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FRONTIERS IN
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Edited by
Dr. Vishnu Kiran Manam
Dr. Aruna Kumari Nakkella
Prof. Dr. Jayesh R.Gujarathi
Bharti Publications
New Delhi- 110002 (INDIA)
Copyright © Editors
Title: Frontiers in Nanotechnology

Editors: Dr. Vishnu Kiran Manam | Dr. Aruna Kumari Nakkella |
Prof. Dr. Jayesh R. Gujarathi
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted, in any from or by any means, without permission. Any
person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
First Published, 2022

ISBN: 978-93-91681-74-6
Published by :
Bharti Publications
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Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002
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Disclaimer: The views expressed in the book are of the authors and
not necessarily of the publisher and editors. Editors themselves are
responsible for any kind of Plagiarism found in book and any related
issues found with the book.
CONTENTS
1. Nanotechnology in Energy and Environment 1-11

Dr. Vishnu Kiran Manam, Dr. Aruna Kumari Nakkella
2. Nano Technology in Science 12-18
Dr. Sarva Santhisudha, Dr. Gundluru Mohan ,
Prof. Cirandur Suresh Reddy
3. Carbon Nanotubes 19-23
Dr. N. Padmaja
4. Nanotechnology and Safety Issues in 24-31
Radioimmunotargetting
Dr. Shyam Gupta
5. Nano Technology in Engineering 32-39
S. Preethi Sudha , Dr. K. Govardhan
6. Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanaoparticles 40-50
from Medicinal Plants: Review
R. Rajalakshmi , T. P. Kumari Pushpa Rani ,
A. Doss , R. P. Praveen Pole , P.Suresh
7. Electrical Study and Spectroscopic Characterization 51-63
of PVdF based Silver Conducting Gel Polymer
Electrolyte System for Applications in Batteries
G. Sunita Sundari
8. Applications of Nanotechnology in Delivery 64-74
of Pharmaceuticals
N. Venkata Naga Jyothi , N. Sri Lakshmi,
Dr. P. Rajeswari
9. Nanoparticle in Anticorrosion Activity 75-97
Maheswari Pandiaraj and Vijayalakshmi Gurusamy
10. Nano Technology in Agriculture 98-106
Dr. B Gayathri
iv Frontiers in Nanotechnology
11. Structural, Optical & Thermal 107-117

Characteristics of Ca2MgSi2O 7: Ce3+ Phosphor
Shashank Sharma & Sanjay Kumar Dubey
12. An Approach of Nanostructured Lipid Carrier for 118-127
Promising Transdermal Drug Delivery
Laxmidhar Sahoo & Dr. Chandra sekhar Patro
13. Impact of Lantana Aculeate Mediated Nanomaterial and 128-147
Cermicompost: Accessing its Growth of Solanum
Lycopersicum (PKM)
Gomathi S and S Narendhran
14. Nanotechnology in Agriculture: Current Status 148-154
and Future Perspectives
Anil Kumar
15. Nano Technology as a Therapeutic Tool Against 155-163
Infectious Microbial Diseases
Sphoorthi Shree Chalumuri , Sireesha V Garimella ,
Santhi Latha Pandrangi
16. Nanoparticles and Their Role in Targetted Drug 164-173
Delivery and Treatment of Cancer
Prasanthi Chittineedi , Sireesha Garimella
& Santhi Latha Pandrangi
17. Application of Nanotechnology for Energy 174-183
Abdul Ashik Khan , Tanmoy Dutta , &
Sudipta Kr Kundu , Sandip Mondala
18. Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnostics and Therapeutics 184-194
Pavan Kumar Rambatla , Sireesha V Garimella
19. Trail of the Nanoparticles: Cues to Better Cancer Therapy 195-209
Siri Chandana Gampa , Sireesha V Garimella
20. A Short Review on Role of Nanotechnology 210-228
in Marine Viruses
M.A. Badhul Haq , Khangembam Brajamani Meetei &
S. Ravichandran
21. Nano Catalysts: Recent Development in Preparation 229-238
Methodologies
Sumbul Rahman and Chiranjit Santra
1
Nanotechnology in Energy and Environment
Dr. Vishnu Kiran Manam*, Dr. Aruna Kumari Nakkella**
Abstract
The increase in the global population demands new technologies in energy
consumption and environmental changes. The energy and environment
are the crucial factors for the evolvement of the human life. The advent and
recent trends in nanotechnology offers promising approach in fulfilling the
demands of human life. Nanotechnology is an emerging branch of science
and technology which acts as a key role in environmental monitoring and
energy conversion, distribution, and storage. The applications of nanoscale
materials and nanoparticles in energy and environment enhance and simplify
the process flow with cost-effectiveness as well as eco-friendly approach over
the current conventional methods. The applications of nanotechnology are
versatile in various domains such as bioremediation, waste management,
green technology, environmental monitoring, emission control, electricity
production and transmission loss, solar power, etc.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, Environment, Energy, Applications.
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is the branch of science and technology of objects
at nanoscale levels with working on the specific applications with
biomolecules on nanoscale or cellular engineering. This chapter covers and
highlights on the applications and role of nanotechnology with respect
* Scientist, R&D, BMR Group, Chennai, Tamilnadu (Corresponding Author)

** Assistant Professor College of Engineering Dr BR Ambedkar University,
Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh
2 Frontiers in Nanotechnology
energy and environment. According to International Energy Agency (IEA)

projection analysis an increase by 36 % of the world’s primary energy
demand and 2:2% electricity requirements by the year 2035 has to be met
for sustainable development of the renewable energy and environment in
taking forward the world towards a more reliable, secure path considering
the global climate change and CO2 emissions (2). Nanotechnology and
its materials has large surface to area volume ratio over the conventional
design, building, manipulation, and structure functionality there by
adjusting the size and, shape, devices, and systems of the materials at
nanoscale 1ess than 100 nm.
NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ENERGY
The development of nanotechnology research in product development
for commercial purposes helps to create innovation for the population
to generate, distribute, preserve, and depot energy. The enhancement
of intense energy efficacies across various branches of the industries
and to leverage economical renewable energy production through
nanotechnology and optimized production technology is illustrated in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Nanotechnology potential application examples

with the value-added chain in the energy sector.
Nanotechnology in Energy and Environment 3
Catalysts or so-called nano-reactors that are fundamental to energy

production are the power engines at the nanometer length scale which
revolution’s the world. The main resource of human life depends on energy
due to its various applications in fields such as the motor industry, service,
and commercial appliance industries. The application of nanotechnology
in the field of energy has important roles in various industries such as a
capacitor, diode, fuel cell, and solar industry (3). The high-efficiency solar
cells that use Photovoltaic technology will play a key role in meeting the
growing world energy needs, this challenge will be met by High-efficiency
organic photovoltaics (OPVs) using nanotechnology (4). The Zeolites or
molecular sieves are ceramic-like solids having millions of nanosized pores
with a large surface area where aluminium ions are incorporated into these
pores for speeding up the chemical reaction using nanotechnology which
is currently being the vested interest in the petroleum industry (5).
Biofuel production requires different catalysts from those used in fossil
fuels which are composed of hydrocarbons, whereas the biofuel raw
materials are most plant sugars which are dissolved in water and have
oxygen along with hydrocarbons. Nanotechnology provides nanoreactors
or catalysts which mimic nature to convert water-soluble sugars into biofuel
production; one such classic example would be the use of nanocatalyst for
the breakdown of cellulose to sugars and another catalyst for converting
sugars into biofuel and by-products (6). The energy-saving costs can be
reduced using nanotechnology e.g. the use of permeable carbon nanotubes
(CNT) on a silicon chip within the designed pores can reduce energy cost
up to 70 to 75 % over conventional membranes used in reverse osmosis
technology (7). Hydrogen a common fuel that converts chemical energy
into electricity (8), also used to power a fuel cell in vehicles or in building,
storing hydrogen safely and efficiently.
The fuel cell development requires catalysts and one way for reducing
the catalyst is by nanomaterial replacement such as using a nanosized
metal made of platinum with more active and smaller portions with the
same reformation capacity as traditional catalysts (9). Due to the cost
involved in the use of pure platinum, researchers from the university
of brown constructed layer of Fe spherical Pd and Pt nanoparticles of
minimal thickness for the improvement of fuel efficiency (10). One of
the promising approaches of nanotechnology in the insulation industry
is the use of nanostructured aerogels and nano-foams. The 96% trapped
air and only 4% solid material such as carbon, silicon, and polymer
make these nanostructured aerogels and nano-foams eight times more
efficient than conventional forms of insulation (11). The other application
of nanostructured insulations would include insulating oil pipelines and
ships for military services. Another nanotechnology application includes

wind energy power generation by wind turbines, encompassing the
nanocomposite material into the blades of wind turbine gives robust
blades with good strength/ stiffness to weight ratio enabling strength
and longevity. The use of Nano-lubricants provides overall efficacy by
minimizing the energy losses (12). Energy application can be applied
to conductive composites and polymers, fuel cells, and hybrid systems,
which are either electrically conducting polymers or conductive ions
added to polymers (13). Motorized individual traffic plays a significant
role in global energy consumption and to save considerable amounts of
energy it is necessary to increase the efficacy of the combustion engines
(14, 15).
The solutions for increasing the efficacy of engines were applied using
nanotechnology by enhancing the abrade shielding the layer components
of engines and the injectors of the diesel components which improve
energy yield by high injection pressures (16). Ceroxide based nano-diesel
additives are used to optimize diesel combustion in engines which allows
enhanced fuel-saving by 10%. The efficacy of Ceroxide nanoparticles
has been widely investigated on the diesel engine’s performance and
their emissions and it was found that the thermal brake efficiency of the
engine was increased by 5% as well as the HC and NOx emissions were
reduced drastically (17-19). The development of electrical engines and
superconductors using nanotechnology helps to improve high efficient
sturdy engines and generators which can be applied in military ships,
aircraft, and gas turbines. The carbon dioxide from the streams of gas of
coal-fired power plants were separated and preserved using membranes
made up of nanostructured materials with the advent of nanotechnology.
The approach was facilitated by the conversion of CO2 into HCO3- in the
sight of H2O by using catalysts with nanostructured polymer membranes.
The other methods developed include ceramic nanotubes which separate
oxygen from the air efficiently thus facilitating the use of pure oxygen for
fossil fuel combustions. The CO2 emissions can be further reduced using
high-efficient customized nanoscale catalysts and this is done by applying
CO2 itself as a component in the new raw material chemical synthesis and
minimizing the contribution to the greenhouse effect (20).
The other applications of nanotechnology include empowerment of
personal electronic devices, minimizing the transmission losses in
electricity, hydrogen storage at high pressures, charge time reduction of
mobiles, electricity production from waste, etc. as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Applications of Nanotechnology in the Energy Sector.

The mechanical energy from zinc oxide nanowires can be converted to
electrical energy in portable devices such as Led and LCD’s leading to
their empowerment. Similarly, the transmission losses of electricity can
be minimized using nanostructured carbon nanotube replacing copper
grids which facilitate better conductivity minimizing leakage losses. The
energy loss can also be prevented using nano-composites which act as
nano-dielectric as insulation material by up to 7%. Nanocomposites are
also used in storage tanks for hydrogen with high density which facilities
non-release of high temperature and faster charging, discharging process
from the tanks.
The intercalation and de-intercalation of the mobile battery life cycle were
enhanced using robust nanostructured electrodes as they are compatible
with a wide variety of batteries such as lithium-ion and nickel-metal
hybrid batteries.
NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
The existing environmental problems and their advanced solutions
are addressed by environmental nanotechnology. Nanotechnology
plays a crucial role in providing effective solutions to a wide range of
environmental science and it’s engineering. Some of the major contributions
of nanotechnology in the environment include emission control from a
wide range of sources, green technology development for minimizing
undesirable by-products, remediation of water in the environment, and
polluted water bodies as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Contributions of Environmental Nanotechnology

The remediation of environmental pollution, production of renewable
energy, and the efficacy of monitoring devices are crucial parts of the
development of environmental nanotechnology. The considerations
in the nanotechnology would include the advanced availability of
the technological devices including their cost and size concerning
environmental implications, minimizing the effect of pollutants air, water,
and soil sources, the perspective of the advanced sensor in environmental
science, rapid advances of nanotechnology in health care management
coupled with environment, the artificial nanoparticle and their impact in
the ecosystem and the nano-machines development effect in the broader
range (21-23). The environmental remediation using nanotechnology
involves air pollution remediation, water, and soil contamination
remediation (Figure 4). Nano-catalysts such as silver nanoclusters is used
in the reduction of by-product polluting in the manufacturing process of
propylene dioxide, a common material used in paints, detergents, and
plastics (24). The catalysts in nanotechnology such as nanofibers coupled
with manganese oxide help to eliminate volatile organic compounds from
industrial chimneys (25). Carbon nanotubes engulf gases from large-
scale power stations and industrial plants a hundred times faster than
conventional methods; similarly nanostructured membranes with small
pores are used to separate methane or Co2 from the exhaust.
Figure 4: Types of remediation’s using Nanotechnology technology

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and a wide range of contaminants in
soil are remediated through Zero valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI) using
nanotechnology. The common methods of conventional technologies
used currently are soil washing, thermal desorption, and landfill disposal.
The enhancement of nanoparticle transport was based on the principle of
electrokinetic remediation where direct current is being used. Integration
of the direct kinetic current to get Zero valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI)
into the soil will enhance the destruction of contaminants in soil and
in-situ transformation process instead of transporting the contaminants
over conventional methods for removal (26). The other contaminant
commonly present in the soil, the Malathion was also remediated using
the same technology using Zero valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI). The
treatment or decontamination of water using zero valence nanoparticles
began three decades ago. The halogenated group contaminants in water
were decontaminated by zero valence iron nanoparticles in permeable
reactive barriers (PRB) using nanotechnology. One such example of this
approach would be the decontamination of Trichloroethene a dangerous
contaminant present in industrial wastewater (27, 28). Various studies
have been reported that the zero-valent iron (ZVI or Fe0) nanoparticles
remedial treatment was used for all contaminants and that these materials
are also highly suitable for different organic and inorganic contaminants
in groundwater (29).
The water cleansing process using nanotechnology is easier and cheaper
and operates by inserting the nanoparticle catalysts into the groundwater
system thereby avoiding the pumping process for treatment of water.
The nanosized fibers used as the electrode for deionization make the
process cheaper and coherent (30). One such example would include iron
nanoparticles for the treatment of organic solvent in polluted groundwater.
The resins of ion exchange containing the substrate made up of nano-

sized pores organic polymer is used in separation, purification, and
decontamination processes where the ions are exchanged after trapping on
the surface (31). The demerits associated in nanotechnology in remediation
needs to be addressed since the nanoparticles used for the commercial
and industrial purpose are not fully studied and the environmental
risk along with health hazard should be taken into consideration (32,
33). Apart from the minimized demerits nanotechnology could play a
crucial role in pollution control by specifically controlling and designing
the nanomaterials at the nanoscale level thereby increasing the affinity,
capacity, and selectivity of the pollutants. This approach minimizes
quantities and exposures of hazardous waste in the atmosphere and water
ecosystem providing the base for environmental protecting agencies (34-
36). The positive effects of using nanotechnology provide solutions for
energy consumption, pollution control, and green gas emissions which
play a major role in economic, societal, and environmental components.
The other benefits include efficient industrial processes, waste reduction
with high precision manufacturing, and improvement in air quality, water
quality, and soil quality by detecting as well as eliminating pollutants,
remediation of the environmental damages thus reducing the need for
large-scale industrial plants.
The advances in nanotechnology have been utilized in the life sciences arena
and are being applied to fields such as biotechnology, pharmaceuticals,
gene therapy, drug delivery, tissue engineering, medical devices, and
human diagnostics (37-41) (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Applications of Nanotechnology Technology in Lifesciences

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2
Nano Technology in Science
Dr. Sarva Santhisudha*, Dr. Gundluru Mohan**,

Prof. Cirandur Suresh Reddy***
1. INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is defined as research, development and application

of science, engineering, and technology at the nanoscale (about 1 to 100
nanometers). Nanoscience and nanotechnology are included in the study
and application of ultra-small things. The ultra-small has the ability
to transform our planet dramatically. The business sectors, healthcare
and production field undertakes a tremendous revolution due to
Nanotechnology. It is defined by the capacity to change the core structures
of materials at the nanoscale to attain specified qualities.
Science is a methodical process of generating and categorizing information
in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world,
which attests to ‘knowledge.’(Harper, 2014). The natural sciences, which
examine nature in its broadest meaning, the social sciences, which study
humans and societies, and the formal sciences, which deal with symbols
governed by rules, are the three primary disciplines of modern science.
Engineering and medicine are instances of applied sciences, whereby
make use of current scientific knowledge to the practical.
* DST Woman Scientist (WOS-A),Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara

University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh(Corresponding Author)
** DST-PURSE Centre, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh
*** Professor, Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati,
Andhra Pradesh
Nano Technology in Science 13
A strand of DNA pinhead

2.5nm wide 1 million nanometer wide
Nanotechnology
A human hair
50,000-100,000 nm wide
red blood cell

O
7000 nm wide
H H
Water molecule
10-10 nm
Fig 1: Evolution of Nanotechnology

Scientists who are driven by curiosity about the world and a desire to
solve challenges progress science by doing study. Today’s scientists and
engineers are developing a wide range of nanoscale materials to take use
of their superior features, such as stronger strength. Compared to their
larger-scale counterparts, they tend to have fewer weight, better light
spectrum management, and higher chemical reactivity.
Fig 2: Branches of Science and its emergence

2. NANO TECHNOLOGY IN NATURAL SCIENCE

2.1. Nano Technology in Biology
Natural science is segmented into two categories: life sciences and
physical sciences. Biology is the subject of life science. Salmonella and
other pathogens in food can be detected using nanosensors in packaging.
Food nanostructured components and food nanosensing are the two
primary groups of nanotechnology applications in the food industry. Food
nanostructured components are used in a variety of applications, ranging
from food processing to food packaging. In food processing industry, the
nanocompounds work as antibacterial agents, anticaking agents, additives
and nutrient carriers. They act as fillers to improve the mechanical strength
and durability of packaging materials (Ravichandran, 2010).
Table 1: Nano Technology in Food Industry
Nano Technology in Food Industry

Food Processing Function Food Packaging Function
Anticaking agent Improves Improved Improves
consistency and Packaging physical
prevent lump processing of
formation food
Gelating Agent Improves food Active Packaging Acts as
Structure antimicrobial
agent
Nanoadditives Improves Smart Packaging Detects Pathogen
and nutritional values
Neutraceuticals of food
Nanocapsulation Protects aroma,
and Nanocarriers flavor and other
ingredients of food
Nanobots made of DNA are also being developed to attack cancer cells.
For example, Harvard Medical School researchers recently published a
paper in Science detailing how they created a “origami nanorobot” out
of DNA to convey a molecular payload. The barrel-shaped nanobot can
carry molecules that provide instructions for how cells should act. In their
study, the researchers were able to successfully administer substances that
cause cell suicide in myeloma and lymphoma cells. The nanoparticles have
been implemented to identify analytes at sleek concentrations, detect and
segregate pathogens (Bate, 1988) thereby detecting molecular targets.
Separation of individuals from mixture of cells is an important criterion in
biological research. The nanoparticles have been investigated as sensitive
methods for detecting certain cell types and low-frequency cells. One
application of interest has been the detection and capture of circulating
tumor cells. Circulating tumor cells have been shown to be a reliable

forecaster survival in patients with many malignancies, and they can
guide researchers in clearer grasp cancer metastasis biology.
2.2. Nanotechnology in Physical Sciences (Physics and Chemistry)
Nanotechnology in Physics
The use of smaller materials in nanotechnology allows for fine-tuning of
molecules and substances at the nanoscale, which can improve material
mechanical qualities or provide access to previously inaccessible parts
of the body. Nanotechnology is the key to making space travel more
feasible. Lightweight solar sails and a cable for the space elevator are now
achievable because to advances in nanomaterials. It minimises the amount
of rocket fuel used greatly. The cost of reaching orbit and travelling in
space has decreased as a result of these advancements. Spaceships,
spacesuits, and equipment required to explore planets could benefit from
new materials paired with nanosensors and nanorobots. It’s employed in
Nanophotonics, (Goldhaber-Gordon, 1997 & Whitesides, 2005) which is the
study of light’s behaviour at the nanoscale size and how nanometerscale
objects interact with light. Surface plasmons, metal optics, near field optics
and metamaterials are used to squeeze light down to the nanoscale scale.
Nanophotonics allows for more integration; lower noise dissipates less
energy, occupies less space, and requires a smaller input signal, which is
likely to rely on self-assembly. It’s employed in solar cells as well as high-
density data storage and photonic devices as a band gap material.
Nanotechnology in Chemistry:
Sensors based on nanotechnology (Wang & Wang, 2014) can detect very
minute volumes of chemical vapors. In nanotechnology-based sensors,
several types of detecting elements, such as carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide
nanowires, or palladium nanoparticles, can be employed. Nanotechnology
also provides the chemical sector with at least six distinct advantages:
¾¾ Research Tools: The prime factor is that the nanomachinery and tools
play a vital role in research. The market for “nanoscience instruments”
is expanding.
¾¾ Novel Materials: Materials will be a crucial class of nanostructures
for business. Polymers, particles, and composites with structural and
electrically/magnetically/optically functional properties are used in
a variety of applications such as bar codes, organic chemistry and
painting. Chemistry and chemical-process technologies will very
certainly be critical in commercializing the technology’s value in these
applications.
¾¾ Novel Progressions for Fabrication: Only if nanomaterials can be

manufactured can they be commercialised. In the preparation of
nanotubes, iron nanoparticles are utilized inspite of buckytubes. The
chemical industry has always been a leader in the development of new
processes for creating new materials.
¾¾ Nanoelectronics: Materials science and chemistry will benefit
immediately from the development of novel photoresists and
procedures for fabricating structures with the sub-50-nm dimensions
required for nanoelectronics.
¾¾ Nanoparticle Technology: Customized nanoparticles will become
progressively crucial in a wide range of applications, from hydrophobic
therapeutics produced and packaged in nanoparticulate form to boost
bioavailability, to electrodes and lumiphores for new sorts of graphic
displays (Basavaprabhu, 2007).
¾¾ The factious concealed: The factious ideas, quantum computers
and biocompatible nanoparticles capable of reaching, recognising
and reporting presymptomatic sickness are all part of the final class
and the most exciting. The chemical industry can benefit from high-
performance functional nanoparticles (Pear, 2018)
3. Nano Technology in Social Science
Information technology, homeland security, medical, transportation,
energy, food safety, and climate monitoring are really just a few of the
scientific and infrastructural areas that benefit from nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology’s sociological repercussions are unavoidable since each
new scientific innovation has an influence on society. Society’s first and
most natural instinct is to convert new technology into bulk commodities.
In this respect, the sociological implications of nanotechnology may be
largely economic. The majority of new technology is commercialized under
a multitude of brand names; for example, the creation of computers was
rapidly followed by the branding and marketing of Microsoft. The most
compelling driver in human history has indeed been financial reward, and
nanotechnology is already following this trajectory. The military habits
will generally be echoed or resorted to in society. Concerned parties have
pointed out that some types of military nanotechnology may entail health
concerns or result in extensive ecological harm when it comes to sociology.
The nanotechnology impact on labor is in its use of particular factors of
production. In addition, there is a need for supporting labor services,
which creates career opportunities. Nanotechnology is likely to have even
less of an impact on disparities in the labor market. It fosters a successful
relationship between citizens and governments. Nanotechnology will
certainly be used to reprocess and enhance surveillance technologies
involving cameras, listening devices, tracking devices, and face and
pattern recognition systems.
4. NANO TECHNOLOGY IN FORMAL SCIENCE

Mathematics and Computer Science are examples of “formal sciences” that
use formal systems to generate knowledge. Formal sciences are significant
subjects because they constitute the foundation of all quantitative science.
Artificial intelligence has been an increasingly growing area for many
decades now, not just within itself where the areas of Machine learning,
Deep learning and artificial neural network work simultaneously, but
also in the number of fields and industries that they are now prevalent
in. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of
tiny things (Behgounia & Zohuri, 2020). Another important application
in formal science is the nursing informatics. Nursing informatics would
be significantly impacted by nanotechnology (Staggers, 2008) Electronic
health record design, system interoperability, and safety measures are
some of the implications that can still be classed. Inventive architecture
will be developed to automatically discover and transfer data to health
records, similarly towards how bluetooth enabled devices sense each
other. Whatever method is being used, the individually customized
knowledge and analysis for patients inside facilities would entail massive
storage ability due to the sheer volume of data that will be generated.
As part of system implementation, it is now routine practice to create
hundreds of generic order sets and documentation templates. In order to
accommodate the purposeful variability in patient-centered information
and individually-tailored orders, new projects in the nanotechnology
era will require novel implementation approaches. Nanotechnology has
the potential to dramatically change us make materials, resulting in a
slew of novel devices, drug delivery systems, and monitoring systems.
Nanomaterials integrate the health sciences and engineering in unique and
provocative ways, thus the potential benefit of these devices is substantial
(Patil etal, 2008)
CONCLUSION
Nanotechnology is the study of phenomena that occur on a nanometer
scale and is used to design, characterize, manufacture, and apply materials,
structures, devices, and systems. Nanotechnology, in the realm of science,
functions as a doctor inside the body, as it can monitor our health by
strapping gadgets to our bodies or implanting or injecting small sensors.
To make the sensors smaller, more sophisticated, more energy efficient,
researchers used newly created nanomaterials and manufacturing
techniques. Nanotechnology aids in the creation of ultra-dense memory,
which will allow us to store this vast amount of data. It has a massive effect
on how and where power is manufactured and what power is being used.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors declare that the work described in the paper is original and
no part of it is copied or taken from other sources without permission. The
authors also declare that the work was unpublished elsewhere.
One of the authors Dr. Sarva Santhisudha expresses her sincere thanks
to DST, New Delhi, India, for providing financial support through the
Woman Scientist Scheme-A (WOS-A) (F. no.: SR/WOS-A/CS-104/2018,
Dated: 14-09-2020
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1. Basavaprabhu, G.; Sheeparamatt, R.B.; Sheeparamatti, J.S.; Kadadevaramath
(2007). Nanotechnology: inspiration from nature, IETE Technical Review, 24,
9-25.
2. Bate, R. T. (1988). The quantum-effect device. Sci. Am., 258, 96-101.
3. Behgounia, F.; Zohuri, B. (2020). Artificial intelligence integration with
nanotechnology. Nano Tech Appl. 3(1), 1-7.
4. Goldhaber-Gordon, D.; Montemerlo, M. S.; Love, J. C.; Opiteck, G. J.;
Ellenbogen, J. C. (1997). Overview of nanoelectronic devices. Proceedings of
IEEE, 85, 521-540.
5. Harper, D. (2014). Science Online Etymology Dictionary.
6. Patil, M.; Mehta, D. M.; Guvva, S. (2008). Future impact of nanotechnology on
medicine and dentistry. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 12(2), 34-40.
7. Pear, E.N. (2018). Nanotechnology and nanoscience: a blueprint for chemistry
revolution Open Access Journal of Chemistry, 2(1), 1-8.
8. Ravichandran, R. (2010). Nanotechnology applications in food and food
processing: innovative green approaches, opportunities and uncertainties
for global market. International Journal of Green Nanotechnology: Physics and
Chemistry, 1(2), 72-96.
9. Staggers, N.; McCasky, T.; Brazelton, N.; Kennedy, R. (2008). Nanotechnology:
The coming revolution and its implications for consumers, clinicians, and
informatics. Nurs Outlook., 56 (5), 268-274.
10. Wang, E.C. & and Andrew Z. Wang, A.Z. (2014). Nanoparticles and their
applications in cell and molecular biology. Integr Biol, 6(1), 9-26.
11. Whitesides, G. M. (2005). Nanoscience nanotechnology and chemistry, Small,
1(2), 172-179.
3
Carbon Nanotubes
Dr. N. Padmaja*
Abstract
This article gives an overview of carbon nanotubes. It explains what carbon
nanotubes are, their classification, structural features, special properties, and
their applications in different fields of modern world
Keywords: Carbon Nanotubes, SWNT, MWNT, Fuel Cells, Sensors
INTRODUCTION
Contemporary chemistry demonstrates a trend of transition from
carrying out experiments under ordinary conditions (300K,1atm, normal
concentrations), to conducting syntheses at super high energies, super
low temperatures, super high pressures, super high vacuum, super low
concentrations and with participation of super small- or small-scale
particles.
Though the term Nano chemistry appeared at the end of 1990’s,
Contemporary Nano Chemistry is a new actively developing scientific
direction. It has its own subjects, objects for studying, experimental
methods and analysis. Carbon nanotubes are a significant part of Nano
chemistry and studying about them gives a perfect picture about Nano
Chemistry, Nano technology and their applications for the modern world.
Carbon nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a
diameter measuring on the nano metric scale. Nano tubes are members
* Assistant professor, Department of chemistry, Lal bahadur College, Warangal,

Telangana
of the fullerene structural family. Their name is derived from their long
hallow structures with the Wall formed by atom thick sheets of carbon
called graphene. The ends of nanotubes are usually closed by five or six
membered carbon cycles
CNT footprints in nature and The purple structure is a human hair

their respective year of discovery fragment, with a diameter of about 80
to 100 thousand nanometers and in
the background is a network of single-
walled carbon nanotubes.
CLASSIFICATION
CNT’s are classified into1
1) Single walled nanotubes (SWNT or SNT)
2) Multi walled nanotubes (MWNT or MNT)
1) Single walled nanotubes: Some characteristics of SNTs are as follows
¾¾ Have a single atom
¾¾ Thickness layer of graphene sheet rolls into seamless cylinder.
¾¾ The tube diameter is ~1 nanometer while length can be millions of times
higher
¾¾ Display metallic or semi conducting behavior
¾¾ Important for their electrical properties
2) Multi walled nanotubes: These are formed by multiple rolled layers
of graphene with inter layer distance of about 3.4 A°. MWNTs can be
different types
a) Russian doll model: Graphene sheets are arranged in concentric
cylinders.
b) Parchment model: A single sheet of graphene is rolled around itself,
like rolled newspaper. Other types of carbon nanotubes are Torous,
Nano bud, Pepod and composite or fillers loaded nanotubes.
Carbon Nanotubes 21
Schematic of how graphene could roll up to form a carbon nanotube.
SYNTHESIS
Nano tubes can be synthesized in many ways.2 Example, SWNTs can be
synthesized by arc discharge evaporation of graphite in an inert glass
flow. MWNTs can be synthesized by pyrolysis of an aerosol prepared
from a benzene and ferrocene solution at 800 – 950 °c in the presence of
hydrocarbon solution catalysts.
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS
Nano tubes are formed with all sp2 bonds, stronger than the sp3 bonds
formed in diamond. Tubes show unique strength. They naturally align
themselves into ropes held together by vandarwalls forces.
The inner diameter of CNTs can vary from 0.4 to several nano meters.
Length to diameter ratio can be 132,000,000:1. Foreign substances can enter
their inner spaces. Nano tubes have greater inner volumes. CNTs can be
filled with fillers, example additives like boron which prevent closing of
tube channel. Tubes can be filled with C 60 and C 70 fullerenes as composite
material, sometimes inner spaced can be filled with liquids. Substances
also can be incorporated into carbon nano tubes.
On the walls of carbon nano tubes various functional groups can be planted
by long term treatment of tubes in acids. (Protonation, Hydroxylation,
fluorination, Chlorination etc.). The absorption of gases can take place on
both external and internal walls and also in the intra tube space.
The above mentioned different structural features make CNTs have
novel properties that make them potentially useful in wide variety of
applications. They exhibit extraordinary strength, unique electrical and
mechanical properties. They are good conductors of heat and electricity
PROPERTIES
Electrical Properties: CNT’s, because of symmetry and unique electronic
structure of graphene sheet tubes have very high current carrying capacity.
Metallic nanotubes can carry electrical current density equivalent to 4×109
amp per cm2 - which is about 1000 times greater than metals such as copper.
Thermal Properties: All nanotubes are excellent thermal conductors along
the tube. The temperature stability of CNTs is estimated to be about 2800
° c in vacuum and about 750 °c in air. But CNTs are good insulators lateral
to the tube axis.
Mechanical Properties: CNTs are the strongest and stiffest in terms of
tensile strength and elastic modulus. They are extremely flexible materials.
The sp2 bonds between the carbons of the graphene layer are the strongest
possible and lead to the hardness of CNTs being greater than diamond. The
hardness of compressed SWNT is 460 to 545 Gpa which is more than the
value of Diamond with 420 Gpa. CNTs are not stronger when compressed
due to their hallow structure.
Tube structure of CNTs affects it’s chemical, electronic, and mechanical
properties.
Applications of Carbon Nanotubes: CNTs with their novel and unique
properties have applications in multiple fields
Fuel cells: CNTs are used in a variety of fuel cell components. They have
high surface area and thermal conductivity which makes them suitable
as electro catalyst support in PEM fuel cells. They are also used in gas
diffusion layers and current collectors. CNTs due to their high strength
and toughness properties when used as composite components in fuel
cells increase their durability which is highly needed in the transportation
industry
CNTs are also used in lithium-ion batteries. In fuel cells, as a catalyst
support, they reduce ‘Pt’ usage. Doped tubes do not require platinum. A
complex, mixture of carbon Nano tubes and carbon bulky balls are also
used in solar cells, which increases the energy conversion efficiency.
Sensors: CNT sensors are characterized by short response times, high
sensitivity, and selectivity. When compared with conventional oxide
sensors the selectivity of CNT sensors is several times more. CNTs are
used as sensors for gases and for liquids e.g., Presence of 0.02 % NO2
increases the conductivity by three orders of magnitude in 10 seconds.
While the introduction of 1 % NH3 decrease the conductivity by two orders
of magnitude in 2 minutes.
NO2 by increasing holes and NH3 by decreasing holes change conductivity.
In the form of microarrays, they are used for DNA and protein detection.
CNT sensors are used for gas and toxin detection in food industry, army,
and environmental applications.
Carbon Nanotubes 23
Nanotube based sensor materials are miniatured, relatively cheap and can
be used at room temperature. The functionalization of CNTs makes them
selective towards specific analytes. For e.g., researchers have developed
flexible hydrogen sensors using single walled carbon nanotubes decorated
with Palladium Nano particles3
Example of a flexible hydrogen sensor fabricated with single-walled,

carbon nanotubes. (Image: Dr. Sun/Argonne)
Catalysis: It looks quite natural that nanotubes can be used as supports for
catalysts and sorbents. CNTs intrinsically have an enormous surface area.
In fact, for SWNTs the inside and outside can act as surface. Nanotubes
can attach essentially any chemical species to their side walls and therefore
provides a unique catalyst support. e.g., Ruthenium based multiwalled
nanotubes with a specific area of 27 m 2 / gm as a catalyst used in the
hydrogenation of cinnamic aldehyde.
CONCLUSION
Carbon Nanotubes are an integral portion of Nano chemistry. They have
extraordinary applications in different fields of modern work due to their
special electrical, mechanical, and absorbing properties that stem from
their nano size and unique structural features
REFERENCES
1. J.P. Srivastava Elements of solid state physics. 2nd ed.
2. G.B.Sargeev, Nanochemistry. Elsevier.
3. Nanowerk.com
4
Nanotechnology and Safety Issues in
Radioimmunotargetting
Dr. Shyam Gupta*
Abstract
Anti cancer activity of nanoparticles is a growing field of research of nuclear
medicine and radioimmunotargetting. Currently radiobioconjugate targetting
involves radiobioconjugate scintigraphy for diagnosis and imaging of cancer
tumour as well as radiobioconjugate therapy for necrosis of cancer cells. There
are three principal methods of treating cancer viz. surgery, chemotherapy
and external radiation therapy. Each of these has its limitations. There is
much interest today in the development of a new mode of therapy viz. the
administration of nano radio labelled bioconjugates in nuclear medicine for
the selective delivery of radiation to the cancer cells while sparing the normal
cells. Safety issues in radiobioconjuate targetting involve consideration of both
radiation hazards as well as biohazards. Radiation hazards are relevant for the
administration team but not for the patient who is benefiting from the therapy
on the other hand Biohazards are important specially for the patient.
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is a new approach of science and engineering that
helping human being in various aspects. Nanotechnology uses materials
sized between 1 and 100 nanometers. The meaning of word “nanos” in
Greek is dwarf. Nanotechnology can be defined as “the art and science
of development, synthesis, characterization, and application of materials
and devices by the nanoscale.” At nanoscale materials and particles have a
unique property and potentiality [1, 2, 3].
* Assistant Professor, Zoology Department, R. B. S. College, Agra, U.P.

Nanotechnology and Safety Issues in Radioimmunotargetting 25
Cancer is one of the leading diseases affecting human health. Its impact
worldwide is significant in all the levels of human society and there are
several projections emphasizing the increasing dimensions of the problem
with both the developed and developing human population. Cancer
in INDIA is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. It is
a multifactorial, multifaceted and multimechanistic disease requiring a
corresponding multidimensional approach for its treatment, control and
prevention [4, 5].
Normally in nuclear medicine radionuclide / radioisotopes are used
for imaging and therapy purposes. Applications of nano radionuclide
in nuclear medicine can be found in areas of diagnostics, therapeutics,
theranostics, and regenerative medicine. Nanomaterials can improve
diagnostic imaging techniques and therapy efficiency even at the level of
single cells [6, 7, 8].
Currently radioimmunotargetting involves radiobioconjugate scintigraphy
for diagnosis and imaging of cancer tumour as well as radiobioconjugate
therapy for necrosis of cancer cells. There are three principal methods
of treating cancer viz. surgery, chemotherapy and external radiation
therapy. Each of these has its limitations. There is much interest today
in the development of a new mode of therapy viz. the administration of
radio labelled bioconjugates in nuclear medicine for the selective delivery
of radiation to the cancer cells while sparing the normal cells [9, 10, 11].
In nano radioisotopes labelled bioconjugate scintigraphy for all diagnostic
imaging gamma, or sometimes X- Radiation of suitable energy is
required. I131, I123 and Tcm99 radioisotopes have been used for this purpose.
The specific demonstration of tumour cells by nano radiobioconjugate
targeted scintigraphy is the main advantage of this technique over X-ray,
Computerized Tomography, Ultrasound, Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI]. RIS can differentiate between tumour recurrent cells and other
lesions such as Fibrosis or Haematoma during the follow-up of the patient
after therapy. Radiobioconjugate therapy is analogous to radio war-head
being carried by a guided missile or smart bomb (the bioconjugates) which
selectively homes in the cancer cell by specific recognition of molecules on
the cancer cell surface [11, 12].
Anti cancer activity of nanoparticles is a growing field of research
of nuclear medicine and radioimmunotargetting. Applications of
nanotechnology in nuclear medicine can be found in areas of diagnostics,
imaging and therapeutics. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles of Radio
isotopes are ecofriendly approaches using flavonoid containing plant
extract (polyphenolic components). Recently, green synthesized silver
nanoparticles were exposed to various cancer cell lines to assess their
anticancer potentials [13, 14, 15 16].
The warhead for therapy should be an emitter of localized radiation such

as alpha and beta radiation or Auger electrons. So far 131-Iodine (I131) has
been used for this purpose but it has a disadvantage that the deiodinase
enzyme in the body splits off the iodine from the antibody and causes non
target irradiation. The other isotopes used in the West is Yttrium-90 (Y90)
which is a beta emitter but its disadvantage is that if it dissociates from the
bioconjugate it is a bone seeker and will cause irradiation of healthy bone
marrow. In India for the development of this new mode of therapy has
therefore been interested in alternative nano radio war-heads for therapy
such as Silver, Gold (Au198/199) and Rhenium (Re186/188) [9, 17].
RADIOISOTOPES IN NANO RADIOBIOCONJUGATE
TARGETTING
These Radionuclides Mo99, Re186/188, Au199, Ag111 and I131 are supplied from
BRIT, Mumbai. 99mTc, the daughter product of 99Mo is obtained by milking
parent using 99Mo-99mTc generator (solvent extraction type) [12].
BIOMOLECULES IN NANO RADIOBIOCONJUGATE
TARGETTING
Radiobioconjugate targetting comprises therapy as well as imaging
with radiolabelled biological moities, which may be antibodies, artificial
antibody constructs: so called designer antibodies, peptides, antisense
nucleotides, cytokines or other receptor specific molecules, or indeed
combination of the two such as peptabodies. In many version of
radiobioconjugate therapy there is also the option of using intermediate
molecules such as avidin, biotin, chelates to enhance target / nontarget
ratios, as well as agent to enhance tumour delivery such as the gamma
globulin used by us for blocking nonspecific reticuloendothelial uptake, or
the various chase agents used to clear the blood of unwanted radioactive
or biological moieties [23]. The monoclonal antibodies labeled with nano
radionuclides are used for cancer therapy such as M3 Monoclonal antibody.
It is directed against the tissue polypeptide specific (TPS) antigen which
is a pancarcinoma proliferation antigen of cytokeratin 8-18 family [18, 19].
Radiolabelling of antibodies are performed with different radio isotopes
such as 99mTc, 131I and Re 186/188. lodogen method is used for antibody
labelling with 131I [20]. Radiolabelling of Antibody by 99mTc is achieved
by Schwarz Technique [21]. Antibody labelling with Rhenium Antibody is
reduced with ascorbic acid and then reacted with Rhenium [9, 22].
EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS
Human tumour xenografts are created in nude mice as well as swiss albino
mice using cancer cell lines (HeLa). Animal models of human tumour
xenografts in immunosuppressed swiss albino mice and nude
mice are developed For it, immunosuppression in swiss albino
mouse has been achieved by whole body gamma irradiation and

by systemic intramuscular injection of 0.5mg dexamethasome
daily. Malignant tumours tissue pieces were implanted in the
shoulder region or in the left thigh using sterile technique.
Tumours grew in size in between 6-8 weeks the nature of
the xenografts was confirmed histopathologically at sacrifice [24,
25 26].
EQUIPMENT NANO RADIOBIOCONJUGATE TARGETTING
Imaging could be performed in Gamma Camera. Counting of radiation
is performed using auto gamma counter. Radioactivity before injecting
is measured using Isotope Calibrator. For characterization of nano radio
nuclides, X ray diffraction and ultra violet spectroscopy are needed.
SAFETY ISSUES IN RADIOBIOCONJUGATE TARGATTING
On the other hand absorption of radiation energy by the living cells always
produces effects and damage such as necrosis of cells, genetic change, and
cancer. Radiation hazards are relevant for the administration team but
not for the patient who is benefiting from the therapy on the other hand
biohazards are important specially for the patient [27, 28].
In each case radiobioconjugate therapy is often preceded by
radiobioconjugate administration for radiolocalisation and for confirming
the delivery specificity of the therapy agent or for dosimetry. This is
sometime performed with the same isotope as contemplated in therapy
or a surrogate isotope. In each case the hazard to the patient from the
radionuclide moiety and from the biological molecule it self needs
consideration, although of course the overriding philosophy is whether
the proposed benefit in terms of tumour response overrides these hazards.
Risks from the biological moiety perse are compounded by risks from
contaminants such as murine or bacterial products: DNA or proteins or
liopopolysaccahharides such as endotoxins [29, 30].
Altered methods of producing the biological moiety can reduced the
risks, such as using transgenic mice with human immune systems, but do
not entirely eliminate it. Methods of minimising HAMA reactions using
human antibodies, plasmapheresis and immunosuppresive regimes, and
reducing the interval between scintigraphic and therapy administrations,
and eschewing intradermal testing. There is of course evidence that HAMA
reactions, especially the T cell component associated with it may indeed be
beneficial to patients [31].
The presence of radiochemical impurities in a radiopharmaceutical
contributes to an unnecessary radiation burden for the patients or to an
undesirable high radioactivity background, which reduces the imaging
contrast or therapeutic efficacy. Modern methods of purifying the
radiopharmaceutical such as multiple chromatography substantially
reduce the risk of contamination with the mouse DNA/RNA or mouse

viruses. Terminal filters such as endotoxin filters advocated by our group
also reduce the hazard from these although utmost care should be taken
to avoid introduction of hazards during radiopharmaceutical preparation
[32].
The potential genetic risks from introducing DNA/ RNA fragments such
as antisense nucleotides are not yet fully known. Hopefully these are
innocuous and incapable of replication in vivo. Utilisation of universal
warhead molecules such as radiolabelled biotin should reduce the logistic
and financial problems of using multiple radiobioconstructs. Using
pancarcinoma biological moieties: peptides or antibodies also reduce the
risk of contamination. The existence of endogenous biotinases or allergies
to avidin/streptavidin needs to be borne in mind [36, 37].
For radiation workers exposure should be “As low as reasonably
achievable.” This is the ALARA principle parker et al. 1984) Exposure may
be external from radioactive material outside the body or internal material
is inside the body. To reduce external exposure some precautions should be
taken like shielding the source if possible, distance from the source as great
as possible and time near source as short as possible. To prevent internal
exposure precautions should be taken such as minimize the amount of
the radioactivity needed to be used, contain the source to where it meant
to be and protect yourself in case any radioactivity escapes. Minimisation
of staff exposures includes consideration of equipment design, proper
shielding and handling of sources, and personal protective equipment
and tools, as well as education and training to promote awareness and
engagement in radiological protection. The decision to hold or release a
patient after radiopharmaceutical therapy should account for potential
radiation dose to members of the public and carers that may result from
residual radioactivity in the patient. The annual whole body maximum
permissible dose (MPD) set by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
is 5 rem. A recent International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP) Publication 103 recommends an annual MPD of 2 rem [33, 34 35].
CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded that use of nano sized radio isotopes in nuclear medicine
and radioimmunotargetting have an excellent potential. While treating the
patients one should be aware of safety profile besides the therapeutic and
diagnostic availability of radiobioconjugate targetting. The exposure of
staff must not exceed legally defined limits for radiation workers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Author expresses their sincere thanks Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR), New Delhi, India, for financial support and Prof. D.K. Hazra for
guiding and providing help to procure materials.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest related to this
article.
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5
Nano Technology in Engineering
S. Preethi Sudha*, Dr. K. Govardhan**
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is the study and management at Nano scale i.e. between
1-100 nm. It is the use of matter at an atomic molecular scale for industrial
purpose (Bayda, 2020). The bulk properties of materials at Nano scale
are possible by the use of nanotechnology. By taking advantage of this
property wide range of Nano scale products are developed that are used
in medicine (Siwach, 2019), electronics, military, computing, space, science
and many other applications. The branch of engineering that deals with
nanotechnology is called Nano engineering. Nano engineering is the
control of nanomaterials into practical and active materials, structures
and devices/components. Nano engineering deals with the design,
fabrication and manufacture of the components like engines, machines
and devices in the range of Nano scale. The terms that are most often used
in nanotechnology are nanofabrication and Nano manufacturing where
nanofabrication imply mostly on the research activity like design the
components with different materials and finding the new materials that
can be used for fabricating. Nano manufacturing deals with the industrial
production of the devices. Synthesizing Nano scale devices are very
complicated as they are very small size to see and handle, therefore Nano
engineers have implemented various techniques and methods to fabricate
Nano scale devices. Nano engineering deals with these techniques involved
in fabricating Nano components.
* Center for Nanotechnology, SENSE School, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
(Corresponding Author)
** Center for Nanotechnology, SENSE School, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
Nano Technology in Engineering 33
BASIC NANOTECHNOLOGY
In Nanotechnology, two approaches are used top-down approach and
bottom up approach. In top-down approach bulk objects/materials from
macro size are reduced to form into micro scale. When the materials are
reduced to nano scale they exhibit more advanced properties than in macro
scale. In bottom up approach, the micro sized objects are made larger. The
materials are themselves by some chemical mechanisms (Balzani, 2005).
The assumption is that the characteristics of the materials will change
when their size is reduced. For example, ceramics are breakable but when
their size is reduced they become deformable/elastic. Insoluble materials
like gold will become soluble. Opaque substances like copper becomes
transparent. These properties of materials are utilized when they are scaled
down to nano range. This is the basic idea of developing nanotechnology.
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Nanotechnology is very useful in developing advanced techniques and
study of hydration of cement particles and incorporation of different
additives like alumina, silica and other nanoparticles (Zhu et al, 2004) With
the embodiment of nanotechnology cement is made more tenacious glass
is made more self-cleanable, steel is made much harder and paints are
made more water dispersing and more insulating. In particular two Nano
sized particles are extraordinary with their application in construction
materials. They are titanium dioxide (TiO2) and CNT. TiO2 is more useful
as it has the ability to remove dirt and pollution from the concrete to glass
and they allow them to wash with rain water and CNTs are used to make
the concrete strong and for monitoring the properties of the concrete.
Fatigue is a drawback while using the steel that leads to structural failure
of steel while load is applied. This is due to the stress. This can be avoided
by adding copper nanoparticles to steel that will minimize the surface
unevenness of steel and reduce the stress and the fatigue cracking.
A clean intumescent layer is placed between glass panels that are created
using fumed silica nanoparticles. They will be formed as a strong and
opaque five shield when heated and thus they act as fine protective
glass. This is one of the applications of nanotechnology in this field. In
construction the glass used in the exterior of the buildings such as window
must stop heat and excess light (Srivastava, 2011). For this purpose thermo
chromic technologies are used that avoid temperature and provide thermal
isolation.
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Nanotechnology is greatly useful in the field of manufacturing and
mechanical engineering (Kumarasmy & Ganesan, 2015). Nanotechnology
to a great extent is useful in increasing the life span of automobile parts.
The nanomaterial’s used in fabrication or the components have exclusive
physical and chemical properties. They have better magnetic properties,

optical property that enhances the mechanical action. Advancements are
made to restrict the steel corrosion with the help of research, development
and implementation. To achieve this nanotechnology is playing a vital
role. It is also used in energy efficiency in thermal systems. Nano sized
metallic powders are used in the production of gas tight materials, dense
parts and porous coating. Now a day’s automobile vehicle has more inner
components in the system. Those components are more hard wearing
and more heat resistant. Because incomplete gas combustion consumes
fuel and causes population growth, nanotechnology and nanomaterials
are anticipated to play a large role in sparkplugs. Nanomaterial are being
evaluated for use in sparkplugs because they are the strongest, toughest,
and resist wear and erosion.
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
The research conducted in the field of nanotechnology has improved and
progressed in many ways leading to the extension of nanotechnology in
various domains of engineering. One such extension is the emergence of
nanotechnology in electrical engineering (Pugazhenthi, 2021). This field
mainly focuses on the development of novel material that can enhance
various electrical properties like insulation, dielectrical property, and
conductivity and hence improve the overall performance of the application.
Present day industries are incorporating the nanotechnology by use of
nanomaterial’s into its products which as improvised the performance and
reliability of the components/devices. The utilization of nanotechnology
into the electrical industry for manufacture of motors, transformers, and
generator have shown major noticeable changes. The resistance capacity
and performance of single phase induction motor are done using Nano
fillers. The motor winding are coated with enamel filled with alumina and
silica nanoparticle in the ratio of 1:4 that gives a appreciable reduction in
the temperature to 9.5% during the day and 8.5% during the night and the
efficiency is 19.07% in day and 13.08% during night as shown in figure 1.
The motors that are used in fans, refrigerators, tape recorder machines are
induction motors that have horse power rating (Selvaraj et al, 2014). The
efficiency of these types of motors are less due to absence of starting torque
and less power. This efficiency can be improved/enhanced by diffusing
nanofillers to the enamel. The enamel is used for good adhesion and
coating the windings filled with various nanofillers. The following table
and graph shows the enhanced properties of motors by using nanofillers.
Fig. 1: Comparison of thermal withstanding capacity of

motors during day time and night time
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Electronics is the analysis of circuits that also include active components
such as diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes, integrated circuits, associated
passive components, and interconnection equipment such as circuit boards
and other forms of communication infrastructure a certain complete circuit
functionality by transforming mixed components into a regular working
system. Semiconductors have a small energy gap (0.7 to 1.5 eV) and covalent
bonding. The semiconductors behave as insulators at 0 Kelvin. Covalent
bonds break when thermal energy accumulates, leading to the formation
of electrons and holes. As a result, the semiconductor is becoming more
and more conductive. Insulators are weak electrical conductors with an
energy gap greater than 5eV. In insulators, the conduction band is always
empty.
Nano electronics is related with the handling, measurement, engineering,
and manufacturing of electronic devices at the Nano scale, and is formed
by combining nanotechnology and electronics. Electronics are now at
the foundation of science’s technological advancement. Nano electronics
strives to use scientific techniques to produce materials with a lower risk
factor, smaller size, and bigger area areas after passing through a long
sequence of production procedures with precision.
APPLICATION AREAS OF NANOELECTRONICS

In electronics, nanotechnology focuses on developing solutions that really
are extremely small. Material design and simulation, growth, synthesis,
material processing, integration, device prototyping, high throughput
characterization and analysis are all areas wherein nano electronics has
been developed. This branch of nanotechnology encompasses a broad
array of materials and devices that all share the property of being smaller
in size. At this size, the attributes of materials also change. Quantum effects
and interatomic interactions become extremely important in the operation
of these devices.
Nano electronics has enabled the use of Nano transistors, Nano circuitry,
Nano displays, quantum computers, nano-sensors, nano-wires, nano-
radios, chips, lasers, batteries, cells, and multiplexers in memory storage,
computer processing, energy production, medical diagnostics, and nano-
robotics, among other implementations (Payal & Parijat Pandey, 2021).
NANO TRANSISTORS
The transistor is the most commonly used semiconductor device for
amplification and switching of electronic signals. It is the most fundamental
component of any electrical gadget. Nano electronic transistors are
performed utilizing a top-down nanotechnology methodology.
Transistors’ dimensions are reduced to the Nano scale as a result of such
technological advancements, allowing for increased number of transistors
to be included in an electronic system. In compare to conventional
semiconductor manufacturing methods, however, the combination of
millions and billions of transistors can lead to the creation of organized
to make information processors. Novel strategies are now being pursued,
such as novel kinds of nanolithography and the use of nanowires instead
of conventional Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
components.
The employment of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has improved the
performance of flexible thin film transistors (fTFTs). Because of their
unusual structural and electrical properties, single-wall CNTs have
received a lot of interest. On the silicon substrate, TFTs based on the
controllable electrostatic properties of SWCNT are created by varying
nanotube density. The average on-state current rises as the density of the
SWCNT system increase.
Fig.2: Applications of Nanoelectronics
NANOWIRES
Research in the discipline of semiconductor nanowires has led to the
construction of atomic-scale structures as well as a unique thinking
at the nanometer scale in recent years. The length and diameter of this
nanostructure are both restricted to tens of nanometers or less. At these
scales, quantum mechanical effects are substantial, resulting in the
formation of quantum wires. The nanowires contain carbon nanotubes
and also have a lower resistance, resulting in decreased transmission
power losses. These are anticipated to play a huge part in the future world
electronics. When compared to epilayers, which have a strictly planar
geometry, this phenomenon is advantageous and increases the critical
width of lattice-mismatched nanowire crystals.
NANO FLUIDS
The transformer, that is used to transfer electrical energy between circuits,
is one of the most basic components of power. A malfunction in any
element of the component can cause the power system to be disrupted.
Dielectric fluids are included in transformers, and they have two purposes:
insulating and cooling. Nanofluids are made by mixing nanoparticles
with carrier fluids directly. The transformer’s fluids are analogous to
blood in the human body. Cloud computing is becoming more popular
as the number of servers increases, leading to increased energy usage.
The cooling mechanism has now been moved to liquid rather than air in
order to create a more energy-efficient data center. As compared to water
alone, the ability of colloid to transfer heat is improved by 10 to 40% if
fluids with nanoparticles such as zinc oxide and copper oxide are used.
Heat dissipation is significant in insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
modules, power bricks, and power semiconductors. By using nanofluids,

good heat management is allowed, allowing for smaller, quieter, lighter,
and thinner designs than that when not using nanofluids.
NANO ROBOTICS
Nano robotics is used to maintain and protect the human body from
pathogens by performing a certain activity or tasks repeatedly with
precision. This technology has a wide range of implications in biomedicine,
such as the excision of a defective section of DNA, kidney stone removal,
diabetes detection and treatment, genetic therapy, dental treatment, and
pharmaceutical delivery. Nano robotics seems to have the potential to aid
in the early cancer detection and its subsequent therapy. It has a bright
future ahead of it, and there is no limit to how far it may go in this field.
The research is still ongoing, and there will be many more breakthroughs
in the future. It is useful because it reduces the danger of surgery, reduces
the cost of surgery, and makes the operation simpler.
NANO SENSORS
These Nano devices detect and respond to physical stimuli, but also
transmit information from nanoparticles to the macroscopic world. The
three types of sensors including biosensors, chemical sensors, and physical
sensors. They’re used to identify airborne chemicals, viruses, and bacteria,
as well as to assess the temperature of living cells and nanofluids. CNTs
are capable building blocks for the production of flexible chemical sensors
due to their Nano scale assembly and large surface area. The use of high-
quality SWCNTs adorned with Palladium (Pd) nanoparticles has led to the
development of improved hydrogen sensors that detect hydrogen levels
of 100ppm with response times of less than 15s. The demand for rapid,
accurate, compact, and portable diagnostic sensing systems is constantly
growing. Blood sensors can detect a variety of diseases and chemical
substances. Digital cameras can be modified for more accurate and higher
quality results point-of-care diagnostics, which include advantages such
as faster reaction, more accurate data, better SNR, increased data density,
and less impact on the phenomenon being studied by putting more pixels
on a sensor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors declare that the work described in the paper is original and
no part of it is copied or taken from other sources without permission. The
authors also declare that the work was unpublished elsewhere.
REFERENCES
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chemist. Small 1(3), 278-283.
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in mechanical engineering. International Conference on Modeling & Simulation
(ICMS’15) at Astra University, Thanjavur.
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of recent developments and patents. Recent Patents on Nanotechnology, (Article
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Naganathan, G. S. (2021). Nanotechnology applied for improving research
in electrical domain - a survey Department of Electrical and Electronics
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Eng. F Electric. Electron. Eng. 14(6), 1-9.
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review on state of the art and future prospects. Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical
Conference. (Paper No.R-024)
9. Zhu, W.; Bartos, P. J .M.; Porro, A. (2004). Application of nanotechnology
in construction Summary of a state-of-the-art report, RILEM TC 197- NCM:
‘Nanotechnology in construction materials’ 37, 649-658.
6
Green Synthesis ofZinc Oxide Nanaoparticles
from Medicinal Plants: Review
R. Rajalakshmi*, T. P. Kumari Pushpa Rani**,

A. Doss*, R. P. Praveen Pole***, P.Suresh*
Abstract
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) are a well-known metal oxide nanoparticle
with numerous applications in many industries and research institutions. In
order to meet the high demand for zinc oxide nanoparticles, various synthesis
methods have been used. The environmental and economic challenges associated
with the majority of the methods of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesis have
resulted in a search for other alternatives with environmental and economic
benefits. Interestingly, due to its numerous health, environmental, economic,
and medicinal benefits, the biological method of synthesis using plant sources
has been found to be appropriate for the production of zinc oxide nanoparticles.
This review offers the summary of the recent advances in the synthesis,
characterization techniques, and biomedical applications of biosynthesized zinc
oxide nanoparticles.
Keywords: Medicinal plants, Metal nanoparticles, Crude extracts, Biomedical
applications, SEM, XRD, Green synthesis.
* Assistant Professor of Botany at V. O. Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi

** Department of Microbiology, St. Mary’s College (Autonomous), Tuticorin,
Tamil Nadu
*** PG & Research Department of Zoology, V.O. Chidambaram College, Tuticorin,
Tamil Nadu
Green Synthesis of Zinc oxide nanaoparticles from Medicinal plants: Review 41
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is one of the most common tools used in translational
research. The eco friendly development of metallic nanoparticles using
biological materials has attracted a lot of attention. Nanotechnology is
concerned with particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 nm, as well as their
synthesis strategy and manipulation. For the formulation of nanostructures,
this knowledge domain naturally combines all fields of natural sciences,
as well as chemistry, physics, biological sciences, engineering, materials
science, and computational sciences. Progress in this field has opened up
new avenues in nanoscience, particularly in drug delivery, gene delivery,
nanomedicine, biosensing, and other fields [15, 38]. The high surface-to-
volume ratio of nanoparticles is one of their distinguishing characteristics.
Nanomaterials are particles with nanoscale dimensions, whereas
nanoparticles are extremely small particles with enhanced catalytic
reactivity, thermal conductivity, non-linear optical performance, and
chemical stability due to their large surface area to volume ratio. For the
synthesis of nanoparticles, two approaches have been proposed: Bottom-up
and top-down approaches is used. Milling or attrition of large macroscopic
particles is used in the top–down approach. It begins with the creation of
large-scale patterns and then reduces them to the nanoscale level through
plastic deformation. Because it is a costly and time-consuming process,
this technique cannot be used for large-scale production of nanoparticles
[6].
GREEN SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES
Physical, chemical, and biological approaches are used to make these
nanoparticles. The nanoparticles production via the green synthesis
process is found to be cost-effective, non-toxic, and biodegradable in
nature. Natural resources including leaves, roots, and flower extracts, as
well as microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and algae, are used in this
eco-friendly synthesis approach, which reduces the use of toxic chemicals.
Recent research indicates the importance of green synthesis of metal oxide
nanoparticles, especially for metal oxides such as zinc, gold, copper, silver,
nickel, and others. Plants are the most preferred source of nanoparticles
synthesis (Figure 1) because they allow for large-scale production as well
as the production of stable nanoparticles with a variety of shapes and sizes
[29].
The phytochemicals in the plant extract can act as reducing agents,
allowing metal precursors to be converted into metal nanoparticles.
Phytochemicals can act as both reducing and stabilizing agents because
they are antioxidants and toxic-free compounds [34]. Metal ions or metal
oxides are reduced to 0 valence metal nanoparticles using phytochemicals
such as polysaccharides, polyphenolic compounds, vitamins, amino
acids, alkaloids, and terpenoids secreted by plants Different types of

plant extracts have different quantities of phytochemical reducing agents.
As a result, the content of the leaf extract has a considerable impact on
nanoparticle synthesis. The pH, temperature, contact time, metal salt
concentration, and phytochemical profile of plant extract all have an
impact on nanoparticle synthesis, stabilization, and quantity produced
[24]. Makarov et al. [21] proposed encapsulating metal ions as an organic
covering in three steps for stabilization after reduction by plant extracts.
1. Activation phase: metal ion reduction and nucleation of reduced metal
ions; 2. Growth phase: nanoparticle stability; 3. The termination phase:
consists of the shape of the formed nanoparticles [20]. The activity of
phytochemicals results in the formation of metal oxides from metals such
as copper, silver, gold, titanium, zinc, iron, and nickel. Metal ions enter the
growth and stabilization phase through the action of phytochemicals. The
formation of oxygen eventually results in the linking of metal ions, and a
defined shape is formed.
Figure 1: Synthesis of Zinc oxide nanoparticle from medicinal plats
BIOSYNTHESIS OF ZINC OXIDE NANOPARTICLES FROM

PLANTS
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a rare inorganic compound found in nature. It is most
commonly found in crystalline form. Manganese impurities in naturally
occurring zinc oxide give it a typical red or orange color. ZnO is a white
crystalline powder that is nearly insoluble in water when purified. The
zinc oxide nanoparticles can be employed in a variety of applications,
such as sensors, lasers, and drug discovery and the synergistic effects
may be monitored based on the application. Shape and size are crucial in
applications where zinc oxide nanoparticles are used for their anticancer
[22], antibacterial [27], antioxidant [8], antifungal and antileishmanial
activity [16], antimicrobial [1] and antituberculosis activity [28]. For
example, when compared to rod-shaped zinc oxide nanoparticle,
spherically shaped nanoparticle may easily release Zn2+ ions, and tiny
particles are more permeable to bacterial membranes [3, 19, 5]. In addition,
zinc oxide nanoparticles have been discovered to be a superior catalyst
that can be regenerated with minimal activity degradation [30]. Physical
means of synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles are either costly, laborious
or time consuming while the chemical means often generate toxic waste
lines making them environmental unfriendly. Moreover, sometimes
noxious chemicals can be adsorbed on the surface of the nanoparticles

which cannot be applied in medical applications.
Plant parts such as the leaf, stem, root, fruit, and seed have been used for
ZnO NPs (Figure 2) synthesis due to the unique phytochemicals that they
produce. Using natural extracts of plant parts is a very eco-friendly, low-
cost process that does not require the use of any intermediate base groups.
It takes very little time, requires no expensive equipment or precursors,
and produces a highly pure and quantity-enriched product free of
impurities [11]. Table 1 is a comprehensive study of different plants used
for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticle till date.
Figure 2: Zinc oxide nanoparticle synthesis by using different sources.
CONCLUSION
Green methods of synthesizing ZnO-NPs using plant extracts have
received a lot of attention in recent years because of the environmental
benefits, lack of toxicity, and low cost. The morphology of ZnO-NPs is
dependent on plant species, precursors, reaction time, pH value, and
calcination temperature, as evidenced by a review of the literature
presented here. In terms of preparation conditions, the plant species is the
most important factor affecting nanoparticles morphology, while other
factors are associated with it, such as precursor concentration, which is
the most important factor affecting their morphology. The current review
summarized recent progress in their synthesis over the last few years, as
well as their prospects for applications in various ailments.
Table 1: Size, Morphological assessment techniques and Biological applications of 44
biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles from medicinal plants.
Techniques for
Name of the plant & Size
S. No Salt/Precursor morphological Shape Biological activity References
Parts used (nm)
assessment
01 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Zinc acetate UV-V, DLS, XRD, 5 - 40 Spherical Nil [33]
Dryand. Ex W.T. Aiton FTIR, SEM, EDAX
(Leaves) & AFM
02 Aloe vera (Leaves) Zinc nitrate XRD & SEM 100 Rod Antibacterial activity [12]
03 Corriandrum sativum Zinc acetate XRD, SEM, FTIR & 100-190 Hexagonal - [9]
(Leaves) EDAX
Frontiers in Nanotechnology
04 Citrus paradisi (Peels) Zinc sulfate UV-V, TEM, DLS & 12 - 72 Crystalline Photocatlytic [18]
FTIR degradation and
Antioxidant activity
05 Morinda pubescens J. E. Zinc nitrate UV-Vis - - - [32]
Smith (Leaves, stem, hexahydrate
stem bark, dried bark
of stem, roots, flower
petals, immature and
ripened fruits)
06 Polygala tenuifolia (Root) Zinc nitrate UV-V, FTIR, TGA, 33.03 - - Antioxidant & [25]
TEM, SEM & EDX 73.48 Antiinflammatory
activity
07 Limonia acidissima L. Zinc nitrate UV-V, AFM & HR- 12 - 53 Spherical Antituberculosis [28]
(Leaves) TEM, EDAX activity
08 Amaranthus caudatus Zinc acetate SEM-EDX &,FTIR - Spherical Antibacterial [14]
(Leaves)
09 Costus pictus (Leaves) Zinc nitrate XRD,TEM,SEM, & 29 - 80 Hexagonal Antimicrobial and [36]
EDAX Anticancer activity
10 Cassia alata (Leaves) Zinc acetate UV,SEM,EDAX & 30 – 50 Rod shape Antidermatophytic [35]
AFM activity
11 Nigella sativa L. (Seeds) Zinc nitrate XRD, SEM 20 - - [4]
12 Ochradenus baccatus Zinc nitrate UV, FTIR, TEM, > 100 S p h e r i c a l / Toxicity and [31]
(Leaves) SEM & EDAX Oval Antioxidant activity
13 Cassia alata (L.) (Leaves) Zinc acetate SEM, FTIR, XRD, 60-80 Spherical Bactericidal activity [10]
Roxb. EDAX & AFM
14 Viola canescens Wall. ex, Zinc nitrate XRD, SEM, FTIR - Rod shape Antibacterial activity [17]
Roxb. (Callus) hexahydrate
15 Prosopis farcta L. (Fruit) Zinc sulfate UV–V, PXRD, 40-80 Hexagonal Antifungal, Cytotoxic [22]
FESEM, EDX &
TEM
16 Brassica oleracea L. var. Zinc chloride UV-V, FTIR, XRD, 14-17 S m a l l Photocatalytic [13]
italic (Leaves) EDAX crystallite activity
17 Geranium wallichianum Zinc nitrate UV-V, XRD, FTIR, ~18 Hexagonal Antimicrobial, [1]
(Leaves) EDS,SEM, TEM & Antileishmanial,
Raman spectroscopy Cytotoxicity,
Antioxidant,
α-amylase & protein
kinases inhibition
Green Synthesis of Zinc oxide nanaoparticles from Medicinal plants: Review
18 Hyssops officinalis (Dry Zinc acetate TEM, FESEM, XRD 20 - 40 Spherical Anti-angiogenesis, [23]
powder) & FTIR Anti-inflammatory
45
and Cytotoxicity
properties
19 Berberis aristata (Leaves) Zinc acetate UV-V, XRD, SEM, 96 Needle like Antibacterial activity [39] 46
EDX & DLS shape
20 Albizia lebbeck (Stem Zinc nitrate UV-V, FTIR, SEM, 66.25- Spherical Antimicrobial, [37]
bark) EDS 112.87 Antioxidant, and
Cytotoxic activity
21 Ocimum americanum Zinc nitrate UV–V, DLS, FT-IR, - Spherical Antioxidant & [26]
(Leaves) hexahydrate XRD, SEM Antimicrobial
activity
22 Kalanchoe pinnata Zinc acetate UV-V, XRD, EDAX, 24 Hexagonal Antioxidant and [2]
(Leaves) SEM, TEM, FTIR & Spherical Antiinflammatory
23 Scutellaria baicalensis Zinc nitrate UV-V , FTIR, EDX, 360 Sphere like Photocatalysis [7]
Frontiers in Nanotechnology
(Root) FE-TEM & XRD

24 Melia azedarach (Leaves) Zinc acetate UV, FTIR, XRD, 33-96 Spherical & Antioxidant & [8]
dihydrate SEM, TEM & EDAX, Hexagonal Antibacterial activity
25 Cassia fistula (Leaves) Zinc acetate XRD,UV-V, FTIR & - Spherical Antibacterial activity [27]
dihydrate DLS
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7
Electrical Study
Spectroscopic and
Characterization of PVdF based Silver
Conducting Gel Polymer Electrolyte System
for Applications in Batteries
G. Sunita Sundari*
Abstract
An examination is done on a novel gel polymer electrolyte framework comprising
of poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF) as a host polymer, silver perchlorate
(AgClO4) as salt. Gel polymer electrolyte films were set up by solution-casting
procedure and characterized by utilizing XRD, IR, DSC, AC conductivity and
transference number investigations. XRD and IR examines uncovered that
the complexation of the polymer poly(vinylidene fluoride) with AgClO4. DSC
was utilized to decide the liquefying temperatures of the unadulterated and
complexed films. Highest ionic conductivity for 60:40 PVdF+AgClO4 polymer
electrolyte framework was discovered to be 4.20x10-5 S/cm at 298K at RT.
Transference number information proposes that the charge transport in this
polymer electrolyte framework is primarily because of ions. Electrochemical cells
were manufactured with the design of Ag/(PVdF+AgClO4)//(I2+C+electrolyte)
and discharge characteristics were examined under a constant load. Different
cell boundaries, for example, open circuit voltage, short circuit current, power
density and energy density were determined.
Keywords: Gel Polymer electrolyte, AC conductivity, IR, Transference
number, Electrochemical cell, Current-Voltage characteristics
* Department of Physics, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF),

Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh
1. INTRODUCTION
Gel polymeric electrolytes has unique hybrid structure, it has cohesive
properties of solids and diffusive properties of liquids all the while. The
solvent or salt solution is held in gel polymeric electrolyte helps in ionic
conduction process, though the host polymer lattice gives applications as
electrolytes/separators in rechargeable batteries, solar cells, sensors, super
capacitors, fuel cells and other electro-chemical devices [1-4].
Researchers have revealed different polymer electrolytes considering
lithium, magnesium and zinc salts to realize respective battery systems.
Particularly, the Li based batteries, which are generally revealed in
literature, has some safety limitations [5,6]. So, in alternatives magnesium,
zinc and sodium batteries are accounted for, albeit these are not widely
contemplated [7-9]. Development of silver rechargeable batteries would be
an interesting study as silver may be considered as an option in contrast to
lithium as a negative electrode (anode) because of its natural abundance,
non-toxicity, low atomic mass and high electrochemical reduction potential
[10-12].
Along these lines, it is important to create high silver ion conducting gel
polymer electrolytes suitable for the fabrication of rechargeable silver
batteries. The development of silver ion conducting gel polymer electrolytes
should be preferred in view of its higher conductivity values (comparable
to liquid electrolytes), mechanical and electrochemical properties.
Today it is seen that there is a fast advancement in size, thickness decrease
of electronic gadgets, so demand has been expanded to create small sized
portable gadgets for the improvement of multimedia ventures as of late,
it is generally acknowledged that such blend of size and thickness must
be obtained by utilizing electrodes and electrolyte materials and that the
most encouraging choices are those dependent on storage devices. In view
of the current circumstance, endeavors have been made in poly (ethylene
oxide) (PEO) based polymer electrolytes to arrive at an appreciable
electrical conductivity at ambient temperature [13-15].
By and large, gel polymer electrolytes possess many advantages, like
high ionic conductivity, light and easy possibility, high specific energy,
electrochemical stability. Conductivity generally depends upon glass
transition temperature, Tg inter-linking of the polymer chain. The selected
polymer PVdF has semi crystalline nature, furthermore, when it is utilized
in the preparation of the electrolytes, it is expected to have high anodic
stabilities and due to strong electron withdrawing functional groups and
furthermore they have high permittivity, moderately low dissemination
factor and high dielectric constant it goes about as a superior electrolyte
for any salt combination.
In the current examination, structural, thermal and AC conductivity
studies have been performed on PVdF based polymer electrolytes with
ElectricalstudyandSpectroscopicCharacterizationofPVdFbasedsilverConductingGelPolymerelectrolytesystemforapplicationsinBatteries 53
AgClO4 as salt. The authors report gel ion conducting polymer electrolyte
dependent on PVdF framework. A few analytical methods, for example,
XRD, IR and DSC examines, composition dependent AC conductivity
and transport number measurements were performed to portray these
polymer electrolytes. In view of these electrolytes, an electro-chemical cell
was created with the arrangement anode//polymer electrolyte//cathode.
The discharge attributes of the cell have been learned at a steady load. The
aftereffects of these examinations are accounted for in this current paper.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Pure PVdF (Aldrich, M.W ≈ 4.4 × 105) complexed with a fine powder of
silver perchlorate were prepared in the stoichiometric ratios (60:40),
(70:30) and (80:20) by a solution-cast technique using dimithyl formide
(DMF) as solvent. PVdF: polymer, AgClO4 : Salt was added accordingly.
The mixture of these arrangements was stirred for 18 h to acquire a
homogeneous solution. The solution was then filled the polypropylene
dishes and evaporated gradually at room temperature under vacuum. The
polymer electrolyte films were then, at that point moved into a desiccator
for additional drying before the test.
X-ray diffraction studies of these films are completed with the help of
PHILIPS PW 3710 X-ray diffractometer in the range 100- 700. The infrared
(IR) spectrum in these films has been captured with the help of JASCO IT/
IR-5300 spectrophotometer in the range of 400-4000 cm-1. The differential
scanning calorimetry pattern of pure PVdF and PVdF complexed with
AgClO4 for the (80:20), (70:30) and (60:40) compositions were considered
using DSC (model TA 2010). The AC conductivity has been estimated
utilizing the HP Complex Impedance spectra with computer-controlled
setup in the temperature range 298-373 K. The ionic and electronic transport
numbers (tion and tele) were assessed through Wagner’s dc polarization
procedure [16a].
An electrochemical cell was created with the configura- tion Ag//(PVdF +
AgClO4)/(I2 + C + electrolyte). The discharge characteristic investigations
of these electrochemical cells were monitored at a steady load of 100 KΩ.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
XRD is used to find complete structure of GPE films, crystalline ones show
well demarcated peaks and the amorphous possess broad peaks Fig.1
shows (a) pure PVdF, (b) PVdF + AgClO4 (80:20), (c) PVdF + AgClO4 (70:30)
and (d) PVdF + AgClO4 (60:40) in pure PVA sample at 20.9° sharp peak
confirms semi-crystalline nature of the sample. Same observation was
found when PVdF is doped with AgClO4 with different wt% ratios (80:20,
70:30 and 60:40). It is seen that as the salt concentration increments the
peak intensity decreases suggesting semi-crystalline or amorphous nature
of the sample. No sharp peak was observed, indicating that dominate
polymer is amorphous phase in nature [16b].
Fig 1 shows XRD Spectra a) Pure PVdF b) PVdF +AgClO4 (80:20) c)

PVdF +AgClO4 (70:30)d) PVdF + AgClO4 (60:40)
IR spectra of pure PVdF, PVdF complexed with AgClO4 and pure AgClO4
were recorded with the help of JASCO IR-5300 spectrophotometer
configured in the range 4000-400 cm-1 (Fig. 2). The complexation of pure
PVdF with AgClO4 salt is extensively studied using IR spectroscopy.
The intensity of the aliphatic CH2 stretching vibrations band saw
around 2890 cm-1 in PVdF was found to diminish with the increase in
the concentration of AgClO4 salt in the polymer. The width of the C-F
stretching band saw at around 1693 cm-1 in PVdF likewise showed an
expansion in the salt concentration in the polymer.
Likewise, the presence of new peaks alongside changes in existing peaks
(and/or their disappearance) in the IR-spectra straightforwardly shows the
complexation of PVdF with AgClO4. This IR information establishes the
complexation of AgClO4 with various weight proportions of the polymer
PVdF are appeared in Table 1.
Fig 2 shows IR Spectra a) Pure PVdF b) PVdF +AgClO4 (80:20) c)

PVdF+AgClO4 (70:30)d) PVdF+AgClO4 (60:40) e)AgClO4 Salt
Table 1: Various vibrational bands observed in the IR spectra
PVdF+AgClO4 PVdF+AgClO4 PVdF+AgClO4 AgClO4 (cm-

PVdF
(80:20) (cm-1) (70:30) (cm-1) (60:40) (cm-1) 1)
420.52 443.67 428.24 484.18 430.16
505.40 501.54 480.32 507.32 461.03
1616.49 626.92 507.32 625.00 513.11
1699.44 679.00 625.00 839.11 569.05
1761.17 744.59 839.11 879.62 1006.93
1828.68 896.98 881.55 1103.38 1340.65
2025.44 1253.84 1095.67 1178.61 1446.74
2202.91 1620.35 1176.68 1228.77 1631.93
2307.07 1660.86 1404.30 1404.30 1637.71
2488.40 1755.38 1464.10 1469.89 2129.60

2629.21 2222.20 1622.28 1593.35 3400.81
2768.10 2303.21 2025.44 1614.56 3449.03
2876.12 2482.61 2361.08 2793.18
2980.29 2824.04 2484.54 3192.48
3393.09 2988.00 2818.25 3414.31
3626.50 3028.51 2978.36 3589.85
3709.45 3024.66 3780.82
3854.12 3215.63
3900.42 3562.84
3607.21
Thus, the consequence of XRD and IR information clearly establish the
complexation of AgClO4 with d ifferent weight ratios with the polymer
PVdF.
DCS curves of pure PVdF and PVdF complexed with AgClO4 of 80:20, 70:30
and 60:40 compositions are shown in Fig. 3. An exothermic pinnacle was
noticed at 150.4 ºC, which corresponding to melting temperature (Tm)
of pure PVdF. The slight change in the melting point (Tm) towards higher
temperature has been observed due to the addition of AgClO4 salt to the
polymer.
Earlier workers [17-19] have likewise revealed comparative outcome on
polymer complexed framework. The melting temperature upsides of these
polymer electrolyte films are given in Table-2.
Fig 3 shows DSC Spectra a) Pure PVdF b) PVdF+AgClO4 (80:20) c) PVdF

+AgClO4 (70:30) d) PVdF + AgClO4 (60:40)
2 : Melting Temperature of PVdF and variouspolymer electrolyte

systems obtained fromDSC studies.
System Melting Temperature (Tm) in oC
Pure PVdF 150.7
PVdF + AgClO4 (80:20) 153.8 oC
PVdF + AgClO4 (70:30) 154.4 oC
PVdF + AgClO4 (60:40) 154.1 oC
AC CONDUCTIVITY STUDIES
Impedance spectroscopy is a relatively new and powerful strategy for
characterizing many of the electrical properties of electrolyte materials and
their interfaces with electronically conducting electrodes.
An Impedance (plot between the real and the imaginary parts of
impedance) for PVdF:AgClO4 gel polymer edifices with various weight
percent proportions are appeared in Fig. 4.
The plots comprise of a high-frequency expanded semicircle because of
a frequency-dependent capacitor (Cg) corresponding parallel to the bulk
resistor. Where the semicircle intersects the real axis, gives the value of the
bulk resistance (Rb).
By calculating the bulk resistance (Rb) along with the dimensions of the
sample, one can figure the conductivity of the sample by utilizing the
relation.
σ = t/RbA (1)
where A and t are the area and the thickness of the polymer electrolyte
samples, respectively.
The variation of AC conductivity (σ) as a function of AgClO4 composition in
PVdF at room temperature (298 K) and other different temperatures are given in
Table 3 and also composition wt% v s σ ac plot shows that 60:40 w% has
the highest conductivity as shown in Fig.5.
Fig 4: Shows Z’ Vs Z’’ Plots of complex impedance spectra a) PVdF +

AgClO4 (60:40) b) PVdF +AgClO4 (70:30)c) PVdF +AgClO4 (80:20)
Fig 5 shows: (composition wt% v s σ ac ) plot of [PVdF + AgClO4]

The following conclusions can be drawn:

¾¾ The conductivity of pure PVdF is approx. 10-10 S/cm at RT and its
value increases sharply to 10-6 S/cm on complexing with 20 wt %
AgClO4. The increment in conductivity turns out to be more slow on
further addition of AgClO4 to the polymer. The apex conductivity was
discovered to be 7.46 × 10-4 S/cm at 373 K for the 60 PVdF : 40 AgClO4
gel polymer electrolyte. This behaviour has been clarified by different
scientists, who have examined PEO based polymer electrolyte in the
context of ion association and the formation of charge multipliers [20-
22].
¾¾ The ionic conductivity in the polymer complexes may be interpreted
on the basis of a hoping mechanism between coordinating sites, local
structural relaxations and segmented motions of the polymer chains.
These are essential to assure high conductivity of the electrolyte. The
ionic conductivity values of these polymer electrolyte films at different
temperatures are given in Table-3.
Table 3 shows: Electrical conductivity data of all the electrolyte
systems studied at different temperatures
Conductivity (S.cm-1)
Gel Polymer electrolyte
298 K 328 K 358 K 373 K
PVdF 1.09´10-10 1.06´10-10 2.16´10-10 1.58´10-7
PVdF+AgClO4 (80:20) 2.11´10-6 1.31´10-5 1.44´10-5 1.90´10-4
PVdF+AgClO4 (70:30) 3.37´10-5 3.55´10-5 3.67´10-5 4.07´10-4
PVdF+AgClO4 (60:40) 4.20´10-5 4.36´10-5 4.99´10-5 7.46´10-4
TRANSFERENCE NUMBER
Total ionic transference number of gel polymer electrolyte has been
estimated by Wagner’s DC polarization method [16], which is utilized to
decide the ionic contribution to the absolute charge transport by estimating
the residual electronic current going through the electrolytes.
Three cells of Wagner polarization i.e., Ag//Polymer electrolyte//
(I2+C+electrolyte) were prepared by coating silver paste as blocking
electrode on to the faces of PVdF+AgClO4 based composition gel polymer
electrolyte systems.
A fixed little dc potential (1.5 V) has been applied across the blocking
terminals and the current going through the cells is estimated as a function
of time for one hour to allow the samples to become fully polarized are
shown in Fig. 6.
current(nA)pvdf+agclo4(60:40)
current(nA)pvdf+agclo4(80:20)
70
60
50
current(nA)
40
30
20
10
0 50 100 150 200 250
time(min)
Fig 6: Shows Polarization vs. time of a) PVdF +AgClO4 ( 60:40) b)

PVdF + AgClO4 ( 80:20)
Table 4 shows Transference number data of

present polymerelectrolyte systems
Transference number
Polymer electrolyte system
tion tele
Pure PVdF - -
PVdF + AgClO4 (80:20) 0.849 0.105
PVdF + AgClO4 (70:30) 0.93 0.07
PVdF + AgClO4 (60:40) 0.961 0.038
nitial total current (IT) which is the amount of ionic (Ii) and electronic
(Ie) flows (IT = Ii + Ie) and final current after polarization which is just
the electronic current (Ie) whaich are estimated. The ionic transference
number (tion) is determined utilizing the equation
ion = Ii/IT = (IT-Ie)/IT (2)
The ionic transference number for all the compositions of the (PVdF +
AgClO4) electrolyte system was shown in Table-4. The values of the ionic
transaction numbers (tI) are in the range 0.849-0.961 propose that the
charge transport in these polymer electrolyte frameworks is mainly ionic
joined by mass electronic and transport contribution to the total current is
negligible.
DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS:
The discharge characteristics are studied for every one of the cells at RT
with a steady load of 100 KΩ and are shown in Fig. 7. The thickness and
area of the electrolyte here are respectively 1.33 cm2 and 100 mm. The initial
sharp drop in the voltage could be due to the polarization effects/or the
formation of a thin layer of silver salt at the electrode-electrolyte interface
[23-26]. The open circuit (O.C.) voltage and short circuit (S.C.) current for
these cells are found to be 0.375V and 0.655 mA respectively. The other cell
parameters for these cells are evaluated and summarized in Table-5.
0.40 PVdF+AgClO4(80:20)
PVdF+AgClO4(70:30)
0.35 PVdF+AgClO4(60:40)
0.30
0.25
voltage in volts
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time in sec
Fig: 7 shows Voltage vs Time plots for a) PVdF+AgClO4 for compositions

(80:20) b) PVdF+AgClO4 for compositions (70:30), c) PVdF+AgClO4 for
compositions (60:40).
Table-5 shows Cell parameters of [PVdF+AgClO4] polymer

electrolytecell system.
PVdF+AgClO4 PVdF+AgClO4 PVdF+AgClO4

Cell parameters
(80:20) (70:30) (60:40)
Open Circuit Voltage 0.285 0.325 0.375
(OCV) (V)
Short circuit (SCC) (nA) 0.36 0.99 .655
Area (Cm2) 0.5024 0.5024 0.5024
Weight (gm) 1.21 1.26 1.30
Discharge Time (h) 12 24 25
Current Density (nA/ 0.7165 1.970 1.3037
Cm2)
Power Density (watt/kg) 84.7 255.3 188.94
Energy Density (watt-hr/ 1016.4 6127.2 4723.5
kg)
Based on present investigation, an electrochemical cell with(PVdF +AgClO4)

as a gel polymer electrolyte with improved efficiency is promising. Further
work pointed toward getting higher cell capacities and specific energy is
in progress.
CONCLUSION
The PVdF + AgClO4 gel polymer electrolyte films areprepared successfully.
XRD, IR spectroscopy affirms the arrangement of the polymer-salt complex.
An adjustment of melting temperature was seen on doping with AgClO4
in PVdF. The conductivity of (PVdF + AgClO4) (60:40) at RT was determined
to be 4.20x10-5 S/cm and at 373 K was 7.46× 10-4 S/cm. The ionic transport
number information in the PVdF+AgClO4 gel polymeric electrolyte films
demonstrate that the conduction is prevalently because of ions. The cell
parameters evaluated for the present cell suggest that the present gel
polymer electrolyte system is a worthy candidate for applications in solid
state battery.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors additionally wish to thank the administration of Koneru
Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF), Guntur, Andhra Pradesh for
initiating support throughout work. The authors are grateful for funding
from UGC-DAE Kalpakkam CSR-KN/CRS-120/2018-19/1058
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8
Applications of Nanotechnology in
Delivery of Pharmaceuticals
N. Venkata Naga Jyothi*, N. Sri Lakshmi,

Dr. P. Rajeswari**
Abstract
Nanoparticles are one-dimensional particles with a size ranging from 1 to 100nm.
In the nanometric scale, nanoparticles are divided into organic, inorganic, and
carbon-based particles, which have better qualities than bigger sizes of respective
materials. Because of their small size, nanoparticles have increased qualities
such as solubility and bioavailability, reducing toxicity, enhancing the release
of drugs. For research and commercial purposes, nanoparticles are synthesized
using a variety of technologies that are divided into three categories: physical,
chemical, and mechanical processes, all of which have improved dramatically
over time. This study provides an overview of applications of nanotechnology
in drugs and medications, dentistry, gene therapy, chemotherapy, diagnosis,
biomedical ways, cosmetics etc.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, Nano particles, Chemotherapy, Gene therapy.
* Assistant Professor, KL College of Pharmacy, KLEF deemed to be University,

Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh (Corresponding Author)
** Associate Professor, KL College of Pharmacy, KLEF deemed to be University,
Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh
Applications of Nanotechnology in Delivery of Pharmaceuticals 65
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology became a barrier of organic and biological sciences by
virtue of nanostructures, nano based drug delivery systems, nanomedicine
and nanophases at numerous fields of science [Liu Z, Tabakman et al ,2009,
Orive G et al, 2004, Razzacki SZ et al, 2004]. The word ‘nano’ is derived from
Latin word, which means dwarf. Nanomaterials described as a material
with particles ranging from and 100 nm in size, are made up of carbon,
metal, metal oxides or organic matter [Hasan S, 2015] which impacts the
frontiers of nanomedicine beginning from biosensors, microfluidics, drug
delivery, and microarray checks to tissue engineering [Arayne MS et al,
2007, Patra JK et al 2015, Joseph RR,et al, 2017]. Nanotechnology employs
healing agents at the nanoscale stage to broaden nanomedicines. The field
of biomedicine comprising nanobiotechnology, drug delivery, biosensors,
and tissue engineering has been powered through nanoparticles [Mirza AZ
et al, 2014]. Nano medicine has the characteristic of directing substances,
enhancing bioavailability, decreasing toxicity, further to modulating the
kinetics profile of the energetic principle. [Dourado D, 2020]
The important applications in pharmacy of nanotechnology is because of
size reduction. The major objectives of introducing nanotechnology are
improving solubility and bioavailability, reducing toxicity, enhancing
the release of drugs. Nanoparticles (NPs) found applications in delivery
of pharmaceuticals and medicine. Figure 1 illustrates applications of
nanoparticles
Figure١: Applications of Nano particles in various fields of

science [Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi et al, 2016]
APPLICATIONS IN DRUGS AND MEDICATIONS

Nano-sized inorganic particles, whether simple or complex, have unique
physical and chemical properties, and are becoming a more important
material in the creation of new nanodevices for a variety of physical,
biological, medicinal, and pharmacological applications (Loureiro et al.,
2016; Martis et al., 2012; Nikalje, 2015).
Because of their ability to deliver medications in the optimal dosage range,
NPs have received increasing interest from every discipline of medicine,
often resulting in higher therapeutic efficiency, decreased adverse effects,
and improved patient compliance (Alexis et al., 2008).
Magnetite (Fe3O4) and its oxidised counterpart maghemite (Fe2O3) are the
most often used iron oxide particles in biological applications (Ali et al.,
2016). The optical properties of NPs are used to choose them for producing
efficient contrast in biological and cell imaging applications, as well as
photothermal therapeutic applications. For the most often utilised classes
of NPs, such as Au NPs and silica-Au NPs, Mie theory and the discrete
dipole approximation approach can be used to compute absorption and
scattering efficiency as well as optical resonance wavelength.
Au nanorods and NPs (Jain et al., 2006), the creation of hydrophilic NPs as
drug carriers has been a significant problem in recent years. Polyethylene
oxide (PEO) and polylactic acid (PLA) NPs have emerged as particularly
promising systems for intravenous drug administration among the many
techniques (Calvo et al., 1997).
In vivo uses for super paramagnetic iron oxide NPs with appropriate
surface chemistry include MRI contrast enhancement, tissue healing,
immunoassay, detoxification of biological fluids, hyperthermia, medication
delivery, and cell separation.
The NPs must have a high magnetization value, a size of less than 100
nm, and a narrow particle size distribution for all of these biomedical
applications (Laurent et al., 2010).
Antigen-antibody interactions with antibodies tagged with fluorescent
dyes, enzymes, radioactive chemicals, or colloidal Au can be used to
identify analytes in tissue slices (Khlebtsov and Dykman, 2010b).
There has been a lot of interest in creating biodegradable NPs as effective
medication delivery vehicles during the last few decades (Zhang and
Saltzman, 2013). Drug delivery research has used a variety of polymers
because they can effectively carry medications to the target region,
increasing therapeutic effectiveness while limiting side effects. A primary
goal in the design of such devices has been the controlled release of
pharmacologically active medicines to the specific action site at the
therapeutically optimal degree and dose regimen.
Because of their enhanced surface plasmon resonance (SPR) light scattering

and absorption, most semiconductor and metallic NPs have enormous
potential for cancer diagnostics and therapy. The powerful absorbed light
is efficiently converted into localised heat by Au NPs, which can be used
for cancer photothermal therapy (Prashant et al., 2007).
In addition, the antineoplastic action of NPs is used to efficiently limit
tumour growth. The multi-hydroxylated [Gd@C82(OH)22]n NPs exhibited
good antineoplastic efficacy with low toxicity (Chen et al., 2005). Because
of its antibacterial properties, Ag NPs are increasingly being employed in
wound dressings, catheters, and other household products (AshaRani et
al., 2009).
Antimicrobial agents are essential in the textile, medical, water disinfection,
and food packaging industries. In comparison to organic chemicals, which
are relatively hazardous to biological systems, inorganic NPs’ antibacterial
properties lend greater potency to this critical component (Hajipour
et al., 2012). These NPs are functionalized with diverse groups in order
to specifically defeat microbial species. Because of their antibacterial
efficacies, TiO2, ZnO, BiVO4, Cu, and Ni-based NPs have been used in
this study (Akhavan et al., 2011; Pant et al., 2013; Qu et al., 2016; Yin et al.,
2016).
NANO TECHNOLOGY IN DENTISTRY
Nanotechnology plays an important role in dentistry materials. For
example, a nano-based indentation system was used to describe the
indentation stress-strain response of two types of dental ceramics, one
type of dental alloy, and healthy enamel (Ultra Micro Indentation System,
UMIS-2000, CSIRO, Australia).
Strong and durable materials with a predominantly elastic reaction, such
as toughened ceramics, were discovered to be essential for long-term
accuracy in dental crowns and bridges [Logothetidis, S. (Ed).2012, Bawa,
R. et al,2016]. Also, newly discovered nano-filled composite materials can
be employed to bond orthodontic brackets to teeth if their consistency is
sufficient to adhere to the bracket base [Logothetidis, S. (Ed).2012, Bawa,
R. et al,2016, Freitas Jr, R. A., 2000].
Another study looked at the effects of dental bleaching on micro- and
nano morphological modifications of the enamel surface and discovered
that when nano materials were utilised, the thickness of the enamel smear
layer was dramatically reduced as a result of the bleaching procedure
[Logothetidis, S. (Ed).2012, Bawa, R. et al,2016].
According to the literature, a study on the relative wear resistance of
many different types of denture teeth was conducted using an in vitro
wear testing instrument, which revealed that the nano-composite tooth
was harder and more wearresistant than the acrylic teeth [Logothetidis,
S. (Ed).2012]. Using nanomaterials, biotechnology (including tissue

engineering), and dental nanorobotics, nano-dentalistry will enable the
preservation of comprehensive oral health. It is now another important
discipline of medicine [Freitas Jr, R. A. 2000].
APPLICATIONS IN GENE THERAPY
At the moment, gene therapy is the most advanced treatment notion. Gene
therapy refers to the delivery of a nucleic acid construct, either locally or
systemically, to treat or prevent diseases. It also covers curing diseases
by altering the expression of genes responsible for the diseased condition.
This therapy holds forth potential for the treatment of chronic disorders
now a days [Logothetidis, S. (Ed).2012, Dobson, J., 2006,, ] Rajabi, M., et
al, 2016].
Nanobiotechnology has the potential to help with the complicated gene
therapy procedure. Currently, both biodegradable and non-biodegradable
inorganic particles with the properties of binding DNA, internalising
across the plasma membrane, and eventually releasing in the cytoplasm
for protein final expression can be entirely synthesised on the nanoscale.
In addition to the traditional approach (intravenous injection), researchers
are working on polymer-based nanoparticle (NP) technologies for oral gene
therapy [Logothetidis, S. (Ed.). 2012., Rajabi, M., et al, 2016]. Hatakeyama
et al. [Bawa, R. et al,2016, Rajabi, M., et al, 2016] have also reported on the
creation of a new systemic gene delivery system for cancer therapy using
a tumorspecific cleavable PEG-lipid.
NANOMEDICINE FOR THERAPY
Treatment is a major medical procedure. Although it is recommended that
diseases be prevented rather than treated, therapy for an existing disorder
is required [Emerich DF.,2005, Avti, P. K. et al, 2011, Lee, L. A., 2006 ].
Therapy might be either targeted or symptomatic, with the primary goal
of reducing the patient’s discomfort. For millennia, treatment has been
evolving at a rapid pace. Nanotherapy’s introduction into the medical
treatment sector has sparked new hope in medicine [Logothetidis, S. (Ed.).,
2012, Murthy, S. K.,2007, Pauwels, E. K., et al, 2007, Moghimi, S. M., et al,
2005].
The use of nanomaterials as a new addition to improve traditional therapy
protocols has the potential to be extremely advantageous [Logothetidis, S.
(Ed.)., 2012, Gulati, N., et al, 2012, Nakayama, M., et al, 2005] system. Nano-
pharmacology can be used in nano therapy, and it is seen as a promising
treatment option for diseases that are now incurable, such as cancer and
the human immunodeficiency virus [Dutta, R. C., 2007, Dobson, J., 2006].
NANOMATERIALS AND CHEMOTHERAPY

The use of novel nanomaterials in drug delivery has a number of
benefits, including improved drug solubility, stability, and half-life in the
bloodstream with minimal side effects on healthy cells.
Liposomes are a type of nanomaterial that consists of a phospholipid vesicle
with a bilayered membrane structure that has been widely employed to carry
anticancer medicines. For example, a PEGylated liposome can encapsulate
doxorubicin for treatment and have fluorophores or gadolinium surface-
functionalized for imaging [Lawrence, R. M., et al, 2004]
Despite the numerous treatments established over the last 30 years, cancer
remains the leading cause of death worldwide. Nanotechnology has aided
significant advancements in cancer treatment by allowing cancer cells
to be targeted, detected, and destroyed with minimal impact on healthy
tissues [Rajabi, M., et al , 2010]. Furthermore, compared to traditional
chemotherapy, nanotechnology-based delivery systems have various
advantages, such as delivering a greater dose of medications to tumor cells
and improving the solubility of poorly soluble pharmaceuticals [Bawa, R.,
et al, 2016, Sahoo, S. K.,et al, 2003].
When it comes to designing nanoparticles for cancer treatment, there
are two major difficulties to consider: identifying the tumor and the
nanomaterials’ capacity to reach the desired tumor site. In addition, well-
established and functionalized nanomaterials can provide novel benefits
for cancer therapy, such as improving the efficiency of medications
delivered to desired locations while lowering drug toxicity and side effects.
Functionalized nanomaterials should be able to transport a high
concentration of imaging or chemotherapeutic drugs, as well as target
moieties to the site of tumours related to blood arteries [Bawa, R., et al,
2016, Smith, D. J., 2007, Angeli, E., et al, 2008]. Some anticancer medications,
such as Doxorubicin (DOX), Cisplatin, and Cytarabine, have chemical
structures shown in Scheme 1. These compounds can be conjugated to
nanomaterials to enhance their bioavailability and water solubility [Rajabi,
M., et al 2016, Allen, T. M., et al, 2004].
It’s worth noting that the synthesis of 2-pyridone nucleus derivatives
is regarded as a difficult task for medicinal and synthetic chemists
because its derivatives have important biological and pharmacological
properties [Bhattacharyya, P., et al, 2012]. For example, to synthesise
3,4-dihydropyridin-2-one derivatives, a greener technique has been
employed, which has several limitations and advantages such as faster
reaction durations, simple work-up, and great yield [Bhattacharyya, P.,
et al, 2012, Heravi, M. M., et al, 2011]. Anticancer drugs, spasmolytics,
anticoagulants, and anti-anaphylactics were all employed with these
substances [Bhattacharyya, P., et al, 2012].
Curcumin has also been used in traditional medicine for a variety of

conditions, including wound healing, liver disorders, and urinary tract
infection, due to its anti-cancer characteristics. Novel nano formulations
of curcumin, such as nanoparticles, nano-lipids, chitosan, and nanofibers,
have been developed to improve the therapeutic potential of curcumin
in cancer prevention and treatment. Curcumin encased poly (lactic-co-
glycolic acid) with a particle size of 35-100 nm has shown remarkable
therapeutic effects on the prostate cancer cell line [Louis, H., et al, 2019].
Recent methods of curcumin preparation have used nanotechnology
and have shown the remarkable therapeutic effects of prepared NPs of
curcumin encased poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) with a particle size of 35-
100 nm and was more efficient on the prostate cancer cell line.
NANO PARTICLES IN BIOMEDICAL APPLICATION
Due to their ability to bind, absorb, and carry small molecule drugs,
DNA, RNA, and proteins with high efficiency, nanoparticles have unique
biological properties that can be used for disease detection, prevention,
and treatment, drug delivery, and gene therapy of cancer and pulmonary
diseases [S. R. D’Mello., et al, 2017, V. P. Nguyen, et al, 2021]. Indeed,
liposomal medication formulations (e.g., doxorubicin) have been
successfully employed to treat breast and ovarian malignancies, as well as
Kaposi’s sarcoma [A. Di Paolo, 2004].
When compared to conventional preparations, liposomal therapeutic
formulations for amphotericin and hamycin cancer medicines showed
substantially improved efficacy and safety [K. M. Tyner, et al, 2017].
Quantum dots are inorganic nanoparticles with a diameter of 2 to 10 nm
and a mass of 10–50 atoms [Y. Chu, et al 2019]. They have been used for the
detection and diagnosis of cancer cells in vivo due to their high sensitivity
and multi contrast imaging capabilities [K. J. Morrow, et al, 2007].
Furthermore, nano biosensors can be used to detect cancer-causing agents
early, such as environmental contaminants, viruses, and carcinogenic
gases [S. Sugumaran, et al, 2018, J. F. Buyel, 2018]. Nanomaterials have
been used as active ingredients (nanocrystals), excipients (drug-metal
complexes), drug carriers (liposomes), and complexes/conjugates (drug-
protein) in therapeutic formulations [S. R. D’Mello, et al, 2017].
Nanotechnology may offer nutritional health benefits in the future.
People with type 1 diabetes should be able to swallow a nano-engineered
biodegradable substance that contains insulin and can be released in
response to high blood glucose levels [N. A. Peppas , et al, 2006]. The use
of nanotechnology-derived anti-inflammatory medicines on the mucosal
lining of individuals with inflammatory bowel disease or Crohn’s disease
has also piqued curiosity. It’s also suggested that using nanotechnology
on particular nutrients will allow people to broaden their food tolerances
and choices.
APPLICATIONS IN DIAGNOSIS
At the single cell and molecular level, nanotechnologies can help clinicians
diagnose [Hulla, J. E., et al , 2015]. Silver nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles,
and quantum dots are the most commonly used nanoparticles. Other
nanotechnological gadgets for nanoscale manipulation, such as nanobio-
sensors, are potentially useful for prospective clinical applications [Jain,
K. K., 2004].
Furthermore, nanotechnologies will push the boundaries of current
molecular diagnostics and aid in point-of-care diagnostics, diagnostic-
therapeutic combinations, and the development of personalised medicine
[Bawa, R.,et al, 2016, Jain, K. K., 2004]. Even though the number of potential
diagnostic applications is not restricted, biomarker discovery, early cancer
diagnosis, and the detection of infectious germs are expected to be the
most important present applications [Jain, K. K., 2004, Brown, E. M. B.,
2014].
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN COSMETICS AND SUNSCREENS
The traditional UV protection sunscreen does not have long-term stability
when used. Sunscreen using nanoparticles, such as titanium dioxide, has
a number of benefits. Titanium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles’ UV
protection properties, which include being transparent to visible light
while both absorbing and reflecting UV rays, have led to their use in
some sunscreens. Iron oxide nanoparticles are used as a pigment in some
lipsticks [ Wiechers J W, et al, 2010].
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9
Nanoparticle in Anticorrosion Activity
Maheswari Pandiaraj* and Vijayalakshmi Gurusamy**
Abstract
Various methodologies are basically used to control corrosion. Corrosion
generally takes place with metals, alloys, polymers, woods, glass and ceramic
due to interaction of material with pollutants, industrial waste, municipal
waste, sea water, acid rains, chemicals, sunlight and heat. Coatings are the
most widely used to protect metals against corrosion. Nanomaterials have
higher corrosion inhibition properties because its surface to volume ratio has
increased. Methods are applied for corrosion control like surface treatment
techniques, nanocomposite thin film coating, top layer coating and thermal
barrier coating.
Keywords: Corrosion, Nanoparticles, Coating, Acid rain, Nanocomposite
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion has been a prominent study topic for almost 150 years, as it
is recognized as an issue that causes corrosion, failure, and catastrophic
accidents and dangers in many industrial processes and home systems
(Buchanan, 2000 and Baena, 2012). Corrosion is the corrosion of metals
caused by a corrosive element such as chlorine, fluorine, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, or other corrosive elements.
* Department of Microbiology, Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College,

Sivakasi, Tamilnadu (Corresponding Author)
** Department of Microbiology, Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College,
Sivakasi, Tamilnadu
Corrosion is a natural process that causes a substance to dissolve when

exposed to harsh surroundings. Corrosion is influenced by a number of
elements, the most significant of which are the material and the surrounding
environment. Specific environmental factors, such as dissolved gases,
temperature, pH, tensile strains, and cyclic 2 stresses, render the material
prone to corrosion. Uniform, galvanic, crevice, pitting, environmentally-
induced cracking, intergranular, dealloying, and erosion corrosion are
examples of corrosion mechanisms. The most common type of corrosion,
and the source of the greatest metal waste, is uniform corrosion (Jone,
1996).
Corrosion’s immediate consequences include the costs of preventing
and repairing damage to home appliances, highway bridges, vehicles,
aeroplanes, and industrial plants such as energy production and
distribution networks, petrochemical, desalination, and pharmaceutical
plants, among others. As a result, adequate corrosion prevention,
monitoring, and application of safety standards and procedures in these
areas can save 15–35 percent of corrosion losses (Koch et al., 2016).
Corrosion, in all of its forms, can cause catastrophic failures in critical
components of any process, such as bolts, flanges, pipelines, and so on
(Conroe, 2010). Corrosion may be avoided by doing the following: (a)
Material selection, where the material is either generally unreactive in
the galvanic series or can develop a protective oxide layer in a certain
environment; (b) Modifying environmental conditions, such as the addition
of inhibitors (Lamaka, 2017 and Rahmani, 2015), modifying the pH and
temperature of the surroundings, lowering the flow velocity, cleaning
from sand and silt, and so on; (c) Surface modifications, which is done by
adding physical barriers such as films and coatings to decrease fissures
and fractures (Calderón et al., 2016 and Telegdi et al., 2014); (d) Cathodic
protection, where the corrosion current is restrained and is pushed to flow
to the metal to be protected. It is done by employing a power source or
adding a more active substance to the structure to be protected (Wang et
al., 2015). (Wang et al., 2015).
There are several strategies for controlling and preventing corrosion
damage, such as mixing manufacturing fluids, upgrading materials,
chemical inhibitors, and many more (Wang et al., 2015 and Singh,
2014). Coating is the most common approach for avoiding, reducing, or
controlling corrosion. Coating, either on the inner or outer surfaces, can
be applied in a variety of temperature ranges; it even provides the added
benefit of smoother surfaces, which improves the efficiency of the interface
and flow on surfaces (Singh, 2014).
Coatings, in general, decrease corrosion by providing either passive (Van
Velso and Flannery, 2016) or active protection (Saji, 2012). Passive protection
is achieved when the coating establishes an oxide-based physical barrier
Nanoparticle in Anticorrosion Activity 77
between the substrate and the surrounding environment (Mingming et al.,

2006). When chemicals (inhibitors) are introduced to harsh conditions to
prevent or reduce corrosion, active protection is obtained. Inhibitors slow
down corrosion by either chemically absorbing on the metal’s surface or
forming a protective thin film over it, or by reacting with the corrosive
component in the aqueous media (Dariva and Galio, 2014) (Fig.1)
Fig. 1 Corrosion Protection Mechanisms
NANOPARTICLES IN CORROSION
Nanomaterials have recently been presented as an excellent corrosion-
reduction technology. Nanomaterials are materials with at least one of their
morphological properties, such as grain size, particle size, structure size,
and so on, at the nanoscale (less than 100 nm) (Saji, 2012). They might be
of zero dimension (nanoparticles), one dimension (nanotubes, nanowires,
and nanorods), or two dimensions (nanotubes, nanowires, and nanorods)
(nanoplatelet, nanosheets, and nanofilms). Nanomaterials have better
thermal, mechanical, physical, chemical, magnetic, electrical, and optical
characteristics than traditional materials. Nanomaterials are thought to
have promise for lowering the corrosion rate of metal substrates by surface
modification using nanocrystalline coatings (Bashir and Li , 2015).
A nanocoating is an ultrafine microstructure in which all elements are
smaller than 100 nm in size. As a result, nanostructured coatings have
distinct qualities than larger-grained, traditional coatings, allowing them
to overcome their counterparts’ mechanical and corrosion properties.
The component materials of nanocoatings, such as metallic and ceramic
nanocoatings, can be used to classify them. They can also be made up of
two or more nanoscale materials, as in nanocomposite coatings (Yousaf et
al., 2015).
Because of the very thin sizes of the particles employed in this nanocoating,
filling the voids and preventing corrosive elements from diffusing through
the surface of the substrate will be more efficient. Furthermore, the high de
Fig. 2 metallic Nanocoating

Metallic nanocoatings may be created using many techniques, including
sputtering (Lu et al., 2006) and multi-arc ion plating (Guan et al., 2015),
in addition to electrodeposition, which has been demonstrated to be the
most often utilised approach in metal deposition (Pramod Kumar et al.,
2015, Selvi et al., 2012, Espitia-Cabrera et al., 2003, Li et al., 2009). They have
numerous uses, including automotive, aerospace (Sriraman et al., 2012),
seawater condensers and tubes (Ghosh et al., 2006), electronic industries,
water electrolysis (Mosavat et al., 2012), energy generation (Feng et al.,
2015), and so on.
Nanotechnology is a fascinating, new, and rapidly expanding discipline
of science and engineering concerned with the design, manufacture, and
application of nanoscale materials (1–100 nm) (Karmakar et al., 2014 and
Brien et al., 2001). They’re also frequently employed as next-generation
corrosion inhibitors in a variety of electrolytes for various metals and
alloys (Saji et al., 2007: Saji and Cook, 2012) Nanomaterials and their
derivatives give extraordinarily large surface coverage, as opposed to
standard macroscopic materials, due to their extremely high surface-to-
volume proportion. This results in great protective efficiency (Bruder et al.,
2011, and Zhu et al., 2016). After being adsorbed, nanomaterials obstruct
the active sites that cause corrosive damage.
Nanomaterials provide good corrosion protection at low concentrations;
but, due to their poor solubility in aqueous-based electrolytes, their usage
is severely constrained. The tendency of nanoparticles to agglomerate
is another drawback of employing them as aqueous phase corrosion
inhibitors. Agglomeration is a characteristic in which solute molecules mix
to produce larger molecules (agglomerates). Agglomeration reduces the
solubility of nanomaterials in aqueous solutions (Pourhashem et al., 2017:
Jyotheender and Srivastava, 2019)
Nonetheless, nanoparticles are employed as anticorrosive coatings

in nanocomposites, coupled with polymer matrixes such as nylon,
polyimide, polystyrene, epoxy resin, poly (methyl methacrylate), and
others. Nanomaterials are utilised as nanofillers in polymer matrices at
concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 5% to improve corrosion resistance.
Nanomaterials are evenly dispersed in the polymer matrix and provide
great corrosion prevention efficiency at low concentration due to their
small particle size and large surface area.
Nanomaterials, obviously, block the surface micropores of the polymer
matrix, preventing corrosive species such as water, oxygen, and corrosive
ions from diffusing. It’s worth noting that the diffusion of these species
rips the surface protective polymer covering; as a result, the inclusion of
nanomaterials in polymer matrixes improves not only corrosion prevention
but also the durability of polymer-based anticorrosive coatings. (Dagdag
et al., 2019; Verma et al., 2020; Elmsellem et al., 2014). Overall, nanomaterial
adsorption on metallic surfaces may be separated into two phases. The
first stage is to transport nanomaterials from bulk solution to the metal
surface, and the second step is to absorb them via coordination bonding
(Verma et al., 2015).
In addition to chemical (coordination) bonding, functionalized
nanomaterials can interact with metallic surfaces via electrostatic
attraction. This is referred to as physisorption (Shihab et al., 2014). Because
of the adsorption of counter ions on positively charged metallic surfaces in
aqueous electrolytes, the metallic surface becomes negatively charged. On
the other hand, the protonation of heteroatoms in polar functional groups
causes inhibitor molecules (functionalized nanomaterials) to become
positively charged. These oppositely charged species were attracted to one
another through physisorption, or electrostatic attraction. The majority
of research shows that organic corrosion inhibitors adsorption mostly
follows a mixed-mode, physiochemisorption process (Berisha et al., 2011).
MESOPOROUS SILICA NANOPARTICLES (MSN)
Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles (MSN) are a class of materials that
have been studied extensively for a variety of applications, including
energy storage (Motahar et al., 20-14 and Chen et al., 2017), water and air
purification (Yin et al., 2012 and Guerritore et al., 2020), catalysis (Perego
and Millini, 2013 and Yang et al., 2012), Optoelectronics (Crossland et al.,
2013), drug delivery (Li et al., 2013 and Song et al., 2017), and smart release
of active agents (Shchukin and Möhwald, 2011; Manzano and Vallet-
Reg, 2020; Yeganeh et al., 2020) are all examples of smart release of active
agents. MSN has significant benefits for coating applications, including a
chemically stable structure, low reactivity, and compatibility with a wide
range of matrices (Hu et al., 2014 and Liu et al., 2018). Furthermore, MSN
are now relatively simply synthesised (Zhang et al., 2013), and their large
surface area and mesoporous structure make them particularly appealing

for adsorption and desorption applications (Everett, 1972; Castaldo et al.,
2017).
By appropriately adjusting the pH in the mesoporous silica nanoparticles
development, the condensation of silicon is improved in comparison to
the Stober method, enabling the production of Si–O–Si bonds rather than
Si–OH bonds (Chen et al., 2010). The holes are then generated by removing
the template from the nanoparticle structure by calcination or solvent
extraction. One of the most successful methods for loading corrosion
inhibitors into MSN is to mix the nanoparticles with a corrosion inhibitor
solution at low pressure. The lower pressure encourages the active
molecule’s penetration and physical adsorption into the MSN pores. The
solvent is then evaporated at the right temperature and pressure, leaving
the corrosion inhibitor in the pores (Borisova et al., 2011; Shchukina et al.,
2017; Albert et al., 2015).
Several studies on corrosion inhibitors loaded into mesostructures have
focused on benzotriazole (BTA), a very effective organic inhibitor with
high solubility in water and organic solvents (e.g. acetone) (Borisova et
al., 2011; Recloux et al., 2016; Changjean et al., 2014; Giuliani et al., 2018),
and mercaptobenzothiazole, another organic inhibitor in (Chenan
at al., 2014; Rahsepar et al., 2017; Borisova et al., 2013; Qiao et al., 2015).
8-hydroxyquinoline (Shchukina et al., 2017), PVP (Liu et al., 2017),
hydroxybenzotriazole (Ma et al., 2017), sulfamethazine (Yeganeh et al.,
2019), and dodecylamine (Falcón et al., 2016) are some of the other organic
inhibitors. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors have also been created by certain
researchers. The loading of sodium phosphomolybdate in MSN pores as
an environmentally friendly chemical was proposed by Zea et al., 2018.
Other inorganics, such as cerium nitrate hexahydrate, which was proposed
by ( Noiville et al., 2018.)
Light-responsive smart nanocarriers are an intriguing strategy for
releasing inhibitors. Light stimulation, unlike pH-sensitive devices, is not
dependent on the corrosion process and may thus be turned on and off as
needed. UV radiation causes the corrosion inhibitors to leak in the smart
nanocontainers produced by the company (Chen et al., 2015.)
Temperature is an external parameter, not directly connected to corrosion
events, as it is in light-dependent smart nanocarriers. Temperature-
responsive silica nanocontainers (Yang et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013) are not
well studied for corrosion applications and are mainly associated with
light irradiation (Skorb et al., 2009). Temperature, on the other hand, can
affect corrosion inhibitor release, as demonstrated by (Kermannezhad et
al., 2016), who demonstrated the ability to modify MBA release from pH-
dependent MSN in response to a temperature variation in the surrounding
environment, observing an increase in corrosion inhibitor release with
increasing temperature.
The coatings’ mechanical, thermomechanical, and barrier characteristics

have all been improved using nanostructured additions. 0D (Avella et
al., 2007), 1D (Lavorgna et al., 2013; Russo et al., 2013), and 2D (Taheri
and Sayyahi, 2016) nanostructured additives have been widely used for
mechanical and thermomechanical properties, with a typical approach
used in nanocomposites aimed at reducing polymer chain mobility and
increasing the elastic modulus of the polymer matrix. The most meaningful
impacts for barrier characteristics were produced utilising 2D nanoadditives
such lamellar clay (Voorn et al., 2009) or graphene derivatives (Castaldo et
al 2018; Yan et al., 2014). Then, other types of nanoparticles were employed
to impart unique physical–chemical properties, such as hydrophobicity
(Di Tullio et al., 2014), UV blocking (Girigoswamietal et al., 2015), and
antibacterial capabilities (Girigoswamietal et al., 2015). (Lavorgna et al.,
2014 and Cocca and Orazio, 2008).
In most cases, the smart coating’s efficacy was improved by increasing
nanoparticle dispersion in the coating and nanoparticle/coating interfacial
adhesion, both of which are important elements in obtaining high-
performance nanocomposite materials (Avolio et al., 2014, Piscitelli et al.,
2015; De Nicola et al., 2015). Relevant research for MSN also showed that
uniformly dispersed nanoparticles eliminate coating flaws, extending their
physical barrier efficacy (Fu et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2016) The inclusion
of nanoparticles, for example, increased corrosion resistance due to the
better morphological characteristics of the resultant coating, which was
smoother and more homogenous (Xie et al., 2017). Among the several
nanocarriers utilised in coating applications, MSN-based coatings have
lately attracted increased scientific interest. Most of the active compounds’
release mechanisms were defined and explored in the preceding sections,
and these enhanced coatings take use of them.
Alkyd resins can be used to make anticorrosive coatings, Alkyd resins
(Chen et al., 2015; Yeganeh and Saremi, 2015; Xu et al., 2018; Qian et al., 2019),
epoxy resins (Yeganeh et al., 2019; Rahsepar et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2020),
silicone, (Amini et al., 2020), polyesters, (Shchukina et al (Saremi, 2014).
As a result, evaluating the potential positive impacts of mesoporous silica
nanocarriers for anticorrosion requires validation and characterization of
these coating systems.
In contrast to coatings doped with inorganic active molecules, which
immediately react with the metal surface, the amount of corrosive
compounds produced by organic inhibitors is often modest after a
short period (Borisova et al., 2013). (Wang et al., 2017). The MPTMS
functionalization of MSN was motivated by (Alipour et al., 2017), who
claimed that the functionalization improves the coating’s barrier qualities
by lowering porosity and boosting adherence to the metal substrate by
increasing the coating’s hydrophobicity. Furthermore, hydrophobic
functionalization can increase the barrier characteristics of coatings
directly, lowering the rate of corrosion of the treated substrate (Ding et al.,
2016).
According to some studies, the use of MSN as smart nanocarriers may
not provide a significant benefit over the use of free inhibitor during early
stages of exposure to corrosive conditions due to sluggish inhibitor release
(Ding et al., 2017). Nonetheless, MSN exhibits a considerable advantage
in corrosion protection over time, indicating that the active coating is
more durable. MSN also acts as a barrier for the loaded molecules from
UV rays. For example, (Castaldo et al., 2020) showed that using MSN as
smart nanocarriers for corrosion inhibitors can extend the life of metal
protective coatings while also preventing the corrosion inhibitors from
photodegradation.
ZNO BASED NANOCOATING
Nanocoating techniques protect metallic substrates from corrosion by a
barrier, inhibitive, or anodically active metal action (Müler et al., 2017).
The Zn-based nanocoating’s protective mechanism is a galvanic action, in
which it is corroded sacrificially by oxygen and moisture from the coating
surface, forming ZnO as a corrosion product. This corrosion product has a
barrier effect that protects against corrosion.
Ramezanza et al. (2011) recently reported varying proportions of ZnO
nanoparticles (0, 2, 3.5, 5, and 6.5 wt percent) in the epoxy-polyamide
coating. In compared to the blank epoxy coating, the physical contact
between the nanoparticles and coatings resulted in better resistance to
hydrolytic degradation, according to the findings. Due to the increased
crosslinking density of the coating and the generation of corrosion product,
the barrier characteristics of the coating were greatly enhanced when ZnO
nanoparticles were added. When creating a ZnO-based nanocoating, the
size of the ZnO particles has a significant impact on the anticorrosion
capabilities of the nanocoating (Yang et al., 2005).
Nano-ZnO in the coating might increase its UV resistance as well as
its anticorrosion capabilities. There were many fractures and pinholes
on the surface of the alkyd-based water-borne coating after 110 hours
of UV exposure, but there were none on the surface of the ZnO-based
nanocoating (Dhoke et al., 2009). Nano-ZnO particles, which are generally
between 20 and 40 nm in size, may scatter UV radiation between 200
and 400 nm, giving the coating system strong UV blocking properties
without interacting with the UV light. It’s worth noting that the size of the
nanoparticles has a significant impact on UV resistance. Using modified
nano-ZnO particles in the coating as a superhydrophobic coating is
a simple and economical method (Das et al., 2018). Pure nano-ZnO has
traditionally been hydrophilic due to the presence of numerous hydroxyl
groups on its surface (Qing et al., 2015).
Qing et al., 2015, reported on the modification of nano-ZnO particles

with stearic acid to create hydrophobic nano-ZnO. The fluorinated
polysiloxane nano-ZnO nanocoating made with modified nano-ZnO
particles displayed superhydrophobicity with a WCA of 166°, whereas
the pure FPDHS coating exhibited hydrophobicity with a WCA of only
143°. Various techniques to developing superhydrophobic ZnO-based
nanocoatings, such as polydimethylsioxane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane,
and aminopropyltriethoxysilane, have recently been published (Velayi and
Norouzbeigi, 2018). Appropriate modification of ZnO-nanoparticles can
improve the coating’s hydrophobicity as well as its corrosion resistance; for
example, the corrosion rate of modified ZnO-based nanocoatings was 11-
fold lower than that of pure coatings. When creating a superhydrophobic
nanocoating, it’s worth noting that the coating’s superhydrophobic
properties improved as the surface roughness increased; nevertheless,
adding tiny size and the right quantity of nanoparticles is crucial for
achieving high surface roughness.
SiO2-Based Nanocoating
Silicon dioxide is a manufactured product as well as a mineral component.
It is one of the most complicated and plentiful families of materials. In
2002, the first commercially available surface-modified silica nanoparticles
were incorporated into epoxy resin using a modified sol-gel technique
and had a very narrow particle size distribution (Sprenger, 2013). On the
surface of the substrate, several metal-O-Si bonds were formed, which
improved not only the physical barrier effect but also the adhesive force
between the coating and the substrate. Silica’s intrinsic hardness and
chemical resistance, as well as its modification characteristics, enabling
nano-SiO2 particles in coatings to increase modulus, stiffness, toughness,
scratch resistance, and anti-corrosion capabilities.
Coating hydrophobicity plays a vital role in anti-corrosion in ZnO-based
nanocoatings, therefore nano-SiO2 modification, resulting in nanocoatings
with superhydrophobicity and improved compatibility, can considerably
enhance nanocoating corrosion resistance. The performance of several
nano-SiO2 based coating systems, such as electrodeposited oligoaniline
modified silica/epoxy coating (E-M-SiO2) and electrodeposited pure silica
coating/epoxy coating (E-P-SiO2), has recently been investigated (Ye et al.,
2018). Because superhydrophobicity may effectively block the diffusion of
corrosive media, the E-M-SiO2 coating outperformed E-SiO2 in terms of
corrosion resistance.
TIO 2-BASED NANOCOATING
Due to its readily available, relatively inexpensive, chemical stability, and
harmless nature, titanium dioxide, one of the most commonly occurring
oxides of titanium, has received a lot of attention (Munaf et al., 2015). It
has been widely used in a variety of fields such as paints, coatings, and
inks. Incorporating nano-TiO2 into coating systems can increase the

nanocoating’s protection and potentially give it self-cleaning capabilities.
According to Shen et al. (2005), coating the surface of 316L stainless steel
with a homogeneous TiO2 nanoparticles layer might significantly increase
its corrosion resistance qualities, with corrosion resistance improving
by three orders of magnitude. The protection mechanism of TiO2-based
nanocoating is that when nano-TiO2 is exposed to UV-irradiation, electrons
are generated in the coating, and the electrons are transferred to the metal
substrate, making its electrode potential less negative than its corrosion
potential, while TiO2 is not consumed. The anti-corrosion properties of a
nano-TiO2-based coating seem promising.
When compared to bare 316L, the pure TiO2-nanocoating somewhat
improved corrosion resistance, but the dopant-modified TiO2 coating
greatly improved corrosion resistance. This might be owing to the modified
nano-TiO2 coating’s removal of the light effect. Other study on nano-TiO2
particle modification to improve nanocoating corrosion resistance, such
as polypyrrole/Sn-doped TiO2, thermal oxidation, and incorporating
polyaniline into the coating system, has also been published (Krishna and
Sun, 2005; Radhakrishnan et al., 2009; Mahmoudian et al., 2011).
Normally, TiO2 is hydrophobic. When exposed to UV light, however,
it becomes both oleophilic and hydrophilic, lowering the organic liquid
angle or WCA until organic liquids or water droplets on the surface is
almost completely flattened. This characteristic keeps external debris from
directly reaching the coated surface, making stain removal easier. Based
on this performance, TiO2-based nanocoating was extensively employed
as a self-cleaning effect coating on glass, stone, and solar modules (Munaf
et al., 2015).
Spraying the nano-TiO2 product directly on the stone surface with
varying quantities produced a single-layer (SL) and three-layer (ML)
treatment nanocoating (Goffredo et al., 2013). Under UV irradiation, stains
on untreated surfaces did not degrade much; however photocatalytic
degradation of the strain was very quick for the SL and ML coatings, with
rhodamine B losing about half of its original colour after 4 hours. Because
TiO2-based nanocoatings are transparent, they may be used to preserve
architectural surfaces without affecting their appearance. Several studies
have been published on the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles into various
coating systems in order to improve self-cleaning performance (Kaplani
et al., 2015; Crupi et al., 2018). However, the current assessments of TiO2
self-cleaning efficiency require a more comprehensive methodology. The
system investigated the link between self-cleaning and the size or quantity
of nano-TiO2, however additional nano-TiO2 particle optimization and
coating life path extension remain a problem.
CARBON (GRAPHENE AND CARBON NANOTUBE)-BASED

NANOCOATING
Because of its intrinsic characteristics, such as high stiffness and
conductivity capacity, nanoscale carbon, graphene, and CNT have
prospective uses as nanocoatings in materials protection (Hu et al., 2014).
(Chen et al., 2011) revealed that as-grown graphen was successfully
employed to shield the surface of a Cu or Cu/Ni alloy metallic growth
substrate from air oxidation for the first time. The metal underneath the
coated graphene was passivated, providing an inserted block between
the reactants and the protected metal. Apart from oxidation resistance,
graphene-based nanocoatings may also improve the thermal stability
and corrosion resistance of materials. (Kwon et al) layered graphene and
metal-chloride-doped graphene over a 25 um thick copper foil with nearly
little chlorine evaporation, and the doped condition was retained even
after thermal annealing (Kwon and Kim, 2014). (Yu et al., 2016) applied
graphene, generally metronidazole modified graphene oxide, to a metal
surface, resulting in a corrosion-resistant material that outperformed bare
metal (Fig.3).
Fig. 3 MWCNT based epoxy coating

It should be noted that while graphene provides an excellent oxidation
barrier in the near term, on a long-term scale, graphene actually promotes
metal corrosion rather than preventing it. (Schriver et al., 2013) examined
the sample surfaces of bare Cu and graphene-coated Cu for up to 2 years
in ambient settings. After two years, the data indicated that the bare Cu
had a little colour change. Within one week, the graphene-protected Cu
was gleaming and devoid of oxide. However, after one month, the surface
began to tarnish unevenly in small places, eventually leading to significant
oxide levels after five months. After 18 months, there was a lot of oxidation
across almost the whole surface. Stress and splitting of the oxidation layer
are commonly caused by non-uniform oxidation or flaws in graphene,
which offers a new path for corrosion.
Furthermore, monolayer graphene frequently displayed wetting
transparency (Hu et al., 2014). As a result of these qualities, monolayer
graphene has poor protective properties. Multi-layered graphene or
nanocomposite, such as a combination with epoxy, were utilised to solve
this issue, and they exhibited strong protective performance (Rafiee et al.,
2012; Tang et al., 2013). (Yang et al 2017) investigated an epoxy coating
on a copper substrate modified with a fluorographene nanosheet, which
demonstrated superhydrophobicity with a WCA of up to 154°. (Yang
et al., 2017). The uneven microstructure created by randomly layered
fluorographene was attributed to the superhydrophobicity of this
nanocoating (Fig.4).
Allotropes of graphene, such as carbon nanotubes, have been employed in
coatings to improve anti-oxidation and corrosion resistance. According to
recent research, CNT-based nanocoatings perform similarly to graphene-
based nanocoatings in terms of protection (Janas and Koziol, 2013). In
many circumstances, carbon nanotubes not only operate as a physical
barrier to corrosion, but they also increase electrochemical anti-oxidation
capabilities (Ates, 2016). Frankel’s group reported on epoxy composite
coatings loaded with various multiwalled CNT contents, indicating that
multiwalled CNT can increase coating performance such as adhesion
strength, wear resistance, and overall impedance augmentation (Khun et
al., 2013).
Fig.4 Carbon based Nanocoating

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10
Nano Technology in Agriculture
Dr. B Gayathri*
Before entering the topic, let’s have a look at “What is nano technology?”
Nano technology is nothing but the use of matter on an atomic, molecular
and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes i.e., application of
extremely small things that can be used across all the other science fields,
such as chemistry, biology, physics, material science and engineering.
Now it is also emerging in the field of agriculture.
Now let’s get into our topic, Nano Technology in Agriculture.
1. USE OF NANO TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture has always been the backbone of the developing countries.
Let’s see some of the applications of nano technology in agriculture
1.1 Potential Applications

¾¾ Increase the productivity using nano-pesticides and nano fertilizers.
¾¾ Improve the soil quality using nano-zeolites and hydrogels.
¾¾ Stimulate crop growth using nanomaterials.
¾¾ Provide smart monitoring using nano-sensors by wiring communication
devices.
* Associate Professor, Department. of Computer Science, Bishop Heber College,

Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu
Nano Technology in Agriculture 99
Fig:1.1: Nano-Sensor
1.2. In Tillage
¾¾ Mechanical tillage practice improves soil structure and increases
porosity which leads to better distribution of soil aggregates.
¾¾ Nano-materials usage increases soil PH and soil structure.
¾¾ It also reduces mobility, availability and toxicity pf heavy metals
besides reducing soil erosion.
Fig:1.2(Tillage) Fig:1.2(Soil PH)
1.3. In Seed Science

¾¾ It is self eternal biological entity that is able to survive in harsh
environment on its own.
¾¾ Nano technology can be used to tackle the full potential of seeds.
1.4. In Water Use
¾¾ Water purification using nano technology exploits nano scopic
materials such as carbon nanotubes and alumina filters for nano-
filtration.
¾¾ It utilizes the existence of nanoscopic pores in zeolite filtration
membranes, nanocatalysts and magnetic nanoparticles.
Fig:1.4(Carbon Nanotubes) Fig:1.5(Alumina Filters)
1.5. In Fertilizers
¾¾ Fertilizers have playes a pivatol role in enhancing the food grain
production in India.
¾¾ Eventhough there is a great success in grain yeild, more crops have
been facing an imbalanced fertilization and decline in organic matter
content of soils.
¾¾ Nano materials can increase crop yeild by increasing fertilizer nutrient
availability in soil and nutrient uptake by plants.
1.6. In Plant Protection
¾¾ Nano encapsulation comprises, nano-sized particles of the active
ingredients being sealed by a thin-walled sac or shell (protective
coating).
¾¾ Nano encapsulation of insecticides, fungicides or nematicides will
help in producing a formulation which offers effective control of pests
while preventing accumulation of residues in soil.
1.7. In Weed Management
¾¾ Weeds are unwanted plants that grows with crops. Weeds are not
good for the crops because they compete the nutrients, sunlight,etc..
¾¾ Using nanotechnology in weed managements, would boost potency,
increase solubility and diminish the amount of product used and
toxicity of herbicide or pesticides treatments.
Fig:1.6 (Weed Plant)

2. NANO PARTICLES USED IN THE AGRICULTURAL

SECTOR
Several nanoparticles are commercially used in agriculture. Some of the
commonly used nano-particles are listed below.
2.1. Polymeric Nanoparticles
In the agricultural sector, polymeric nanoparticles are used in the delivery
of agrochemicals in a slow and controlled manner. Some of the advantages
of polymeric nanoparticles are their superior biocompatibility and minimal
impact on non-targeted organisms.
Eg: polyethylene glycol, poly(epsilon-caprolactone),etc..
2.2. Silver Nanoparticles
Silver nanoparticles are extensively used for their antimicrobial property
against a wide range of phytopathogens. Scientists also reported that silver
nanoparticles enhance plant growth.
2.3. Nano Alumino Silicates
Many chemical companies use nano alumino-silicate formulations as an
efficient pesticide.
2.4. Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
These nanoparticles are biocompatibile and are used as a disinfecting
agent for water.
2.5. Carbon Nano-Materials
Carbon nanoparticles such as graphene, graphene oxide, carbon dots, and
fullerenes are used for improved seed germination.
Polymeric Silver Nano Alumino

Nanoparticles Nanoparticles Silicates
Fig:2.4(TiO2) Fig:2.5(Carbon Nanoparticles)

FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF THE CROP PRODUCTIVITY:
2.6. Nanopesticides and Nanoherbicides

The application of nanoherbicides and nanopesticides of the mangaement
of weed and pests have significantly increased crop productivity. Different
types of nanoparticles such as polymeric nanoparticles and inorganic
nanoparticles are utilized for the nanoherbicide formulations.
EG: Poly(epsiloncaprolactone) , a herbicide which encapsulate atrazine.
2.7. Nanomaterials for Disease Management
Huge agricultural losses are incurred annually owig to
microbial(virus,fungus,and bacteria) infections. Nanomaterials with
specific antimicrobial properties help prevent microbial infestations. Some
of the commonpathogenic fungi that causes diseases are Colltorichum
gloeosporiodes, Fusarium oxysporum,Fusarium solani and Dematophora
necatrix.
Fig: 2.6 Colletorichum Fig: 2.7 Fusarium oxysporum
Fig: 2.8 Fusarium solani Fig: 2.9 Dematophora necatrix
2.8. Nanofertilizers
Scientists have used nanotechnology to design a smart delivery system that
would release nutrients in a slow and controlled manner to the targeted
slide to tackle nutrient deficiencyin plants.Nanofertilizers increase crop
productivity by enhancing the avilability of essential nutrients to the plant.
2.9. Nanobiosensors
Nanobiosensors are highly senstive and specific when compared to
conventional biosensors. These devices convert biological responses to
electrical responses via a microprocessor.
Nanobiosensorvsoffer a real-time signal monitoring and are invloved
in direct or indirect detection of pathogenic microorganisms, antibiotic
resistance, pesticides, toxin, and heavy metal contaminants. This
technology is also used to monitor crop stress, soil health, plant, growth,
nutrient content and food quality.
Fig:2.10(Microprocessor)
3. TECHNIQUES USED IN AGRICULTURAL

NANOTECHNOLOGY
3.1. Precision Farming

¾¾ Precision farming has been a long-desired goal to maximize output
(i.e,crop yeilds) while minimizing input (i.e. fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, etc.) through monitoring environmental variables and
applying targeted action.
¾¾ It helps to reduce agricultural waste and thus keep environmental
pollution minimum.
¾¾ It enhance productivity in agriculture.
¾¾ It has very less chance of pathogens attack.
3.2. Electro Spinning
¾¾ Electro spinning has the unique ability to produce nanofibres of
different materials in various fibrous assemblies.
¾¾ The fibrous network is used as a physical barrier to keep out the pests
or it may be loaded with active chemicals.
¾¾ Electrospun nanofibres have biocompatibility, adhesiveness, sterile
nature, and their efficiency in diverse applictions.
Fig: 3.1 Electrospun Nanofibre
4. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF AGRICULTURAL

NANOTECHNOLOGY
4.1. Sustainable Farming

The following are some of the statergies devised for sustainable farming
using agricultural nanotechnology:
¾¾ Controlled green synthesis of nanoparticles,
¾¾ Understanding of nanoparticles produced by root endophytes and
mycorrhizal fungi, which play an important role in plant productivity
and disease management.
¾¾ Interaction of nanoparticles with plant system such as transport
mechanism of nanoparticles inside plant body.
¾¾ Critical evaluation of the negative side effects of nanoparticles on
different environmental conditions.
¾¾ Development of portable and user-friendly nanobiosensors for raid
analysis of soil, plants, water and pesticides.
4.2. In Food Industry
¾¾ Nano-based formulations and smart delivery systems of agrochemicals
such as pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and nanosensors to monitor
soil conditions and crop growth.
¾¾ Encapsulated food ingerdients and nano-based smart delivery

system for targeted delivery of food additives and nanobiosensors for
monoitoring food quality and safety.
¾¾ Nano-based food packaging, such as active packaging, smart
packaging, biodegradable packaging and edible nanolaminates to
protect decline of the food, extends the shell-life and maintains the
quality and safety of food.
¾¾ Nanofiltration of drinking and wastewater by the treatment techniques
using membranes and filters incorporated with nanomaterials,
such as carbon nanotubes, nanoporous ceramics and magnetic
nanoparticles,etc.
Fig: 4.1 Nanotech in Food Science
CONCLUSION
Agriculture is an environmentally costly technology. A growing population
and adverse climate conditions increases the need to use fertilizers
and pesticides. These however, tend to be very inefficient, resulting in
potentially toxic substances being released into the environment in large
amounts. The principle is simple: because nanomaterials are so small, they
can release the desired substance locally, thus reducing waste.
Although advances in science and applications are crucial for the
development of nanotechnology, it is also essential to assess how exactly
the use of nanomaterials is going to provide advantages with respect to
other approaches. We can now be more confident that if properly designed,
nanoparticles can really provide solutions to challenges in agriculture.
REFERENCE
1. Use of Nanotechnology in Agriculture: http://courseware.cutm.ac.in/wp-
content/uploads/2020/05/L16-Use -of-Nanotechnology-in-Agriculture-PPT.
pdf
2. Nanoparticles used in the agriculture: By DR. Priyom Bose, Ph.D. Feb 8 2021|
https://www.azanano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5647
3. Techniques used in Nanotechnology in Agriculture: By Will Soutter, MSc.
Green Chemistry. Jan2 2013| https://www.azonano.com/authors/will-soutter
4. Future Prospects of Agricultural Nanotechnology: By Dr. Priyom Bose, Ph.D.
Feb 8 2021| https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5647
11
Structural, Optical & Thermal
Characteristics of Ca2MgSi2O7: Ce3+ Phosphor
Shashank Sharma* & Sanjay Kumar Dubey**
Abstract
In present study, violet-blue emission Ca2MgSi2O7: Ce3+ phosphor were
synthesized via conventional solid-state reaction. The XRD pattern of this
phosphor revealed that its tetragonal, akermanite structure with a space group
P¯421m. The average crystallite size (D) is calculated as 27.79nm and lattice
strain as 0.28. PL characteristics and CIE chromaticity diagram have been
displayed violet-blue light emission. In TL spectra, the optimum TL intensity
obtained at 109.190C temperature with single TL glow peak. On the basis of
TL glow curve, it can be suggested that Ca2MgSi2O7: Ce3+ phosphor is a better
TL phosphor and can be used for dosimerty application. In our study, we have
focused on the XRD, PL and TL properties.
Keywords: X-ray diffraction (XRD), Ca2MgSi2O7: Ce3+, Ca2MgSi2O7 (CMS)
Photoluminescence (PL), CIE chromaticity Diagram and Thermo-luminescence
(TL).
Introduction
Mellite are a large group of compounds which characterized through the
common structure formula M2T1T22O7, [where M= Barium (Ba), Strontium
(Sr), Calcium (Ca); T1= Magnesium (Mg), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu),
Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co); T2 = Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si)], have
been extensively studied in the form of optical materials [1, 2]. Silicates
have been broadly studied because of their high thermal, excellent water
* Dept. of Physics, Kalinga University, Naya Raipur, Chhattisgarh

** Dept. of Physics, Kalinga University, Naya Raipur, Chhattisgarh
resistance, chemical stabilities, cheaper and strong absorption in the near

ultra-violet [UV] region [3]. Thermo-luminescence is observed under three
conditions: (1) Phosphors must be either semiconductor or insulator (2)
TL emission is released by heating the material. (3) The material ability
to store the energy after radiation exposure [4]. Among the rare-earth
ions, Ce and Eu ions have been often selected owing to their efficient 5d-
4f transitions; so actually many Ce-doped and Eu-doped materials have
been studied as scintillators [5]. Ca2MgSi2O7, which is one of the melilite
compounds, have been studied as phosphors for applications including
white LEDs [6, 7]. In vivo and in vitro observation of a CMS bio-ceramic
for bone regeneration displayed that the akermanite extract promoted
proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. The akermanite might be a
probable and tempting bio-ceramic for tissue engineering applications [9-
12]. Commercially, white light is mostly obtained through the combination
of blue LED chip and yellow emitting YAG: Ce3+ phosphors [13].
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1 Material synthesis

CMS: Ce3+ phosphor were prepared by high temperature solid-state
synthesis, shown in fig; 2. AR grade with (99.9 %) purity, CaCO3, MgO, SiO2
and Ce2O3 were used as starting materials. Very little amount of boric acid
(H3BO3) was used as a flux. All raw materials were mixed homogeneously
with the help of very little amount of acetone (CH3COCH3) and grinded
thoroughly for 3 hour using the agate mortar and pestle in clock wise
direction and transferred into alumina crucible, further kept into muffle
furnace. The heating as well as the cooling rate of the furnace were set
at 5°C per minute. Thereafter, mixed materials were fired at 1100°C for 3
h in air. The final products in powder forms [Fig: 1] were obtained after
additional grinding up to 1 hour. The resulting sample was restored in
airtight bottle for characterization studies.
The reagents reaction process is given as follows:
8CaCO3+ 4MgO+ 8SiO2*H2O+ 2Ce2O3 → 4Ca2MgSi2O7:Ce3++ 8CO2
(↑) + 8H2O (↑) + 3O2 (↑)
(1)
Fig; 1 CMS: Ce3+ Phosphor

Structural, Optical & Thermal Characteristics of Ca2MgSi2o7: Ce3+ Phosphor 109
2.2 Material Characterization

XRD measurements were carried out for the phase identification in
powder samples using Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer with Cu
Kα radiation (λ = 1.54 Å, 40 kV, 40 mA) at room temperature. PL spectra
were recorded by a spectro-fluorophotometer (SHIMADZU, RF-5301 PC)
using a xenon lamp of power 150 watt as excitation source. The TL spectra
of the phosphor were recorded by Nucleonix TLD reader. All experiments
were performed in identical conditions and it was observed that the results
were reproducible.
Fig: 2 Experimental Procedures of CMS: Ce3+ Phosphor

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

The XRD data [Fig: 3] is recorded in the range (100\2θ\800). The phase
formation and intensity of diffraction peaks of this phosphor is well
matched with standard JCPDS # 77-1149 [14]. The standard Ca2MgSi2O7:
Ce3+ structure cell volume and lattice parameters are observed from data
base code AMCSD 0008032 [15]. All parameters of this phosphor are
shown in Table no. 1. Therefore, Ce3+ ion is expected to occupy the Ca2+
sites in the CMS (Ca2MgSi2O7) host. We observe that the addition of Ce3+
ion did not any change the structure of this prepared phosphor. This phase
structure are demonstrates akermanite type structure which belongs to
the tetragonal crystal symmetry with space group P4̅21m. This acquired
structure is a member of the melilite group and forms a layered compound.
Fig: 3 XRD Patterns of CMS: Ce3+ Phosphor
3.1.1 Debye–Scherrer Formula

The average crystallite size (D) was calculated with the help of Debye–
Scherrer formula. Debye–Scherrer formula is represented in mathematical
equation as follows [16].
D= Kλ/βCosθ(3)
Where K = 0.94 (Scherrer constant), λ = 1.5406 Å, θ is the corresponding
Braggs diffraction angle and β is the FWHM (Full width half maximum)
of the peaks.
3.1.2 Strain Determination by Uniform Deformation Model (UDM)
The strain induced broadening in the powder material was calculated via
the following mathematical relation given as below:
0 ε = β/4tanθ (4)
The strain is calculated as 0.28.
Table: 1 According to prominent peak (211), position of the peak of the

XRD patterns and the calculated values of parameter
3.2 Photoluminescence Properties

The PL excitation and emission spectra were recorded in the range of (220-
360nm) and (320-500nm) wavelengths which are presented in the fig 4(a)
& 4(b) respectively. In fig.4 (a), the PL excitation spectra of Ce3+ ions in
the CMS host lattice, monitored at 392nm, exhibits broad band emission
peaks situated at 281nm and 328nm wavelengths, which correspond to
transitions from the ground state to the different crystal field splitting
levels of the 5d1 state for Ce3+. Ce3+ cation has only one outer electron and
only two spin-orbital splitting 4f states via 2F5/2 and 2F7/2; it has a very simple
stimulated state energy structure as compared to other rare earth ion.
Fig: 4(a) The Excitation Spectra of CMS: Ce3+ Phosphor

Fig: 4(b) The Emission Spectra of CMS: Ce3+ Phosphor

In fig 4(b), this phosphor displays a broad emission band centred at 392nm.
This emission band was obtained because of the 5d1 to 4f1 transition of Ce3+
ions. This phosphor is emitting light in the violet-blue region and hence it
may be utilized as blue light emitting (LED) phosphor. The emission spectra
have been displayed that the sharp emission peak at 392nm for 281nm
excitation wavelength which are allocated to the 5d-4f transition of Ce3+
ion. The optimum PL intensity was obtained with 4 mol % concentration
of Ce3+ ion [17].
CIE Chromaticity Co-ordinate Diagram
The color co-ordinates of Ca2MgSi2O7: Ce3+ phosphor are shown in Fig: 5.
The values of X and Y CIE co-ordinates of the system were calculated to
be X=0.1896 and Y=0.1248 respectively. It is very clear that the color co-
ordinates of the prepared phosphors fall in the violet-blue region.
Fig: 5. CIE Chromaticity Diagram of Ca2MgSi2O7: Ce3+ Phosphor

3.3 Thermo-luminescence Characteristics

The TL glow curve of CMS: Ce3+ (4 mol %) at a heating rate of 50Cs-1 with 15
min UV dosing is displayed in fig (7). The major TL glow peak was found
at 109.190C temperature. It is the most significant to note that in addition
to using the correct do-pant concentration; it is possible to maximize
the thermo-luminescence [TL] efficiency and it’s improve sensitivity.
Besides, the dose linearity for a specific irradiation type can be utilized for
dosimerty applications [18]. Based on observation, it is predicted that with
the increasing UV irradiation time. Simultaneously, the charge carriers
are liberated in large amount. These charge carriers that are responsible
for increases in trap density, results in increase of TL intensity. It can be
expected that the density of charge carrier may be increasing as the TL
intensity increases. But, after a specific UV exposure time (15 min), traps
density begins to dissipate resulting in a decrease in TL intensity [19].
Calculation of Kinetic Parameters
Thermo-luminescence materials represent glow curves with one or more
peaks, in case, when the charge carriers are liberated. The TL glow curve of
a phosphor mainly depends on the kinetic parameters which include [Trap
Depth or Activation Energy E], [Frequency Factor S] and [Order of Kinetics
b]. There are various methods for determining the kinetic parameters from
TL glow curves with the help of peak shape method.
Fig: 6 Types of Kinetic Parameters
ORDER OF KINETICS [B]

It is clearly depends on the peak shape of TL glow curve. The mechanism
of recombination of de-trapped charge carriers with their counterparts is
called as the order of kinetics [b]. The kinetic order for glow peak of CMS:
Ce3+ phosphor can be determined via calculating geometrical factor µg
from the mathematical relation as follows:
(4)
Where Tm is the optimum peak temperature, T1 and T2 are temperatures
at half intensity on the ascending and descending parts of the glow peak,
respectively.
Table: 2 Order of Kinetics
Activation Energy (E)

The activation energy [E] or trap depth can be determined by the general
formula, which is valid for any kinetics. It is given by mathematical relation
as follows:
(5)
Table: 3 For general order kinetics, the values of
the Cα and bα (α = τ, δ, ω)
FREQUENCY FACTOR (S)

After obtaining the order of kinetics [b] and activation energy [E], the
frequency factor [S] can be determined with the help of the following
mathematical relation through replacing the values of E and b:
(6)
Where k is Boltzmann constant, E is activation energy, b is an order of
kinetics, Tm is a temperature of peak position, and β is the heating rate. In
the present work β = 50Cs −1 [20, 21].
Table: 4 Kinetic Parameters
The effect of 15min UV exposure on the CMS: Ce3+ phosphor and its
different TL parameters are calculated [Table no. 4]. In our TL experimental
case, geometric shape factor (µg) is calculated as 0.53, which signs that it
is a case of second order kinetics. Due to, it is responsible for deeper trap
depth [22].
Fig: 7 TL Glow Curves of CMS: Ce3+ Phosphor
CONCLUSION
In summary, CMS: Ce3+ phosphor was successfully synthesized via a high–
temperature solid-state reaction route. The analysis of XRD patterns reveals
that the identified phase structure was tetragonal, akermanite with a space
group P¯421m. The average crystallite size (D) is calculated as 27.79nm and
lattice strain as 0.28. PL spectra displayed this phosphor is emitting light
in the violet-blue region and it is confirmed by CIE chromaticity diagram,
and hence it may be utilized as blue LED phosphor. Thus, we can say
that in practice the cerium cation increases strong absorption in the near
ultra-violet [UV] region, which helps to preserve the charge carrier at trap
depth. The TL glow curve peak was allocated at 109.19oC temperature
respectively. This phosphor may be a good TL phosphor and can also be
used for dosimerty application.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are also thankful to kind support for the facility of XRD analysis
Dept. of Metallurgical Engineering, NIT Raipur (C.G.) and Dept of
physics, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur (C.G.) for providing
us the facility of TL and PL analysis. We are also heartily grateful to Dept.
of physics, Dr. Radha Bai, Govt. Navin Girls College Mathpara Raipur
(C.G.), providing the facility of muffle furnace and other essential research
equipments.
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Sr2MgSi2O7: Eu2+ phosphors. Journal of luminescence, 129(11), 1239-1241.
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12
An Approach of Nanostructured Lipid Carrier
for Promising Transdermal Drug Delivery
Laxmidhar Sahoo* & Dr. Chandra sekhar Patro**
Abstract
The application of the drug to the skin is a type of drug administration. As the skin
is the largest prominent organ, it attracts considerable interest in the research
fraternity to choose it as an alternative route of drug administration. This route
is the most suitable path for local as well as systemic delivery of the drug. As skin
acts as a barrier for entry of many drugs, thus it opens the need for research for
drug carriers which must be safe as well as to produce a therapeutic response of
drug is the area of concern for researchers. So, the Nanostructured lipid carrier
(NLC) system is one step ahead in this regard. This carrier system is composed
of solid & liquid lipid as a physiologically compatible core matrix. Because of its
good advantages like solubility enhancement, increase permeability, improving
stability factor, better bioavailability, and having target delivery, it acts as a
promising novel carrier system for drug delivery. The present topic focused
on the discussion of areas such as NLC need, information on different lipids
as part of the formulation, methods of preparation & characterization, skin
penetration which will make updates to the learners for easy understanding &
its application in the formulation.
Keywords: Nanostructured Lipid carrier, Skin penetration, Target delivery,
Solid lipid and Liquid lipid
* Research Scholar, centurion University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

** Professor, School of Pharmacy, Centurion University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
AnApproachofNanostructuredLipidCarrierforPromisingTransdermalDrugDelivery 119
INTRODUCTION
Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) is a drug delivery system consisting
of a mixture of solid along with liquid lipids, to form a lipid core matrix
that is stabilized by using surfactants of particle size in the range of 10-
1000 nm. [Khurana S et al., 2012; Mangesh B R et al., 2016]. The use of
liquid lipids to the matrix of solid lipid can make high imperfections to
the crystal lattice and ultimately improve the capacity of drug loading
and decrease drug expulsion while storing it[Muller R H et al., 2000]. The
primary principle involved in the selection of lipid for the manufacture of
Nanostructured lipid carriers is drug solubility study in a different type of
lipids, drug partitioning behavior in solid as well as liquid lipid & study of
the compatibility of different lipid mixtures [Patel Dilip et al., 2012].
Topical drug delivery is a promising area for NLC: since a long year back
drugs used by a topical route, but many limitations are observed such
as low uptake & low absorption into the systemic circulation. So, many
researchers put their effort to find out suitable carriers like solid lipid
nanocarrier and Nanostructured lipid carriers. From the above-mentioned
carriers, NLC was reported that as an effective carrier in the field of
pharmaceuticals & topical cosmetics also. The nanosized particles improve
contact with the upper layer of skin results in better penetration of drug
molecules. One more thing the researcher reported is that the occlusive
effect of nanoparticles leads to hydration of the skin which is required for
drug penetration.[ Muller R H et al 2002]
NLC is a promising vehicle for dermal delivery of drug: In the recent era
technology of nanoparticles are the rapidly growing trend for drug delivery
by the transdermal route. Many drug formulations with nanocarrier are
successfully delivered by dermal application. The lipid nanocarriers are
having many more advantages as compared with conventional topical
dosage forms like the use of non-irritant and biodegradable lipid. Because
of nanosize (10-500nm) carrier, it has more ability to contact with lipid
layer of stratum corneum and penetrates to the deeper layer of skin. Nano-
formulations of lipid can improve the dispersion of BCS class-II drugs and
enhance the drug dissolution rate [Montenegro L et al., 2016, Wissing AS et
al.,2003, . Jaiswal P et al.,2003].
Need of NLC:[ Patel Dilip K et al., 2013, Purohit DK et al 2016]
Figure 1: Indicating needs of NLC

Structure of NLC: The structure of NLC is categorized into 3 groups
which are based on drug molecule position to be found out. [Sharma A et
al., 2018]
NLC type I (imperfect crystal type)
NLC type II (multiple types)
NLC type III (amorphous type)
NLC type I
The imperfect crystal structure terms as NLC I. The solid matrix is arranged
very bad way. As the solid matrix is badly structured, the imperfection
leads to more drugs loading of a formulation. [Shah R et al., 2015]
NLC type II
Type-II is called a multitype of NLC. The oil concentration is more. The
two lipid phases are separated during the process of crystallization. In
particular temperature, the miscibility problem can lead to precipitation
of small oily nanocompartment. When the drug solubility is less in lipid
the more amount of liquid lipid addition is more advantageous of the
solid matrix which prevents drug expulsion but liquid lipid exhibit high
solubility. [Radtke M et al 1991]
NLC type III
The type-III is amorphous. In this type, the NLC can be prepared by mixing
lipids in a manner to avoid crystallization. Here the lipid matrix remains
in an amorphous state. In this method chances of the drug, expulsion is
due to crystallization, which can be avoided by mixing solid lipids with

other special type lipids such as isopropyl palmitate, [Sharma A et al., 2018,
Soni K et al., 2015]
Merits of NLC [Kiran Kumari et al 2019]:
¾¾ Possibilities of using both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs
¾¾ Lipids which are used are biodegradable
¾¾ Formulation stability can be improved
¾¾ The use of organic solvent can be avoided
¾¾ Drug release can be controlled
Component of NLC
Figure 2: Showing Component of NLC
Solid lipid Liquid lipid Emulsifier Surface modifier

GMS(Glyceryl Oleic acid poloxamer 188 Stearic acid-PEG
monostearate), Linoleic acid Sodium oleate 2000
Compritol 888 ATO Migloyl 812 Tween 20,40,80 Dipalmitoyl-
Softisan 144,142 phosphatidyl-
Labrafac Transcutol
ethanolamine
Precirol ATO 5, Propylene glycol Span 20,40,60 conjugated with
Dynasan dicaprylocaprate Gelucire 5./13 polyethylene
114,116,118 Soy lecithin glycol 2000
(DPPE-PEG2000),
[Table-1: indicating example of components of NLC] [Sharma A et al.,

2018, Nandvikar et al., 2019]
Methods of Preparation of NLCs [Patel et al., 2019]:
Figure 3: Different methods adopted for NLC preparation

1. High-pressure homogenization method (HPH): This method is
divided into two parts viz. hot HPH & other is cold HPH. This is one
of the excellent techniques used for scale-up. In this method use of
organic solvent can be avoided before processing HPH to make sure
that API is dissolved in molten lipid[Leonida MD et al., 2016]
Hot homogenization: Initially solid lipid should melt at temp above
5-100C of M.P followed by the addition of liquid lipid and drug
molecule to it to get dispersion. Then it has to be added dropwise to a
hot solution of surfactant with the same temp. Then homogenizer with
high pressure can be used to reduce the particle into nanosize. This
method is not suitable for the heat-sensitive drug. [Jain P et al., 2017]
Cold homogenization: This approach involves the use of dry ice or
liquid nitrogen to solidify the melted lipid. Then the preparation was
milled and dispersed in a solution of surfactant in cold conditions.
Subsequently, it has to be homogenized at room temp. This method
is suitable for a drug that is heat sensitive. [Hernández-Sánchez H et
al.,2015]
2. Solvent emulsification method: In this method, the water-immiscible
organic solvent is used for the mixture of drugs and lipids. This
process followed by the above step exposed for emulsification in the
aqueous phase by using ultrasonication. The organic solvent has to
be evaporated. This method is appropriate for heat-sensitive drugs at
low pressure, but the limitation of this method is traces of residual
organic solvent may present in the final formulation that may toxic
nature [Mehnert W et al., 2001].
3. Ultrasonication method: By this method direct mixing of the heated
aqueous phase with heated lipid phase in presence of surfactant by
using ultrasonication. The limitation of this method is it produces
large polydispersibility & less product stability. However, getting the
narrow distribution of the Nanostructured lipid carrier probe sonicator

may be helpful [Khosa A et al., 2018].
4. Spray drying: When lipid has a high melting point, this method is
more useful. This method produces particle agglomeration as it is
exposed to high temperature & shear stress which increase kinetic
energy. To improve yield it is advisable to use solid lipid with a
melting point of more than 700C in a trehalose aqueous solution. This
makes a protective shell around particles & protects from shear and
also heat during preparation. This method is not popular because of
the production of aggregation of particle, lipid structural changes &
particle degradation [Zhang X et al., 2008].
5. Microfluidics technique: This technique is the recent approach for
the production of nanoparticles. In this method, liquid reagents are
forcefully introduced into microfluidic with the controlled flow to
produce collision and rapid mix of the small amount of it under high
controlled pressure. Q10 loaded NLC example of this method. Many
advantages of this method do not use of organic solvent, improved
polydispersibility index & less time production [Chen S et al., 2013].
6. Precipitation method: Dissolve the both drug along with the polymer
in an organic solvent to produce an organic phase. Then slowly add
organic phase to the aqueous phase to produce emulsion followed by
removal of organic solvent, which results in the deposition of polymer
from lipophilic solution. [Qianwen Li et al., 2017]
7. Solvent injection technique: Lipid nanodispersions are also prepared
by this method. As the solubility of lipid in a polar organic solvent
is the prime requirement which limits the use of this technique due
to Ostwald ripening particle size which may increase due to the high
amount of organic solvent dissolving the lipid in the aqueous phase.
The major advantage of this technique is the avoidance of thermal
stress [Schubert M A et al., 2003].
8. Membrane contactor method: This method is used to identify the
membrane system which is used to keep the contact of two phases.
Under applied pressure, it is allowed to permeate through the ceramic
membrane to produce small droplets. The aqueous phase flows
tangentially under continuous stirring inside the membrane and
removes the droplet at the pore outlet. Then the preparation has to
be cooled to room temp to produce lipid particles [Charcosset C et al.,
2005].
9. Microemusion method: By this method, the first lipid carrier is heated/
melted. To this distilled water, emulsifier, drug added which give
transparency and thermodynamic stability of o/w emulsion. After that,
it is dispersed in cold water to produce an NLC dispersion system.
The nanosize, particle from microemulsion depends on the difference
of temperature between cold water & microemulsion which is a prime

factor to produce a nanosized particle of NLC, The aggregation of a
particle can be prevented due to solidification & rapid cooling.[ Shao,
Z et al., 2015]
CHARACTERIZATION OF NLCS LOADED WITH A DRUG
(Figure-4: Characterization of NLC)

Characterization of lipid nanoparticles: [Mehnert W et al.,2001; Natrajanet
et al.,2017; Fang JY et al 2008]
[Table-2:characterization of the different parameter of NLC preparation]
Parameter Characteristics Instrument used

Particle size and provides the average Dynamic light scattering
polydispersity particle size (z-average) and (DLS),
polydispersity of the system as Transmission electron
a measure of the particle size microscopy (TEM),
distribution scanning electron
microscopy (SEM)
Zeta Potential Zeta potential (ζ) is the potential Laser Doppler
that exists at this boundary and electrophoresis
it is a parameter that is very
useful for the assessment of the
physical stability of colloidal
dispersions
Drug entrapment It is the percentage amount of HPLC or UV visible
efficiency (EE) and drug that gets entrapped in spectrophotometer
drug loading (DL) the nanoparticle and reflects
the efficiency of the NLC
formulation
In vitro drug To know the amount of drug dialysis bag technique
diffusion studies release from the formulation
SKIN PENETRATION OF NLC

Penetration of drug occurs mostly through various potential routes
like sweat gland, sebaceous gland & hair follicle. With a high partition
coefficient & adequate drug solubility in the oil/water system and molecular
weight < 0.6 kDa, the drug can easily penetrate through the skin. The drug
having a high molecular weight and hydrophobic nature may be difficult
to penetrate. This problem can be avoided by lipid nanoparticles. In NLC
nanosize particles can make more close contact with SC (stratum corneum)
pass between coenocytes making spreading of the drug in the epidermis.
This process is followed by water evaporation from NLC when it is
applied to the skin. After which these nanoparticles form film occlusion on
the skin followed by skin hydration. The hydration of SC leads to reduce
inter coenocytes gap and has an effect on drug partition on the stratum
corneum. The exchange of lipid begins between the lipid of epidermal
skin & nanoparticles. The drug can be delivered through hair follicles
from nanoformulation, The sebum which is released from the sebaceous
gland rich in lipid is associated with the follicle. These lipid environments
further enhance the more lipid nanoparticles to be entrapped. [Kour S et
al.,2015; , Souto EB et al.,2007].
Figure-5 [skin occlusion of the skin of NLC formulation]
CONCLUSION
The Nanostructured Lipid carrier (NLC) has always been potential carrier
system with good therapeutic applications. The purpose of this work was
to highlight the role of NLCs as a novel drug delivery system for various
categories of drugs. They are the new generation, smart, flexible systems
offering for enhanced drug loading, modulation of release, and improved
performance in producing final dosage forms. They are easy to scale up
and can be modulated to achieve the desired particle size and release
profile, improved drug loading, and higher stability of the therapeutics.
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13
Impact
Lantana Aculeate Mediated
of
Nanomaterial and Cermicompost: Accessing its
Growth of Solanum Lycopersicum (PKM)
Gomathi S* and S Narendhran**
Abstract
Vermicompost is emerging as a simple, easily adoptable and effective technique
for recycling wide ranges of organic wastes for agricultural production.
Lantana aculeate species is widely naturalized in native America, also in
some other parts of the world including western and eastern Australia. The
bioconversion of Lantana aculeate and it mediated nanomaterial to study the
growth of Solanum lycopersicum (PKM). Degradation of noxious compound
was also investigated through spectroscopic analysis like FTIR and GCMS
analysis. Zn/MgO Nanocomposite were synthesized using aqueous extract of
Lantana aculeate leaf and characterized by UV-vis, FT-IR, XRD, and SEM.
The spectroscopic study revealed that plant mediated Zn/MgO NMs are
spherical shape without aggregation. Green synthesized nanocomposite and
vermicompost were carried out to study the biochemical profile on Solanum
lycopercicum (PKM) by soaking method. Based on the biochemical profile,
vermicompost act as best fertilizer for the growth of Solanum lycopersicum.
Keywords: Vermicompost, Lantana aculeate, Zinc, Magnesium, Plant growth.
* Department of Biotechnology, Sri Krishna Arts and Science College,

Kuniamuthur, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
** Assistant Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Sri Krishna Arts and Science
College, Kuniamuthur, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu (Corresponding Author)
ImpactofLantanaAculeateMediatedNanomaterialandCermicompost:AccessingitsGrowthofSolanumLycopersicum(PKM) 129
INTRODUCTION
Lantana aculeate is one of the most noxious weeds in the world. It is
toxic to animals and vegetative crop. All lantana aculeate are treated as
poisonous stock. Red, white, pink flowered varieties are highly toxic.
Children can also easily affect by eating poisonous berries but symptoms
differ in livestock. There are three variety of Lantana aculeate have been
reported from India are Lantana aculeate Var. Aucleata Moldenke, lantana
aculeate Var. Mista Bailey and Lantana aculeate Var. Nivea Bailey. Among
these diverse varieties and types of Lantana aculeate are found but they
are difficult to differentiate on the basis of morphological features. Some
reports suggest that Lantana aculeate is used to treat cancer, chicken pox,
measles, asthma, ulcers, swelling, eczema, tumors, high blood pressure,
bilious fever, tetanus and malaria (Ghisalverti2000; Day et al 2003). Lantana
aculeate leaves are highly poisonous to animals and humans.
Lantana aculeate is a species from the family verbinaceae that was first
introduced in India as an ornamental flowering plant and has spread
most worldly ecosystems including forests, wet lands (Ghisalberti, 2000).
Lantana aculeate is an evergreen, usually 2-4-meter height (Patel, 2011). The
Lantana weeds are spread are very fast and occupy large areas. Lantana
has many injurious on forest ecosystems, and loss of native biodiversity,
negative impact of forest regeneration. (Mellow et al.,2005; Sharma,
Deshmukhe et al.,2011). Lantana is also used for production of methane
gas as it contains large amounts of holocellulose that can serve as the low-
cast bioethanol production (Ganesh et al.,2008). Lantana as substrate for
vermicomposting using Eisenia fetida (Savigny,) and find the appropriate
ratio of the substrate and cowdung for vermicomposting. Composting
is one of the simple and oldest means of converting organic waste into
profitable substances.
Today vermicompost is an important component of organic farming
systems, because it is easy to prepare, has excellent properties and is
harmless to plants. Destruction of agricultural ecosphere is due to massive
use of organic and livestock manure. Henceforth, it is necessary to dispose
manure safely by transposing manure into valuable compost. Conventional
composting requires time consuming with considerable nutrient losses.
Vermicompost has become an elemental factor for organic forming systems
because of is easy to prepare, efficiency and harmless to plants. (Ramnarain
et al.2019). Vermicomposting will aid formers and with an eco-friendly
environment also boost agricultural sector towards a environmentally
pristine future (1). It is a natural resource of plant growth and improves
the physical condition of environment. Such high nutrients and other
beneficial properties of vermicompost help in production of healthier
crops. Vermicomposting is a simple, easily adoptable for recycling ranges
of organic wastes for agricultural production. Vermicompost persistently
promote the biological activity, which can increase germination, and yields
of various greenhouse crops. (Buckerfield et al; Atiyeh et al, b).
The organic manure is getting in improving the soil organic matter and
nutrient contents of soil. The soil productivity can be improved by the
organic manure specially compost and vermicompost. The vermicompost
was prepared by using the earthworm variety Eisenia foetida. Compost
produced by earthworm movement will have higher level of nutrients
(macro and micro) that the normal organic matters. Vermicompost is a
biological process which may be a future technology for the management
of animal wastes. To achieve the objectives, two vermicomposting
units containing cow dung (CD), and plant slurry (Lantana camara)
were established inoculated with Eisenia fetida species of earthworm
allowed to be vermicomposted for 3 months. The vermicompost also
have been reported to contain biologically energetic substrates such as
plant growth. (GrappelliTomatiet al.1985). Eisenia fetida known under
various common names such as redworm, brandling worm, panfish
worm, trout worm, tiger worm, red wiggler worm, etc., is a species
of earthworm adapted to decaying organic material. E. fetida worms are
used for vermicomposting of both domestic and industrial organic waste.
Vermicomposting is one of the easiest ways to maintain soil. Vermicompost
was prepared by mixing lantana Aculeata with cow dung slurry.
Vermicomposting with earthworms produces manure products which are
nutrient rich and possess great fertilizer value at a less efficient time. Thus,
vermicomposting is considered to be suitable and an efficient technology
to convert organic waste into voluble resources. This objective of this
review study the potential use of lantana camara.The present study proved
feasibility of utilization of lantana camara in vermicompost method. Among
all the treatments 60%+40% (compost + cow dung) containing treatments
were the best concentration of provide ideal physico-chemical conditions
for the growth Eisenia fetida and which exhibits rich plant nutritional
level and no toxin (sesquiterpene alcohol).Effect of vermicompost on
biochemical parameter of solanum lycopersicum. The biochemical parameter
of vermicompost treated with Solanum lycopersicum were assessed using
standard procedures such as protein, carbohydrates, chlorophyll and
reducing sugars analysis.
Nanotechnology is an emerging field of science which deals with the
particle size ranging from 1-100nm. Nanotechnology also deals with
synthesis, characterization and manipulation of metals at nanoscale.
The nanoparticles are precisely used due to its smaller size, physical
properties etc. Which has shown the change of any other materials which
are in contact with these tiny particles. The nanoparticles exhibit novel
properties which depend on their morphology, which enable animals and
microbes. Nanoparticles have acquired increasing importance because of
their novel properties. Nanoparticles are molecular aggregates with one
dimension from 1-100nm. The nanoparticles are used for growth of plants
and control the plant diseases. The nanomaterials can be synthesized by
different methods including physical, chemical, and biological methods.
The biologically synthesized nanoparticles have been widely using the
field of medicine. Zinc has been designed as an imperative micronutrient
for metabolic activities in plants and animals including humans. The
synthesis of nanoparticles by standard physical and chemical methods has
some unfavourable effects like critical condition of temperature, pressure,
toxic chemicals and toxic by-products. When contrast to physical and
chemical method, green synthesis of nanoparticles makes use of eco-
friendly, non-toxic and safe reagents. Doping is an important tool for the
moderation of physiochemical properties of metal oxide nanoparticles.
The current study is devoted to doping Zn in MgO nanoparticles. Doped
metal oxide nanoparticles are useful in a wide variety of applications such
as optoelectronics, photodetectors.
It should wide application spectrum in many disciplines like agricultural,
medicine, biology, physics, chemistry and environment. In this technology
we study nanometre (1-100nm) size materials and their applications
(Chhippa and Joshi 2016). Different types of nanoparticles such as Zn, Ag,
Fe and their oxides. And nanoformations of traditional agricultural inputs
like Phosphorous, Urea, Sulphur, have converted into nano pesticide and
nano fertilizer form (Taha et al.2016, Tarun et al.2014; Pradhan et al .2013;
Ghafariyan et al.2013; Mahajan et al.2011; Nekrasova et al.2011). This
nanoparticles has shown assuring results within optimum concentration
on seed germination, plant growth and production. Similarly, nano
pesticides also exhibit positive impact on control of plant pest and disease
(Kashyap et al.2015; Parisi et al.2014; Delfani et al.2014). Nanotechnology
is great hope for sustainable agriculture practice and habitual farming
practice into precision farming; It is the used for crop yield improvement
by observe environment variables and applying controlled forget action
in each situation (Chen and yada 2011). Nano fertilizer are responsible for
providing one or more types of nutrients to growing to the plants, and
support their growth and improve production (Liu and Lal 2015). The
plant nutrients divided into following categories (A) macro, (B) micro
nano fertilizer, (C) nano particulate fertilizer.
NANOFERTILIZER USING PLANT GROWTH (SOLANUM
LYCOPERSICUM)
Tomato is one of the most important horticultural crops in the world; the
effect of grafting has also been widely studied. The results revealed that
the response of tomato to nanoscale Zn/MgO was highly significant. The
tomato occupies an important position in global vegetable production.
Nanoparticles with small size and large surface area are expected to be
the ideal material as in plants. Currently use of nanomaterials has been
expanded in every fields of science including agriculture. The nutrients in

the form of NMs can be used in crop production to increase yield. Recently
it has been studied that nano Zn/MgO positive impact on germination,
growth and yield of Solanum lycopersicum (Prasad et al.,2012).
The first and most important need of every human is need to access the
food, and food supply for humans is associated with agriculture directly
or indirectly. The world’s population will grow to an estimated 8 billion
people by 2025 and 9 billion by 2050, and it is widely recognized that global
agricultural productivity must increase to feed a rapidly growing world
population (FAO/WHO, 2002). Vegetables and fruits are perishables,
and in the absence of effective storage, preservation and transportation,
the prices are unstable and the availability uncertain in addition to the
above limitation, the diets of the average Indian household did not show
any significant improvement over the last few decades of the century.
A challenge for global food and nutrition security is to feed the world
population with nourishing food (Quasem et al., 2009; Ghaly, 2009).
Hence emphasis should be laid on production of high-quality food with
the required level of nutrients and proteins (Pijls et al., 2009; Ghaly and
Alkoaik, 2010). To meet this increasing demand, researchers are trying
to develop an efficient and ecofriendly production technology based
on the innovative technologies. The issue of micronutrient deficiency is
related to food security (Meenakshi et al., 2010; Ghaly and Alkoaik, 2010).
Micronutrient deficiencies in human being as well as crop plants are
difficult to diagnose and accordingly the problem is termed as „hidden
hunger‟ (Stein et al., 2008).Most of the Indian soils are found to be Zn
deficient, hence the food crops grown in those soils contain less amount
of Zn in food. There has been a significant genetic variability to maintain
growth and yield under Zn deficient conditions among crop species
(Hacisalihoglu et al., 2003).Method of application of fertilizer is the most
important concerned to the uptake and translocation onto the different
parts of plant. Foliar fertilization is an important tool for the sustainable
and productive management of crops. The ability of plant leaves to absorb
water and nutrients was recognized approximately three centuries ago
(Fernández and Eichert, 2009).
The importance of biological processes in the management of organic wastes
has been widely recognized and this deals with one of the most efficient
methods for converting solid organic materials into environmentally-
friendly useful and valuable products. Vermicomposting is an accelerated
process of bio-oxidation and stabilization of organic wastes involving
interactions between earthworms and microorganisms. Earthworms, the
main characters of this process, are described briefly, showing how these
animals can be important organic waste decomposers and converters. The
different earthworm species that are suitable for vermicomposting have
quite different querulents for their optimal development, growth and
productivity in organic wastes. Vermicompost improves the physical,

chemical and biological properties of the soil as well contributes to organic
enrichment (Ansari and Jaikishun 2011; Chauhan and Singh 2013).complex
interactions between the organic matter, microorganisms, earthworms
and other soil invertebrates result in the fragmentation, bio-oxidation
and stabilization of organic matter. The vermicomposting system sustains
complex food webs, and at the same time, modifies different chemical forms
of several nutrient elements into inorganic compound steadily available
to plants, which are important for nutrient dynamics. Vermicomposting
its impact on vegetable production are necessary, especially as it can be
used as a bio-fertilizer. Vermicomposting is a decomposition process
involving the joint action of earthworms and microorganisms. Although
microorganisms are responsible for the biochemical degradation of organic
matter. Earthworms act as mechanical blenders and by comminuting the
organic matter they modify its physical and chemical status, gradually
reducing its C: N ratio, increasing the surface area exposed to micro-
organisms and making it much more favorable for microbial activity and
further decomposition. Greatly during passage through the earthworm gut,
they move fragments and bacteria-rich excrements, thus homogenizing
the organic material. The end product is a finely divided peat-like material
with high porosity and water holding capacity that contains most nutrients
in forms that are readily taken up by the plants. These earthworm casts are
rich in organic matter and have high rates of mineralization that implicates
a greatly enhanced plant availability of nutrients, particularly ammonium
and nitrates.
Earthworms are defined as segmented worms, bilaterally symmetrical,
with an external gland (c1itellum) producing an egg case (cocoon), a
sensory lobe in front of the mouth (prostomium), with the anus at the
posterior end of the animal body, no limbs but possessing a small number
of bristles (chaetae) on each segment. They are hermaphrodites and
reproduction normally occur through copulation and cross fertilization,
following which each of the mated individuals can produce cocoons
containing between one and twenty fertilized ova. The resistant cocoons,
which can survive many years, are tiny and roughly lemon-shaped.
After an incubation period that varies according to species and climatic
conditions, the cocoons hatch. The young earthworms, which are white
and only a few millimeters in length after emerging from the cocoons, gain
their specific adult pigmentation within a day.
Vermicomposting is the process of producing compost by utilizing
earthworms to turn the organic waste into high-quality compost that
consists mainly of worm cast in addition to decayed organic matter (Ismail
2005; Devi and Prakash 2015). Vermicomposting helps to convert the
organic wastes (agro-wastes, animal manure and domestic refuse) into
highly nutrient fertilizers for plant and soil (Gajalakshmi and Abassi 2004).
Vermicompost is a finely divided peat-like material with excellent structure,

porosity, aeration, drainage and moisture-holding capacity (Ismail 2005;
Edwards et al. 2011). An organic fertilizer rich in NPK, micronutrients
and beneficial soil microbes (nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria and actinomycetes), is a sustainable alternative to chemical
fertilizers, which is an excellent growth promoter and protector for crop
plants (Sinha et al. 2011; Chauhan and Singh 2015). Today vermicompostis
an important component of organic farming systems, because it is easy to
prepare, has excellent properties and is harmless to plants. Vermicompost
improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil as well
contributes to organic enrichment (Ansari and Jaikishun 2011; Chauhan
and Singh 2013). Investigations on vermicomposting and its impact on
vegetable production are necessary, especially as it can be used as a bio-
fertilizer.
Recently, Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been an active research area
because of their fascinating physical, chemical properties and viability in
optoelectronics, chemical sensing, biosensing, and photocatalysis but have
weak optical features. Doping is an important tool for the modification of
physicochemical properties of metal oxide nanoparticles. The present study
is devoted to doping Zn in MgO nanoparticles. Phase analysis on the Zn-
doped MgO samples using X-ray diffraction showed single set of peaks in
the XRD patterns due to cubic MgO. Small nanoparticles (25–55 nm) were
observed in the Zn doped MgO samples by scanning electron microscopy
and transmission electron microscopy studies. Optical properties of the
Zn-doped MgO nanoparticles were investigated using UV–visible diffuse
reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy,
and absorption near 260 nm and emission bands attributed to defects
were observed in the DRS and spectra. A qualified study of chemically
and biologically synthesized nanoparticles was carried out to regulate
the effect on seed germination of Solanum lycopercicum (PKM) by soaking
method and the biochemical parameter of Zn/MgO nanomaterials treated
with Solanum lycopersicum were assessed using standard procedures such
as protein, carbohydrates, chlorophyll and reducing sugars analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection and preparation of vermicompost unit

The inoculums were prepared by mixing chopped lantana aculeate and cow
dung at different ratios (w/w). The treatment was allowed to per-digestion
for every15 days. After per-digestion process the equal size, healthy and
young earthworms were inoculated in the treatment. The tank was covered
with jute bags. Lantana aculeate was collected from in and around fallow
lands of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Fresh cow dung was collected
from farm house, Pollachi (T.K), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Lantana aculeate
and cow slurry was mixed appropriately for 4 feet and exposed to sun light
for 20 days to remove the toxicity and harmful organisms. Healthy and
young earthworm was collected from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
(TNAU), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.
EXPERIMENT DESIGN
The experiment on composting was performed by mixing earthworm in the
container consisting Lantana aculeate with cow dung slurry for 45 days. The
inoculum was prepared by mixing Lantana aculeate cow dung at different
ratios (w/w). Lantana aculeate (without cow dung) were taken for this
study. The treatment details are shown in Table 1. Each mixture consisted
of different ratio of compost and cow dung. T1 (20% compost+80% cow
dung),T2 (40% compost+60% cow dung), T3 (60% compost+40% cow
dung), T4 (80% compost+20% cow dung), T5 (100% compost), T6 (100%
Lantana aculeate) Represent the percentage of initial substrate material cow
dung, compost, plant extract.
Table 1. Treatment details of compost and cow dung
TREATMENT COMPOSITION
T1 20% compost+80% cow dung
T5 100% compost
T6 100% Lantana aculeate
SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF L. ACULEATE MEDIATED

VERMICOMPOST
The functional group vermicompost were analysed by using fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (perkin-Elmer 1725x). Five grams of
vermicompost was dissolved in methanol and kept in shaker for overnight
at room temperature. After incubation period, the sample was filtered by
using filter paper (whatman No. 42, Maidstone, England)and residue was
collected. The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra were recordedin
the region between400 to 4000 cm-1. Five grams of vermicompost are mixed
with 25ml of methanol and the flask was kept in shaker for overnight at
room temperature. After incubation period the mixture was filtered by
using filter paper (whatman no.42). Vermicompost extract sample was
analysed on Gas chromatography mass spectrometer. The detailed GC-MS
experimental conditions have been followed according to Gomez-Brandon
et al.,2008.
COLLECTION OF PLANT SAMPLE AND PREPARATION OF

NANOMATERIAL
Fresh, healthy and young Lantana aculeate leaves were collected from
Eachanari, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. The sample (L. aculeate
leaf was authenticated by Botanical survey of India, Coimbatore (BSI/
SRC/5/23/2020/Tech/826). One gram of fresh leaves was weighed carefully
and finally cut. The leaves were washed with the tap water. The leaves
were ground well in a mortar and pestle using de-ionized water. The plant
extract was heated at 60°C for 15 mins. After cooling the solution was
filtered the whatman no.1 filter paper and stored in refrigerator for further
studies.
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF ZN/MGO NMS
Zn/MgO nanomaterialwere synthesized by preparing (0.1M) Zn and
(0.1M) MgO and (0.1M) aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and 10ml of leaf extract. The Zn/MgO NPs were prepared successfully
using Lantanaaculeate extract. The Zn/MgO NPs were synthesized using
0.1M Zn/MgO solution in 90ml distilled water and then 10ml of the
prepared Lantana Aculeata extract was added dropwise into the Zn/MgO
solutions under constant stirrer at 100°C with high-speed stirring, NaoH
(0.1M) was added to solutioncontaining Zn/MgO and plant extract during
stirring process. The beaker kept undisturbed for 30mins for precipitation.
The precipitated Zn/MgO NMs were washed with distilled water followed
by ethanol 5-6 times until all the impurities were cleared and then vacuum
dried at 100°.
The optical density and the band gap energy of confirmed by the UV-
Visible spectroscopy in 200-800 nm wavelength. The crystalline structure
of Zn/MgO nanomaterial was observed by the X-ray diffraction with
Cu-Kα radiations in 2 theta range from 20O to 80O. Fourier transform
infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer was used for analysis of functional groups
in the synthesized Zn/MgO nanomaterials. Elemental composition
and morphology of nanomaterials were analysed using EDX and SEM
(Scanning Electron Microscope). Dynamic light scattering analysis was
carried out average size of the Zn/MgO nanomaterials. The zeta potential
value is analysed by stability of the Zn/MgO nanomaterials.
EFFECT OF SOAKING METHOD ON GERMINATION
The Solanum lycopersicum (PKM) seeds were immersed in 0.5% of sodium
hypochlorite solution for 15mins for sterilization. Then the seeds were
rinsing with methanol as a solvent, they were soaked in Zn/MgO NPs
interruption at various concentrations (100mg, 200mg, 300mg, and
400mg).Each Petri dish which contains 30seeds. Petri dishes were closed
with parafilm and placed in an incubator. After 30 days of treatment, seed
germination was recorded by counting germination seeds. The experiments

were carried out in triplicate and mean, statistical values are recorded.
Effect of vermicompost and Zn/MgO nanomaterials on biochemical
parameter of solanum lycopersicum
The biochemical parameter of vermicompost and Zn/MgO nanomaterials
treated with Solanum lycopersicum were assessed using standard procedures
such as protein, carbohydrates, chlorophyll and reducing sugars analysis
(Marc A. Zucco1., 2015). All biochemical results are presented as mean ±
standard deviation (SD) using SPSS 16.0 statistical tool, growth attribute
was analysed at the significant level ≤0.05 by one-way ANOVA test the
difference between vermicompost mixture and Zn/MgO nanomaterials
control group. P- values ≤ were considered statistically significant.
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
Spectroscopic analysis of vermicompost
FT-IR analysis
FT-IR spectroscopy was mainly used for analysis of functional groups
of the material. The spectra show several bands, which are referred
to as functional groups of metabolites and other components. In the
region between 1630 to 1680 cm-1 band are responsible for the present
of sesquiterpenoid alcohol (lantadene). The band at 576.72, 621.08, 653.87,
619.15and 626.87 indicates the presence of Alkyl halides group C-Br stretch.
The spectrum range at 1458.18, 1452.4, 1460.11, 1456.26 corresponding to
C-H bend. The range at 1637.56, 1629.49, 1637.56, and 1629.49 indicates
the 1‫ﹾ‬Amines group N-H bend. The band 2962.66, 2958.8, 2947.23, 2945.3
corresponding to Alkanes group C-H stretch. The spectra range at 3417.86,
3466.08, 3450.65, 3417.86, and 3450.65these are indicating at Alcohols,
Phenols group O-H stretch, H-bonded.
The bands at 1022.27, 1020.24, 1020.34 corresponds to Aliphatic amines
C-N stretch. The range at 1641.42 presence the Alkenes group -C=C-stretch.
IR spectrum range of various solvent extracts of Lantana Aculeate leaf has
Alkyl halides, Alkanes, 1°Amines, Alkenes, Aliphatic amines, Alcohols,
Phenols and primary amine functional group responsible for antibacterial
properties. vermicomposting process produced the disappearance of
easily biodegradable compounds and enhanced the increase of aromatic
compounds, which was confirmed by FT-IR analysis. All the spectra bands
referred to as functional group of primary metabolites, which clearly show
the degradation process of compost and vermicompost.(Fig 1)
Figure 1: FT-IR analysis of vermicompost T1(a), T2(b), T3(c), T4(d), T5(e), T6(f).
GC-MS analysis of vermicompost
There are 21 peaks (Fig 2) obtained from GC-MS analysis of plant sample
(Lantana aculeate) are represented. The major compounds of plant extract
are1,2-Bis (trimethylsilyl) benzene (28.52%), 1,2-Bis (trimethylsilyl)
benzene (19.43%), 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3-amine(17.97%), 1,2-Benzisothiazol-
3-amine (8.43%), 5-Methyl-2-phenylindolizine (10.24%). GC-MS analysis
of vermicompost obtained 18 peaks (Fig3) are represented. The major
peak area is depicted as shown by Dodecanoic acid (Total percentage)
Amino acetic acid (9.34%), Lauric anhydride(Total percentage).In the
obtained compounds the occurrence of Gincenol (28.52%, 19.435)and
1,2-Benzisothiazol-3-amine (17.97%) has been found in higher percentage.
GC-MS analysis of vermicompost (80% compost+20%cow dung). The
major peak area is depicted as shown by Dodecanoic acid. The analysis
of GCMS were reduction of toxic chemicals. These many of the toxins
(Sesquiterpene lactones and phenols). The vermicompost mixture is rich
in ester, aliphatic compounds which may play role in maintaining the
nutritional level in vermicompost.
FIG 2: GC-MS analysis of plant sample and vermicompost

CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOMATERIAL
UV-Visible spectroscopy analysis of Zn/MgO NMs

The UV-Visible absorption spectra of the mono-dispersed Zn/MgO
nanomaterials are shown in figure 4. The absorption spectrum of the
synthesized Zn/MgO NMs recorded the peak at 342nm. Which indicates
that the formation of Zn nanoparticles. Madumitha et al, (19) in their
work reported that the ZnO NPs, were observed at the range at 370 nm.
Similarly, the results deducted that synthesized Zn NPs were found at the
range of 362 nm.
FIG:4 UV Vis spectroscopic analysis of Zn/MgO NMs
FT-IR ANALYSIS OF ZN/MGO NMS

The peak in the region from 400-800cm-1 is allotted to Zn/MgO NMs. The
IR result (figure 5) of plant extracts the spectrum range at 601.79 cm-1
which indicates the presence of alkyl halides (C-Br stretch), 1116.78cm-1
corresponds to aliphatic amines group (C-N stretch). 1635.64 cm-1which
indicates primary amines(N-H bend).3473.8cm-1 show the presence of
alcohols, phenols (O-H stretch, H- bonded). This result shows that presence
of photochemical such as flavones, quinines and organic acids which are
responsible for synthetic of nanomaterials.
The synthesized ZnO NPs were observed the band at 603.72 cm -1 represent
the C – Br stretch and the presence of Alkyl halides functional group. The
observed band at 1083.99 cm -1represent the C – N stretch and the presence
of aliphatic amines functional group. Whereas, the band at 3481.5 cm -1
represent the O – H stretching and the presence of alcohol and phenol
functional group (Narendhran et al). The synthesized NPs were observed
the polymer compounds using FTIR analysis band absorbed at 1247.73
represent the C – N stretching and confirm the presence of aliphatic amines
functional group.
FIG:5 FT-IR analysis of Zn/MgO NMs
XRD ANALYSIS OF ZN/MGO NMS

X-ray diffraction was carried out to confirm the phase of Zn/MgO
nanomaterial.The crystalline size and purity were characterized by
X-ray diffractometer (Philips PAN analytical) using Cu-Kα radiation of
wavelength λ = 1.541 Å of synthesized Zn/MgO nanomaterial. The peaks
at 2θ values of (101), (102), (220) are responsible for crystalline phase of
synthesized nanomaterial. This phase was matched with JCPD – 36-1451
and confirmed that formation of Zn/MgO NMs. (Figure 6). Similar results
were reported by Vanathi et al (12) in which particles were synthesized
using Lantana camara.The analysis of crystalline structure are done using
XRD the peak found at (101), (102) and (220) were observed for the ZnO
NPs. Similarly the results by Vanathi et al (12) in which particles were
synthesized using leaf extract.
FIG:6 XRD ANALYSIS OF Zn/MgO NMs
EDX analysis of Zn/MgO NMs
EDX analysis revealed the elemental composition profile of synthesized

nanomaterials. The energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) refers strong
signal in the Zinc and Magnesium region which confirms the formation
of Zn/MgO nanomaterials. The result (26.74%) were reported by S
Narendhran et al.2015.
TABLE 2: EDX analysis of Zn/MgO NMs
Element Atomic Percentage Weight Percentage

Zn 26.14 57.64
Mg 4.62 5.00
o 69.24 37.37
FIG:7 EDX analysis of Zn/MgO NMs

SEM ANALYSIS OF ZN/MGO NMS

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of Zn/MgO nanomaterials are
shown in (figure 8). From the result it is revealed that the morphology
of Zn/MgO nanomaterials was spherical in shape and well distributed
without aggregation. The size and distribution of biologically synthesized
Zn / MgO NMs were also confirmed by SEM.
FIG 8: SEM analysis OF Zn/MgO NMs
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS OF ZN/MGO NMS

Dynamic light scattering analysis used to determine the average size
and distribution of the Zn/MgO nanomaterials (FIG 9). The size of the
synthesized nanomaterial was observed as 2.5μm.The particle size
distribution plot reports 100% of the particles were below 100 nm, with
an average particle diameter of 69.35 nm which measures the particle size
directly, whereas DLS measure the hydrodynamic diameter. (Baskaran,
2016)
FIG 9: Particle size analysis OF Zn/MgO NMs

ZETA POTENTIAL ANALYSIS OF ZN/MGO NMS

The nanomaterials possess a negative zeta potential value of -5.71 mV,
which indicates the highly stable due to electrostatic repulsive force.
(FIG 10).The magnitude of the zeta potential (−30 mV to +30 mV) gives
indication of the potential stability of the colloidal solution. Therefore,
zeta potential indicates the degree of repulsion between adjacent,
similarly charged particles in dispersion for the biologically synthesized
MgO nanomaterial was found to be −21.1 mV which indicates the MgO
nanomaterial synthesized in the present work were abstemiously stable.
B Baskaran, 2016.
Fig: 10 Zeta potential analysis of Zn/MgO NMs
EFFECT OF VERMICOMPOST AND ZN/MGO

NANOMATERIALS ON PLANT GROWTH
For studying the effects of vermicompost and Zn/MgO nanomaterials on
growth and development of plant (Solanum lycopersicum) they were treated
with a different concentration (100mg, 200mg, 300mg, 400mg). Assessment
of plant growth parameter such as protein, carbohydrate, chlorophyll and
reducing sugar are estimated in Solanum lycopersicum treated with different
concentrations of vermicompost and nanomaterial. The higher level
of protein at 30thday content was obtained in vermicompost 1.68±0.005
and control 0.21±0.06 at the concentration of 300mg. The carbohydrate
content was treated with plant showed that the level of 1.76±0.12 at the
concentration of 200mg and the control 0.32±0.09. Chlorophyll results were
noticed in the Solanum lycopersicum with the increased concentration at the
300mg of vermicompost 0.44±0.04. The drop of reducing sugar was noticed
in the plant with the vermicompost. The reducing sugar level of 2.00±0.00
at the concentration of the 300mg. When used at lower concentration of
vermicompost can increase growth, flowering and yields of vegetable.The
use ofvermicompost as a fertilizer source for tomato growth provided no

advantage compared to a standard inorganic fertilizer, although the higher
amounts of VC applied improved tomato growth over the untreated
control. (Edwards and Burrows1988; Canellas et al. 2002).
TABLE 3 Protein and carbohydrate profile of Solanum lycopersicum treated
with different concentration of vermicompost
Protein Carbohydrate
S1 0.09±0.0.20 0.18±0.02
S2 0.16±0.03 0.29±0.02
Standard S3 0.16±0.03 0.37±0.02
S4 0.26±0.03 0.43±0.005
30th DAS
S5 0.35±0.04 0.52±0.25
T₁₀₀ 0.18±0.02 0.79±0.02
T₂₀₀ 0.46±0.01 1.76±0.12
Concentration
T₃₀₀ 1.68±0.005 0.92±0.11
T₄₀₀ 0.26±0.02 0.94±0.02
Control C 0.21±0.06 0.32±0.09
TABLE 4 Chlorophyll and reducing sugar profile of Solanum lycopersicum
treated with different concentration of vermicompost
Chlorophyll Reducing sugar

Control C 0.15±0.01 1.36±0.05
30th DAS T₁₀₀ 0.24±0.02 1.21±0.01

T₂₀₀ 0.25±0.21 1.30±0.01
Concentration
T₃₀₀ 0.44±0.03 2.00±0.00
T₄₀₀ 0.36±0.03 1.26±0.04
In the case of nanomaterial, The higher level of protein (at 30th day)
content was obtained in Zn/MgO NMs 0.11±0.10 and control 0.21±0.06 at
the concentration of 400mg. The carbohydrate content of Zn/MgO NMs
treated plant showed that the level of 0.12±0.02 at the concentration of
300mg. Chlorophyll results were noticed in the Solanum lycopersicumwith
the increased concentration at the 400mg of NMs 0.15±0.00. The drop
of the sample was analysed the reducing sugar content in the Zn/MgO
NMs. The reducing sugar level of 0.13±0.02 at the concentration of 400mg.
The protein, carbohydrate, chlorophyll and reducing sugar content of
the experiment plants at higher doses for the toxic level of NMs causing
ensuing downturn in plant growth. (Agnihotri et al.2014; Wasmi et al.2014;
Garavand et al.2012).
TABLE 5 Protein and carbohydrate profile of Solanum lycopersicum

treated with different concentration of Zn/MgO NMs
Protein Carbohydrate
S1 0.02±0.005 0.10±0.005
S2 0.03±0.005 0.12±0.01
Standard S3 0.07±0.01 0.15±0.005
S4 0.12±0.00 0.20±0.00
30th DAS S5 0.10±0.00 0.09±0.005
T₁₀₀ 0.02±0.005 0.05±0.005
T₂₀₀ 0.04±0.01 0.09±0.01
Concentration
T₃₀₀ 0.07±0.01 0.12±0.02
T₄₀₀ 0.11±0.10 0.02±0.005
Control C 0.21±0.06 0.32±0.09
TABLE 6 Chlorophyll and reducing sugar profile of Solanum

lycopersicum treated with different concentration of Zn/MgO NMs
Chlorophyll Reducing sugar

Control C 0.15±0.01 1.36±0.05
30th T₁₀₀ 0.24±0.02 0.09±0.01
DAS
T₂₀₀ 0.25±0.21 0.11±0.17
Concentration
T₃₀₀ 0.44±0.03 0.12±0.02
T₄₀₀ 0.36±0.03 0.13±0.02
CONCLUSION
This study clearly demonstrates that the conversion of different types of
wastes into vermicompost may not only reduce the burden of synthetic
fertilizer but may also act as good nutrients when compared to compost.
The present study proved feasibility of utilization of lantana aculeate in
vermicompost method. Among all the treatments 60%+40% (compost +
cow dung) containing treatments were the best concentration of provide
ideal physico-chemical conditions for the growth of Eisenia fetida and
which exhibits rich plant nutritional level and no toxin (ssesquiterpene
alcohol).It has been observed that there is no significant difference on
applying higher doses of vermicompost and lowest dose is as effective as
higher doses. Biological synthesis of Zn/MgO nanomaterials from Lantana
aculeate is a green approach, eco-friendly method. All characterization
techniques reveal that the Zn/MgO nanomaterials were spherical in
shape. Lantana aculeate mediated NMs enhancing the growth of Solanum
lycopersicum the different concentrations of Zn/MgO nanomaterials effect

on germination and root elongation were studied. We observed that the
Solanum lycopersicum germination at lower concentration of 400mg in
(0.15±0.00) of nanomaterials proved that good root length growth and
biochemical parameters were observed. Henceforth, the growth of plant is
feasible using vermicompost in comparison with nanomaterial.
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14
Nanotechnology in Agriculture: Current
Status and Future Perspectives
Anil Kumar*
Abstract
Nanotechnology plays a significant role in promoting agriculture and
agricultural products. Agriculture and food industry aims for the sustainability
and the protection of agricultural products, including crops for human and
livestock. Nanotechnology aids in the development of novel agrochemicals
and delivery systems that improve agricultural productivity while reducing
pesticide consumption. In agriculture, nanotechnology also helps to increase
agricultural productivity. The formulation of Nano based pesticides and
fertilizers for increased crop production is one of the major contribution of
nanotechnology in the field of agriculture. Nanotechnology has enormous
promise because of its applications in industries such as agriculture and the food
system, which can improve people’s quality of life. It has become the future of
any nation all around the planet. Precise farming techniques can promote crop
production without damaging soil and water, reducing losses due to leaching
of nitrogen and enhancing long lasting incorporation of nutrients by micro-
organisms present in the soil. Another notable success in nanotechnology for
agriculture is the generation of insect-resistant varieties using DNA transfer
in plants or nanoparticle-mediated gene transfer. Nanotechnology is expected
to speed up the manufacturing of biofuel from biomass. Researchers and
producers must show that the use of nanotechnologies has no negative impact
on the environment, as opposed to the anomaly based on a tiny quantity of
toxicological studies and concerns about nanomaterial safety.
Keywords: Nanotechnology; Nanoagriuclture; Nanoparticles; Agrochemicals;
Pesticides
* Department of Botany, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, U.P.

Nanotechnology in Agriculture: Current Status and Future Perspectives 149
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture, usually known as “farming,” is the practice of producing
plants and cattle to generate food, feed, fibre and a variety of other items.
Agriculture is backbone of the most developing countries, providing food
directly and indirectly to mankind. Food and water supplies are under
unprecedented stress as a result of climate change, resource and energy
limits, and a rapid growth in population, therefore agricultural processes
are frequently observed in the public eye. Agriculture is becoming
increasingly vital as a food source in the face of resource depletion and
global population expansion. Modern agricultural and food science
technologies, such as nanotechnology and Nano-biotechnology, are
required to keep up with the world’s population growth.
Agriculture and associated disciplines, such as aquaculture and fisheries,
have the potential to be transformed by nanotechnology. Nano-agriculture
is now focused on target farming, which necessitates the use of nanoparticles
with unique features in order to boost crop yields and livestock output.
Nanotechnology is being used to protect plants, monitor plant growth,
identify diseases affecting plants and animals, boost overall food output,
improve food quality, and reduce “sustainable intensification” of waste.
One of the most important applications of nanotechnology is food and
agricultural production.
WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY
There is no doubt that nanotechnology is having a significant impact
on the global economy, industry, and the lives of everyday people.
Physical, chemical and biological characteristics at the nanoscale (1–100
nm) are examined and their impact on human health is discussed. Table
1 lists the sizes of various organisms and bio substances. Particles with at
least one dimension of approximately 1–100 nanometers are considered
nanomaterials by the US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency).
Innovative and novel properties have been developed that can be used to
address a variety of technical and social issues as a result of this ability to
control and/or manufacture matter at this scale. “Nanotechnology-based
delivery of agricultural chemicals is expected to be used in the field within
the next five to ten years by developing countries like China. Their success,
however, is dependent on a variety of factors, including market demand,
profit margin, environmental benefits, risk assessment and management
policies, in the context of other competing technologies.”
CURRENT STATUS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN
AGRICULTURE
Above 60% of world’s population depends on agriculture for
their livelihood as it is the backbone of most emerging countries.
Nanotechnology is regarded as a revolutionary technology in agriculture
because of its potential to distribute nutrients and pesticides in a targeted

manner, resulting in increased crop yields or nutritional value. It also
aids in environmental cleanup and provides a route to high-value crops.
Particle farming, in which plants are cultivated in specific soils to produce
nanoparticles for industrial use, is one of the most common applications of
nanotechnology in agriculture.
Studies on the effect of nanoparticles on plant growth and development
have been done. Some research indicated that plants treated with
nanoparticles had a favorable effect, while others discovered that they
had a negative response. The plants’ responses were influenced by the
composition of nanoparticles used, as well as their size, concentration,
and physical and chemical properties. Nanotechnology can also be used
to improve plant genetic material by delivering medication molecules and
genes to exact locations at the cellular level in animals and plants. With
the use of nanotechnology, conventional fertilizers have been replaced by
Nano fertilizers. Nano fertilizers improve soil fertility, which aids in the
elimination of eutrophication and groundwater contamination.
NANOPESTICIDES
Pesticides increase crop yield and efficiency in agriculture. Few Nano
pesticides are currently on the market, despite the fact that the term
encompasses a wide range of products. Pesticides are made from
nanomaterials such as polymeric nanoparticles, silver ions, gold
nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoparticles. Nanoparticle formulation,
characterization, effect and application in plant disease management have
all been the subject of various research methods. Reports have been made
about the use of nanoparticles for pest control. Helicoverpa armigera, a
polyphagous pest, has been successfully controlled with nanotechnology.
The head louse was most effectively killed by an aqueous leaf extract of
Tinospora cordifolia (commonly known as heart-leaved moonseed). Silver
nanoparticles synthesized in the lab are highly effective against lice and
mosquito larvae.
NANOFERTILIZERS
Water pollution can be avoided by releasing nutrients into the soil in a
controlled manner using Nano-fertilizers. TiO2 nanoparticle treatment
on maize had a significant effect on growth, but the TiO2 bulk treatment
had no effect. TiO2 nanoparticles improve the plant’s ability to retain and
diffuse light. Soybean plants’ nitrate reductase activity and absorption
capacity were both improved by silicon and titanium nanoparticles,
according to the study’s findings.
For example, ultra-high absorption rates, increased production and
photosynthetic activity in addition to a significant increase in the area
of leaves are some of the unique characteristics of Nano fertilizers. Since
excessive use of fertilizers can have harmful effects, using Nano-fertilizers

reduces soil toxicity and increases elemental efficiency while also
decreasing the frequency with which fertilizer is applied.
NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT
Use of nanoparticles as a foliar fertilizer resulted in increased production.
In the production of numerous Nano-materials, mainly metal and carbon-
based Nano-materials, there is a focus on their effects on crop yields as well
as development and growth. Nanotechnology has had a positive impact
on the morphology of many crops, resulting in increased germination
rates, root and shoot length, and the proportion of vegetative biomass in
seedlings. These metal-based Nano-components have also been shown to
have beneficial effects on a variety of physiological parameters, including
increased photosynthetic rate and nitrogen assimilation.
To increase agricultural productivity, Nano-biotechnology provides tools
and platforms for genetically modifying plants and transporting genes
and drug molecules to specific cell locations. In agriculture, the availability
of appropriate technologies and sensors allows for the timely detection of
pathogens and contaminants to be achieved in smart delivery systems for
fertilizers and pesticides.
GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY
Finding a low-cost, safe and renewable source of energy is critical for
global development. Solar cells, which have long been a goal for tropical
countries, have been developed using green nanotechnology as a flexible
and efficient source of energy. Glass photovoltaic panels, on the other hand,
are fragile and expensive. Photovoltaic panels, energy storage, and other
nanotechnology-enhanced solar-thermal energy conversion systems have
been given a high priority in research in most industrialized countries.
Economic feasibility is a critical factor in developing photo catalysts and
energy materials, and if we can properly address this factor, we will be
able to develop more and more “out-of-the-box” ideas.
Nanotechnology can also be used to convert biomass into fuels, chemical
intermediates, specialty chemicals, and products such as catalysts,
lowering production costs while remaining economically viable. These
nanostructured catalysts have a large surface area per unit volume and can
be precisely controlled in terms of composition, structure functionalization,
and other catalyst properties.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology has enormous promise because of its applications in
industries such as agriculture and the food system, which can improve
people’s quality of life. It has become the future of any nation all around
the planet. However, we must be extremely cautious when introducing any
new technology because of the possibility for unanticipated hazards that

may arise as a result of its great potential. However, producing a trained
future workforce in nanotechnology is equally crucial for a nation’s future.
The first step in this process is to educate the general population about its
benefits, which will result in a massive surge in interest and the discovery
of new applications in all disciplines.
The chapter’s major focus is to provide basic knowledge regarding
nanotechnology’s uses in agriculture and their possibilities in the near
future, with reference to the current global situation. The future of
nanotechnology is uncertain due to many reasons, such as negative
reaction of the public towards genetically modified crops, lack of many
of the requisite skills in public agricultural research organizations for
this type of research and ill-equipped and somewhat hesitant regulatory
structures to deal with these new technologies. There is a dire need to tear
down the sharp boundary present between the social and natural sciences
and if we succeed in discarding this boundary, we may be able to develop
a more desirable and more democratic sociotechnical future.
CONCLUSIONS
Agriculture and food production offer a lot more prospects for
nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has a wide range of possible uses and
benefits. Increasing crop productivity through precision agriculture based
on nanotechnologies is desirable for increasing output while lowering
inputs through better monitoring and focused action. Nanotechnology
enables crops to make better use of water, herbicides and fertilizers. The
use of nanotechnology in agriculture may provide farmers with benefits
in terms of food production. Nano porous zeolites for gradual release
and effective doses of water and fertilizers for plants, nanocapsules for
pesticide delivery, biofuel generation, and improved plant breeding are
all expected agronomical nanotechnology applications. Nonetheless, the
usage of nanotechnology in agriculture is declining in order to improve
agricultural production properties. Furthermore, current efforts are likely
to reduce the negative impact of agrochemicals on the environment and
human health, compared to the use of nanotechnology.
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Table 1. Size of different organisms and

biomolecules on the micro- and nanometric scale
Nature of organisms and Size range Size on nanometric

No.
different biosubjects (μm) scale (nm)
01. Plant, animal cell 10–100 10 000–10 0000
02. Bacteria ≤ 1–10 ≤1000–100
03. Virus 0.03–0.1 30–100
04. Simple Molecules (Proteins, 0.001–0.01 1–10
DNA turns)
05. Atoms (DNA ‘base’) 0.0001–0.001 0.1–1
15
Nano Technology as a Therapeutic Tool
Against Infectious Microbial Diseases
Sphoorthi Shree Chalumuri*, Sireesha V

Garimella**, Santhi Latha Pandrangi*
Abstract
Nanotechnology which has evolved during the last few decades is a
multidisciplinary field that showed a significant influence in the fields of
environment, industry, agriculture, pharmacy and medicine. Infections account
for a large portion of the worldwide illness burden. Lower respiratory infections,
diarrhea, tuberculosis (TB), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection,
and malaria infection are all linked to high mortality rates. Nanomedicine
which has been evolved as a result of the integration of nanotechnology and
biotechnology, has led to the breakthrough in the treatment of a variety of
ailments and disorders, medication delivery methods, and disease detection
and treatment. The usage of nanoparticles in health and medicine is however
currently limited. In this chapter we discuss the the therapeutic efficiency of
nanomaterials in the biomedical field and their potential against infectious
diseases.
* Onco-Stem Cell Research Laboratory, Dept. of Biochemistry and Bioinformatics,

GITAM Institute of Science, GITAM Deemed to be University, Visakhapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh (Corresponding Author)
** Dept. of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Science, GITAM Deemed to be
University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
INTRODUCTION
Through the discovery of revolutionary therapeutics like antibiotics,
antitoxins, antiviral, antifungals, and vaccines, medical research has
improved our understanding of microorganisms and, as a result, led to
better prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. Among these
discoveries, the development of vaccines was a significant step forward
in the management of infectious diseases because it prevented disease
spread rather than treating disease after infection. The abolition of small
pox exemplifies the success of vaccination. Several therapeutic strategies
have recently been developed to treat previously difficult-to-treat bacterial
and viral infections.
The term nanotechnology was fist defined by Professor Norio Taniguchi
of Tokyo Science University in the year 1974 as the creation and
exploration of materials with a sizes ranging from 1-100nm (Nanoscale
range). This definition was later adopted by committees like Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) and International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) (1)and was made official. Nanotechnology
is an interdisciplinary subject involved in the research and development
of various fields of science like physics, chemistry and biology. The
nanomaterials can be created using several materials of which the most
common are the silicates, non-oxide ceramics, and metal oxides. These
nanomaterials have distinct properties when compared to their bulk
chemical counterparts, such as a high surface area to volume ratio and
versatility, which may increase their influence on a specific microorganism
or other diseases. The upside of these nanomaterial formulations over
traditional systems is that they can improve treatment efficacy while
reducing side effects due to their precise targeting mode of action. In
this sense, nanomedicine includes the use of nanoparticles as therapeutic
agents, drug delivery systems, and diagnosis systems, as well as the use of
nanomaterials in medical devices.
NANOTECHNOLOGY AGAINST INFECTIOUS DISEASES
The evolving global health system has contributed significantly to the
protection and promotion of human health. However, long-standing,
emerging, and reemerging infectious disease threats continue to plague
the world. The severity and probability of these threats vary greatly.
They also have varying effects on morbidity and mortality, as well as a
diverse range of social and economic outcomes. They are also amenable
to alternative responses to varying degrees, ranging from clean water
provision to regulation to biomedical countermeasures. Recent outbreaks
of Ebola, Zika, dengue, Middle East respiratory syndrome, severe acute
respiratory syndrome, and influenza, as well as the looming threat of
rising antimicrobial resistance, have called into question the global health
system’s ability to provide effective protection against a dynamic array of
infectious disease threats. Rapid population growth in areas with weak
Nano Technology as a Therapeutic ToolAgainst Infectious Microbial Diseases 157
health systems, urbanization, globalization, climate change, civil conflict,

and the changing nature of pathogen transmission between human and
animal populations all add to the concern. There is also the possibility
of human-originated outbreaks as a result of laboratory mishaps or
intentional contamination.
In recent years, nanotechnology has been commonly used in a variety of
applications. Various aspects of medicine and treatment have also focused
on the use of nanoproducts. The upside of using nanomaterials over
traditional formulations is that they can improve the treatment efficacy
while reducing side effects due to their precise targeting mode of action.
Engineered nanomaterials have the potential to inhibit or enhance immune
responses while still preventing the immune system’s detection ability
(2). Nanomedicine, in this sense, incorporates the use of nanoparticles as
therapeutic agents, drug delivery systems, and diagnosis systems, as well
as the use of nanomaterials in medical devices. One of the most pressing
concerns regarding their applications of engineered nanoparticles in the
human body is their potential toxicity. Some of the factors that contribute
to the toxic effects of some materials in the human body include low
biodegradability, a high surface area to volume ratio, the ability of biological
membrane coatings, and high reactivity Metal nanoparticles have shown
lot of advantages in dealing with both infectious and noninfectious diseases
Also there are a numerous physical and chemical methods that have been
proposed for the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles of various shapes and
sizes from different agents including biological agents(3–5) these include
actonomycetes and other bacteria, fungi and plants.
1) Bacterial Diseases: The biggest challenges faced in case of treatment
of bacterial infectious disease are According to WHO Antimicrobial
resistance (AMR) is a global health and developmental threat which in
order to attain the Sustainable Developmental Goals(SDGs).(6) AMR
requires an urgent multifaceted action as it has been listed in the top
10 global public health threats faced by the humanity.(6,7) AMR is
currently prevalent in 22 countries, with an estimated 500,000 cases
of infection worldwide. Peter O’Neill, a macroeconomist has alerted
the governments all over the world regarding the possibility of AMR
deaths outnumbering cancer deaths by 2050, with an estimated 10
million deaths.(8) The combination of AMR and bacterial biofilm
formation results in a nearly uncontrollable epidemic, paving the way
to a post-antibiotic era where the existing antimicrobial therapies render
worthless. Biofilms are complex communities of microorganisms
that adhere to surfaces and are embedded in an extracellular matrix
that they self-produce. One of the biggest challenges involving the
infection therapy is the development of nanodevices that selectively
deliver antimicrobial agents to the target region and administer them
in a controlled manner once there.
Considering the begnin nature and effectiveness, many nanocarriers,

such as liposomal and polymer-based nano-drug carriers, as well
as metallic vectors, such as gold nanoparticles, have been proposed
for these purposes. It has been discovered that the penetrability
rate of hydrophobic nanoparticles is higher than that of hydrophilic
nanoparticles among nanocarriers, mesoporous silican nanoparticles.
These approaches have been applied to MSNs in order to integrate into
bacterial biofilms, with the additional benefit that once the nanosystem
reaches the biofilm, the antibacterial effectiveness is governed by the
physiochemical features of the entrapped antimicrobials
2) Fungal Diseases: Animal pests account for about 18 percent of
agricultural crop losses, while microbiological diseases and weeds
account for 16 percent and 34 percent of losses, respectively. Fungal
pathogens account for 70–80% of microbial pathogen-caused losses.
Fungicides are chemical substances that are used to kill spores and
fungal diseases. However, because of its low cost and simplicity of
application, chemical fungicides are overused(9). Excessive usage of
antibiotics has resulted in microbes becoming resistant to them, as well
as affecting physiological functions of the plant. As a result, non-toxic,
healthy, and environmentally acceptable sources of fungal disease
control are required. The current tendency is to use nanoparticles to
treat fungal diseases in crops in a healthy, safe, and effective manner
(NPs).
The current fascination with the metallic nanoparticles arises due to
their chemical, physical and optical capabilities, and recent advances in
nanostructures. These properties ensured that nanotechnology plays a
crucial role in future development of numerous scientific applications.
Among all the others, fungi have been reported to produce the best
NPs. The fungal syntheses of NPs reported by several studies over the
past decade have been reported below.
Name of the Pathway of Size

NPs Shape Application
Species biosynthesis (in nm)
Aspergillus AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 10–18 Antifungal
terreus HA1N activity
Aspergillus AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 20

niger
Aspergillus AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 43–63 Antibacterial
niger a n d activity
intracellular
Aspergillus AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 8.7
niger PFR6
Aspergillus AgNPs Extracellular Antimicrobial

sp. activity
Aspergillus AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 3.5
tamarii PFL2
Arthroderma AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 15.5 Antifungal
fulvum activity
Alternaria AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 25
solani
Aspergillus AuNPs Microtubules 60– 140
aculeatus Depositing
AuNPs on
the surface
of fungi
biotemplates
Aspergillus AuNPs Intracellular Spherical 8.7–
sydowii a n d 15.6
extracellular
Alternaria sp. AuNPs Extracellular Spherical, 7–18
square,
pentagonal,
hexagonal
Cladosporium AuNPs Extracellular Q u a s i - 72.32 Degradation
oxysporum spherical of Rhodamine
AJP03 B
Curvularia AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 10–50 Antibacterial
lunata activity
Fusarium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 34–44 Antibacterial
oxysporum activity
Fusarium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 5
oxysporum
Guignardia AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 5–30 Antimicrobial
mangiferae activity
Lentinus AgNPs Extracellular Irregular 5–20
edodes, spheres
Pleurotus
ostreatus,
Ganoderma
lucidum,
Grifola
frondosa
Penicillium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 14–25 Antifungal

expansum activity
HA2N
Penicillium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 30– 150
chrysogenum and on the
hyphal
surface
Penicillium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 50– 200
expansum and on the
hyphal
surface
Penicillium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 25 Promoted
spinulosum wound
(OC-11) healing
antibacterial
activity
Penicillium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 30–60 Antimicrobial
decumbens activity
(MTCC-2494)
Penicillium AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 7.7 lung cancer
ochrochloron cell line
PFR8 Anticancer
activity
against
human
Stalotiopsis AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 2–10 Antioxidant
microspora activity
VJ1/ VS1 Cytotoxicity
activity
Sclerotinia AgNPs Extracellular Spherical 10
sclerotiorum
MTCC 8785
Rhizopus AuNPs Extracellular Spherical 16–43 Hemocom-
oryzae (purified patibility
surface
proteins)
Table: Various NPs synthesized from fungi and their mode of

action.
3. Viral Diseases: Every year, millions of people die as a result of
infectious diseases caused by germs of various types and viral entities.
Virus infections have had an impact on civilizations’ conditions all over
the world since the dawn of time, including the current SARS-CoV-2
pandemic, also known as corona disease, in 2019. (COVID-19).(10) It is
important to consider that majority of the infected cases go unnoticed
as they play the role of carriers and are asymptomatic or have mild
symptoms, leading to the spread of COVID 19. The use of nanoscience
paves an alternative approach to minimize or prevent viral spread.
Viruses have the capability to undergo various mutations to form new
resistant strains in a very short period of time. This is a major challenge
faced by the research community as it takes a lot of time to develop
a vaccine. On abiotic surfaces and in the intracellular environment,
the use the nanoparticles can activate the viral particle or reduce its
resistance. There are a wide range of applications of nanoparticles
in different therapeutic and diagnostic fields. Various nanomedicine
having antiviral properties have been authorized while some of them
are yet to be approved. The success of human papilloma virus (HPV)
and hepatitis B virus (HBV) - based particles in humans has led to
the development of a variety of virus like particles and virus- based
nanoparticles (VNPs) vaccines.
Nanomaterials are being investigated as a way to improve current drug
delivery systems with reduced toxicity. Drug absorption and cell and
tissue targeting can both be improved. This also helps to keep drugs
from degrading as a result of metabolism. Various metalo nanoparticles
have been synthesized and were approved to be used for various viral
infections. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have antiviral activity against
herpes simplex viruses (HSV), human immunodeficiency viruses
(HIV), and Hepatitis B virus (HBV), among others. AgNPs continue
to have the advantage of having efficient, environmentally friendly
synthesis routes. The antiviral properties of nanoparticles can be
attributed to interactions with nucleic acids or protein thiol groups.
Other mechanisms have also been reported. The binding of AgNPs
(coated with PVP, BSA, and carbon) (11)to the gp120 glycoproteins of
the viral envelope prevented HIV-1 interaction and fusion with host
cells. AuNPs coated with glucose conjugated to the drugs Abacavir
and lamivudine be able to inhibit viral replication in cell assays.
Fig 1: Potential Nano technological approaches for the

protection of host cell protection.
Conclusion: Biosynthesis of nanoparticles is a quick and substitution
biological synthesis process that is significant in terms of environmental
friendliness, feasibility, and application range. It is cost-effective in a variety
of applications, including antifungal, antiviral, and antibacterial action.
Silver nanoparticles were successfully produced through the fungus and
showed antifungal efficacy using AgNO3 as a source material. The use
of nanoparticles in the treatment of fungal, bacterial, and viral infections
in humans has been found to be effective and promising in treatment of
infectious diseases.
There is a cutting edge research on viral infections as it takes several years
to develop vaccines following the onset of an infectious disease, making
it difficult to prevent the rapid spread of a disease like COVID-19 using
conventional vaccine engineering techniques. This is where nanovaccines
come to aid. The future vaccines are expected to use nanoplatform
technology for antigen a variety of unpredictable pathogens threatening
not only the humankind but also other living things.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST: NONE DECLARED

Acknowledgements: SLP gratefully acknowledges DBT (BT/PR30629/
BIC/101/1093/2018), New Delhi; UGC (Ref No: No.F.30-456/2018 (BSR) and
SERB (Ref No.: PDF/2015/000867) for the financial support.
Author Contributions: Wrote the manuscript: SSC. Tabulation and
arranging the data: SG. Conceptualized the study: SLP. Overall supervision
of the study: SLP
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16
Nanoparticles and Their Role in Targetted
Drug Delivery and Treatment of Cancer
Prasanthi Chittineedi*, Sireesha Garimella** &
Santhi Latha Pandrangi***
Abstract
Nanotechnology has sparked a surge of interest in medicine because it promises
to address a number of issues with traditional therapeutic agents, such as poor
water solubility, lack of targeting capability, non-specific distribution, systemic
toxicity, and low therapeutic index. Over the last few decades, significant
progress has been achieved in the development and deployment of engineered
nanoparticles for effective treatment of various diseases including cancer.
To boost the drug solubility, enhancing the circulation half-life, improve
biodistribution, and minimize immunogenicity the therapeutic drugs have
been combined with the nanoparticles fabricated with optimum sizes, shapes,
and surface qualities. Nanoparticles provide a novel way to deliver various
drugs by serving as a carrier molecule that targets the conjugated drug towards
the damaged site. Targeted drug delivery system provides various benefits over
conventional drug administration methods. Since, a drug needs to be transported
to the site of action conjugating it with nanocarriers enhances the influence on
vital tissues thereby reducing undesirable side effects. As the concentration of
the therapeutic drug in the target location is enhanced the dosage of the drug
might be reduced. This rapidly expanding sector requires multidisciplinary
research and other chances to design and build multifunctional devices that
could target, diagnose, and treat various diseases.
* Onco-Stem Cell Research Laboratory, Assistant Professor Dept of Biochemistry

and Bioinformatics, GITAM Institute of Science, GITAM Deemed to be
University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
** Assistant Professor, Department of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Science,
GITAM Deemed to be University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
*** Group leader, Onco-Stem Cell Research Laboratory, Assistant Professor Dept of
Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, GITAM Institute of Science, GITAM Deemed to
be University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (Corresponding Author)
NanoparticlesandTheirRoleinTargettedDrugDeliveryandTreatmentofCancer 165
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is a newly emerged science branch that focuses on
development of molecular-scale functional systems. It is a potential
approach for drug delivery. Nanotechnology could be defined as the
science that controls, manipulates, studies, and manufactures miniatured
structures and devices (Hobson, 2011). Apart from drug delivery
nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in disease diagnosis,
prevention and even mimic biological processes such as infections, tissue
engineering, metabolisms etc. Because of their property to serve as a bridge
between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures nanoparticles
have been shown utmost scientific interest (Rane et al., 2018). Regardless
to their size nanoparticles have constant physiochemical and biological
properties. However, at nano-scale size-dependent properties are more
likely to be observed (Bhatia, 2016).
While treating various diseases there occurs a very common problem to
deliver the therapeutic compound to the target site. Unfortunately, most
of the therapeutic drugs have side effects such as nausea, diarrhoea,
headache, etc. These limitations could be overcome by practicing targeted
drug delivery which focuses to deliver the drug to the infected tissues
thereby limiting the undesirable side effects caused by these medications
(Rawat et al., 2006). Additionally, targeted drug delivery also reduces rapid
degradation of the drug and enhances the drug concentration in target doses
which results in minimising the drug dosage (Bhatia, 2016). Surprisingly,
the targeted drug delivery uses the knowledge of nanotechnology by
using nanoparticles. Nanoparticles could be defined as the minute
particles whose size ranges between 1-100nm (Wilczewska et al., 2012).
Nanocarriers are the vehicles synthesized from the nanoparticles that are
used to carry the drug molecules into the targeted tissues. Some examples
of the nanocarriers used in targeted drug delivery are liposomes, solid lipid
nanoparticles, dendrimers, polymers, silicone or carbon materials, and
magnetic nanoparticles (Suri et al., 2007). However, nanocarriers if used
in medical fields should be able to integrate with the biological system
without eliciting any kind of immune response and should be nontoxic to
the given biological system (Biazar et al., 2011). Hydrodynamic size, shape,
amount, surface chemistry, the route of administration, and residence time
of the nanocarriers in the blood stream would affect the stability of the
nanoparticle to act as the nanocarrier in targeted drug delivery system
(Biazar et al., 2011; Mishra et al., 2014).
TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES
Depending upon their characteristics and applications nanoparticles have
been categorised into various types. The carbon nanotubes are the two-
dimensional nanoparticles whose size ranges between 0.5-3nm diameter
and 20-100nm in length. These are further classified into single-walled
nanotube and multi-walled nanotube (Pandey & Dahiya, 2016). These

are allotropic crystalline particles which have remarkable strength and
unique electrical properties. Due to their enhanced solubility and ability
to penetrate into the cell cytoplasm and nucleus these nanoparticles
have been shown utmost interest in targeted gene delivery and peptide
delivery (Bhirde et al., 2010; Dehaghani et al., 2020). Additionally, due
to their electrical conducting properties these particles have been using
in developing various biosensors to detect the concentration of desired
analytes (Rajesh & Jr., 2000; Rane et al., 2018; Sabu et al., 2019; Zahra et al.,
2021).
Dendrimers are also a kind of nanoparticles whose size is less than 10nm.
These particles are highly branched and produce a monodisperse polymer
system achieved by controlled polymerisation (Caminade et al., 2005). The
three major parts of this highly branched nanoparticles are core, branch,
and surface. These are widely used for long circulatory controlled delivery
of bioactive components and their target delivery to the macrophages
(Ziemba et al., 2011). On the other hand, liposomes are also similar to
dendrimers however these are a bit large particle ranging from 50-100nm
in size. These are the phospholipid vesicles which are present in the
human body as a single cellular vesicular organelle, that are versatile and
possess good entrapment efficiency. These vesicular organelles offer both
active and passive delivery of genes, proteins, peptides, and various other
biological molecules (Afergan et al., 2010).
Metallic nanoparticles are another category of nanoparticles which offer
high surface area which allows functionalisation and stability of the
desired molecules. These particles have less than 100nm size and are
usually made up of gold and silver colloids (Tran et al., 2017). These have
wide applications in drug and gene delivery, show high sensitivity and
reproducibility in diagnostic assays, enhances radiotherapy treatment,
and is also involved in thermal excision (Bhatia, 2016; Hobson, 2011).
Interestingly, most of the studies have been done to fabricate biosensors
for early cancer diagnosis using carbon nanotubes as working electrode
and gold nanoparticles coated on the working electrode to enhance the
surface area so that more biorecognition molecules would get attached to
the surface (Afkhami et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2019).
Other nanoparticles include nanocrystal quantum dots, polymeric
micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles. Nanocrystal quantum dots serve
as a semi conducting material which ranges between 2-9.5nm in size (Iga
et al., 2007). These particles are used to visualise liver cell, involved in
receptor-mediated endocytosis, and labelling HER2 a biomarker for breast
cancer on the surface of the cancer cells (Gao et al., 2004). While polymeric
micelles have high drug entrapment efficiency, and are highly biostable
they have narrow range of applications in medical sector (Bhatia, 2016).
Finally, polymeric nanoparticles are the excellent carriers for regulated
and sustained drug delivery. Interestingly stealth and surface modified

polymeric nanoparticles could be used for active and passive delivery of
bioactive components (Katmıs et al., 2018). Fig.1 illustrates some of the
biologically important types of nanoparticles. Table-1 summarises sizes of
various nanoparticles
CHARACTERISATION OF NANOPARTICLES
Nanoparticle characterisation depends on the particle size, morphology,
and surface charge and requires advanced microscopic techniques such as
atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Molpeceres et al., 2000; Shi et al.,
2003). The physical stability and the in vivo distribution of the nanoparticles
largely depends on the size distribution, average particle diameter, and
surface charge (Bhatia, 2016). The electron microscopy techniques that are
mentioned above determines the surface morphology, size, and overall
shape of the nanoparticles (Movia et al., 2015). However, the surface charge
of the nanoparticle affects the physical stability, in vivo performance, and
the polymer dispersion. Therefore, evaluation of the surface charge of the
nanoparticle is crucial while performing their characterisation (Kaur et al.,
2020). Interestingly, the rate of drug release depends on the particle size.
Smaller the size of the nanoparticle faster is its drug release. This because
as size decreases the surface area of the nanoparticle increases (Redhead
et al., 2001).
FABRICATION OF NANOPARTICLES
Nanoparticles could be synthesized using various techniques such
as coprecipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, inert gas condensation,
sputtering, microemulsion, sol-gel, laser ablation, microwave, etc
(Rane et al., 2018). Coprecipitation reactions comprise the synchronized
incidence of nucleation, growth, coarsening, and agglomeration processes.
Nanoparticles fabricated using this technique are usually insoluble (Athar,
2015). However, coprecipitation is a simple and rapid process that offers
various possibilities to modify the particle surface stage and overall
homogeneity (Athar, 2015; Rane et al., 2018). Hydrothermal technique
on the other hand, has been more esteemed and reaping attention from
scientists and technologists from various disciplines. Hydrothermal
synthesis refers to the fabrication by chemical reactions of substances in a
sealed heat solution above the optimum temperature and pressure (Gan et
al., 2020). A gradient temperature is to be maintained at the contradictory
ends of the growth chamber so that the hotter end dissolves the nutrients
while the cooler end causes seeds to take an additional growth which is
required for fabricating single crystals (Ã et al., 2014; Gan et al., 2020).
Sputtering is another process of synthesizing nanoparticles which ejects the
atoms from the surface of the material by bombarding with the energetic
particles. Sputtering is a versatile technique that allows the deposition of

films that has same composition as the target source (Wender et al., 2013).
Another approach to fabricate nanoparticles is the micro emulsification
technique though the mechanism of nanoparticle fabrication using this
technique has not been understood well yet. However, microemulsions
are formed spontaneously at room temperature and are easy to synthesize
and also offer high shelf life due to the thermodynamic stability of the
microemulsion technique (Malik et al., 2012).
NANOPARTICLES IN DRUG DELIVERY
Nanoparticle based drug delivery could be either active or passive
process. Passive delivery refers to the process in which the drug infused
nanoparticles are diffused conventionally or passively into the tumor
micro environment via leaky tumor fenestrations (Koo et al., 2006; Wicki
et al., 2015). On the other hand, active transport depends on molecular
recognition and involves delivery of drug to the specific site. Coupling
the drug infused nanoparticle is one of the approaches to achieve active
drug delivery process as ligand specifically binds with the receptor (Cho
et al., 2008). Similarly, when the nanoparticle is conjugated with specific
antibody, the conjugated nanoparticle would recognize and bind to the
specific antigen present on the target cells (Movia et al., 2015).
Various studies have proven that nanoparticles with size ranging
from 1-100nm that possess hydrodynamic properties showed good
pharmacokinetic properties for in vivo applications (Koo et al., 2006). This
is because smaller nanoparticles act as targets for tissue extravasations
while larger nanoparticles would be quickly opsonized and removed
from the blood stream by the immune cells (Roemeling et al., 2016). For
instance, liposomes have been reported to enhance drug solubility as well
as the therapeutic index of the drug while, lowering the side effects of
the drug (Frenkel, 2009). Liposomes also play a crucial role in elevating
anti-cancer activity of various chemotherapeutic drugs both in vitro and in
vivo studies. However, the release of the drug from liposomes depends on
various factors such as composition of the liposome, pH, osmotic gradient,
etc (Staruch et al., 2011; Tran et al., 2017).
Interestingly, due to their stability and easy surface modification polymeric
nanoparticles made from natural and synthetic polymers gained major
interest in drug delivery. By tuning the polymer characteristics and
surface chemistry we can achieve both controlled drug release and
disease-specific localisation (Sun et al., 2014). Most of the anti-cancer drugs
being used are hydrophobic in nature and it has been a challenge to the
researchers to effectively deliver a hydrophobic drug into the target (Cho
et al., 2008). The reason is because of their hydrophobicity the drug might
not be soluble enough to cross the aqueous environment surrounding the
cells. Nanoparticles based drug delivery system however, overcome this
difficult challenge. This is achieved by encapsulating the drug into the

nanoparticle-based carrier which should possess good loading capacity
for the hydrophobic drug (Wicki et al., 2015).
CONCLUSION
Utilizing nanoparticles as carriers for drug delivery shows promising
significance in enhance treatment of various diseases. The systemic side
effects that most of the patients endure during the treatment would be
lowered by the targeted drug delivery and also ensures the pronounced
cytotoxic levels of the drugs are localised within the damaged tissue
(Rajesh & Jr., 2000). It should be remembered that nanoparticle-based
drug delivery system in not miracle cure as they possess both flaws and
challenges to overcome. One example is the nanoparticle reproducibility.
Reproducible, large-scale fabrication of nanomedicines is still a challenge
(Jong, 2008). Furthermore, legislative changes might frequently occur at
various rate when compared with the drug development in the laboratory.
The Nanotechnology Characterisation Laboratory for instance, collaborates
with FDA to serve as a bridge between scientists and regulatory committees
in the examination of nanomedicines and has assisted with the translation
of various nanoplatforms (Bawa & Borchard, 2014).
However, it might seem to be impossible to overcome these obstacles, yet
it is not impossible. Research on targeted drug delivery has been shifted
from an individual-based strategy to a more collaborative one, which has
aided in progress. A multidisciplinary approach appears to be greatest
alternative for a complicated problem that demands a complex solution.
Partnerships between theoretical and experimental scientists across
academic circles, as well as with the pharmaceutical sector, doctors, and
federal bodies, will aid in the translation of more outcomes from the lab to
the clinic, heralding in the next era of clinical cancer nanomedicines.
Figures:
Figure.1: Types of nanoparticles that are being used in drug delivery systems.
Following are various types of nanoparticles that are majorly used to
delivery potent therapeutic drugs to the targeted site in the organism so
as to minimise the side effects caused by the drugs as well as to lower the
drug dosage.
Tables:\
Table-1: Sizes of various nanoparticles.
Nanoparticle Type Size

Carbon nanotubes 0.5-3nm diameter 20-100nm in length
Dendrimers 10nm
Metallic nanoparticles 100nm
Liposomes 20nm
Author Contributions: Wrote the manuscript: PC and SLP. Helped in

compiling the data: SG. Conceptualized the study: SLP. Overall supervision
of the study: SLP.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SLP gratefully acknowledges DBT (BT/PR30629/BIC/101/1093/2018),
New Delhi; UGC (Ref No: No.F.30-456/2018 (BSR) and SERB (Ref No.:
PDF/2015/000867) for the financial support. PC gratefully acknowledges
DBT (BT/PR30629/BIC/101/1093/2018), New Delhi for the Junior research
fellowship.
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17
Application of Nanotechnology for Energy
Abdul Ashik Khan*, Tanmoy Dutta**, &

Sudipta Kr Kundu***, Sandip Mondala*
* Department of Chemistry, Darjeeling Government College; Darjeeling,

West Bengal (Corresponding Author)
** Departments of Chemistry, JIS College of Engineering, Kalyani, West Bengal
*** Departments of Chemistry, Muragachha Government College, Nadia,
West Bengal
Application of Nanotechnology for Energy 175
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the most important challenges for mankind in this era is to ensure
an extended-term energy supply for sustainable global development
[1]. Now a days fuel problem is one of the significant issues. We’re
increasingly depending on fossil fuels [2]. Fossil fuel is majorly used as
a source of power in internal combustion engines and automobiles [3].
Mineral fuels, hydroelectric and nuclear sources are also very much
familiar with the fossil fuels for different kinds of human’s activity [4].
They are extremely harmful to the environment as they are responsible for
ozone layer depletion, global warming, ecological devastation, biosphere
and geosphere destruction. Consequently, real energy production can be
described as a harmful industry both in terms of environmental impact and
pollution production since the industrial revolution of the 18th century
[5-7]. Furthermore, the combustion of those fuels causes environmental
degradation through air pollution and global warming. As it is a non-
renewable source, the supply of fuel is gradually getting reduced day by
day. So, It’s time to think about renewable sources of energy that will be
available in plenty [8]. Though it can take some decades to meet with a
truly sustainable energy system, intensive research is being conducted to
search out solutions to (1) increase efficiency in transmission, production,
and utilization of the remaining fossil fuels, (2) reduce the negative
impacts to the ecosystem and environment, and (3) develop technologies
for the smooth transition to the renewable energy sources (e.g., solar
energy, biofuels, etc.) [9] Nanotechnology, that controls the phenomena
of the materials in the region of 1 to 100 nm, holds the vital key to lots of
the technological advancements in the energy sector [10]. It involves the
miniaturization in addition to manipulation of the atoms to molecules to
regulate their properties, which are quite different from the bulk properties
at this scale. As an illustration, a particle of 100 nm has lower than 0.2% of
atoms at the surface, while a particle of 10 nm has approximately 10% at the
surface and a 2 particle of nm has 90% of its atoms at the surface. As these
surface atoms may have more than one dangling bond, they are extremely
active and have a tendency to form bonds with adjacent molecules to get
more stability. This results in more chemical activity, higher solubility and
lower melting point. [11]. Nanomaterials are being studied for various
renewable energy applications. This chapter focuses on the utilization of
nanotechnology for sustainable energy sources (Fuel cells, Biofuels, Solar
cells etc.)
2. NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FUEL CELL
2.1 Definition and uses of fuel cell

Cells are a technology for transforming the chemical energy of the redox
reaction between hydrogen fuel and oxygen from air into electricity. These
innovative powerhouses have been used in various applications like air

crafts, space crafts, long distance space probes and fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs).
2.2 Nanotechnology used in fuel cell production
Nanotechnology is now being implemented to optimize the materials, fuels,
and processes involved in fuel cell production for advanced performance,
durability and hydrogen storage.[12]
In hydrogen fuel cells, hydrogen flows to anode and here it is oxidized and
converted into protons, which flow to the cathode and oxygen from air is
pumped to the cathode. The catalyst (most often platinum) in the anode
and cathode facilitates the spontaneous reaction that produces electricity
with 40-60% efficiency and no dangerous waste product.
2.3 Nanomaterials for fuel cell electrode
Nanostructured fuel cell electrodes increase the surface area of catalysts and
enhance the contact between fuels and catalysts, which leads to improve
the efficiency of fuel cells. The preparation of nanoscale electrocatalysts
for fuel cells typically starts from colloidal nanomaterial precursors,
for example, colloidal platinum sols. A research team at the Technical
University of Munich recently reduced the size of platinum particles to the
point of actually doubling catalytic performance when compared to those
currently used in commercial fuel cell applications.[13]
2.4 Nano-reactor Biofuel
Scientists at Indiana University have developed a cheap and highly efficient
biomaterial, protected by a ‘capsid protein shell’ of a bacterial virus that
also catalyzes hydrogen formation.[14] The team claims their new material
produces hydrogen gas without the need for platinum in the reaction. This
biodegradable and sustainable material is potentially far less expensive
and more environmental friendly than other materials currently used to
create fuel cells.
2.5 Cobalt-graphene nanocatalyst
Another new catalyst that might be able to replace platinum in fuel
cells has been introduced by researchers at Brown University.[15] They
combined graphene, a honeycomb like sheet of carbon just one atom thick,
with cobalt to form a new nanomaterial that could offer the best reduction
performance of any platinum replacement in fuel cell technology.
2.6 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)
In addition to catalysts, nanotechnology has helped significantly improve
fuel cell membranes, including a proton exchange membrane developed
by researchers at the University of Illinois.[16] Their proton exchange
membrane consists of a layer of porous silica over a 5 nm in diameter thick

silicon layer. Water stays in the nanopores of the silica layer to combine
with acid molecules. The acidic solution formed by water in the silica
nanopores helps hydrogen ions pass through the membrane. The results
in a membrane that performs 100 times better in low humidity conditions
than conventional fuel cell membrane.
2.7 Nanotech assisted Hydrogen Storage
Graphene is useful for another aspect of fuel cell technology. Hydrogen
gas is most promising fuel alternative in the automotive industry due to its
clean-burning characteristics. However, hydrogen fuel cells have certain
limitations, such as their efficiency, size, and challenges with making sure
the stored hydrogen is safe, since it is very inflammable. Luckily, these
challenges are slowly being overcome. Using techniques such as annealing
which involves heating a material and then cooling it slowly to strengthen
it and remove impurities.[17] The very high surface area exposure of
graphene allows for greatly increased storage of hydrogen in fuel cells.
These are just a few of the most exciting ways nanotechnology is opening
new frontiers in the development of hydrogen fuel cells. With each new
discovery, society comes closer to a fossil fuel free future.
3. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
In 1987 the United Nations Brundtland Commission set up the definition
of sustainable energy is “meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
This is similar concept of green and clean energy with respect to the
environmental impacts, but the official definitions of sustainable energy
also include economic and social impacts. The term ‘sustainability’ is a
holistic approach that recognized long term prosperity with environmental,
social and economic dimensions. In general, renewable energy is widely
regarded as sustainable energy and the terms “sustainable energy” and
“renewable energy” are often used interchangeably, but specific renewable
energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns.
Renewable energy technologies generally contribute to sustainable energy
they contribute to energy security, and reducing dependence on fossil
fuel resources thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[18] Renewable
energy is a source of energy that can be reused in a short period of time
and the source of energy is not depleted. Various natural sources such as
sunlight and heat, wind, water flow, biomass, geothermal, ocean waves,
ocean heat, tides, urban waste, hydrogen fuel cells, etc. are considered as
renewable energy sources.[19] Among of the renewable energy sources
solar, wind and hydropower energies are generally considering to be the
most sustainable source of energy and those types of energy have been
successfully commercialized, but rest of the energy sources have not yet
been considered as form of commercial energy. It is very noteworthy the

most of the countries have set targets for the use of renewable energy to
meet their electricity needs because it is environmentally friendly and
free of carbon emissions. The United Nations and global environmental
movements have continued to encourage the use of renewable energy to
tackle climate change and reach a sustainable energy system.
In this regards, the application of nanotechnology is playing an important
role in increasing the use of the various sources of renewable and susteneble
energy in developing country. In particular, advanced research is being
carried out on photovoltaic cells to improvement of energy production
and storage capacity using different types of metal-organic frameworks
(MOF),[20] composite nanoclusters of porphyrins and fullerenes like
molecules with metal nanoparticles,[21] metal-cluster-sensitized solar
cells (MCSCs)[22] etc and such types of works is a milestone in the
research of solar cells. Nanotechnology has great potential for improving
energy storage and electrical power generation and its use in domestic and
industrial applications. It is important to note that developing countries
need to increase their efforts by investing more in nanotechnology research
as it can help them overcome their energy challenges and easily prevent
adverse effects such as environmental pollution and global warming.
There are many reasons why sustainable energy is so important to us
today:
Sustainable energy can reduce the dependence on fossil fuels, especially
fuels such as gasoline, petrol, and diesel (and eventually substitute).
Currently, we use fossil fuels as source of energy because it is readily
available and reliable. It will not be usable indefinitely and after a certain
period it will be finished. So, instead the fossil fuels, we need to move
renewable energy sources for our healthy, safe and clean environment.
The use of Sustainable energy has no detrimental effect on the environment
and has no adverse effect on public health because it does not produce
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide etc. The
fumes produced by fossil fuels cause a variety of long-term diseases,
including irritation of our lungs and respiratory tract through inhalation
process. Sustainable energy promotes long-term development through
environmental pollution control and consequently improves the quality
of life.
Nowadays, renewable energy will eventually become a more affordable
alternative energy. It is noteworthy that renewable energy, such as wind
and solar power, is becoming much cheaper every year, and it is likely
that within the next decade, sustainable energy will likely become more
competitive with non-renewable energy worldwide. The costs of wind
and solar power have become so consistent that in addition to domestic
use, those types of energy are being used in many offices, administrative
buildings and even for industrial purposes and to meet the demand for
electricity.
4. NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR SOLAR CELL
Photovoltaic cells, or conventional solar cells, are formed by the
semiconducting material, commonly silicon. The absorption of energy
occurs when light is irradiated on the solar cell. This absorbed energy
causes electrons in silicon to be knocked out, allowing them to flow.
Adding other impurities to Si, such as phosphorus or boron, can create an
electric field. The electric field operates as a diode because electrons move
in only one direction. As a result, solar energy is turned to electricity. [23]
Traditional solar cells have two major flaws: first, their efficiency, and
second, their exorbitant cost. Because the first disadvantage is based on
the band gap energy, most popular silicon cells are unable to overcome it.
Photons with less energy than the band gap energy will pass through. The
excess energy will be squandered as heat if it is higher. When radiation is
bombarded on a solar cell, about 70% of the energy is lost.
Nanoparticles have a vast surface area that can regulate the interaction
nature of nanoparticles with photons due to their small size. As a result,
we may modify the properties of nanomaterials by varying the size of
nanoparticles. Multiple layers of nanomaterials on solar cells in their
thin form boost efficiency in three ways. To begin with, the absorption
of photons of radiant energy is substantially greater than the thickness
of the silicon sheet. Second, nanotechnology generates a thin layer on
the solar cell (about 150 nm), which prevents recombination by reducing
the distance travelled by excited electrons. Finally, the various sizes of
nanoparticles enable us to fine-tune the band gap energy of the various
layers of solar cells. Furthermore, because the thin layer uses less material
on the solar cell, it is a cost-effective method.
Figure 1: Representation of (a) dye molecules with (

D-π-A) and (b) mechanism of DSSC
4.1 Hybrid Solar Cell

A hybrid solar cell is made out of organic materials that are cheap and
easy to work with, as well as inorganic semiconductor nanoparticles
placed in a thin layer. It has a high absorption capacity and is utilised as
a cheaper alternative to pricey silicon solar cells.[24] It is also known as a
nanoparticle sensitised solar cell, which has the same functional activity
as DSCs but uses inorganic nanoparticles instead of organic dyes. [25] The
mechanism of DSSC are explained in figure 1. The band gap energy of
inorganic nanomaterials is controlled by particle size, and the required
range of radiation energy is absorbed. Nanocrystals are stable due to their
substantial extinction coefficients and intrinsic dipole moments.[26]
In another scenario, hybrid solar cells are made from inorganic nanocrystals
and conductive polymers. The bulk heterojunction idea underpins this
method.[27] In such a system, inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals
such as CdSe, CuInS2, CdS, or PbS have been used.[28-29] Most recent
researcher show interested in hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite solar
cell due to its high efficiency over conventional hybrid solar cells [30-31].
This type of solar cell is consisted by the the metal halide based material
most commonly CH3NH3Pbl3 nanocrystal or a closed variant (such as Cl,
Br, I) as the light absorbers, and the perovskite pigment is a mixture of
CH3NH3X (X = Cl,Br, I) and PbX2 prepared by sequential vapour deposition
or solution process [32-33]. Figure 1 represents the diagram of the hybrid
perovskite solar cell.
Quantum Dots (QD) are one of the major components to improve the
efficiency of solar cell by tuning the band gap energy which can be adjusted
specifically to convert also longer- wave light. III/V-semiconductors are
considered as the material used as QD [34].
Also, Si/Ge or Si/Be Te/Se combination are also reported as used materials
in solar cell and among them Si/Ge QD showed high efficiency. In general
one photon can generate only one electron whereas QDs can produce
multiple electrons and show higher conversion efficiency (near about
65%). Hot carrier cell was the another approach in which QDs were used.
In this case the extra energy (which is lost in conventional method) is used
for the excitation of electron, therefore higher voltage was produced [35].
ADVANTAGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY SOLAR CELL
1. Nanotechnology-based, low-cost solar cells would aid in environmental
preservation.
2. It is simple to prepare, and the flexibility of nanotechnology-based
solar cells allows for convenient travelling.
3. Lighting, hot water, medical equipment, and even cooking might all
benefit from a low-cost solar cell. It would significantly raise the living
standards of millions, if not billions, of people.
4. Titanium has been created to make solar cells cheaper due to its
features of light absorption and stability.
5. This nano wire has been tuned to absorb photons so that it can be
utilised even in indoor lighting while consuming the least amount of
energy.
5. CONCLUSION
Despite some doubts about the use of nanomaterials in commercially
produced battery devices, there are several examples where nanotechnology
has made progress in performance in energy sector, such as in the case of
silicon-carbon nano-composite material anodes, metal-cluster-sensitized
solar cells (MCSC). Such research suggests that the technology could be
capable of producing high-energy products and its long-lasting energy-
saving devices. Studies over the past few decades have shown that
nanostructuring increases the life span of a device and that it can be used as
a sustainable energy. The widespread use of nanotechnology in fuel cells,
especially bio fuel nanoparticles, metal graphine nanocatalysts, proton
exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and the use of nanotechnology in
hydrogen storage could lead to new directions in energy production and
storage. The use of nanotechnologies in the field of energy will reduce the
use of so-called conventional energy such as petrol, diesel or coal. Increased
confidence in energy prices and safety (especially health, environmental
and operational) and will open the door to extensive implementation of
nanomaterials in energy saving technologies. Moreover, nanotechnology
has made groundbreaking advances in the field of solar cells, such as the
development of hybrid solar cell devices using semiconductors, organic
molecules and halogen compounds, which are very important in the
research of solar energy. Also, the use of Quantum Dot nanotechnologies
for high-powered solar cells could be a milestone in future energy
production research.
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18
Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnostics and
Therapeutics
Pavan Kumar Rambatla*, Sireesha V
Garimella** & Santhi Latha Pandrangi***
Abstract
Nanomedicine is an emerging field that promises to use the unique properties
of nanomaterials to develop better drugs. Nanomaterials can be synthesized
in several different shapes and sizes. This makes it possible to control their
properties. Nanoparticles have properties such as biostability, solubility,
decreased cytotoxicity, decreased chemical resistance when compared to
traditional drugs. Nanoparticles can also improve specificity and sensitivity
when used as diagnostic agents. These properties make nanomaterials
excellent therapeutic and diagnostic agents when applied to cancer therapy.
Most traditional cancer drugs are non-specific, toxic and lead to chemical
resistance in tumors. All of these side effects can be overcome with the use
of nanomaterials. There are several kinds of nanoparticles such as Carbon
Quantum Dots, Nano diamonds, Lipid Nanoparticles and Carbon Nanotubes.
Each of these nanoparticles have unique properties that can be used to target
specific tumors. These nanoparticles can also be conjugated with traditional
drugs to increase their specificity. Several such nano drugs have been approved
by the FDA for cancer treatment. Some of these nano drugs are already in
clinical trials. Nanoparticles also make good diagnostic probes because of
properties such as fluorescence, hydrophilicity and ease of penetration. This
chapter discusses about the different types of nanoparticles and how they are
being used to develop the next generation of nano drugs for cancer treatment.
* Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, GITAM

(Deemed to be University), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
** Assistant Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Science , GITAM
(Deemed to be University) Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (Corresponding Author)
*** Department of Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Institute of Science, GITAM
Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnostics and Therapeutics 185
INTRODUCTION
Cancer causes the second highest number of deaths worldwide today.
Cancer is a complex condition and there can be several different causes
for the development of tumors. This complexity affects the efficiency of
chemotherapeutic treatments. Tumors are known to develop resistance
to most treatments which further increases the complexity of cancer
treatments. Most therapeutic agents used in modern chemotherapy are
known to be highly toxic to the human body. The use of these therapies is
limited by their toxicity, their nonspecific nature, low selectivity and the
possibility of developing resistance to them. Research shows that these
adverse side effects of conventional cancer treatments can be overcome by
the use of nanotechnology-based tools.
Nanomedicine is a nascent field that is trying to merge the benefits
of nanomaterials with medicine. Materials in the nano range (1-100
nm) when used in the design, application and regulation of drugs or
devices for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes are referred to as medical
nanotechnology or nanopharmacology. Several areas of medicine are
already being shown to benefit from the use of medical nanotechnology.
These areas include infectious diseases, diabetes, neurodegenerative
diseases, orthopedic ailments and blood disorders.
Medical nanotechnology can be used in the development of next generation
tools for the detection of cancer at early stages and more effective
therapeutic anticancer agents. Nano drugs have several advantages over
traditional chemotherapy agents. For example, nanodrugs can overcome
the limitation of solubility and chemical resistance faced by traditional
anticancer drugs. Poor water solubility severely limits the bioavailability of
several cancer drugs and limits their clinical usage. This can be overcome
by simply placing the drug inside of a more soluble carrier nano particle.
Nanomaterials offer several new properties and advantages over
traditional therapeutics. Nanoparticles have increased chemical and
biological stability. Nanoparticles can be designed in ways that increase
the selectivity with which they target tumor cells and improve the
penetration of the drugs into cells. Nano drugs can also be designed to
increase the circulation time of the compound and can be programmed to
release the drug in response to certain stimuli. These design changes can
lead to a decrease in the drug resistance of tumor cells.1 Most commonly
used chemotherapeutics are non-specific for cancer cells and are toxic to
healthy cells in the proximity of the tumor. Nanodrugs can be localized to
the tumor site thus decreasing the adverse effects commonly associated
with chemotherapy.
Nanotechnology can also help in improving cancer diagnostics. Nanodrugs

can be used to develop diagnostic strategies which provide higher
sensitivity, increased specificity and dependability. Nano particles have
an enormous surface area as compared to materials used in traditional
diagnostics. Hence, the surfaces of nanoparticles can be coated with
different moieties such as aptamers, peptides and antibodies. These can
then be used to bind to an detect cancer molecules. These nanoparticles
can be manufactured with different shapes and sizes suitable for different
purposes. They offer high carrier capacity, high stability and can be
administered in different ways. All of these properties make nanoparticles
especially attractive for use in cancer diagnostics.
NANOPARTICLES
Nanoparticles are generally depicted as spheres. But they can be
manufactured in various shapes including rods, wires, tubes and several
other geometric shapes. The properties of nanoparticles and their behavior
in-vivo are determined by their shape and their physiochemical properties.
Nanoparticles can be designed to overcome different biological barriers in
the body and effectively influence the site of the disease. For example, the
size of nanoparticles determines how they accumulate or circulate in the
blood stream. This is caused by the Enhanced Permeability and Retention
(EPR) effect. Tumor tissue displays enhanced permeability and retention
due to its hypervascularization when compared to normal tissue. This
EPR effect allows large nanoparticles (100-200 nm) to accumulate in tumor
tissues and increases the efficient delivery of drugs inside solid tumors.
On the other hand, smaller nanoparticles (2-6 nm) are more efficient at
penetrating into cells. Small gold nanoparticles were shown to penetrate
deeply into the spheroids of some tumors.
The shape of the nanoparticles also plays an important role in their
accumulation and distribution. The shape of the nanoparticles determines
how they interact with cell membranes. Non-spherical nanoparticles
are shown to have reduced clearance by macrophages. Non-spherical
nanoparticles are subject to greater torques and this increases their lateral
drift and leads to their accumulation on the walls of blood vessels.The
variability in shape and size and other properties of nanoparticles makes
it possible for them to perform different functions. This flexibility is not
possible with traditional therapeutic agents. The nanoparticles used for
clinical purposed have a diameter from 3-200 nms2. Here, we discuss about
different kinds of nanoparticles and their use in cancer therapy.
Figure 1: Nanoparticles bound with anticancer drugs

deliver the drugs to the tumor more efficiently.
CARBON QUANTUM DOTS

Carbon Dots (CDs) or Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) were discovered
by serendipity during separation and purification of single walled carbon
nanotubes. They exhibit properties such as low toxicity, biocompatibility,
chemical inertness and fluorescence which are all useful in Nanomedicine.
Fluorescent CQDs can be used as imaging probes because of properties
such as hydrophilicity, ease of preparation and lower toxicity. Metals
like Gadolinium when used in combination with CQDs show decreased
toxicity and leakage3we demonstrated that apigenin directly blocked heat
shock protein 90 (Hsp904. CQDs were shown to suppress cancer cells in
vivo5 6carbon dots (CDs 7. Fe3+ levels are shown to be abnormally high with
the development of cancer and other disorders. CQDs which were doped
with Fe3+ were able to distinguish cancer cells from normal cells.8 Similarly,
fluorescent CQDs conjugated with Folic acid were shown to bind to Folic
acid receptors overexpressed on cancer cells.
GRAPHENE QUANTUM DOTS
Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) are derived from graphene. They
exhibit good dispersibility in solvents, biocompatibility and intriSnsic
fluorescence. GQDs have been shown to prevent breast cancer growth
in mice9. Nitrogen doped GQDs have been used as nanocarriers for the
anticancer drug methotrexate 10. Sulphur doped GQDs were conjugated
with Folic acid and were extremely effective in early cancer diagnosis.
GQDs can also be used to effectively target cancer cells which overexpress
particular receptors11.
FULLERENES
Fullerenes (C60) have been shown to have several different applications.
Conjugation of drugs with fullerenes makes then less cytotoxic and more
hydrophilic. Fullerenes conjugated with paclitaxel12 13and with doxorubicin
(DOX)14 increased their therapeutic effects. Fullerenes can activate immune
cells by acting as immunomodulators and generating reactive oxygen
species (ROS) and can kill cancer cells15clinical applications of DOX are
restricted, largely due to the fact that its action disturbs the pro/antioxidant
balance in both cancerous and non-cancerous cells. The aim of this study
was to investigate the influence of fullerene (C60.Fullerenes conjugated
with anticancer drugs promote ROS production by phagocytes. This can
be used as a novel strategy to combat cancer16.
CARBON NANOTUBES
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) offer unique properties when compared to other
nanoparticles. The offer high surface area and the possibility to incorporate
therapeutic agents either on their surface or in their inner cavity. Carbon
nanotubes can be used as good contrast agents in medical imaging8
17
the visuality and veracity of ultrasound imaging for the diagnosis and
prognostic prediction of PCa remains poor at present. In this study, we
developed a new nanoultrasound contrast agent by modifying multi-
walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs18. CNTs were shown to effectively
deliver drugs to the target site. They also increased blood circulation at the
site after successful uptake by cancer cells19. On the basis of their structure
and diameter they can be further divided into two categories – single
walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs). SWCNTs consist of a single sheet of graphene that is shaped
into a tube with a diameter of 0.4-3 nms. MWCNTs consist of a few layers
of graphene with an inner diameter of 1-3 nms and an outer diameter of
2-100 nms.
SWCNTs can be used to deliver siRNA into target cells20. SWCNTs were
conjugated with the anticancer drug Paclitaxel (PTX). They effectively
suppressed tumors without causing toxicity to other organs21. This
shows that nanotube-based drug delivery is favorable for cancer therapy.
MWCNTs can be used to deliver DNA and siRNA into microglia for brain
cancer therapy22.
MWCNTs were used to develop magnetic nanocarrier using iron oxide
NPs. These MWCNTs displayed dual targeted delivery23.
NANODIAMONDS
Nanodiamonds are colloidal suspensions of diamond particles.
Nanodiamonds also exhibit fluorescence and even lower toxicity when
compared to quantum dots. This makes them excellent candidates for
bioimaging applications24. Nanodiamonds are able to adsorb even poorly

soluble drugs onto their surface and can mediate their slow and sustained
release. Nanodiamonds can be conjugated with fluorophores and can
target tumor cells without getting degraded25. Nanodiamond based
drug delivery systems have been shown to lead to decreased resistance
to chemotherapeutics in different cancers. Nanodiamonds have been
used as vectors for the successful delivery of siRNA into sarcoma cells26.
Detonation Nanodiamonds (DNDs) or Ultradispersed Nanodiamonds are
produced by a detonation in a closed chamber. These DNDs have been
shown to increase the efficacy of radiotherapy. When cancer cells resistant
to radiotherapy were incorporated with DNDs their irradiation was found
to be more effective27. Nanodiamonds were shown to induce autophagy
in tumor cells. Under hypoxia conditions they promoted programmed cell
death in tumors.
NANOCANTILEVERS
Nanocantilevers are strips of silicone carbide a few hundred nanometers
in width. The vibrational frequency of nanocantilevers can vary in
proportion to the mass of the objects they are in touch with. Hence when
they bind to biomolecules their baseline probe frequency undergoes a
change. These changes in frequencies can be detected by electrical means
or light diffraction patters28. These properties can allow Nanocantilevers to
be used as biosensors. Increased levels of Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA)
are tested to indicate an increased risk of prostate cancer in men. PSA assay
can be performed using nanocantilevers conjugated with antibodies29.
POLYMER MICELLES
Polymeric Micelles are nanosized micellar structures with a hydrophobic
core and a hydrophilic shell. They are composed of amphiphilic block
copolymers. The hydrophobic core can be used for the delivery of
hydrophobic drugs. The hydrophilic exterior provides stability to the
structure, solubility in water and enables nanoparticle attachment. The
bioactive compound can be physically encapsulated or covalently bound
to the polymer micelles30.
DENDRIMERS
Dendrimers are macromolecules made from synthetic polymers. They are
made up of highly branched monomers emanating from a central core.
Medicinal agents can be attached to the dendrimers at the end of each
linear polymer. The dendrimers also increase the amount of time they
last in circulation. Dendrimers called Polyamidoamines (PAMAM) can
be conjugated with drugs such as cisplatin. This leads to increased drug
delivery and specific targeting31.
Table 1: Nanodrugs approved by FDA for treatment of cancer.
FDA
Nano Drug Loaded Drug Cancer Approval References
Date
Doxil (Caelyx) PEGylated Ovarian/breast 1995 Shi 201732

doxorubicin cancer
Marqibo Vincristine Leukemia 2012 Deitcher 201433
Onivyde Liposomal Pancreatic 2015 Frampton

(Merrimack) Irinotecan Cancer 202034
SMANCS Polymer- Liver and 1993 Shi 201732

neocarzinostatin renal cance
conjugate
Lipusu Liposomal Breast, lung, 2006 Koudelka

paclitaxel and ovarian 201235
cancer
Abraxane Albumin-bound Various 2005 Shi 201732

2005 2013 Paclitaxel nano- cancers
spheres. Metastatic
pancreatic
cancer
Eligard Leuprolide Prostate 2002 Bobo D 201636

(Tolmar) acetate and Cancer
polymer
Vyxeos Liposomal Acute myeloid 2017 Shi 201732

cytarabine and leukemia
daunorubicin
Nano-therm Iron oxide Glioblastoma 2010 Shi 201732

(MagForce)
DaunoXome Liposome- HIV-related 1996 Wolfram

encapsulated Kaposi 201937
Daunorubicin sarcoma
NANOSTRUCTURED LIPID CARRIERS

Liposomes or Nanostructured lipid carriers are lipid-based drug delivery
nanoparticles which are spherical in shape. They typically consist of a
hydrophobic lipid bilayer with an aqueous core. The components of the
bilayer can be changed to change the parameters required for the delivery
of a specific drug38. Lipid based nanoparticles are more biocompatible and
less toxic when compared to polymeric or inorganic nanoparticles. Solid
lipid nanoparticles are colloidal particles that have diameters ranging
from 50 to 1000 nms.
Nanostructured lipid carriers are the second generation of lipid-based
nanoparticles. They can have solid and liquid lipids at their cores. The
main advantage of Nanostructured lipid carriers is that they have a higher
drug loading capacity. They can be loaded with both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic drugs, their surface can be modified and adapted for site
specific targeting. They provide complete control on the release of the drug.A
nanostructured lipid carried that with colloidal thymoquinone displayed
good antitumor properties on liver cancer cells. Lipid nanoparticles can
also be used in double targeting. Lipid nanoparticles were encapsulated
with the malarial drug artesunate along with hyaluronic acid and peptides
to better penetrate cells. These lipid nanoparticles could efficiently
penetrate into HepG2 liver cancer cells39. Doxil is a nano-dug that contains
doxorubicin enclosed in a single-layer liposome that has a diameter of 80-
90 nm and is coated with PEG. It is the first FDA approved nano-drug.
It has been shown to have improved efficacy, decreased toxicity and it
stays longer in the blood stream. It is already being used to treat cancers
including metastatic ovarian cancer and Kaposi’s sarcoma40.
CONCLUSION
Nanomedicine is fast emerging as a new avenue for efficient treatments of a
wide range of disorders. Because of their unique properties nanomaterials
are able to overcome several of the limitations faced by traditional agents
used in cancer diagnosis and treatment. New nanoparticles are being
developed that increase the specificity, sensitivity and dependability of
diagnostic tests. Nano drugs have better solubility, develop less resistance
and target tumors more efficiently while causing minimal damage to
adjoining healthy tissues. Several of these drugs have already been
approved for clinical trials. Nanomedicine is a good example of the adage
good things come in small packages.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Funding from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt of India
(DST-SERB-TARE) and the University Grants Commission (UGC-BSR) to
Dr. SVG is greatly acknowledged.
The authors would like to declare that this piece of work is original and
has not been submitted anywhere for publication.
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19
Trail of the Nanoparticles: Cues to
Better Cancer Therapy
Siri Chandana Gampa*, Sireesha V Garimella** &

Santhi Latha Pandrangi***
Abstract
Tumor Necrosis Factor Related Apoptosis Inducing Ligand (TRAIL) also
known as Apo-2 Ligand (Apo-2L) is a type II transmembrane protein that
induces apoptosis by binding its death receptors, DR4 and DR5 in two
pathways, extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. Administration of TRAIL-receptor
(TRAIL-R) agonists or recombinant human TRAIL (rhTRAIL) preferentially
induces apoptosis in cancer cells over normal cells and has been in clinical
trials. But drug resistance, short half-life, off-target toxicities and limited
efficacy of rhTRAIL led to many problems. Nanoparticles serve as excellent
drug and gene delivery systems due to improved stability and biocompatibility,
enhanced permeability and retention effect, and precise targeting. Different
nanoparticle-based formulations for TRAIL drug and gene delivery like
TRAIL-based SWCNTs, nanogold-TRAIL complexes, magnetic ferric oxide
nanoparticles conjugated TRAIL, artificial liposomes with sTRAILcombined
with double-edged lipid nanoparticles,co-delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) and
TRAIL with human serum albumin (HSA), chitosan magnetic nanoparticles,
secretable trimeric tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand
(stTRAIL) gene with polyethyleneimine
* Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, GITAM

** Assistant Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Science GITAM
(deemed to be University) Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (Corresponding Author)
*** Department of Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Institute of Science, GITAM
(PEI) capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles

(poly-MAG-1000) coated with PEI, Poly(beta-amino ester) (PBAE)
nanoparticles (NPs),iron-oxide nanoparticles coated with chitosan-polyethylene
glycol-polyethyleneimine copolymer and chlorotoxin (CTX) successfully
delivered TRAIL that resulted in sensitization of different types of cancerous
cells (colon, lung, liver, breast, brain, blood, skin etc.) to TRAIL.
INTRODUCTION
Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand (TRAIL)
also known as Apo-2 Ligand (Apo-2L) is a type II transmembrane protein
of the TNF superfamily of ligands. TRAIL can bind to four membrane
receptors, TRAIL-Receptor 1/Death Receptor 4 (TRAIL-R1/DR4), TRAIL-
Receptor 2/Death Receptor 5 (TRAIL-R2/DR5), TRAIL-Receptor 3/Decoy
Receptor 1 (TRAIL-R3/DcR1), and TRAIL-Receptor 4/Decoy Receptor
2 (TRAIL-R4/DcR2), and one soluble receptor called osteoprotegerin
(OPG). TRAIL induces apoptosis in cancerous cells in two ways, extrinsic
(receptor-mediated) and intrinsic (mitochondrial-mediated) pathways in
a very selective manner [23]. Apoptosis is an ordered and orchestrated
cellular process that occurs in physiological and pathological conditions
for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. In the extrinsic pathway
of apoptosis, trimerization and subsequent activation of the receptors
occur upon binding of TRAIL to its respective death receptors, DR4 and
DR5 that eventually lead to the formation of Death Inducing Signalling
Complex (DISC) [34]. The intrinsic pathway involves mitochondrial outer
membrane permeabilization (MOMP) and apoptosome formation [15, 28].
TRAIL INDUCED APOPTOSIS: EXTRINSIC AND
INTRINSIC PATH WAY
Death receptors, DR4 and DR5 are surface receptors consisting of the
cytoplasmic death domain (DD). In the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis,
TRAIL binds to its death receptors that result in the recruitment of adaptor
protein, Fas-associated death domain (FADD) to their intracellular death
domains through homotypic interactions. FADD recruits initiator caspases,
caspase-8, and caspase-10 to its death effector domain (DED) region
forming a multiprotein complex, Death Inducing Signalling Complex
(DISC). The activation of caspases-8 and -10 occurs in the DISC. Activated
caspase-8 then cleaves and activates effector caspases, such as caspases-3,
-6, and -7 resulting in cell death [18, 30].
Several factors like DNA damage, loss of survival factors, cell cycle
checkpoint defects, etc. lead to the activation of the intrinsic apoptotic
pathway. However, the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways are interrelated.
The intrinsic pathway of apoptosis involves the cleavage of BH3-
interacting domain death agonist (Bid) to truncated Bid (tBid) that occurs
Trail of the Nanoparticles: Cues to Better Cancer Therapy 197
in the presence of activated caspase-8. This results in the translocation

of tBid to the mitochondria and causes mitochondrial outer membrane
permeabilization (MOMP)through activation of Bcl-2 associated x-protein
(Bax) and Bcl-2 homologous antagonist/killer (Bak). Mitochondria then
releasecytochrome c and mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (Smac)
into the cytosol and the interaction between cytochrome c with ATP and
apoptotic peptidase-activating factor-1 (Apaf-1) within the cytosol results
inthe recruitment of the initiator procaspase-9 into a signaling complex
called the apoptosome where caspase-9 activation occurs that in turn
activates the effector caspases-3, -6, and -7 to induce apoptosis [21, 28, 34].
Fig 1: TRAIL Apoptotic Pathway
TRAIL AND CANCER THERAPY

Cancer is the aberrant growth of cellscapable of invading and
metastasizingother parts of the body. It is one of the most common causes
of deathresulting in nearly 10 million deaths in 2020 globally, according
to the World Health Organization (WHO). Different treatment types for
cancer like surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy,
targeted therapy, and hormone therapy have been known [3]. Surgery can
prevent, diagnose, stage, treat, relieve discomfort or problems related to
cancer but possible complications during surgery may occur due to the
surgery itself, thedrugs used thereby affectingoverall health. Surgery may
also lead to some side effects like bleeding, blood clots, drug reactions,
pain, damage to other organs, damage to nearby tissues, infections, etc.
Chemo-, Radiation- and Immunotherapy’sin spite ofadvantages, also have

their own limitations. Another branch of cancer therapy istargeted therapy
that aims at targeting a specific site, for instance, tumor vasculature or
intracellular organelles, leaving the surroundings unaffected leading to an
enormous increasein the specificity of treatment, reducing its drawbacks
[27].
Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has been
widely studied as a target of cancer therapy due to its selectiveinduction of
apoptosis through DR4 and DR5 expressed on the surface of target cells.
However, considerable amount of cancer cells were found to be resistant
to TRAIL [40]. Several reasons account for the resistance to TRAIL, some
of which are discussed below.
MECHANISMS OF TRAIL RESISTANCE IN CANCER
Constitutive endocytosis of DR4 and DR5

Constitutive endocytosis is the process that involves the internalization
of membrane receptors. TRAIL binds to its membrane receptors, death
receptor 4 (DR4) and death receptor 5 (DR5), and causes apoptosis.
Loss of cell surface expression of DR4 and DR5 due to constitutive
endocytosisresults in resistance to TRAIL and is observed in some breast
cancer cell lines. The comparison of six human breast cancer cell lines, DA-
MB-231,MDA-MB-468, T47D, MCF7, SKBR3, and BT474 with recombinant
human TRAIL and antibodies to DR4 and DR5 for the apoptotic response
showed the loss of cell surface expression of DR4 and DR5 in some cell
lines that accounted to their corresponding antibody resistance. The use of
pharmacologic inhibitors or disruption of clathrin-dependent endocytosis
signaling components (adaptor protein 2 and clathrin) restored cell surface
expression of the death receptors and sensitized TRAIL-resistant cells to
TRAIL-induced apoptosis [41].In another study, the comparison of the
kinetics of TRAIL-mediated internalization and subsequent recycling of
DR4 and DR5 in resistant (HT-29 and A549) and sensitive (HCT116 and
Jurkat) tumor cell lines of various origins resulted in the internalization of
both receptors in a concentration-dependent manner that was stimulated
by TRAIL and the application of receptor-selective TRAIL variant DR5-B
resulted in independent internalization of DR5 despite DR4 receptor.
This cell surface expression of receptors was found to be restored after
internalization and elimination of TRAIL as observed by the addition of
cycloheximide and brefeldin A which inhibited the process indicating that
DRs undergo constitutive endocytosis [2].
DEFECT IN FADD AND CASPASE-8
Several cancer cells require an adaptor protein, Fas-associated death
domain (FADD), and caspase-8 for DR4- and DR5-mediated apoptosis.
Recruitment of FADD by TRAIL results in the activation of procaspase-8

and the formation of Death Inducing Signalling Complex (DISC) finally
leading to apoptosis. Defect in FADD does not allow TRAIL to recruit
FADD and cause inhibition of initiator caspases activation resulting in
TRAIL resistance.Experiments on FADD-deficient (-/-) mouse embryonic
fibroblasts concluded that DR4 utilizes a FADD-independent apoptotic
pathway [39].In another study, the transfection of mouse DR4/5, human
DR4, or human DR5 into FADD (-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblast cells
(MEF cells) resulted in resistance to TRAIL-mediated cell death. But when
heterozygous FADD (+/) cells or FADD (-/-) cells reconstituted with a
FADD retroviral construct are transfected, they are found to be sensitive to
the TRAIL cytotoxic effect [17].
OVEREXPRESSION OF CFLIP
Cellular Flice-like inhibitory protein (cFLIP) is a non-functional procaspase
homolog and antiapoptotic protein that plays an important role in the
regulation of TRAIL-induced apoptosis. cFLIP binds to FADD and
caspase-8 or -10 inhibiting the activation of caspase-8 and caspase-10 thus
preventing DISC formation. TRAIL-R2-positive and TRAIL-resistant IGR
cells expressed increased TRAIL sensitivity with the downregulation of
cFLIP. In TRAIL-sensitive and TRAIL-R2-expressing RPM-EP melanoma
cells, inhibition of TRAIL-mediated cell death was observed. It was
also observed that, due to the expression of cFLIP, TRAIL-R1 negative
melanoma cells cannot undergo TRAIL-induced apoptosis [11]. A study on
EMT transition showed that exogenous overexpression of cFLIPs causes
resistance to TRAIL-induced apoptosis and loss of cFLIPs is sufficient to
overcome resistance to TRAIL in carcinoma cell lines. It was also shown
that the induction of an isoxazole-based small molecule, ML327, partially
reversed TGF-β-induced EMT in an immortalized mouse mammary
epithelial cell line [25].
CARP-DEPENDENT DEGRADATION OF ACTIVE CASPASE-8
CARPs are caspases-8- and -10- associated RING proteins that belong
to a family of apoptotic inhibitors that bind to and negatively regulate
DED caspases. Active caspases play a crucial role in cancer cell death.
The overexpression of CARPs in cancerous cells leads to degradation of
active caspasesthat in turn results in an increase in the levels of cFLIP and
subsequently TRAIL resistance. In a study, silencing of CARPs by RNA
interference resulted in sensitization of H460 human lung cancer cells to
death ligands due to activation of caspases. When H460 cells were treated
with CARP1 or -2 siRNA followed by TNF-α/cycloheximide or TRAIL
exposure led to enhanced cleavage of caspase-8 and -10 in response to the
ligands.[9]
LOSS OF BAX/BAK FUNCTION (BAX MUTATIONS)

The members of the Bcl-2 family, B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) antagonist/
killer (Bak), and BCL-2–associated X-protein (Bax) are the core regulators
of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Activation of Bax and Bak form
oligomers resulting in the formation of pores in the mitochondrial outer
membrane, the release of cytochrome c and thus cause apoptosis. A
study on TRAIL-resistant leukemia cells that lack Bax and Bak function,
showed no release of mitochondrial apoptogenic proteins. When Bax was
transduced into Bax/Bak deficient leukemic cells, they exhibited sensitivity
to TRAIL [12].
OVEREXPRESSION OF BCL-2/BCL-XL
The anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and
B-cell lymphoma-extra large (Bcl-xL)play a key role in the inhibition
of mitochondria-dependent cell death pathways by inhibiting the
translocation of Bax from the cytosol to mitochondria.Bcl-2 overexpression
inhibited apoptosis in response to treatment with TRAIL. Combined
treatment with TRAIL together with CHX, a protein synthesis inhibitor
further sensitized vector control cells for apoptosis induction in SHEP
neuroblastoma cells [10].
HIGH EXPRESSION OF INHIBITOR OF APOPTOSIS
PROTEIN (IAP’S)
Activation of caspases is an important step in the process of apoptosis.
The inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) also known as BIRCs (BIR
domain-containing proteins) is a family of anti-apoptotic proteins
consisting ofBaculovirus IAP Repeat (BIR) domain and a Zn2+ ion that
coordinates protein-protein interaction motif known for the regulation
of caspases. IAPs cause TRAIL resistance by inhibiting the activation of
caspases downstream thus blocking cell death.In a study, when non-
iodine-retaining follicular thyroid cancer (FTC) cell lines TT2609-bib2
and FTC133 were treated with recombinant human TRAIL alone and in
combination with Smac mimetics GDC-0152 or Birinapant in vitro resulted
in sensitization of FTC cell lines for TRAIL-induced apoptosis, through
degradation of cIAP1/2 [36].
REDUCED RELEASE OF SECOND MITOCHONDRIA-
DERIVED ACTIVATOR OF CASPASES (SMAC/DIABLO)
FROM MITOCHONDRIA TO CYTOSOL
Smac protein, also known as the Direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding
protein with low pI (Diablo) is a mitochondria protein that inhibits the
activation of IAPs and promotes cytochrome-c activation of apoptosis.
Reduced release of Smac/Diablo results in an increase in the concentration
of IAPs thereby causing inhibition of apoptosis. SH122, a Smac-mimetic
significantly sensitized prostate cancer cell lines, DU145 and LNCaP to

TRAIL-mediated cell death. Moreover, SH122 enhanced TRAIL-induced
apoptosis via both the death receptor and the mitochondrial pathway.
The transfection of short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) of XIAP and cIAP-1
into DU145 cells, exhibited TRAIL sensitivity by 300 fold and 100 fold
respectively indicating that knockdown of XIAP and cIAP-1 effectively
sensitized the cells to TRAIL and both XIAP and cIAP-1 are involved in
TRAIL-resistance and that silencing XIAP and/or c-IAP1 can overcome
such resistance in prostate cancer cells [6].
ACTIVATION OF DIFFERENT SUBUNITS OF MAPK/NFKB
The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) / Nuclear factor-kappa
B (NFkB) show an opposing activity to TRAIL-induced cell death.
The association of truncated Bid (tBid) with mitochondria to release
cytochrome c is inhibited by the MAPK pathway. NFkB is also linked to
TRAIL resistance. Activation of NFkB results in increased levels of anti-
apoptotic proteins, Bcl-xL and XIAP leading to TRAIL resistance. Inhibition
of NFkB resulted in decreased resistance to TRAIL in different cancers.
The sensitization of TRAIL-resistant human glioblastoma cell lines (U87
and A172) was observed when the cells were treated with lovastatin. The
inactivation of NFkBwas noticed that was due to increased levels of DR5.
The dysregulation of MAPK pathway was also detected [20].
ACTIVATION OF AKT PATHWAY
PI3K-Akt Pathway, an intracellular signal transduction
pathway stimulates cell growth and angiogenesis upon
extracellular signals. Overexpression of Akt increases TRAIL
resistance and knockdown of Akt sensitized resistant cancer
cells to TRAIL. Akt also leads to resistance to TRAIL-induced
apoptosis by inhibiting the expression of Bid. Inhibition of Akt
pathway with PI3K inhibitor LY294002 or knockdown of Akt
sensitized TRAIL-resistant cancer cells. PTEN, a tumor suppressor
negatively regulatedthe Akt pathway and it was found that
PTEN(-/-) cells were more resistant than PTEN(+/+) cells in mouse
prostate epithelial cells. It was also observed that overexpression
of a mutant PTEN confers TRAIL resistance in PTEN(+/+)
cells, indicating that PTEN has a role in TRAIL sensitivity.
Overexpression of the mutant PTEN showed increased resistance
to TRAIL in TRAIL-resistant breast T47D cells [37]. In another
study, the role of PI3K/Akt signaling in TRAIL- and radiation-
induced gastrointestinal apoptosis, mice treated with insulin and
glucose followed by irradiation by five Gy for 30 minutes showed
a significant increase in apoptosis in ileum crypts of irradiated
Akt1 (-/-) mice when compared to Akt1 (+/+) mice. [26].
NANOPARTICLE-BASED FORMULATIONS OF TRAIL

The development of TRAIL resistance by cancer cells eventually led
to the development of recombinant TRAIL and agnostic antibodies to
TRAIL. Recombinant human TRAIL (rhTRAIL) preferentially induces
apoptosis in cancer cells over normal cells and shows little or no toxicity
when systemically administered to animals [5]. This has led to various
clinical trials that include biological agents targeting TRAIL receptors,
including rhTRAIL and agonistic antibodies to DR4 and DR5 [4]. The
clinical evaluation of TRAIL and its agnostic antibodies as anticancer
therapies selectively killed cancer cells [8]. Besides the promising results
in preclinical studies, TRAIL-based therapies show certain disadvantages.
The limited therapeutic potential has led to resistance to TRAIL in several
cancers [31].
NANOPARTICLE BASED DRUG AND GENE DELIVERY
SYSTEMS
Nanoparticles (NPs) also known as ultrafine particles are a wide class of
materials with sizes ranging between 1 to 100 nanometers. Nowadays, a
wide variety of nanoparticles serve as drug and gene delivery systems due
to their improved stability and biocompatibility, enhanced permeability
and retention effect, and precise targeting [38]. Nanoparticles can be
classified into many types, one among them being organic and inorganic
nanoparticles based on the addition of organic and inorganic elements
respectively that has their own advantages and disadvantages. There is
another type of nanoparticles, the hybrid nanoparticles that led to a great
change in the field of biology and medicine in enhancing the efficacy of the
treatment as well as reducing drug resistance [22].
Fig 2: Nanoparticles and Its Types

NANOPARTICLE MEDIATED TRAIL DRUG DELIVERY

Carbon nanotubes, especially single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are
used in a wide range of physical and medical applications due to their high
mechanical resistance, high flexibility, and hydrophobicity. Moreover,
SWCNTs are known for their easy diffusion in the aqueous medium.
TRAIL-based SWCNTs nanovectors showed greater efficiency than TRAIL
alone death DRs in the induction of cancer cell death. The vectorization of
TRAIL was made by taking single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)
to mimic membrane TRAIL. The pro-apoptotic potential of TRAIL by
TRAIL-based nanovectors (NPTs) is increased by nearly 20 fold in different
human tumor cell lines (HCT116- colon adenocarcinoma cell line, H1703-
squamous non-small cell lung cancer cell line, HepG2- hepatocarcinoma
cell line, and HUH- hepatoblastoma cell line) [42].
Nanogold-TRAIL complexes are nanogold coated with TRAIL protein
that serves as a potential anti-M2 macrophage drug in human monocytic
THP-1 non-small cell lung cancer cells (NSCLCs). Macrophages play a
role in innate immunity by maintaining tissue homeostasis and in the host
defense. M1macrophages show high tumor-specific antigen presentation
activities by increased expression of MHC-I and MHC-II molecules.
The conversion of M1 to M2 occurs by IL-4 and IL-3 that display anti-
inflammatory and pro-tumorigenic activities. A change in O-glycosylation
levels in M2 polarized macrophages led to increased cytotoxicity in
IC50 values of TRAIL by 30 foldthat depending on the size and surface
properties of nanoparticles. However, the complexes did not show any
effect on M1 macrophages and normal cells [13].
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) enhanced TRAIL sensitivity through Drp1-
mediated apoptotic and autophagic mitochondrial fission in non-small
cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. AuNPs combined with TRAIL exhibited
greater potency to promote apoptosis in NSCLC cells than TRAIL alone
that resulted in excessive mitochondrial fragmentation that was due to a
drastic increase in mitochondrial recruitment of dynamin-related protein
1(Drp1) that led to mitochondrial dysfunction and autophagy induction
[16].
Iron-oxide nanoclusters (NCs) nanovector has a synergistic effect with
the TRAIL receptor. The engraftment of TRAIL onto NCs increased pro-
apoptotic potential through nanoparticle-mediated magnetic hyperthermia
(MHT) or photothermia (PT) in MDA-MB-231(TRAIL-resistant breast
cancer cell line); wild type (WT) and TRAIL receptor-deficient (DKO) [29].
TRAIL conjugated to magnetic ferric oxide nanoparticles exhibits an
increase in the anti-tumor activities of glioma cells. Magnetic ferric oxide
nanoparticle conjugated TRAIL increased apoptotic activity against
different human glioma cells when compared with free recombinant
TRAIL. The examination of U251 cell-derived glioma xenografts and
their effects on apoptosis, tumor volume and survival rate as well as the
observation of rhodamine-labeled NPs and U251 glioma cell-derived
xenografts resulted in the presence of NP-TRAIL molecules at the tumor
site and also a significant increase in glioma cell apoptosis that was
indicated by a decrease in tumor volume and increased survival [19].
The generation of artificial liposomes with sTRAIL anchored on their
surface and its combination with double-edged lipid nanoparticles showed
greater cytotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo when compared to sTRAIL
against distinct hematologic and epithelial carcinoma cells. Further
advancements were made in the delivery of TRAIL. LUV-TRAIL loaded
with doxorubicin (DOX) in its liposomal lumen known as LUVDOX-
TRAIL improved cytotoxic potential in two processes, one being caspase-8
activation that was excited by liposomal TRAIL. Also, greater cytotoxicity
was observed in the tumor xenograft model [7].
A new formulation for co-delivery of doxorubicin (Dox) and TRAIL with
human serum albumin (HSA) was developed to treat colon cancer. Inhibition
of HCT116 colon cancer cells when treated with TRAIL/Dox HSA NPs was
observed with 6 times higher inhibition when compared to cells treated
with Dox HSA NPs [24].
NANOPARTICLE MEDIATED TRAIL GENE DELIVERY
In mouse melanoma cell line B16F10, magnetic nanoparticles containing
the TRAIL gene and chitosan constructed with ionic gelation method is
used as an excellent nanosystem for magnetofection. Systemic delivery
and activation of the TRAIL gene with chitosan magnetic nanoparticles
in the tail vein of mice at the lungs induced TRAIL-protein expression in
vitro with a significant increase in apoptosis in tumoral cells and inhibition
of growth in melanoma B16F10 in the lungs [1].
The combination of secretable trimeric tumor necrosis factor-related
apoptosis-inducing ligand (stTRAIL) gene with polyethyleneimine (PEI)
capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) enhanced the inhibition of cell
proliferation and promoted apoptosis in heat-shocked hepatoma cells
with an increase in the levels of mRNA and protein of stTRAIL, caspase-8
and caspase-3 [14].
TRAIL gene in combination with the magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles
(poly-MAG-1000) coated with PEI induced apoptosis in MCF-7 breast
cancer cells [35].
Poly(beta-amino ester) (PBAE) nanoparticles (NPs), engineered with a
cDNA sequence encoding a secretable TRAIL (sTRAIL) protein initiated
apoptosis with a 40-fold increase in cell death in HepG2 cancer cells.
enabled reprogramming of liver cancer cells to secrete TRAIL protein [32].
Glioblastoma or Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most
aggressive types of brain cancer. The effective delivery of plasmid DNA
encoding TRAIL into glioblastoma (GBM) with iron-oxide nanoparticles

coated with chitosan-polyethylene glycol-polyethyleneimine copolymer
and chlorotoxin (CTX) successfully delivered TRAIL into human T98G
GBM cells with a threefold increase in apoptosis when compared to control
[33].
Table 1: Different Nanoparticle-based Formulations of
TRAIL for the Treatment of Different Cancers
TRAIL+Drug/
Nanoparticle Type Cancer Type Reference
TRAIL+ Gene
Single walled carbon TRAIL protein Colon [31]
nanotubes adenocarcinoma,
squamous non-small
cell lung cancer,
hepatocarcinoma,
hepatoblastoma
Nano-gold particles TRAIL protein Non-small cell lung [32]
cancer
Gold NPs rhTRAIL protein Non-small cell lung [33]
cancer
I r o n - o x i d e TRAIL protein Breast cancer [34]

nanoclusters
Magnetic ferric oxide TRAIL protein Glioma [35]
NPs
Double-edged lipid TRAIL protein+ Hematological and [36]
NPs doxorubicin epithelial carcinoma
Doxorubicin-loaded TRAIL protein Colon cancer [37]
human serum albumin
Chitosan magnetic TRAIL gene Melanoma [38]
NPs
PEI-capped gold NPS TRAIL gene Hepatoma [39]
Magnetic iron oxide TRAIL gene Breast cancer [40]
NPs-PEI
Poly(beta-amino ester) sTRAIL Liver cancer [41]
NPs
C h i t o s a n - P E G - P E I TRAIL + Glioblastoma [42]
iron oxide copolymer chlorotoxin
NPs
CONCLUSION
Nanoparticles are an excellent source of drug and gene delivery systems.
They have been in clinical trials at all stages due to their improved efficacy.
TRAIL-based nanoparticles work efficiently in delivering TRAIL with
the help of various other molecules. They are able to treat several types
of cancers including breast, lungs, liver, brain and colon. Nanoparticles
conjugated with different materials like chitosan, polyethyleneimine along
with drugs like doxorubicin, chlorotoxin etc. showed significant results
when tested both in vitro and in vivo. Nanoparticles as drug and gene
delivery systems in targeting different cancers need further assessment for
the successful developments in delivering several drugs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Funding from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt of India
(DST-SERB-TARE) and the University Grants Commission (UGC-BSR) to
Dr. SVG is greatly acknowledged.
The authors would like to declare that this piece of work is original and
has not been submitted anywhere for publication
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20
A Short Review on Role of Nanotechnology
In Marine Viruses
M.A. Badhul Haq*, Khangembam Brajamani Meetei** &

S. Ravichandran***
Abstract
Marine viruses are one of the major pathogenic viruses in fisheries and
aquaculture sectors. Several attempts to eliminate the virus in the shell and
fin fishes have been addressed without achieving a long-term effectiveness.
Nanotechnology have now begun to play a significant role in viral discovery,
and improving the detection limit, operational effortlessness, and lucrative of
viral diagnosis. Naomaterials are progressively more being used in innovative
products and strategy with a immense impact on diverse fields from sensoristics
to biomedicine. In this chapter provides an overview of the use of different
nanoparticles systems for the delivery of marine shrimp and fish vaccines and
compares the potential of these delivery systems for the development of new
functional nanometerials have been actively investigated to improve detection
ability and rapidly of diagnostic assays in against different novel pathogenic
DNA and RNA based marine viruses. The utilize of nonoparticle has afforded
a incredible opportunity to intend vaccine delivery systems that are competent
in targeted delivery, providing constancy to antigens, and act as proficient
adjuvant. Many of the nanoparticles are able to go into the antigen presenting
cells by dissimilar pathways and comprise suitable immune responses to the
antigen.
* Marine Virology Laboratory,CAS in Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences,

Annamalai University, Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu (Corresponding Author)
** Senior Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), (ICAR), Utlou, Bishnupur District,
Manipur
*** Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu
A Short Review on Role of Nanotechnology In Marine Viruses 211
Gold nonoparticles (AuNPs) have been widely studied for their optical properties
arising from their exterior Plasmon response, which is responsible for their large
absorption and scattering properties. These unique properties are four to orders
of magnitude great than those of conventional dyes and can be controlled by
varying their sizes, shapes and compositions. Moreover, AuNPs can be simply
synthesized and functionalized with different biomolecules, including marine
viral pathogen-specific oligonucleotides or antibodies. The single dose of a slight
amount of silver nonoparticles was competent to augment response of shrimp
immune system devoid of toxic efficient in healthy shrimps. These responses
could be enhanced by direction of other doses and might symbolize a significant
alternate for the treatment of a disease that has immobile no cure, in overall
marine viral disease. A number of diverse nanoparticles are used in fish vaccine
delivery, which includes biodegradable polymers, nonoliposomes, carbon
nonotubes, calcium phosphate, immunostimulating complexes (ISCOMs) and
lateral flow biosensors (LFBs), amongst which poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) and
chitosan are the most studied form of nanoparticles to date. Hence, the use and
function of other forms of naonoparticles necessitate to be discovered.
Keywords: Marine viruses, Nanotechnology, Vaccine delivery, Gold
nonoparticles, Silver nonoparticles and Oligonucleotides
1. INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology has a tremendous potential to revolutionize agriculture
and allied fields including aquaculture and fisheries. It can provide new
tools for aquaculture, fish biotechnology, fish genetics, fish reproduction
and aquatic health etc. Nanotechnology tools like nanomaterials,
nanosensors, DNA nanovaccines, Gene delivery and smart drug delivery
etc. have the potential to solve many puzzles related to animal health,
production, reproduction, prevention and treatment of diseases. It is
sensible to presume that in the upcoming years, nanotechnology research
will reform the science and technology and will help boost livestock
production. Nanotechnology applications in the fish processing industry
can be utilized to detect bacteria in packaging, produce stronger flavors,
colour quality, and safety by increasing the barrier properties. This paper
presents the review of nanotechnology and its applications in aquaculture
and fisheries. (Rather, et al, 2011)
Since the identification of viruses at the start of the 20th century, detecting
their presence has presented great challenges. In the past two decades,
there has been significant progress in viral detection methods for clinical
diagnosis and environmental monitoring. The earliest advances were in
molecular biology and imaging techniques. Advances in microfabrication
and nanotechnology have now begun to play an important role in viral
detection, and improving the detection limit, operational simplicity, and
cost-effectiveness of viral diagnostics. In recent decades, aquaculture has
played a significant role in fulfilling the vast demand for animal protein
requirements and consequently in food security. However, environmental
contamination and disease prevalence are considered essential challenges
for the sector.
Nanoscale engineering is revolutionizing the way we prevent, detect, and
treat diseases. Viruses have played a special role in these developments
because they can function as prefabricated nanoscaffolds that have unique
properties and are easily modified. The interiors of virus particles can
encapsulate and protect sensitive compounds, while the exteriors can be
altered to display large and small molecules in precisely defined arrays.
These properties of viruses, along with their innate biocompatibility,
have led to their development as actively targeted drug delivery systems
that expand on and improve current pharmaceutical options. Viruses
are naturally immunogenic, and antigens displayed on their surface
have been used to create vaccines against pathogens and to break self-
tolerance to initiate an immune response to dysfunctional proteins.
Densely and specifically aligned imaging agents on viruses have allowed
for high-resolution and noninvasive visualization tools to detect and treat
diseases earlier than previously possible. These and future applications of
viruses have created an exciting new field within the disciplines of both
nanotechnology and medicine. (Kristopher J. Koudelka, et al., 2015)
Nanotechnology a multidisciplinary field involves the design and
production of functional systems at the molecular level. In aquaculture, the
application of nanotechnology it’s still at infant stage and it potent enough
to solve many issues related to nutrition, animal production, reproduction,
disease diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Metal nanoparticles have
received great attention from researchers across the world because of
a plethora of applications in agriculture and the biomedical field as
antioxidants and antimicrobial compounds. Over the past few years,
green nanotechnology has emerged as a significant approach for the
synthesis and fabrication of metal nanoparticles. This green route employs
various reducing and stabilizing agents from biological resources for the
synthesis of nanoparticles. The present article aims to review the progress
made in recent years on nanoparticle biosynthesis by microbes. These
microbial resources include bacteria, fungi, yeast, algae and viruses.
This review mainly focuses on the biosynthesis of the most commonly
studied metal and metal salt nanoparticles such as silver, gold, platinum,
palladium, copper, cadmium, titanium oxide, zinc oxide and cadmium
sulphide. These nanoparticles can be used in pharmaceutical products
as antimicrobial and anti-biofilm agents, targeted delivery of anticancer
drugs, water electrolysis, waste water treatment, biosensors, biocatalysis,
crop protection against pathogens, degradation of dyes etc. (Geeta
Gahlawat and Anirban Roy Choudhury, 2019)
During the period of 2016–2022 the global nanomaterials market is

expected to grow with a compound annual growth rate of about 20% or
more (Inshakova and Inshakov, 2017). One of the major challenges for
the global advancement of nanomaterials market is the environmental
sustainability of nanomanufacturing processes. Indeed, traditional top-
down or bottom-up chemical and physical nanomanufacturing approaches
have a greater energy-intensity compared to manufacturing processes
of bulk materials. Further, they are often characterized by low process
yields (using acidic/basic chemicals and organic solvents), generation of
greenhouse gases, and they require specific facilities, operative conditions
(e.g., from moderate to high vacuum), and high purity levels of starting
materials (Sengül, et al., 2008; Fang, et al., 2017 and Yuan and Zhang.
2013). The principles processes to reduce or to eliminate the use and
generation of hazardous substances”) combined with white biotechnology
(“biotechnology that uses living cells—yeasts, molds, bacteria, plants, and
enzymes to synthesize products at industrial scale”) can really contribute
to the development of more sustainable industrial processes (Ribeiro, et al.,
2016), also for nanomanufacturing. The microbial-mediated biosynthesis of
nanomaterials is a promising biotechnological-based nanomanufacturing
process that represents a ‘green’ alternative approach to physical and
chemical strategies of nanosynthesis (Li, et al., 2011 and Khan, et al.,
2014). The microbial-mediated biosynthesis of metallic (also as alloys),
non-metallic, or metal oxides nanoparticles have been reported for many
microbial strains of bacteria, yeast, molds, and microalgae (Hulkoti and
Taranath, 2014).
Among these, nanotechnology—as a novel and innovative tool—has a
broad spectrum of uses and a tremendous potential in aquaculture and
seafood preservation. It can provide new technologies for management
of drugs as liberation of vaccines and therefore hold the assurance for
civilized protection of farmed fish against disease-causing pathogens.
This article presents a review of nanotechnology and its applications in
aquaculture. Additionally, it gives a brief idea about the fish disease and
classical ways of controlling pathogens. On the other hand, this review
sheds the light on nanotechnology as a potential novel tool which may
possibly enhance the management and the control of disease prevalence.
Therefore, the importance of this technology to promote sustainable
aquaculture has also been highlighted. Focusing on the role of selenium
nanoparticles as an efficient element is discussed also in this article.
Nanoparticles—particles having one or more dimensions of the order of
100nm or less—have attracted great attention due to their unusual and
fascinating properties, and applications advantageous over their bulk
counterparts (Daniel and Astruc, 2004 and . Kato, 2011). There are a large
number of physical, chemical, biological, and hybrid methods available
to synthesize different types of nanoparticles (Liu, et al., 2011; Luechinge,
et al., 2010,. Tiwari, et al., 2008 and Mohanpuria, et al., 208). Although
physical and chemical methods are more popular in the synthesis of
nanoparticles, the use of toxic chemicals greatly limits their biomedical
applications, in particular in clinical fields. Therefore, development of
reliable, nontoxic, and eco-friendly methods for synthesis of nanoparticles
is of utmost importance to expand their biomedical applications. One of
the options to achieve this goal is to use microorganisms to synthesize
nanoparticles.
Nanoparticles produced by a biogenic enzymatic process are far superior,
in several ways, to those particles produced by chemical methods.
Despite that the latter methods are able to produce large quantities of
nanoparticles with a defined size and shape in a relatively short time, they
are complicated, outdated, costly, and inefficient and produce hazardous
toxic wastes that are harmful, not only to the environment but also to
human health. With an enzymatic process, the use of expensive chemicals
is eliminated, and the more acceptable “green” route is not as energy
intensive as the chemical method and is also environment friendly. The
“biogenic” approach is further supported by the fact that the majority
of the bacteria inhabit ambient conditions of varying temperature, pH,
and pressure. The particles generated by these processes have higher
catalytic reactivity, greater specific surface area, and an improved contact
between the enzyme and metal salt in question due to the bacterial
carrier matrix (Bhattacharya and Mukherjee, 2008; Simkiss and Wilbur,
1989). Nanoparticles are biosynthesized when the microorganisms grab
target ions from their environment and then turn the metal ions into the
element metal through enzymes. It can be classified into intracellular and
extracellular synthesis according to the location where nanoparticles are
formed (Simkiss and Wilbur, 1989; Mann, 2001). The intracellular method
consists of transporting ions into the microbial cell to form nanoparticles
in the presence of enzymes. The extracellular synthesis of nanoparticles
involves trapping the metal ions on the surface of the cells and reducing
ions in the presence of enzymes (Zhang, et al., 2011). The biosynthesized
nanoparticles have been used in a variety of applications including drug
carriers for targeted delivery, cancer treatment, gene therapy and DNA
analysis, antibacterial agents, biosensors, enhancing reaction rates,
separation science, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Worldwide, during the last decade though shrimp culture has been one of
the most prevalent practices in marine industry and it has been threatened
by viral diseases frequently. Among various shrimp viral pathogens, white
spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is exceedingly pathogenic and conscientious
for huge economic loss in shrimp culture industry. In this chapter, the
application of nanotechnology in diagnosis and management of WSSV
in aquaculture is discussed and provide an overview of recent advances,
focusing especially on advances in simple, device-based approaches for
viral detection.
NANOTECHNOLOGY AND AQUACULTURE

In scientific and technological innovation, nanoscience and nanotechnology
are highly promising and rapidly progressing disciplines. In both the
agricultural and aquaculture fields, nanotechnology demonstrates
several interdisciplinary practices. Nanoparticle definition A structure
between 0.1 and 100 nm (1/1,000,000 mm) is typically deemed to be a
nanoparticle (NP). Many industrial sectors have recognized the potential
benefits of nanotechnology and their products based on nanotechnology
or products containing nanoparticles are already produced in the fields
of microelectronics, consumer products (e.g., personal care products,
paint, automotive), and pharmaceutical industries. A variety of favorable
applications are also emerging with regard to food and agriculture, such
as packaging technologies, nanosensors for pathogen detection or storage
conditions, nanoformulations of agrochemicals, and nano-encapsulation/
nanodelivery of food ingredients (Bhattacharyya 2009).
NANOTECHNOLOGY DEVICES FOR AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
The application of nanotechnology in seawater shrimp aquaculture showed
that the nanodevice was able to reduce the rate of water exchange and
increase both the quality of water and the survival rate of shrimp and thus
the yield (Wen et al. 2003). Among several nanodevices, nanonet treatment
was the best device; the results showed a 100%increase in fish survival rate,
and a decrease in both water nitrite and nitrate; and nitrite decreased to
as low as 1/4 of the control group. Nanotechnology has also increased the
pH of water and greatly improved the efficiency of water (Liu et al. 2008).
In China at present, nano-863 is a high-tech agricultural product that is
commonly used. This product is developed by applying high-temperature
sintering nanomaterials and good light-absorbing properties to a ceramic
material carrier. Nano-863 has been commonly used in livestock raising,
crop growing, and aquaculture
NANOTECHNOLOGY AS A NEW TOOL IN FISH DISEASES
Nanotechnology is capable of observing, measuring, manipulating,
and producing things on a nanometer scale. A nanometer (nm) is an SI
(Syst’eme international d’Unit’es) unit of 10−9 duration or one-billionth
of a meter distance (Mongillo 2007; Can et al. 2011). These new materials
are developed with specific physical or chemical properties that are
derived from their small size, form, surface area, conductivity, or surface
chemistry, and have found numerous applications in textiles, electronics,
engineering, and medicine (Abhilash 2010; Hernando 2007). The name
“nanomaterial” is built on the word “nano,” which comes from the
Greek word meaning “dwarf.” Usually, the term nanomaterial is used for
materials ranging from 1 to 100 nm in size (Rai and Ingle 2012). Thus,
nanotechnology is considered a solution which can effectively prevent and

monitor diseases and pathogens, and multiply the benefits of aquaculture.
Some of the fish health applications of nanotechnology are antibacterial
or antifungal surfaces developed using porous nanostructures and
nanosensors in aquaculture systems for the detection of pathogens in
water and the nanodelivery of veterinary products and fish medicines
through fish foods (Muruganandam et al. 2019). The usage level of nano-
trace elements is up to 100% higher than that of conventional inorganic
trace elements, which is normally very limited as the former reaches the
animal body by direct penetration (Muruganandam et al. 2019; Luis et al.
2019; Shah and Mraz 2020). Controlling virus, bacteria, and fungi would
involve early detection and the elimination of pathogens could be through
nanomaterials, as they operate on the same scale as a particle infecting
virus or disease (Muruganandam et al. 2019; Luis et al. 2019; Shah and Mraz
2020). Chitosan-based wrapping around vaccines as a nano-encapsulation
carrier for effective therapy of bacteria and viruses causing fish disease
has been documented as nano-encapsulated materials are durable and
with high temperature or acidity. These nanomaterials are becoming very
useful for effective agriculture in the development of pathogen-free fish
seedlings and shrimp or prawn post-larvae (Muruganandam et al. 2019).
The lateral flow biosensors (LFBs) have been established as attractive
tools for such analytical applications. In the present study a prototype
LFB was designed for whole particles (virions) detection of nodavirus
or fish nervous necrosis virus. Nodavirus is an important threat in the
aquaculture industry, causing severe economic losses and environmental
problems. The LFB was based on polyclonal antibodies conjugated on gold
nanoparticles for signal visualization. Brain and retinas from fish samples
were homogenized, centrifuged and the supernatant was directly applied
on the LFB. Formation of a red test line was indicative of nodavirus virions
presence. Nodavirus visual detection was completed in short time (30
min). Key factors of the LFB development influencing the assays’ detection
limit were characterized and the optimum parameters were determined,
enabling increased efficiency, excluding non-specific interactions.
Therefore, the proposed LFB assay consists a robust, simple, low cost and
accurate method for detection of nodavirus virions in fish samples. The
proposed biosensor is ideal for development of a commercial kit to be
used on aquaculture facilities by fish farmers. It is anticipated that disease
monitoring and environmental safety will benefit from the simplification
of time consuming and costly procedures. (Dimitra K. Toubanaki, et al.,
2020)
HOW DO THE NANOPARTICLES WORK?
Nanosafety-related concerns still exist and must be tackled before
their full-scale implementation. Toxicological effects of nanoparticles
depend on various factors including complex interplay between particle

characteristics such as diameter, form, surface charge, concentration, time
of exposure, nature of the nanoparticles, medium composition, route of
particle administration, and target species immune system. Despite the
available information, several points of criticism are hindering the exact
understanding of safety of nanoparticles in aquaculture. Firstly, the way
nanoparticles are administrated in aquaculture can be very different:
addition to food, to water media, or in aquaculture facilities. Nevertheless,
the existing studies in aquatic toxicology are inadequate to fulfill the request
for nanoparticle safety in aquaculture like their route of administration,
their concentration, and exposure time. Concentrations are sometimes
lower or higher than that applied or expected to be applied in aquaculture
leading to unrealistic results. Thus, it is not possible to infer about the
potential adverse effects on the final consumer. It is necessary to explore
the safety of nano-based aquaculture considering not only relatively short-
term treatment periods (less than 40 days) but also the whole cultured
products along their life cycle from the egg/larva to the table, including
water quality. Secondly, due to the fact that aquatic organisms are
cultured in different environments, nano-based products can behave very
differently like the derived effects; thus, it might be interesting to explore
how nano-safety could be influenced by environmental factors mainly pH,
salinity, and temperature (Khosravi-Katuli et al. 2017).
NANOVACCINOLOGY AS A NEW TECHNOLOGY IN FISH
TREATMENT
Nanotechnology converging with biotechnology has made great progress
in biomedicine (Zhao et al. 2014) and has expanded its application
in the field of vaccinology giving rise to a new science field called
nanovaccinology (Mamo and Poland 2012; Zhao et al. 2014). Nanovaccines
are vaccines designed with an antigen or a group of antigens containing an
appropriate nanoparticle. They are emerging as a new class of vaccines that
specifically target the body’s infection site through the use of the body’s
immune system and inhibit spread of infections and diseases (Vinay et
al. 2018). The production of the vaccine has undergone a shift from this
conventional method of using whole pathogen to using only the protein
and peptide antigens required to reduce the unwanted side effects, but the
immunogenicity of these antigens has declined dramatically (Smith et al.
2015). To enhance the immunogenicity of vaccines, nanoparticles are used
as carriers and/or adjuvants. The immune system can be well activated due
to the similar scale (size) between the NPs and the pathogens, resulting
in triggered cellular and humoral immunity responses (Vinay et al. 2018;
and Gheibi Hayat and Darroudi 2019). Other advantages of nanovaccine
include enhanced blood flow stability to increase blood shelf-life, increased
activation of the immune system, no need for booster doses, no need to
maintain the cold chain, and the ability to actively target (Gheibi Hayat
and Darroudi 2019). Nanovaccine is more beneficial and suitable for
disease prevention compared with other types of medicines and vaccines.
The use of nanoparticles to vaccinate farmed fish is a unique technique. In
drug administration, nanoparticles have multi-faceted advantages such as
vaccine delivery and thus carry promises to enhance the safety of farmed
fish against diseases caused by pathogens. There is concern however
that the benefits of the delivery of nanoparticles may also be followed by
environmental and health risks (Walker 2004).
IMMUNE SYSTEM AND NANOVACCINE
Innate immunity Macrophages and monocytes are cells that are
strongly heterologous that spread throughout the body. Macrophages
process and display antigens to produce an adaptive immune response.
Macrophages can be easily targeted by surface-engineered NPs due
to their intrinsic phagocytic nature, in which cognate ligands agonist
to macrophage receptors and can be conjugated on the NP surface. In
order to facilitate interactions between NPs and macrophage receptors,
many physicochemical parameters of NPs such as thickness, surface
load, hydrophobicity, surface topography, and material structure can
be optimized (Nel et al. 2009). Adaptive immunity T- and B-cells of the
adaptive immune system display a receptor set for the identification
of a variety of antigens. T-cell immune activation or suppression may
determine the fate of a disease. A variety of therapeutic strategies based
on NP have been developed to control activity of T-cells against viral,
bacterial, or fungal infections (Fang et al. 2018). Through B-cell receptors,
B-cells can recognize and react to microbial surface antigens (Kim et
al. 2006; Kim et al. 2014). Antigen-specific B-cells were activated and
clonally expanded using engineered NPs for the production of vaccines
against various diseases. The immunity of Nile tilapia and Streptococcus
pyogenes resistance by creation of antibodies based on the use of selenium
nanoparticles, adjuvants, and nanovaccine (dead bacteria) lead to lower
mortality rates and attain the greatest survival rate to maximize economic
profit (Wang and Li 2011).
ROLE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN THE TREATMENT OF
VIRAL INFECTIONS
Infectious diseases are the leading cause of mortality worldwide, with
viruses in particular making global impact on healthcare and socioeconomic
development. In addition, the rapid development of drug resistance to
currently available therapies and adverse side effects due to prolonged
use is a serious public health concern. The development of novel treatment
strategies is therefore required. The interaction of nanostructures with
microorganisms is fast-revolutionizing the biomedical field by offering
advantages in both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Nanoparticles

offer unique physical properties that have associated benefits for drug
delivery. These are predominantly due to the particle size (which affects
bioavailability and circulation time), large surface area to volume ratio
(enhanced solubility compared to larger particles), tunable surface charge
of the particle with the possibility of encapsulation, and large drug
payloads that can be accommodated. These properties, which are unlike
bulk materials of the same compositions, make nanoparticulate drug
delivery systems ideal candidates to explore in order to achieve and/or
improve therapeutic effects. (Lavanya Singh, et al., 2017)
Nanotechnology has become an extensive field of research due to the
unique properties of nanoparticles, which enable novel applications.
Nanoparticles have found their way into many applications in the field
of medicine, including diagnostics, vaccination, drug and gene delivery.
In this review, we focused on the antimicrobial effects of nanoparticles,
with particular emphasis on the problem of antibiotic resistant bacteria
in fisheries. The use of nanoparticle-based vaccines against many viral
pathogens is a developing field in fish medicine research. Nanoparticles
have gained much interest as a specific and sensitive tool for diagnosis
of bacterial, fungal and viral diseases in aquaculture. Nevertheless our
review also highlights the many applications of nanotechnology that are
still to be explored in fish medicine. (Mohamed Shaalan, et al., 2015)
Nanotechnology a multidisciplinary field involves the design and
production of functional systems at the molecular level. In aquaculture,
the application of nanotechnology it’s still at infant stage and it potent
enough to solve many issues related to nutrition, animal production,
reproduction, disease diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Worldwide,
during the last decade though shrimp culture has been one of the most
prevalent practices in marine industry and it has been threatened by viral
diseases frequently. Among various shrimp viral pathogens, white spot
syndrome virus (WSSV) is exceedingly pathogenic and conscientious for
huge economic loss in shrimp culture industry. The White Spot Syndrome
Virus (WSSV) is one of the major viral pathogen for the shrimp aquaculture
industry. Several attempts to eliminate the virus in the shrimp have been
addressed without achieving a long-term effectiveness. In this work, we
determine the capacity of the commercial non-toxic PVP-coated silver
nanoparticles to promote the response of the immune system of WSSV-
infected shrimps with or without an excess of iron ions.
Nanotechnology refers to the development or application of particles with
dimension(s) that fall into the nanometer range (10−9 or one billionth of a
meter) (Nalwa, 1999 and Parboosing, et al., 2012). The interaction between
nanoscience and biological systems is known as ‘nanobiotechnology’,
(Scheller, et al., 1995; Niemeyer and Mirkin, 2004) while the associated area
known as ‘nanomedicine’ deals with the application of nanostructured

materials to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases (Medepalli, 2008).
The first nanosystems applied in medicine were introduced to increase
the efficacy of current, yet dose-limiting and poorly bioavailable drugs
(Schutz, et al., 2013) Currently, nanoparticles are known to exert their
antiviral activities by various mechanisms. First, the unique properties
of nanoparticles such as (1) small particle size (which can facilitate drug
delivery into anatomically privileged sites), (Parboosing, et al., 2012 and
Kumar, et al., 2012). (2) Large surface area to volume ratios (which ensures
that large drug payloads can be accommodated), and (McNeil, 2011). (3)
tunable surface charge (to facilitate cellular entry across the negatively
charged cellular membrane), (Caron, et al., 2010;Petros and Desimone)
make nanoparticles attractive tools for viral treatment. Second, it has
been demonstrated that nanoparticles can contain biomimetic properties,
(Gagliardi, 2017; Sanvicens & Marco, 2008 and Bowman, et al., 2008)
which result in intrinsic antiviral properties. Popular examples of these
include silver nanoparticles (Sun, et al., 2005 and Lara, et al., 2010) and
dendrimers. Third, the possibility of drug encapsulation, (Kumar, et al.,
2012 and Chiappetta, et al., 2011) functionalization by the formation of
stable structures, or modifications (with polymers such as poly(ethylene
glycol) (PEG)) (McNeil, 2011 and, (Alexis, et al., 2008) can all lead to
optimized drug dosing and improved delivery by increasing stability30
and drug retention times.31 Finally, it is believed that drug delivery can
be vastly improved by engineering nanoparticles with targeting moieties
to increase specificity to desired cell types, target tissues or sub-cellular
compartments (Muthu and Singh, 2009).
NANOPARTICLE REQUIREMENTS THAT ARE UNIQUE TO
VIRAL INFECTIONS
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites whose interactions with host
cells often comprise a variety of receptor-ligand interactions. The intrinsic
characteristics of viral disease, which include complexities in life cycles,
different stages of replication in different sub-cellular compartments or
organelles, differences in replication dynamics, the possibility of latent
infection in inaccessible biological compartments and the development of
drug resistance, all result in unique requirements for drug design.
Nanotechnology has been shown to be highly effective for biomedical
applications such as cancer therapy, (Doorbar, 2006) with several marketed
compounds such as CaelyxR and DoxilR (Chapoy-Villanueva, et al., 2014).
A major limitation of chemotherapeutic agents, however, is the lack of
specificity to the tumorous site, thereby necessitating large doses of toxic
drugs to be delivered in order to achieve sufficient concentrations. An
important requirement for any effective therapeutic agent is delivery to
the appropriate place at the appropriate concentrations for the appropriate

period of time (Tahamtan, et al., 2015) Two types of targeting mechanisms
are possible. Passive targeting can occur due to increased permeability or
leakiness (which can be caused by malignancy or inflammation) of the local
vasculature. This results in the diseased area becoming more permissive to
the accumulation of the nanotherapeutic agent. On the other hand, active
targeting requires ligand (peptide, antibody, etc.) attachment to direct the
nanotherapeutic to specific receptors, epitopes, or sites.11 Active targeting
is an important requirement for the treatment of virus infection because
many antiviral drugs are required to localize at specific sub-cellular
regions or organelles, which is dependent on the stage of replication and
the mode of action of the drug.
ROLE OF SILVER BASED NANOPARTICLES
Different types of nanoparticles are synthesized according into size, shape
and delivery to specific target. Golden, silver, carbon nanoparticles are
well known due to specific characteristics and their action to the biological
cells. Among of all the nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are
well known for their commercialization worldwide, due to their sole
biological activities, and are being utilized widely in medicine. Despite the
biological activities and a wide range application of AgNPs, there is a lack
of information regarding human health and environmental toxicity. The
extensive use of AgNPs in the world, release into the aquatic environment,
has raised concern for a high impact on aquatic life. Silver nanoparticles
are most important in cleaning of water in which habitat system of fishes
are maintained due to natural environment (Willson and Halupka, 1995).
Silver (Ag) NPs (nAg) are the most investigated multiple mechanism
nano-based antibacterial. These nanoparticles have particular surfaces to
binding of receptor of the living cells in order to treat the specific diseases
also diagnosis. The release of silver ions (Ag+) and their binding onto
bacterial cell membrane proteins lead to cell membrane disruption and to
cell death. The antibacterial function of the chitosan-Ag nanocomposites
(CAgNCs) has been investigated against fish pathogenic Aliivibrio
salmonicida. Previous literature showed that silver based nanoparticles
particularly inhibited A. salmonicida growth indicating minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration
(MBC) at 50 and 100 mg/L, respectively.
ROLE OF GOLD BASED NANOPARTICLES
To overcome these limitations, functional nanomaterials have been actively
investigated to improve detection ability and rapidity of diagnostic assays.
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been widely studied for their unique
optical properties arising from their surface plasmon resonance, which
is responsible for their large absorption and scattering properties. These
unique properties are four to five orders of magnitude larger than those
of conventional dyes and can be controlled by varying their sizes, shapes,
and compositions. Moreover, AuNPs can be easily synthesized and
functionalized with different biomolecules, including pathogen-specific
oligonucleotides or antibodies.
CONCLUSION FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
Marine viruses are ubiquitous, extremely diverse, and outnumber
any form of life in the sea. Despite their ecological importance, viruses
in marine environments have been largely ignored by the academic
community, and only those that have caused substantial economic losses
have received more attention. Fortunately, our current understanding
on marine viruses has advanced considerably during the last decades.
These advances have opened new and exciting research opportunities
as several unique structural and genetic characteristics of marine viruses
have shown to possess an immense potential for various biotechnological
applications. Nanotechnology for sure contributes a significant role in the
development and sustainability of aquaculture. So far, different kinds of
nanotechnology-based systems have been employed to strengthen the
important pillars of aquaculture and fishery. However, there is a growing
concern about the toxicity of NPs, excessive antibiotics and other synthetic
compounds usage in this discipline. Therefore, applications of safe and
eco-friendly approaches are inevitable. In this regard, recently natural
bioactive compounds have attracted much attention, particularly curcumin
which has shown a potent role in fishery.
This chapter provides a brief overview of the current research activities
that center on the role of nonotechnology in marine viruses dealing
with biological synthesis of metallic nanoparticles, oxide nanoparticles,
sulfide nanoparticles, and other types of nanoparticles. This is followed
by discussions of the particle biosynthesis mechanisms and the conditions
to control the size/shape and monodispersity of particles. Next, current
applications of biosynthesized nanoparticles in the nanomedicine and
biological fields are presented. The chapter concludes with discussions
on the current limitations and prospects of nanoparticle synthesis by
microorganisms. Nowadays, nanovaccination is a new attempt to enhance
the immunogenicity of vaccines using nanoparticles as carriers and/or
adjuvants. The immune system can be well activated due to the similar scale
(size) between the nanoparticles and the pathogens, resulting in triggered
cellular and humoral immunity responses. Thus, using nanotechnology in
aquaculture has become a comprehensive tool for solving a lot of problems,
not only disease diagnosis and treatment but also water quality control,
fish nutrition, environmental management, etc. This chapter also sheds
light on the role of selenium nanoparticles as a novel efficient element in
the field of aquaculture. It has great bioavailability and comparatively low

toxicity compared to other selenium types, thus being preferable for many
aspects. Nanoparticle-based delivery systems present new opportunities to
overcome challenges associated with conventional drug therapies and have
therefore attracted enormous interest in the treatment of viral infections.
Nanomaterials can be engineered to incorporate conventional antiviral
properties with those modifications that are unique to nanosystems (ultra
small and controllable size, large surface area to volume ratio, and the
ability to tailor the surface with the possibility of multi-functionalization).
This is undoubtedly a promising tool for biomedical research and clinical
use.
To conclude, we emphasized that the use of nanomaterials and
nanotechnology in aquaculture sector will be a slow process. Nanoparticles
can be used in detection of different diseases caused by bacteria as well
as viruses in shrimp and fishes. A nanoparticle particularly binds to
the specific antigen of the pathogen and inhibit their replication at the
cellular level. While on the other hand, some other expensive biological
materials required high cost and hence cannot be used for transportation
and drug supply. However, as demonstrated throughout this chapter,
many possibilities indicate the existence of a promising path to solving the
major problems in aquaculture including viral disease control and may
extend to diet formulation and other marine industries in the near future.
Several nanomedicines have been approved or are currently undergoing
investigation for the treatment of viral infections. This chapter will provide
an overview of the most recent and relevant literature, which describes
the application of nanotechnology for the treatment of common viral
infections. Examples of nanosystems with applications in both drug and
vaccine delivery for prevention of these viral infections are also reviewed.
Finally, important considerations for nanoparticle antigenicity as well as
the requirements for the design of nanomaterials, which are unique to
viruses, are discussed.
The recent advances in nanomedicine ability to encapsulate or incorporate
drugs with surface modification, targeted drug delivery (intracellularly or
to specific cell populations), biocompatibility, and the ability to achieve
slow and sustained drug release] offers superior therapeutic potential,
compared to conventional approaches. These modifications can overcome
common limitations associated with nanoparticles for biomedical
applications, including increased permeability of biological membranes
with associated specific uptake, and decreased toxicity profiles. Similarly,
poorly water soluble and unstable drugs can be modified and complexed
with nanocarriers to achieve improved solubility and stability under
physiological conditions. Future research should explore the possibility
of (1) multi-functionalization to achieve concurrent drug delivery and
imaging (via a fluorescent signal, for example), to determine in vitro

localization, and specific cell/tissue/compartment targeting (using
targeting ligands like peptides and proteins or molecular recognition
strategies, for example) and (2) multiplexing, in order to increase the
spectrum of disease that can be treated in heterogeneous populations, by
simple, reliable and cost-effective methods. Improvements (increasing
bioavailability and reducing toxicity) of currently available conventional
antivirals should also be explored using advances in nanotechnology. As
previously discussed, ‘nanotraps’ have illustrated effective inhibition of
pathogenic marine viruses. This can be extended to other viruses and so
on by specifically modifying the attachment carbohydrates of the defined
host receptors. To this end, further research and development of these
particles are required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the University Grants Commission & (F. No:
41- 4/2012 (SR)), SERB Fast Track - Department of Science and Technology
(No: SR / FT / LS-125 / 2011) and to the authorities of Annamalai University
for providing us constant support and encouragement completion of this
campaign review chapter.
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21
Nano Catalysts: Recent Development in
Preparation Methodologies
Sumbul Rahman* and Chiranjit Santra**
Abstract
In the era of industrial revaluation, almost 90% of all chemical manufacturing
is based heavily on catalytic process. Today the ‘Metal Supported Nano-
Catalysts’ are considered as the promising technology for many organic
transformations such as selective oxidation of alcohols, epoxidation of olefins,
hydrogenation of C=C & C≡C bonds, C–C bond formation, VOCs removal,
photo-catalysis and many more. Any catalytic process is driven by catalyst
with latest advancement in terms of stability, product selectivity and yield.
With this, nanotechnology opens-up a new avenue for the design of novel low-
dimension materials eventually called nanoparticle (NPs). Particle morphology,
surface composition, oxidation state, nature of support etc. plays vital role not
only in the synthesis and stabilization of nanoparticles but can also determine
the accessibility of specific active sites, and selectivity of desirable products.
This chapter reviews the methodologies that have been widely adopted for the
synthesis of efficient nano-catalysts, possessing highest efficiency and novel
uniqueness.
* Department of Chemistry, Presidency University, Bangalore, Karnataka

** Reliance Research and Development Centre, Reliance Corporate IT Park,
Reliance Industries Limited, Maharashtra
1. INTRODUCTION
Catalyst is the heart of any catalytic process. Considering other
fundamental peculiarities, such as biocompatibility, availability, higher
E-factor, and easy recovery– elements used in supported metallic nano-
catalysts are actually very limited to group VIII and IB of the periodic
table (Fig. 1). The intrinsic catalytic capabilities of group VIII metals can
be ascribed to the optimum degree of d-band vacancy. Cu and Ag yield
d-band vacancies by losing electrons due to its relatively low ionization
potentials. Re-hybridization of the s-p-d valence orbitals occurs in AuNPs.1
Characteristics of support by means of morphology, functional groups,
acid-base properties, electrical conductivity etc. play a vital role in
nanoparticles synthesis, metal dispersion, particle morphology and metal-
support interaction.2 Numerous reports have demonstrated various metal
oxides (like MgO, MgCO3, TiO2, Fe2O3, CeO2), silicious material (like SiO2,
SBA-15, TS-1), porous activated carbons, and several hybrid materials like
LDH, MOF, zeolite etc. are found very attractive support for nano-catalysts
preparation.3
Fig. 1: Periodic positions of gold and other transition metals used as active
metal for catalysis.
Nanoparticles having dimensions in the range of 1-100 nm possesses a
large surface-area-to-volume ratio, quantized energy level, high surface
energy etc. raise scientific interest on potential technological applications.4
Coupling of a nanometre or sub-nanometre scale metal surface with oxide
support to form a metal-oxide hybrid material is the emerging phenomena
of low-dimensional materials.5,6 Supported nanoparticles with particular
shape and size yield different atomic domains, likely– (a) Interfacial atoms
Nano Catalysts: Recent Development in Preparation Methodologies 231
(b) Internal atoms (c) Surface layer atoms: (d) Corner atoms (Fig. 2).7,8 Edge
and corner atoms are normally exhibit the highest affinity to form bonds
to adsorbate molecules.9 Shekhar et al.10 proposed a model that relates the
reaction rate (r) per total mole of metal NPs to be a sum of turnover rates
(with respect to product) of the corner sites, perimeter sites, and surface
sites.
Fig. 2: Typical AuNPS enclosed by (111) and (100) planes. Atomic schemes
illustrate various kind of atoms in a nanoparticle.8
There is a huge potential for new nano-catalytic systems that can efficiently
produce bulk and specialty chemicals with remarkable selecwtivity,
lower energy requirements and without using hazardous reagents.
Molecular factors including catalyst surface composition, oxidation state,
reaction intermediates etc. and experimental parameters like pressure,
temperature, time etc. are the two major controlling factors those can
influence selectivity and produce desired product.11 Both size12 and
shape13 of the nanoparticles have profound effect on catalytic activity. A
paramount effort to synthesise various shaped inorganic/organic hybrid
nanomaterials includes nanosphere, nanowire, nanocube, nanocage,
nanorod, nanofiber, nanotube, nanocoil, and many more. In this chapter
we mainly focus on the methodologies developed for the synthesis of
supported metal nano-catalyst.
2. PREPARATION METHODS OF SUPPORTED NANO-
CATALYST
The conventional methods for preparation of catalytically active
nanoparticles are diverse in nature. Currently these include deposition-
precipitation14, impregnation15, sol-gel16, co-precipitation17, chemical
vapour deposition18, adsorption19, sonochemical20, microemulsion21, laser
ablation22, electrochemical23, cross-linking24, and solid-grinding25 method.
Size can be control over adopting various synthesis statigies and shape
can be fine tuned by controlling over different synthesis parameter like
type of metal precursor, solvent, structure directing agents, reducing
agent, synthesis atmosphere, temperature, pressure etc.6 Traditionally,

single-atom metal precursors are used for the synthesis of metal nano-
catalyst e.g., NaAuCl4∙2H2O, HAuCl4∙4H2O, Au(en)2Cl3, H2PtCl6∙6H2O,
Pt(CH3CO2)2, PtCl4 etc. In recent years, remarkable advances have been
achieved in surfactant assisted (CTAB, SDS, oleylamine, oleic acid etc.)
solution-phase synthesis of atomically precise nanoclusters by a ‘size-
focusing’ methodology.26 Herein metal atoms nucleate to form nanocrystal
nuclei which are then stabilised by organic stabiliser ligands.6
2.1. Deposition-precipitation (DP) Method
Deposition-precipitatin is one of the simplest and widely used methods
for the synthesis of metal oxide (MOx) supported nano-catalysts.27 The
MOx surfaces are often covered with hydroxyl groups, which can be either
protonated into OH2+1, deprotonated into O−, or in the neutral state of −
OH in an aqueous solution depending on the solution pH value. When
the solution pH is at, below or above isoelectric point (IEP) point of the
support surface (MOx) becomes neutral, positively, or negatively charged,
respectively.24,28 Solution pH is one of the major factors contributing the
nature of metal species generated. Hydrolysis of AuCl4− gives charged
species as AuClx(OH)4−x− anions or neutral AuClx(OH)3−x(H2O) in the range
pH of 2 to 8.29 Therefore, higher uptake of Au species on oxide surface
favours at lower pH levels. Acidic nature of SiO2 (IEPs below 5) are not
suitable for DP as the electrostatic repulsion of negatively charged Au(OH)4–
with the negatively charged support surface. Supports like SiO2, Al2O3 etc.
are first pre-modified with amorphous TiO2 via surface-sol-gel technique
followed by deposition of AuNPs through DP.30 Zhang et al.31 assembled
MgAl-LDH nanosheets onto magnetic Fe3O4 cores for the preparation of
Fe3O4@MgAl–LDH@Au catalyst by deposition-precipitation with NaOH
and HAuCl4 as gold precursor.
2.2. Impregnation Method
This technique is widely use for any kind of support. Au catalysts on pure
silica was prepared by impregnating various organic gold precursors like
[Au(en)2]Cl3, Me2Au(acac) etc.32 The organic protecting layer was removed
by calcination. Triphenylphosphine-protected Au-sol [Au(PPh3)Cl,
Au(PPh3)NO3] was also used as gold precursors for ordered mesoporous
silica (SBA-15, MCF, HMS).32 Ma et al.30 prepared silica supported (SBA-
15, MCM-41) gold catalyst by using an organic precursor Au(en)2Cl3 at
high pH (> 8) after surface restructuring of silica by exposure to NaOH.
Pt/SiO2 catalysts were prepared by simply impregnating of aqueous
hexachloroplatinate(IV) hydrate to SiO2 at 80 °C and finally dry material
was calcined at 550 °C for in static air for 6 h.33AuNi/MIL-101 bimetallic
catalysts with Au:Ni mole ratios varying from 1:0.35 to 1:4.76 were
successfully prepared by dry impregnation of alcoholic-metal salt solution
(HAuCl4∙4H2O and Ni(NO3)2∙6H2O in EtOH) followed by reduction under
H2 at 50 oC for 2 h.34 Au@Cu(II)-MOF catalyst was synthesized via solution

impregnation with the combination of HAuCl4 and Cu(II)-MOF in methanol
at room temperature followed by NaBH4 reduction.35 AuNi/MIL-101
bimetallic catalysts with Au:Ni mole ratios varying from 1:0.35 to 1:4.76 was
successfully prepared by dry-impregnation of alcoholic-metal salt solution
followed by reduction under H2.36 Pt/Al2O3 catalyst was synthesized by
impregnating potassium tetrachloroplatinate solution on γ-Al2O3, and
the obtained powders were dried at 80 °C overnight and calcined at 350
°C for 5 h.37 Liao et al.38 synthesized a series of Pt-V2O5/SiO2 catalysts by
co-impregnation method using mixture of oxalic acid, NH4VO3, Pt(NO3)2,
and SiO2. Bimetallic Pt-Pd catalyst supported on cobalt-doped ordered
mesoporous alumina (Co-OMA-y) was synthesized by the incipient
wetness impregnation and further dried catalyst was calcined at 500 °C
for 4 h.39 Ag-MnOx/SBA-15 catalyst was synthesized by co-precipitation of
aqueous AgNO3 and Mn(NO3)2 solution at pH 9.40 A 2 wt.% Rh on ZSM-
5 catalyst was prepared using precursors Rh(NO3)3•xH2O via incipient
wetness impregnation followed by calcination in an air flow at 600 °C for
6 h.41 Pt-W/CeO2 was prepared by co-impregnated of (NH4)6H2W12O40,
(COOH)2 and H2PtCl6 with as-synthesized CeO2 followed by calcined in
air for 3 h at 450 °C.42 As high as 12 wt% of Ag on α-Al2O3 catalyst was
prepared by impregnating of mixture of Ag2C2O4 and ethylenediamine.43
2.3. Solid grinding (SG) method
The solid grinding (SG) is another interesting synthesis methodology
especially applicable for nonconductive supports like Al2O3, ZrO2, TS-1,
carbon supports, and sometimes semi-conductive supports e.g., TiO2.44 It
was found an efficient technique to prepare gold nanoclusters below 2 nm
size. Prof. Haruta describes method of SG as [Me2Au(acac)] mixed with
porous supports and grinded in a mortar or in a ball milled at 300 rpm in
presence of air at room temperature for 20 to 30 min followed by calcination
at static atmosphere.45 Huang et al.46 showed gold deposited on TS-1 (TS-1-
Na1) support surface by solid grinding was found very active for propylene
epoxidation and glucose oxidation reaction. The solid grinding method
has advantageous over DP in many aspects. DP produces both tiny Au
clusters (<0.55 nm) inside microporous channels and Au clusters (1.0-2.0
nm) on the exterior surfaces. Whereas SG produces Au hemispherical Au
clusters with the size range 1-2 nm selectively on the exterior surfaces and
shows better catalytic activity.47 Haruta et al.48 synthesized Au clusters of
an average 4.8 nm particle size onto porous MOF-5 by solid grinding using
Me2Au(acac) and further reduced under H2 atmosphere.
2.4. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
CVD is another popular technique yield highly dispersed nanoparticles
using organic metal precursor.48 Dimethyl-Au(III)-aceytylacetonate is
found very unique that it can deposit AuNPs on almost all kinds of supports
because of chemical interaction with –OH groups of metal oxide surfaces
with oxygen atoms in the acetylacetonate ring. Metal oxide support is
usually evacuated at elevated temperature before introducing the vapour
of organic gold complex. Usually, CVD took longer time for the complete
vaporization of gold precursor [Me2Au(acac)]. Wohlfart et al.49 reported
that gold was deposited by exposing the dithiol functionalized substrate
to a vapor pressure of maximum 2.0×10−2 mbar of (Me3P)AuCH3 at 70°C in
a vacuum sealed reactor chamber. Chemical vapor deposition of gold from
dimethyl-2,4-pentandionato gold (III) on SiO2 at temperatures of 200-300
°C formed high purity gold films over the support.46 Esken et al.50 used
microporous ZIF-8 as a support on which metal loading was achieved via
gas phase infiltration of [Au(CO)Cl] followed by thermal hydrogenation.
2.5. Sol-immobilization
Sol-immobilization is well established method to impregnate surface
protected gold colloidal solution over activated carbon.51 Various capping
agents like PVP, PVA, 3-thiol propyl triethoxy silane etc. were used to
stabilize AuNPs and helps to get uniform size of the nanoparticles. Au/C
(carbon lampblack)52 and bimetallic Au60-Pd40/AC52 were prepared by sol-
immobilization method with the help of PVA. Du et al.53 prepared flower-
like hierarchical Au/NiAl-LDH catalysts by sol-immobilization method.
Rösler et al.1618 demonstrated synthesis of in-situ Au@ZIF-8 by dissolving
as-synthesized PVP-stabilized Au-sol in methanol followed by addition
of 2-methylimidazole and [Zn(NO3)2.6H2O]. Surfactant assisted bimetallic
Au-PdNPs was prepared by using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) under the
ultrasonic irradiation of argon-saturated aqueous solution of NaAuCl4 and
PdCl2.54
3. NANOPARTICLE GROWTH MECHANISM
To establish control over the size and shape of nanoparticles it requires
a detailed understanding of the mechanism and kinetics of precursor
reduction and particle growth. LaMer model proposed formation of nuclei
(seeds) which proceeds via reduction of metal ions.55 Nucleation is the very
first process whereby nuclei (seeds) act as a template for crystal growth.
Kinetics of particle growth is influenced by reaction temperature as well as
critical concentration of metal precursor. Koerner et al.56 emphasized the
nanoparticle growth rate depends on precursor/reductant ratio and the
molecular structure of capping agent (passivant). Yao et al.57 has showed
PVP helps to slow-down the nucleation of metallic gold nanocrystals
(AuNCs) upon reduction of AuCl4- with citric acid in aqueous solution by
its bulkier nature (steric hindrance). Polte et al.58 interpreted a four-step
mechanism for nucleation and growth of AuNPs, which starts with a rapid
formation of nuclei in the first step followed by coalescence of the nuclei
into bigger particles in the second step (Fig. 3). A constant reduction of
gold occurs within the solution where self-sharpening growth take place.
The third step comprises a slow diffusion growth of particles sustained
by on-going reduction of gold precursor as well as a further coalescence.
Finally, particles grow rapidly to their final size, which is imposed by
complete consumption of gold salt left in solution.
Fig. 3: Schematic illustration for the deduced process of gold nanoparticle

formation 58
4. SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVES

It is very clear that performance of nano-catalyst greatly influences by many
factors, like preparation method for depositing metal as sub-nanometer
clusters with narrow size distributions, characteristics of support material,
nanoparticles stabilization, morphological advancement, electronic
modification, and activation of the reactants. With judicious choice of
catalyst preparation technique and suiatable support with combining
activity, selectivity, accessibility of catalytic sites are certainly promising
in the field of selective organic transformation. Robustness of the catalyst,
regeneration cycles, catalyst scale-up, and economic perspective are the
major challenges for future development.
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Nanotechnology in Energy and Environment

Chapter · September 2022

Vishnu Kiran Manam

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Title: Frontiers in Nanotechnology

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

First Published, 2022

Printed in India, by: Sagar Color Scan, Delhi

1. Nanotechnology in Energy and Environment 1-11

11. Structural, Optical & Thermal  107-117

Dr. Vishnu Kiran Manam*, Dr. Aruna Kumari Nakkella**

* Scientist, R&D, BMR Group, Chennai, Tamilnadu (Corresponding Author)

energy and environment. According to International Energy Agency (IEA)

Figure 1. Nanotechnology potential application examples

Catalysts or so-called nano-reactors that are fundamental to energy

ships for military services. Another nanotechnology application includes

Figure 2: Applications of Nanotechnology in the Energy Sector.

Figure 3. Contributions of Environmental Nanotechnology

Figure 4: Types of remediation’s using Nanotechnology technology

The resins of ion exchange containing the substrate made up of nano-

Figure 5. Applications of Nanotechnology Technology in Lifesciences

31. Alchin D. Ion Exchange Resins, 2008. Available http://www.nzic.org. nz/Chem

Dr. Sarva Santhisudha*, Dr. Gundluru Mohan**,

Nanotechnology is defined as research, development and application

* DST Woman Scientist (WOS-A),Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara

A strand of DNA pinhead

red blood cell

Fig 1: Evolution of Nanotechnology

Fig 2: Branches of Science and its emergence

2. NANO TECHNOLOGY IN NATURAL SCIENCE

Nano Technology in Food Industry

tumor cells. Circulating tumor cells have been shown to be a reliable

¾¾ Novel Progressions for Fabrication: Only if nanomaterials can be

4. NANO TECHNOLOGY IN FORMAL SCIENCE

* Assistant professor, Department of chemistry, Lal bahadur College, Warangal,

CNT footprints in nature and The purple structure is a human hair

Schematic of how graphene could roll up to form a carbon nanotube.

Example of a flexible hydrogen sensor fabricated with single-walled,

Dr. Shyam Gupta*

* Assistant Professor, Zoology Department, R. B. S. College, Agra, U.P.

The warhead for therapy should be an emitter of localized radiation such

mouse has been achieved by whole body gamma irradiation and

reduce the risk of contamination with the mouse DNA/RNA or mouse

30. Garg P, Hazra DK. Conjugation of antibodies with radiogold nanoparticles, as

S. Preethi Sudha*, Dr. K. Govardhan**

physical and chemical properties. They have better magnetic properties,

Fig. 1: Comparison of thermal withstanding capacity of

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

APPLICATION AREAS OF NANOELECTRONICS

Fig.2: Applications of Nanoelectronics

modules, power bricks, and power semiconductors. By using nanofluids,

R. Rajalakshmi*, T. P. Kumari Pushpa Rani**,

* Assistant Professor of Botany at V. O. Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi

acids, alkaloids, and terpenoids secreted by plants Different types of

Figure 1: Synthesis of Zinc oxide nanoparticle from medicinal plats

BIOSYNTHESIS OF ZINC OXIDE NANOPARTICLES FROM

noxious chemicals can be adsorbed on the surface of the nanoparticles

Figure 2: Zinc oxide nanoparticle synthesis by using different sources.

1. Nanotechnology in Energy and Environment 1-11

11. Structural, Optical & Thermal 107-117

* Scientist, R&D, BMR Group, Chennai, Tamilnadu (Corresponding Author)

* DST Woman Scientist (WOS-A),Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara

* Assistant professor, Department of chemistry, Lal bahadur College, Warangal,

* Assistant Professor, Zoology Department, R. B. S. College, Agra, U.P.

* Assistant Professor of Botany at V. O. Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi

* Department of Physics, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF),

* Assistant Professor, KL College of Pharmacy, KLEF deemed to be University,

* Department of Microbiology, Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College,

* Associate Professor, Department. of Computer Science, Bishop Heber College,

2. NANO PARTICLES USED IN THE AGRICULTURAL

3. TECHNIQUES USED IN AGRICULTURAL