is how close the set of readings are to the ably small θ (angle of release),
true value. s
L
T = 2π
g
1.5.2 Measurement of Lengths
Parallax error should be avoided when measuring lengths.
In the case of a measuring tape or a metre rule, the object
needs to be in contact with the measuring instrument.
θ

Vernier Callipers
Accuracy: ±0.01 cm
1. Check for zero error. This error is ∆x.
2. Place the object to be measured at the appropriate
measurement site (internal jaws, external jaws, or
tail).
3. Slide the vernier scale so that the jaws or tail mea-
sure the entirety of the object. A
4. On the main scale (with 0.1 cm subdivisions), take
the reading that is on or left of the ‘0’ mark of the
vernier scale, xmain . Part II
5. On the vernier scale (with 0.01 cm subdivisions),
read the mark that coincides with a mark on the
main scale, xvernier . Newtonian Mechanics
6. The measurement is the sum of the reading on the
main scale and vernier scale, and then subtracting
the zero error, x − ∆x.
2 Kinematics
Preamble
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Kinematics is the study of the motion of objects. It can
Accuracy: ±0.001 cm describe the way a thing moves in space over time. We
will only cover one-dimensional motion in this chapter.
1. Check for zero error. This error is ∆x.

3
2.1 Distance and Displacement Definition 2.3.1: Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Definition 2.1.1: Distance
The distance traversed by an object in some time is
the entire distance regardless of the direction of mo- Equation 2.3.1: Acceleration
tion. The SI unit of distance is the metre [m].
The acceleration of an object is computed as
Distances are a scalar quantity. ∆v
a=
∆t
Definition 2.1.2: Displacement
The displacement of an object is the net change in
position of an object. The SI unit of displacement is Acceleration is a vector quantity. When reporting the ac-
the meter [m]. celeration of an object, the direction from the origin point
must be stated.
Displacements are a vector quantity. When reporting the
displacement of an object, it is important to also state the
direction from the origin point.
2.4 Kinematic Graphs
2.2 Average Speed, Average Velocity, and A kinematic graph is a visual representation of the state
Instantaneous Velocity of motion of the object over a period of time. A kinematic
graph is useful in many situations, and should be drawn
Equation 2.2.1: Average Speed when you are stuck in a kinematics problem.
The average speed of an object is given as

total distance
average speed =
total time 2.4.1 Displacement-time Graph

Speed is a scalar quantity. The displacement-time graph records the displacement

of an object over a time period. The displacement is
Definition 2.2.1: Average Velocity recorded on the vertical axis, the time is recorded on the
The average velocity of an object is the change in dis- horizontal axis.
placement of the object from the origin point. The SI
unit of velocity is metre per second [m s−1 ]. s

Equation 2.2.2: Average Velocity

The average velocity of an object can be computed as

Σs
hvi =
Σt

Definition 2.2.2: Instantaneous Velocity

The instantaneous velocity of an object is the rate of t
change of displacement of the object at some specific
time. Mathematically, it is the derivative of the dis- The gradient of the tangent to the
placement function. displacement-time graph is the velocity at that time
only.
Equation 2.2.3: Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity at a time t is computed as
The gradient of a displacement-time graph tells us its
∆s velocity.
v(t) = lim
∆t→0 ∆t

Velocity is a vector quantity. When reporting the veloc-

ity of an object, it is important to also state the direction 2.4.2 Velocity-time Graph
from the origin point.
The velocity-time graph records the velocity of an ob-
ject over a time period. The velocity is recorded on the
2.3 Acceleration vertical axis, the time is recorded on the horizontal axis.

4
 v then experiences zero net force, and has zero acceler-
ation, maintaining a constant velocity.

This constant velocity is terminal velocity.

Fdrag

mg g

v
Usually the graph would be made out of straight
vterminal
lines and calculating area shouldn’t be a problem.
If the graph is curved, count squares.

The gradient of a velocity-time graph tells us its accel-

eration; the area under a velocity-time graph tells us the
displacement.

2.5 Freefall t
Definition 2.5.1: Freefall
An object is in freefall when the only force acting on
it is due to gravity. 3 Dynamics
This means that the acceleration due to freefall is always Preamble
equal to the local acceleration g, and all other forces like In physics, forces change the state of motion of an ob-
air drag do not exist. ject. Studying forces allow us to talk about the effects
on the object and predict the motions of the object. In
this chapter, we will look at two-dimensional dynam-
mg g ics.

3.1 Forces
v
Definition 3.1.1: Force
A force is a push or pull on a body. The SI unit of
force is the newton [N].

3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

gradient = 10 ms−2 The three laws of motion are:
t
Definition 3.2.1: First Law
Newton’s first law states that every object will con-
2.6 Air drag tinue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless a resultant force acts on it.
In real situations, air drag, or air resistance, is a re-
sistive force that works against the weight of an object
Definition 3.2.2: Second Law
when falling. Air drag is proportional to the square of
the velocity of an object. Newton’s second law states that when a resultant force
acts on an object of a constant mass, the object will
As an object falls, its velocity increases. Air drag then accelerate in the direct ion of the resultant force. The
also increases. The acceleration of the object slowly de- product of the mass m and acceleration anet of the ob-
creases as the net force acting on the object is decreasing. ject gives the resultant force.
This continues until a point where the air drag is equal Fnet = manet
and opposite to the weight of the object. The object

5
 Definition 3.2.3: Third Law Definition 3.4.2: Tension
Newton’s third law states that if body A exerts a force Tension is the force exerted in a body when it is pulled
FAB on body B, body B will exert an equal and oppo- on.
site force FBA on body A.
On a massless string, the tension on the two ends are
equal.
3.3 Effects of Forces T
From the first law, we know that a force can accelerate a
body (i.e. change velocity). This can be done by either
changing the magnitude or direction of the velocity vector
of the body.

3.3.1 Static System

Definition 3.3.1: Equilibrium

A body is said to be in equilibrium if the net force
on the body is zero. This is sometimes called a static T
system, where no net acceleration takes place.
3.4.3 Friction
When resolving statics problems, it is important to en-
sure all force vectors add up to zero. Graphically, all Definition 3.4.3: Friction
these vectors when placed tip to tail should end where is the contact force that opposes or tends to oppose
they started. motion between surfaces in contact.

3.3.2 Unbalanced System Friction is a resistive force, that works against a force ap-
plied. There are two types of friction: kinetic and static
If the net force on a body is not zero, the object is not in friction.
translational equilibrium, and that means its velocity is
Kinetic friction deals with two objects moving on each
changing.
other, and exists when an object is moving, while static
friction deals with two objects that are stationary. The
3.4 Types of Forces maximum static friction is the minimum force to be applied
to allow an object to start moving on a surface.
It is not sufficient to just describe forces as “push” and
“pull” forces. Different names for forces are designated N
for different contexts. In this syllabus, only friction is re-
quired, but I will add common forces as well. Refer to
chapter 4 for weight.
Fa
3.4.1 Normal Force
f = µN surface
Definition 3.4.1: Normal Force
The normal force is the force perpendicular to a surface
that the surface applies to a body due to its compres- mg
sion.

N 3.4.4 Centripetal Force

Definition 3.4.4: Centripetal Force

(It’s not really in syllabus but you need to know this
is a thing.) A centripetal force accelerates a body by
changing the direction of the body’s velocity without
surface changing the body’s speed.

This force arises in uniform circular motion. Centripetal

mg force “pulls” the object back to the centre, allowing it to
constantly change direction. Centripetal force is a net
force, that is to say it is the vector sum of different forces
3.4.2 Tension acting on the body.

6
For example, in a swinging mass, the vector sum of its Definition 4.2.1: Weight
weight mg and the tension of the string T is the cen-
tripetal force FC . The weight of an object is defined as the gravitational
force acting on it due to gravity. The weight of an
Furthermore, centripetal force is proportional to its tan- object w with mass m is equal to
gential velocity squared v 2 and inversely proportional to
the radius r of the circle of motion. w = mg

where g is the local gravitational field strength. The

v SI unit of weight is the newton [N].

FC
Weight is a force, therefore it is a vector quantity. It can
be measured with a spring balance.

Definition 4.2.2: Gravitational Field

A gravitational field is a region in which a mass ex-
periences a force due to gravitational attraction. The
gravitational field strength is the gravitational force
acting per unit mass. On Earth, is equal to

g = 10 m s−2 = 10 N kg−1

4.3 Density
mv 2
FC =
r Definition 4.3.1: Density
The density of an object is its mass per unit volume.
The magnitude of v stays constant, but the direction is The density of an object ρ with mass m and volume V
constantly changing. That means the object is accelerat- is equal to
ing. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration, m
2 ρ=
equal to vr . V
The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre
[kg m−3 ].
4 Mass, Weight, and Density
When an object is placed in a liquid,
Preamble 
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. 
float ρobject < ρliquid
The three quantities we are exploring today will allow the object will suspend ρobject = ρliquid


us to describe matter in different ways. sink ρobject > ρliquid

4.1 Mass
5 Turning Effect of Forces
Definition 4.1.1: Mass Preamble
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. The SI unit Objects do not only move in a straight line, they can
of mass is the kilogram [kg]. also move in curves and circles and all kinds of funny
shapes. In this chapter we will explore how we can
The magnitude of mass depends on the number of atoms make an object turn by applying a force.
in the body.

Mass is a scalar quantity. It can be measured with an 5.1 Moment

electronic mass balance.
Definition 5.1.1: Moment
Definition 4.1.2: Inertia The moment of a force is the product of the force F
The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the
object to change its state of rest or motion, due to its line of action of the force r
mass.
moment = r × F

The SI unit of moment is newton metre [N m].

4.2 Weight

7
 Definition 6.1.1: Pressure
Pressure is defined as the amount of force per unit
area. It is given as
turning motion F
F
r p=
A
Definition 5.1.2: Principle of Moments The SI unit of pressure is the pascal [Pa].
The principle of moments states that when a body is
in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about
a pivot is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
about the same pivot..

6.2 Pressure of Fluids

5.2 Centre of Gravity
Definition 5.2.1: Centre of Gravity Equation 6.2.1: Pressure due to a Fluid Column

The centre of gravity, or centre of mass, is a point Fluids of a density ρ can exert pressure p at a height
where the weight of an object seems to be acting on. h equal to
The centre of gravity can lie outside an object. p = ρgh

5.3 Stability Equation 6.2.2: Transfer of Pressure

Definition 5.3.1: Stability Pressure is constant in an incompressible liquid,
The stability of an object is a measure of its ability F1 F2
to return to its original position after it is s lightly =
A1 A2
displaced.

An object can be in stable, unstable, or neutral equilib-

rium. Equation 6.2.3: Work Done
Type of Stable Unstable Neutral Energy is conserved by the first law of thermodynamics
equilib- (which is useful to keep in mind when solving hydraulic
rium press problems):
Centre of Low High
gravity F1 d1 = F2 d2
Base Large Narrow A line of
area contact
points
with
surface
Slight Return Topple Stay
6.3 Atmospheric Pressure
dis- to equi- over in new
place- librium position
ment Equation 6.3.1: Atmospheric Pressure

An object’s stability can be increased by lowering the Atmospheric pressure at sea level is said to be 1 atm.
height of the centre of gravity, or increasing the base It is equal to 101 325 Pa.
area of the object.
p0 = 101 325 Pa = 760 mmHg

6 Pressure
Equation 6.3.2: Pressure Difference
Preamble
These preambles are feeling more dreadful to write A manometer can be used to measure pressure dif-
because pressure is building up. ferences. It measures a ∆h which corresponds to a
pressure difference of

∆p = ρg∆h
6.1 Pressure

8
 Definition 7.1.4: Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy is defined as how much
work can be done by the gravitational force from a
height h away. It is given as
p1
EP = mgh
∆h
The SI unit of gravitational potential energy is the
joule [J].
p2

Definition 7.1.5: Mechanical Energy

The mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its
kinetic energy and its gravitational potential energy:

ET = EK + EP

∆p = |p2 − p1 | = ρg∆h 7.2 Work

Definition 7.2.1: Work Done
The work done by a constant force on an object is the
product of the force F and the distance moved by the
7 Energy, Work, and Power object in the direction of the force (actually displace-
ment s).
W = Fs
Preamble
The SI unit of work done is the joule [J].
The study of energy and matter form the basis of
physics. In this chapter we will look at the concept
of energy, work done, power, and other relevant quan- Equation 7.2.1: Efficiency
tities.
Efficiency is calculated by

output
η= × 100%
input
7.1 Energy

Definition 7.1.1: Energy

7.3 Power
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Definition 7.3.1: Power
Power is defined as the rate of work done or rate of
Definition 7.1.2: Principle of Conservation of Energy energy conversion. It is calculated as
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be W
converted from one form to another. The total energy P=
t
in an isolated system is constant. i.e.
The SI unit of power is the watt [W].
∆ET = 0

Definition 7.1.3: Kinetic Energy

Part III
Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses when
it is moving. It is given as

1 2
Thermal Physics
EK = mv
2
The SI unit of kinetic energy is the joule [J].
8 Kinetic Model of Matter

9
 Preamble Definition 8.1.1: Brownian Motion
Matter is made up of small particles that behave in Particles are in constant random motion. Brownian
certain ways under different conditions. In this chap- motion arises due to these random motions of parti-
ter we will accurately describe the particulate nature cles in a fluid.
of matter and how it behaves under different tempera-
ture and pressure conditions.

8.2 Gas Laws

8.1 Three States of Matter
There are three gas laws.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape fixed not fixed not fixed
Definition 8.2.1: Ideal Gas Law
Volume fixed fixed not fixed
Compressible? no no yes As a result of the three gas laws to be presented below,
the relationship for an ideal gas between its tempera-
When prompted to describe a state, you might want to ture, pressure, and volume can be expressed as
talk about its:
pV = nRT
• arrangement of particles
• forces between particles where nR is some constant.

• kinetic energy of particles

Equation 8.2.1: Charles Law
• motion of particles
Charles Law states that the pressure of a gas is di-
as written like in the next few subsections. rectly proportional to its temperature if the volume
stays constant (isochoric). Mathematically,
8.1.1 Solids
p∝T
Solids are
• closely packed in an orderly manner p

• held together by strong forces of attraction

• have enough energy to only vibrate and rotate
about their fixed positions
• cannot move around freely

8.1.2 Liquids
Liquids are T
• arranged in a disorderly manner
Equation 8.2.2: Boyle’s Law
• have weaker forces of attraction than the particles
of a solid Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a gas is in-
versely proportional to the volume of the gas if the
• have more kinetic energy than particles of the sub- temperature stays constant (isothermic). Mathemati-
stance in the solid state, and are not held in fixed cally,
positions 1
p∝
• can move freely throughout the liquid V

8.1.3 Gases p

Gases are
• spread far apart from one another
• have weaker forces of attraction than the particles
of a liquid
• have a lot of kinetic energy and are not held in
fixed positions
• can move about rapidly in any direction V

10
 Equation 8.2.3: Gay-Lussac’s Law Definition 9.1.2: Convection
Gay-Lussac’s Law states that the volume of a gas is Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by means
directly proportional to its temperature if the pressure of convection currents in a fluid due to a difference in
stays constant (isobaric). Mathematically, density.

V ∝T Definition 9.1.3: Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the form
V
of electromagnetic waves such as infrared radiation
without the aid of a medium.

Factors that affect the rate of radiation include:

• Colour: darker objects radiate heat better than

lighter objects (see emissivity)

• Surface: rougher surfaces radiate heat better than

smoother surfaces (due to higher surface area)
T
• Surface Temperature: higher surface temperatures
Equation 8.2.4: Avogadro’s Law allow for faster radiation.
(This is not in this syllabus but it is in O-Level Chem- Further reading: Radiation is modelled by the Stefan-
istry so I’ll put it here.) Avogadro’s law states that the Boltzmann Law:
amount of gas is directly proportional to the volume of
P = Aεσ T 4
the gas. Mathematically,
where ε is the emissivity and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann
n∝V
constant, 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 .

9 Transfer of Thermal Energy 10 Temperature

Preamble Preamble
Heat can be transferred in multiple ways. In this chap- In this chapter we will learn how to make a thermome-
ter we will look at three different methods for heat ter because you can’t buy one in practical exam.
transfer.

Heat always flows from a region of higher temperature to 10.1 Temperature and Heat
a region of lower temperature. Net flow of thermal energy
occurs only when there is a difference in temperature. Definition 10.1.1: Temperature
Temperature (or thermodynamic temperature) refers to
colder region
how hot or cold an object is.

hotter region
Definition 10.1.2: Heat
Heat is the amount of thermal energy that is being
flow of heat transferred from a hotter to a colder region.

Equation 10.1.1: Temperature Conversion

9.1 Methods of Heat Transfer
To convert from degrees celsius [◦C] to kelvin [K],
Definition 9.1.1: Conduction
Conduction is the process whereby particles within [K] = [◦C] + 273.15
a medium transfer heat without the movement of the
medium itself.
10.2 Thermometer Calibration
Particles collide with neighbouring particles and that en-
ergy gets transferred down the entire object, causing the Definition 10.2.1: Ice Point
object to increase in temperature. The ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice at
one atmosphere, and is assigned a value of 0 ◦C.
Metals can conduct heat better due to electron diffusion.

11
 Definition 10.2.2: Steam Point Definition 11.1.3: Specific Heat Capacity
The steam point is the temperature of pure boiling Specific heat capacity c is the amount of heat energy
water at one atmosphere, and is assigned a value of required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of an
100 ◦C. object by 1 K. Its relationship can be expressed as

Definition 10.2.3: Thermometric Property Q = mc∆T

A thermometric property is a property of matter that The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin per
varies continuously and linearly with temperature. kilogram [J K−1 kg−1 ].

Some examples of this include the volume of an object,

Definition 11.1.4: Latent Heat
the electromotive force of a thermocouple, and the height
of a liquid column. Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed by a
substance during a change of state, without a change
Equation 10.2.1: Thermometry Formula in its temperature. In general,
To make a thermometer, you need some thermomet- Qf/v = mlf/v
ric property X at temperatures 0 ◦C, 100 ◦C, and some
temperature θ ◦C. Then you plug them into this for- where lf/v is the specific latent heat of fu-
mula sion/vaporisation, the heat energy required to melt or
Xθ − X0
θ ◦C = × 100 ◦C freeze/vaporise or condense a unit mass. The SI unit
X100 − X0
of specific latent heat is joule per kilogram [J kg−1 ].

11 Thermal Properties of Matter 11.2 Vaporisation

Preamble Definition 11.2.1: Evaporation
Matter has some properties when it comes to heat. Evaporation is the process whereby a liquid vaporises
These preambles are also getting difficult to write be- at the surface because it has the energy equal or more
cause I’m running out of ideas. than that of the latent heat of vaporisation, allowing it
to escape into the atmosphere.

11.1 Heat Energy

Evaporation can happen at any temperature. The tem-
Definition 11.1.1: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics perature can vary during evaporation. It is also slower
than boiling.
(This isn’t in syllabus.) The zeroth law of thermody-
namics states that if object A, B, and C are in thermal Definition 11.2.2: Boiling
contact with each other, and if the temperature of ob-
ject A is equal to that of B, and the temperature of Boiling is the process where a liquid reaches boiling
object B is equal to that of C, then the temperature of point and the particles have enough energy to vapor-
object A must equal to that of C. ise.

Boiling only happens at boiling point (i.e. temperature

stays constant during boiling). It happens quite quickly.
A B C

Part IV
if TA = TB and TB = TC then

TA = TB = TC Waves
Definition 11.1.2: Heat Capacity
12 General Wave Properties
Heat capacity C is the amount of heat energy required
to raise the temperature of an object by 1 K. Its rela- Preamble
tionship can be expressed as
Waves are a fundamental method of describing the na-
Q = C ∆T ture of matter and how it interacts with energy. In this
chapter we will be covering general wave properties
The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin [J K−1 ]. that would be helpful.

12
12.1 Definitions Definition 12.2.5: Frequency
Definition 12.1.1: Wave The frequency of a wave is the number of times a par-
A wave is made up of periodic motion. A wave is a ticle completes one oscillation in one second. It is
disturbance that transfers energy from one place to usually represented by the letter f. The SI unit for
another without transfer of matter. frequency is the hertz [Hz].

Definition 12.1.2: Transverse Wave Equation 12.2.1: Period and Frequency

A transverse wave is when the particles oscillate per- Period and frequency are reciprocals of each other,
pendicular to the direction of propagation.
1 1
f= ⇔T =
An example of a transverse wave is electromagnetic T f
waves.

12.2.3 Some Things Specific to Longitudinal Waves

Definition 12.1.3: Longitudinal Wave Definition 12.2.6: Compression

A longitudinal wave is when the particles oscillate par- A compression in a longitudinal wave is where there
allel to the direction of propagation. are more particles around that region than in equilib-
rium.
An example of a longitudinal wave is sound waves.
Definition 12.2.7: Rarefaction
compression
A rarefaction in a longitudinal wave is where there are
less particles around that region than in equilibrium.
rarefraction

12.2 Parts of a Wave 12.3 Graphs

12.2.1 Common Quantities 12.3.1 Displacement-distance Graph

Definition 12.2.1: Amplitude This is also known as a snapshot graph. The snapshot
graph shows a wave’s particles at a certain time. The
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displace-
horizontal axis shows distance; the vertical axis shows
ment of a particle in a wave. It is usually represented
the particle at that distance’s displacement from its equi-
by the letter A. The most common unit for amplitude
librium position.
is the metre [m]; though keep in mind other physical
quantities like voltage can exhibit periodic wave-like
s
behaviour. crest

Definition 12.2.2: Wavelength

A
The wavelength of a wave is the displacement between
two successive in-phase points. It is usually repre-
sented by the Greek letter λ. The SI unit for wave- d
length is the metre [m].

Definition 12.2.3: Wavefront

A wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins trough
all adjacent points that are in phase. λ

12.2.2 Time-based Quantities 12.3.2 Displacement-time Graph

Definition 12.2.4: Period This is also known as a history graph. The history graph
The period of a wave is the time taken for a particle to shows one particle of a wave over a certain time. The
complete one oscillation. It is usually represented by horizontal axis shows time; the vertical axis shows the
the letter T . The SI unit for period is the second [s]. particle’s displacement from its equilibrium position at
that time.

13
 s Definition 13.1.5: Second Law of Reflection
crest
In reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.
A
θ1 = θ2

t I have chosen to name the angles θ1 and θ2 due to the

reversible nature of light. It does not matter which way
the light goes; the angles will be preserved.

trough Definition 13.1.6: Virtual Image

T
A virtual image is an image that cannot be cast on a
screen.
12.4 Wave Speed
The properties of an reflected image are:

Equation 12.4.1: Wave Speed • same shape and size

For a wave with frequency f and wavelength λ, the • same distance from the mirror
velocity v it is travelling at is equal to
• laterally inverted
v = fλ
• upright

13 Light • virtual

Preamble
Light can be studied as a wave. In this chapter we will
look at how light interacts with matter.

object image
13.1 Reflection
Definition 13.1.1: Normal
The normal is an imaginary line draw perpendicular to
the surface that reflection is taking place at.
observer
Definition 13.1.2: Angle of Incidence mirror
The angle of incidence is the angle between the inci-
dent ray and the normal. Virtual images or construction lines are drawn with
dotted lines.
Definition 13.1.3: Angle of Reflection
The angle of reflection is the angle between the re-
flected ray and the normal. 13.2 Refraction
normal Definition 13.2.1: Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light as light passes from
one optical medium to another, due to light changing
speed.
θ1 θ2

surface
13.2.1 Essentials

Definition 13.1.4: First Law of Reflection Definition 13.2.2: Angle of Refraction

The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal lie on The angle of refraction is the angle between the re-
the same plane. fracted ray and the normal.

14
 normal Definition 13.2.6: Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of
a light ray inside an optically denser medium at its
θ1 boundary with an optically less dense medium.
n1
n2
θ2

θr = 90◦

Definition 13.2.3: First Law of Refraction θc

The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal lie on
the same plane.

Definition 13.2.4: Second Law of Refraction

For two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle 13.2.2 Lenses
of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant. For the most part of this section, we will consider a thin
lens.

Equation 13.2.1: Refractive Index

The refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the s
medium
c
n=
v

Sometimes it might also be 3f 2f f O f 2f 3f

real depth s0
n=
apparent depth
.

Equation 13.2.2: Snell’s Law

Snell’s Law is the same thing as the second law of Real images are drawn with solid lines.
refraction, mathematically expressed as

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 Definition 13.2.7: Principal Axis

The horizontal line passing through the optical centre
Definition 13.2.5: Critical Angle of the lens is called the principal axis. The principal
axis is perpendicular to the vertical plane of the lens.
The critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence
in an optically denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the optically less dense medium is 90◦ . Definition 13.2.8: Optical Centre
The optical centre is the midpoint between the lens’
Derivation for critical angle formula for any refractive in- surface on the principal axis. Rays that travel through
dices considering n1 > n2 , from equation 13.2, the optical centre are not deviated.

n1 sin θc = n2 sin 90◦

Definition 13.2.9: Focal Length
n2 (1)
sin θc = The focal length is the distance between the optical
n1
n2 centre and the focal point.
sin θc =
n1
 
−1 n2 Definition 13.2.10: Focal Plane
θc = sin
n1 The focal plane is the plane that passes through the
focal point f and is perpendicular to the principal axis.

15
 s Image is s0 Uses • Infra-red (e.g. infra-red remote controllers and in-
s=∞ real s =f
0
telescope truder alarms)
s > 2f real f < s0 < 2f camera
s = 2f real s0 = 2f photocopier • Visible light (e.g. optical fibres for medical uses
f < s < 2f real s0 > 2f projector and telecommunications)
s=f virtual s0 = −∞ eyepiece
• Ultra-violet (e.g. sunbeds and sterilisation)
s<f virtual s0 < 0 microscope

Real images are inverted; virtual images are upright. • X-rays (e.g. radiological and engineering applica-
tions)
Equation 13.2.3: Thin Lens Equation
• Gamma rays (e.g. medical treatment)
(This is not in syllabus.) For a thin lens, the focal
length and the distances between the object and its
image is 14.3 Effects of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
1 1 1
+ 0 =
s s f When absorbing electromagnetic waves of various fre-
quencies, different effects can be observed.
Equation 13.2.4: Magnification
• Absorbing infrared rays can cause heating
(This is not in syllabus.) The magnification of a lens
is given by • Higher frequencies such as x-rays can cause ioni-
s0 sation
M=
s
• Overexposure to ultra-violet and higher frequency
rays can lead to damage to living cells and tissue
14 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Preamble 15 Sound
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of electromag-
netic waves of different frequencies. In this chapter we Preamble
will explore these different frequencies and study some Sound is transferred in a form of a wave. In this chap-
of their uses. ter we will explore the different properties of sound
and some of its applications.

14.1 Electromagnetic Waves

Definition 14.1.1: Speed of Light 15.1 Fundamentals
All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light Some fundamental properties of sound:
c in a vacuum.
• Sound is produced by a vibrating source.
c = 3.0 × 108 m s−1
• Sound exists in the form of a longitudinal wave.
Some properties of electromagnetic waves:
• In different media, sound has different speeds. Gen-
• They do not require a medium to travel.
erally, the higher the density, the faster the speed
• They transfer energy from one place to another. of sound.
• They obey the laws of reflection and refraction. gases liquids solids
• They do not change its frequency.
increasing speed of sound
• They carry no electric charge.
Equation 15.1.1: Speed of Sound
14.2 Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum For a sound source from d away from an observer and
In increasing frequency (i.e. decreasing wavelength), and capturing it after a time t, the speed of sound can be
their uses: calculated as
s
v=
• Radio waves (e.g. radio and television communica- t
tion)
• Microwaves (e.g. microwave oven and satellite
television) 15.2 Properties of Sound

16
 Equation 15.2.1: Loudness 16.1 Electric Fields
The loudness of a sound wave is directly proportional Definition 16.1.1: Electric Field
to the square of its amplitude An electric field is a region of space whereby a charge
( experiences an electric force.
louder higher A
loudness
softer softer A Electric field lines cannot cross.
− − − − − − − − −
Equation 15.2.2: Pitch
The pitch of a sound is directly proportional to its fre-
quency ~
E
(
higher higher f
pitch
lower lower f + + + + + + + + +

The human ear can hear sounds from between 20 Hz to

20 kHz. 16.1.1 Isolated Charges
Field lines are the path a test charge would take within
15.3 Applications of Sound that electric field. The closer the field lines are, the
stronger the electric field at that area, which means that
Definition 15.3.1: Echo the test charge would experience a stronger force.
An echo is the repetition of a sound due to the reflec- Field lines extend out from positive charges.
tion of sound.

Echo is used in distance measurement systems such as

SONAR in ships. +

Definition 15.3.2: Ultrasound

Ultrasound is sound with frequencies above the upper
Field lines go in to negative charges.
limit of the human range of audibility (i.e. 20 kHz).

Ultrasound is used in product quality control and pre-

natal scanning. −

Part V If a charge is stronger, it gets more field lines (e.g. this

one has twice the charge as the one above, so it should
get more)
Electricity and Magnetism
16 Static Electricity +

Preamble
Static electricity is the study of charges at rest. In Drawing these in TikZ was too difficult so take these from
this chapter we will explore that very concept. some online website.

Definition 16.0.1: Charge

Charge is measured in coulombs [C]. There are positive
and negative charges.

Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

2
+ +

− −
16.2 Charging
+ − The two methods of charging are rubbing and induction.
2 physics.stackexchange.com

17
16.2.1 Rubbing 16.3.2 Conductors
Electrons (negative charges) can be transferred from one Conductors can be discharged through a process known
object to another through rubbing. There are no move- as earthing. Earthing allows electrons to flow into (in
ment of positive charges. the case of a positively charged object) and out of (in the
case of a negatively charged object) the object.
16.2.2 Induction
Charging with induction can be achieved for two conduc- 16.4 Applications and Hazards of Electro-
tors. The most classic example is the metal sphere case. static Charging
16.4.1 Applications

An application of electrostatics is in spray painting.

In spray painting, the object to be painted is charged.

The paint will then be charged with the opposite charge,
Suppose this sphere is overall neutral to begin with, and and allowing the paint to attract to the object’s surface,
isolated from ground. allowing for a better coat and efficient painting.

Now a positively charged rod is brought to the sphere.

This causes the electrons in the sphere to move towards 16.4.2 Hazards
the positively charged rod.
Lightning is a danger that is caused by electrostatic
charging.
++

Charges build up in clouds due to friction between air

+

−−
−
++

− and water molecules, which causes in ionised (charged)

−
air which allows a conductive path between the charges
built up in the clouds and ground, causing lightning.

This can be resolved by installing conductive lightning

The sphere is then earthed. Electrons flow from earth up rods on high objects such as buildings to safely ground
to the sphere. these large releases of electric energy.
++

17 Current of Electricity
+

−−
−
++

−
−
Preamble
Current is the rate of flow of charge. When charges
e− move there is current and hence we name this current
electricity. In this chapter we will explore the funda-
mentals that govern current electricity.
Keep in mind the location of where the earth connection
is made does not matter. These charged particles are not
moving due to position, but moving due to lower energy
states available. 17.1 Current
The rod is then removed, leaving behind a negatively Definition 17.1.1: Current
charged sphere. Current is the rate of flow of charge.

− Q
− − I=
t
− −
− The SI unit of current is ampere [A].

Current is measured with an ammeter.

16.3 Discharging
16.3.1 Insulators 17.1.1 Current Flow

Insulators can be discharged by heating or providing hu- Conventional current is where current flows from a higher
mid conditions. voltage to a lower voltage.

18
 I Definition 17.3.1: Resistance
The resistance of a component is the ratio of the poten-
tial difference across it to the current flowing through
it.
V
R=
I
I
The SI unit of resistance is ohm [Ω].

Electron flow is the opposite of that.

Definition 17.3.2: Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a
e− metallic conductor is directly proportional lo the po-
tential difference across it, provided that physical con-
ditions (such as temperature) remain constant.

V = IR

e−
Definition 17.3.3: Ohmic Conductors
Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey Ohm’s law.
In physics we mostly use conventional current. This doc-
ument will do likewise.
An ohmic conductor might exhibit an I − V graph as such:

I/A
17.2 Electromotive Force and Potential Dif-
ference
Definition 17.2.1: Electromotive Force
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the work done by a
source in driving unit charge around a complete cir-
cuit.
W
ε=
Q V /V
The SI unit of electromotive force is volt [V].
Notice that the graph is linear and starts at the origin.

Equation 17.2.1: Electromotive Forces in Series On the other hand, non-ohmic conductors may exhibit
such a characteristic curve:
If multiple electromotive force sources are arranged in
series I/A
ε1 ε2 εn

then the net electromotive force is

εnet = ε1 + ε2 + · · · + εn

Definition 17.2.2: Potential Difference

V /V
The potential difference (p.d.) (or voltage) across a
component in a circuit as the work done to drive unit
charge through the component. Notice that the graph is not linear.

W
V =
Q 17.4 Resistivity
The SI unit of potential difference is volt [V]. Definition 17.4.1: Resistivity
Resistivity is the property of a material that determines
its resistance when made into a wire or electrical com-
ponent. The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre [Ω m].
17.3 Resistance

19
 Equation 17.4.1: Resistance of a Wire 18.1.2 Voltage
The resistance of the wire with length l, cross- The sum of voltages across components in a series circuit
sectional area A, and resistivity ρ is equal to is equal to the voltage across the entire circuit. In the
case of the circuit above,
ρl
R=
A
V1 = V2 + V3
Rewritring this equation making ρ the subject gives us
AR
ρ= 18.1.3 Resistance
l
Equation 18.1.1: Resistance in Series
Temperature affects resistance. The higher the tempera-
ture of a conductor, the higher its resistance. If multiple resistors are arranged in series
( R1 R2 Rn
high higher T
R
low lower T
then the net resistance is
This is not to be confused with the behaviour of a ther-
Rnet = R1 + R2 + · · · Rn
mistor (chapter 18).

18 DC Circuits
18.2 Parallel Circuits
Preamble
Most things at our homes run on direct current (DC). We will look at this series circuit for this subsection.
In this chapter we will explore how DC circuits be-
have and how it is used to make the many circuits and V1
electronic devices around us. I1

Equation 18.0.1: Kirchhoff’s Current Law

(This isn’t in syllabus.) The current flowing in a junc- V2
tion must equal to the current flowing out of a junction.
I2
ΣInode = 0

Equation 18.0.2: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law V3

(This isn’t in syllabus.) The algebraic sum of voltages

I3
in a loop/mesh is equal to zero.

ΣVmesh = 0
18.2.1 Current
18.1 Series Circuits The sum of individual currents in each parallel branch is
We will look at this series circuit for this subsection. equal to the main current flowing into or out of parallel
branches. In the case of this circuit,
V1
I1
I1 = I2 + I3

V2 V3
18.2.2 Voltage
I2 I3 The voltages across parallel branches are the same. In
the case of this circuit,
18.1.1 Current
V1 = V2 = V3
Current in a series circuit is always the same. In the case
of the circuit above,

I1 = I2 = I3 18.2.3 Resistance

20
 Equation 18.2.1: Resistance in Parallel
If multiple resistors are arranged in parallel
R1 19 Practical Electricity
R2 Preamble
In this chapter we will explore electricity in everyday
Rn life and electrical safety.

then the net resistance is

−1 19.1 Electrical Energy and Power
Rnet = R1−1 + R2−1 + · · · + Rn−1
Equation 19.1.1: Electrical Power
Electrical power can be calculated with the equations
18.3 Voltage Divider
V2
ε P = IV = I 2 R =
R

Equation 19.1.2: Electrical Energy

Vout V2 Because E = Pt, we multiply all the above equations
by t
V2
R1 R2 E = IV t = I 2 Rt = t
R

Vout Equation 19.1.3: Cost of Electricity Consumption

R1 The cost of using some amount of electrical energy can

Vout = ×ε be calculated in the equation
R1 + R2
cost = E × rate
Equation 18.3.1: Voltage Divider
For a resistor Rx in a series circuit with total resis- Sometimes the preferred unit of electrical energy con-
tance RT , the voltage across the resistor Rx is sumed is kilowatt hours [kW h] to make calculating cost
easier.
Rx
Vx = ×ε
RT
19.2 Hazards of Electricity
Electricity can be powerful but dangerous. The follow-
18.4 Input and Output Transducers ing are notable examples where electricity can cause a
hazard.
Definition 18.4.1: Input Transducer
An input transducer is an electronic device that con- • Damaged Insulation
verts non-electrical energy into electrical energy. – Damaged insulation can occur when the in-
sulating material of a cable experiences wear
We will look at two input transducers: (NTC-) thermistors and tear over time, leaving in exposed con-
and light dependent resistors (LDR). ducting wires.
Thermistors are devices which vary its resistance accord- – These exposed conducting wires can cause
ing to temperature. As the temperature increases, the electric shocks if touched.
resistance decreases.
• Damp Environments
(
↑ T ↓ – Water is conductive, even if it is pure.
RTH
↓ T ↑ + −
∗ H2 O(l) −
)−− H (aq) + OH (aq)
−*
| {z }
Light-dependent resistors (LDR) varies its resistance ac- mobile charges

cording to the light intensity shining on it. As the light in- – Water coming into contact with uninsulated
tensity shining on it increases, the resistance decreases. electrical wires provides a conducting path for
(
↑ light intensity ↓ current.
RLDR
↓ light intensity ↑ • Overheating of Cables

21
 – Overloading of sockets can cause too high of The earth wire is green and yellow; the live wire is
current draw. brown; the neutral wire is blue.
– Due to the heating effect of current, if the cur- Viewing the three pin plug with its casing removed, the
rent exceeds the power rating of a wire or live (bRown) wire goes to the Right (→); the neutral
electrical component, it may damage the com- (bLue) wire goes to the Left (←).
ponent or start an electrical fire.

19.3.6 Double Insulation

19.3 Safety Features in Home Circuitries
19.3.1 Circuit Breakers Double insulation is used if the appliance uses a two pin
plug. It provides two levels of insulation:
Definition 19.3.1: Circuit Breaker
1. The electric cables are insulated from the internal
A circuit breaker is a safety device that can switch off
components of the appliance.
the electrical supply in a circuit when large currents
flow through it. 2. The internal components are insulated from the ex-
ternal casing.
Circuit breakers can be reset by the user.
If double insulation is available, but a three-pin plug is
present, the earth connector is most likely a dummy one
19.3.2 Fuses
just to allow the appliance to plug in.
Definition 19.3.2: Fuse
A fuse is a safety device added to an electrical circuit
to prevent excessive current flow. 20 Magnetism
Fuses have a certain current rating which we will call I0 . Preamble
The following shows what happens to the fuse if some Magnets were discovered by who knows who at who
current I is passed through it. knows when. All I know is we have to study them now
( thanks to lodestone sailor people.
not blown I 6 I0
fuse
blown I > I0
20.1 Magnets
19.3.3 Switches
Definition 19.3.3: Switches Definition 20.1.1: Magnetic Materials
Switches are designed to break or complete an elec- Magnetic materials are materials that can be attracted
trical circuit. They should be fitted to the live wire of to a magnet.
the appliance.
The four materials you probably remember from primary
fuse switch school are: iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel.
240 V
Definition 20.1.2: Non-magnetic Materials
load Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be
attracted to a magnet.
0V
Definition 20.1.3: Law of Magnetic Poles
19.3.4 Earthing The law of magnetic poles states that like poles repel
and unlike poles attract.
Definition 19.3.4: Earthing
Earthing is the method of connecting a wire from the Some properties magnets exhibit are
appliance to earth so that unsafe currents can safely
flow to earth without hurting the user. • Magnets have two poles: north and south.

• Magnets point in the north-south direction when

suspended.
19.3.5 Three-pin Plugs
• Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Definition 19.3.5: Three-pin Plugs
Three pin plugs contain three wires: earth, ground, Using the property that magnets can repel, we can do
and neutral. They also have a fuse. the repulsion test to see if an object is a magnet or just
a magnetic material.

22
20.2 Magnetic Induction 20.4 Magnetic Fields
Definition 20.2.1: Magnetic Induction Definition 20.4.1: Magnetic Field
Magnetic induction is the process whereby an object A magnetic field is the region surrounding a magnet,
made of a magnetic material becomes a magnet when in which a body of magnetic material experiences a
it is near or in contact with a magnet. magnetic force.

That means magnetic materials become magnets when in Magnetic field lines cannot cross.
contact or near a magnet.
Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Field lines point from north poles to south poles. Like
20.3 Magnetisation and Demagnetisation electric fields, the closer the field lines are, the stronger
the magnetic field at that point.
Definition 20.3.1: Theory of Magnetism
(This is not in syllabus.) A magnet is made up of
many magnetic domains which are made up of atoms N S
that have a ferromagnetic property.

The magnetic field of a magnet can be plotted by sprin-

20.3.1 Magnetisation kling iron filings around it, or plotting it with a plotting
compass.
You can make a magnet either by stroking it with another
magnet, or using electricity to make an electromagnet. To use a plotting compass, align a magnet in the north-
south direction first. Then using a plotting compass, from
the north pole of the magnet, draw a point at where the
S

compass points to. Then continue this and connect the

lines. Remember that plotting compasses point in the
direction of the field lines.
For attraction and repulsion of two magnetic poles use
N

this lovely diagram that I could not draw so I had to

source it online.
N S

The pole that touches the magnetic object first will be

the pole of that magnetic object at that point.
For the electromagnet, refer to chapter 21.

20.3.2 Demagnetisation
To demagnetise a magnet you first have to orient it in
3
the east-west direction. Then there are three ways to do
this.
1. Hammering: Hammering a magnet placed in the 20.5 Temporary and Permanent Magnets
east-west direction alters the alignment of the mag-
Magnetic materials can either be “soft” or “hard”. An ex-
netic domains, causing the magnet to lose its mag-
ample of a soft magnetic material is iron. An example of
netism.
a hard magnetic material is steel.
2. Heating: Strongly heating a magnet and letting
• Magnetisation
it cool in an east-west orientation will cause the
magnet to lose its magnetism. The temperature to – Hard magnetic materials are difficult to mag-
heat the magnet up to such that the atoms lose the netise and demagnetise.
magnetism is called the Curie temperature.
– Soft magnetic materials are easier to magne-
3. Electrical Method: Place a magnet in a solenoid tise and demagnetise.
in the east-west direction and connect an alternat-
ing current supply. Withdraw the magnet while the • Uses
alternating current is flowing in the solenoid until – Hard magnetic materials are used to make
it is some distance away. permanent magnets.
3 phys.libretexts.org

23
 – Soft magnetic materials are used to make tem- Equation 21.1.1: Ampere’s Law for Wires
porary magnets.
The magnetic field strength of a current-carrying wire
• Interaction with Field Lines increases when the current is increased.
– Hard magnetic materials do not allow mag- B∝I
netic fields to pass through it as easily as soft
magnetic materials.
Equation 21.1.2: Ampere’s Law for Solenoids
– Soft magnetic materials allow magnetic fields The magnetic field strength of a current-carrying
to pass through with ease. solenoid increases when the current or the number of
Extension: The hardness of a magnetic material is char- turns is increased.
acterised by the “wideness” of its hysteresis curve, the B ∝ nI
wider it is, the softer the magnetic material and vice versa.

B 21.2 The Motor Effect

Definition 21.2.1: The Motor Effect
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a mag-
netic field, the conductor experiences a force. This
H effect on the conductor is called the motor effect.

The direction of the force can be determined with Flem-

ing’s left-hand rule.

B
The material with the red hysteresis curve is a harder
magnetic material than the one with the blue hysteresis
I
curve.

Left-hand rule is for induced force.

21 Electromagnetism
Preamble 21.2.1 Two Wires
What happens when you combine electricity and mag- If we have two current-carrying wires, they can either
netism? You get electromagnetism! attract or repel each other.
In the case of currents in the opposite direction, the two
21.1 Induced Magnetic Fields wires repel each other.

Definition 21.1.1: Induced Magnetic Field

I
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field
F F
around it.

To identify the direction of the magnetic field or current, I

use the right-hand corkscrew rule.

In the case of currents in the same direction, the two

wires attract each other.
I
B
I I
F F

It works for solenoids too. Just swap the current and

magnetic field. Use the same hand, though.

B These results can be derived from Fleming’s left-hand

I I rule in the examination.

24
21.2.2 Charges in Magnetic Fields Definition 22.1.3: Lenz’s Law
J Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced
First, someN
notation: means current is coming out of
the paper, means current is going in to the paper. electromotive force, and hence the induced current in
a closed circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect
You should use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine opposes the motion or the change producing it.
where the charges would go. In the case of a positive
charge, the current points towards where the positive Equation 22.1.1: Faraday’s Law for Solenoids
charge is going; in the case of a negative charge, the
current points opposite where the negative charge is go- (This is not in syllabus.) Faraday’s Law can be math-
ing. ematically expressed as

dφB
ε=−
21.3 DC Motors dt

Some important parts of the DC motor:

22.2 AC Generators
• Split-ring commutator: to reverse the current ev-
ery half revolution so that the motor can continue The current flowing in the coil can be found using Flem-
spinning. ing’s right-hand rule.

• Carbon brushes: to ensure electrical contact be- F

tween the split-ring commutator and the circuit.
B
The turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a DC mo-
tor can be increased by I
• inserting a soft iron core into the coil;
Right-hand rule is for induced current.
• increasing the number of turns in the coil;

• increasing the current in the coil. Some important parts of the AC generator:
• Armature: the coil of wire mounted on the axle.
22 Electromagnetic Induction • Slip Rings: to ensure that the induced current in
the coil is transferred to the external circuit.
Preamble The output voltage is a sinusoidal wave.
In the previous chapter we saw how a current can in-
duce a magnetic field. In this chapter we will see the ε/V
other side: how a magnetic field can induce a current. ε0

ε0 2ε0
t/s
22.1 Fundamentals
T T 3T T
4 2 4
Definition 22.1.1: Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is the process through −ε0
which an induced electromotive force is produced in
a conductor due to a changing magnetic field.

The two laws of electromagnetic induction are: 22.3 Transformers

Definition 22.1.2: Faraday’s Law Definition 22.3.1: Transformer
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states that A transformer is a device that can change a high al-
the magnitude of the induced electromagnetic force is ternating voltage (at low current) to a low alternative
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic voltage (at high current), or vice versa.
flux in the circuit.
dφB • Primary coil: connected to an alternating voltage
ε∝
dt VP ;
• Secondary coil: output of the induced voltage VS ;
Keep in mind it is the change in magnetic flux. If you put
a coil of wire in a magnetic field and there is no change, • Laminated soft iron core: comprises of this sheets
then there is no induced electromotive force. of soft iron. Because it is easily magnetised and

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 demagnetised, this ensures better magnetic flux The graphic below shows an example of what a voltage
linkage between the two coils. varying over time might look like.

1 division

VP NP NS VS

Vp Vpp
T
Equation 22.3.1: Turns Ratio
The turns ratio of a transformer is calculated by

NP VP
=

Y-gain
NS VS

The type of transformer can be determined from its turns time base
ratio.
(
step-up NS > NP Keep in mind that Vp , peak voltage does not
type of transformer necessarily refer to VP , primary voltage. The p and
step-down NS < NP
P are different.

Equation 22.3.2: Conservation of Power When reading an oscilloscope, always first identify the
Power is conserved in an ideal transformer, time base, in seconds/division [s/div], and the Y-gain, in
volts/division [V/div].
VP IP = VS IS
Equation 22.4.1: Complete Cycles
The number of complete cycles of a voltage with fre-
22.4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes quency fy shown in the oscilloscope with frequency of
Definition 22.4.1: Oscilloscope the time base fx = (time base)−1 is given by the ratio

Oscilloscopes are instruments used to observe how a fy

voltage varies over time. fx

End of Document
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