1 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Mole: A mole of a substance is defined by international agreement as the quantity of the substance that
contains the same number of particles as the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-
12 isotope.

The number is very large: 6.022 X 1023 atoms, expressed to four significant figures. This value is called
Avogadro's number

Stoichiometry: Stoichiometry refers to the quantitative relation between the quantities of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)

In a balanced equation numeric values are stoichiometric coefficient of the respective reactants or
product

Percent composition is the percentage by mass of each element in a compound; it can also refer to the
percentage by mass of each component in a mixture.

The percent composition of Carbon and Oxygen in CO2

C -1* 12.01=12.01 O - 2* 16.00=32.00
% C = 12.01/44.01 = 0.2729= 27.29% (we will divide 0.2729 with 100 to take the percentage).
% O = 32.00/44.01 =0.7271 =72.71 %O in CO2.

Molar mass: The molar mass (M) of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of the particles that comprise
that substance. The molar mass of an element, in grams per mole, is numerically the same as that
element's average atomic mass, in atomic mass units.
Molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) = 6*C + 12*H + 6*O
= 6*12 + 12*1 + 6*16
=180 g /mol

Balanced chemical equation: A balanced chemical equation has the same number of atoms of each
type on both sides of the equation.

How to balance a chemical equation

There are many ways to balance chemical equations. Here is a five-step approach that you may find
useful.
1. Write a preliminary equation using the correct formulas for reactants and product.

2. Assign one of the compounds a coefficient of 1

3. Choose coefficients for the other substances so that the numbers of atoms of each element on each
side of the equation are equal

4. Eliminate any fractional coefficients by multiplying the entire equation by the smallest integer that
converts each fraction into a whole number.

5. Check that the result is balanced. Add up the numbers of atoms on both sides

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2 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Hydrolysis is the reaction of water with another material. The hydrolysis of non metal oxides produces
acids.

RCO-OR' + H2O → RCO-OH + R'-OH (R or R’ alkyl group)

This is an example of hydrolysis reaction where ester hydrolysed and forms acid and alcohol.
Hydrolysis of ester also known as esterification.

Limiting reagent: Limiting reagent is the reagent that determines extent to which the reaction proceeds.
The reaction will stop when all of the limiting reactant is consumed.
Excess Reactant - The reactant in a chemical reaction that remains when a reaction stops when the
limiting reactant is completely consumed. The excess reactant remains because there is nothing with
which it can react.

Example: How to find limiting and excess reactant

Let 2.00 g sample of ammonia is mixed with 4.00 g of oxygen.

First, we need to create a balanced equation for the reaction:

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g)= 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

Next we can use stoichiometry to calculate how much product is produced by each reactant.
2g NH3 =2/17 moles =0.1176 moles
4g O2 =4/32 =0.125 moles
4 moles of NH3 reacts with = 5 moles of O2
0.1176 moles of NH3 reacts with =5*0.1176/4 moles of O2
= 0.147 moles of O2
5 moles of reacts with O2 = 4 moles of NH3
0.125 moles of reacts with O2 = 4*0.125/5 moles of NH3
=0.1 moles of NH3
Here available Oxygen can completely react with ammonia and excess ammonia will be left in the
system. But for ammonia to be completely reacted more oxygen will be required. Here O is the limiting
reagent and NH3 is excess reactant

Combustion reactions: Combustion reactions occur between oxygen and another element or
compound. When the other compound is a hydrocarbon, the products of complete combustion are

Carbon dioxide and water vapour.

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)
Combustion reactions are also a type of redox reaction.

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3 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Collision Theory: How Reactions Occur

For a chemical reaction to take place, the reactants must collide. This collision transfers kinetic energy
(energy of motion) from one substance to the other. The collision between the molecules provides the
energy needed to break the necessary bonds so that new bonds can form. There are two criteria for
breaking bonds:

a. The reactants have to collide in the right place.

b. They have to hit with enough energy to break the bonds.

Suppose you have an equation showing molecule A-B reacting with C to form C-A and B

A-B + C → C-A + B

The reaction requires that reactant C collide with A-B on the A end of the molecule. If it hits the B end,
nothing will happen. Energy is required to break a bond between atoms. The collision between C and A-
B has to transfer enough energy to break the A-B bond, allowing the C-A bond to form. The energy you
have to supply to get a reaction going is called the activation energy (Ea) of the reaction.

Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required by reactant molecules to participate in a
reaction is called activation energy.

Depending upon the heat generated or being absorbed chemical reactions are of two types

1. Exothermic reaction: The reaction in which heat is evolved known as exothermic reaction.
E.g. the reaction between oxygen and methane as you light a gas stove is a good example of an
exothermic reaction.

2. Endothermic reaction: The reaction in which heat is absorbed known as endothermic reaction.
E.g. Cooking involves a lot of endothermic reactions — frying eggs.

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4 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Metal reactivity series

K Kashi Potassium Please

Na Nath Sodium Stop
Ca Ka(Ca) Calcium Calling
Reactivity decreases

Mg Maali Magnesium Me
Al Alu Aluminium A
Zn Zara Zinc Zebra
Fe Feka Iron I
Pb Pakata Lead Like
H Hein Hydrogen Her
Cu Kaun( Cun) Copper Calling
Hg Hein(Hg) Mercury Me
Ag Age Silver Smart
Au Aau Gold Genius
Pt Phir Platinum Person

Different types of Chemical reactions are

Combination reaction: A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single
product is known as a combination reaction
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Decomposition reaction: A reaction in which a single compound breaks into two or more simpler
compounds is known as a decomposition reaction.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from its aqueous salt solution.
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Double displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which ions gets exchanged between two
reactants which form a new compound is called a double displacement reaction.
BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

Redox reaction: A redox reaction can be defined as a chemical reaction in which electrons are
transferred between two reactants participating in it. This transfer of electrons can be identified by
observing the changes in the oxidation states of the reacting species
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Reduction: species (Oxidising agent) gain electrons

Oxidation: species (Reducing agent) lose electrons

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 5 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Electrolysis: Electrolysis may be defined as a process of decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage

of electricity through its aqueous solution or molten (fused) state.
Apparatus used to bring about electrolysis is electrolytic cell.
Depending upon the inter conversion of electrical energy and chemical energy there are two types of cell
I. Electrolytic cell: It is device used to convert electrical energy into chemical energy.
II. Electrochemical cell: It is device used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
Important definitions related to electrolysis.
Electrode: An electrode is small piece of metal or other substance that is used to take an electric current
to or from a source of power.
Anode: Electrode on which oxidation occurs is called anode
Cathode: Electrode on which reduction occurs is called cathode.
**Trick to remember the whereabouts of cathode and anode
For both the cells

An Ox Red Cat
Anode Oxidation Reduction Cathode

For Electrochemical Cell only: LOAN (left oxidation anode negative)

Sign of cathode and anode are not same in both types of the cell
Cathode Anode
Electrolytic cell -ve + ve
Electrochemical cell +ve - ve

Electrochemical cell schematic diagram

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6 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Overall redox reaction in the cell: Zn(s) + CuSO4 = ZnSO4 +Cu (s)
Zn Zn2+ + 2e (Oxidation half reaction)
Cu+2 + 2e Cu (Reduction half reaction)
A zinc rod is placed in zinc sulphate solution and a Cu rod is placed in copper sulphate solution
taken in another beaker. Two rods are connected by a wire and two solutions are connected by a salt
bridge.
Salt bridge: A salt bridge is U shaped tube containing solidified concentrated solution of an inert
electrolyte like KCl, KNO3 etc. in agar agar and gelatine. The component of electrolyte do not take
part in the redox reaction.
The function of the salt bridge is to allow the movement of ions from one solution to other without
mixing of the two solutions.
In Zn electrode oxidation takes place and reduction takes place at Cu electrode because Zn has more
tendency to release electron than that of Cu. Electrons produced at the Zn electrode pushed in to the
Cu electrode which is connected with the positive end. Cu electrode is in the need of electrons for
reduction of Cu+2 ions into Cu.
The electrons flow from the negative pole to the positive pole in the external circuit .However,
conventionally the current is said to flow in the opposite direction.
The oxidation of Zn produces excess of Zn2+ ion in the left beaker. Similarly, the reduction of Cu +2
into Cu leaves the excess of SO42- ions in the solution in the right beaker. To maintain the electrical
neutrality of the two solutions the cations and anions move through the salt bridge and it helps to
complete the inner circuit.

What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions?

Displacement Double displacement
1. A more reactive element replaces less reactive 1. Exchange of ion between two reactants take
element. place
2. Change in colour or evolution of gas takes 2. Generally precipitate formed.
place.
3. Double displacement occurs.
3. Single displacement occurs
4. Only compounds are the reactant.
4. Elements or compound may be reactant.
5. It is a fast reaction.
5. It is a slow reaction.
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI = PbI2 +2KNO3
Ex- Fe + CuSO4 = FeSO4 + Cu

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7 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

Oil and Fat containing food items are flushed with Nitrogen. Why?
Nitrogen being an inert gas it does not react with oil and fat containing food. If we look at the
structure of nitrogen it is triply bonded diatomic molecule, because of the presence of triple bond its
bond dissociation enthalpy( 945 KJ/mole) is quite high ,which refrain it from easily get reacted with
any other element or compounds. Whereas, other gases like oxygen react with oil and fat containing
food and make them rancid. Hence, to remove oxygen from the packet and prevent food from
rancidity, food items are flushed with nitrogen.

Difference between combination and decomposition reaction.

Combination Decomposition
1. It is a chemical reaction in which two or more 1. It is a chemical reaction in which one reactant
reactants combine with each other to form a new breaks down into simpler compounds.
single product.
2. It absorbs heat from the surroundings during
2. It releases heat during the chemical reaction the chemical reaction.

3. In case of combination reaction a single 3. In decomposition reaction two or more

substance(compound ) is produced. substances are produced(elements are
compounds).
2Mg + O₂ = 2MgO
CaCO₃ = CaO + CO₂
4. Combination reactions cause simple
molecules to react and produce complex 4. Decomposition reactions cause complex
molecules. molecules to break down into simple molecules

Why double displacement is also called precipitation reaction?

Precipitation reactions are a type of exchange reactions that occur between ionic compounds when
one of the products is insoluble. The double displacement reaction is also known as precipatation
reaction Because in most double displacement reaction of two ionic compounds lead to the
formation of an insoluble product called precipitate

Na2SO4( aq ) + BaCl2( aq ) = BaSO4 ( white color ppt) + NaCl ( aq )

Here, a double displacment reaction has taken place as well as a precipitate is also formed. which is
BaSO4.
Why do we need to balance a chemical equation ?

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8 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

The representation of a chemical reaction in the form of substances is known as a chemical

equation. The equation in which the number of atoms of all the molecules is equal on both sides of
the equation is known as a balanced chemical equation.

Law of conservation of mass governs the balancing of a chemical equation. According to this law,
mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction and obeying this law total mass
of the elements or molecules present on the reactant side should be equal to the total mass of
elements or molecules present on the product side. If the chemical equation is not balanced law of
conservation is not applicable.

Name two salts that are used in black and white photography? AgCl and AgBr
Write the chemical formula for marble? CaCO3
Write the uses of decomposition reactions?

The decomposition reactions carried out by electricity are used to extract several metals from their
naturally occurring compounds like chlorides and oxides.

When passing electricity decomposes the fused metal chloride or metal oxide, then metal is
produced at the cathode.
Can rancidity retarded by storing foods away from light and why?
In the absence of light, the oxidation of fats and oils present in food is slowed down and hence the
development of rancidity is retarded.
Methods to Prevent Rancidity?

1. Adding antioxidants (substances which prevent oxidation) to food.

2. Storing food in airtight containers to slow the process of rancidification.
3. Refrigerating food also helps to slow down rancidification.
4. Replacing oxygen in the containers with another gas.
Example of each type of reactions.
Combination Reaction 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Decomposition Reaction CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Displacement Reaction Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Double Displacement Reaction or precipitation BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

When you have mixed the solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium iodide,

(i) what was the colour of the precipitate formed and can you name the precipitate?
(ii) write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
(iii) is this also a double displacement reaction?

(i) The colour of the precipitate is yellow. The name of compound formed as a precipitate is
Pbl2 (lead iodide).

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9 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

(ii) Pb(NO)3 + KI PbI2 + KNO3

(iii) Yes, it is also a double displacement reaction.

Describe an activity to observe what happens when quick lime is added to water taken in a
beaker. State two important observations and name the type of reaction taking place.

Aim: To observe what happens when quicklime is added to water taken in a beaker.

Materials Required:- Quicklime (calcium oxide), water, beaker.

Procedure:

1. Take 5 g of calcium oxide in a beaker.

2. Add water to it slowly.
3. Touch the beaker.
4. Note down the observations.

Observation: Calcium oxide reacts with water vigorously to form calcium hydroxide with the
evolution of heat.

Chemical Reaction: CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + heat

Conclusion: The reaction between CaO (Calcium oxide) and H2O is a combination reaction. It is an
exothermic process because heat is evolved.

Why Calcium Carbonate is used for white washing the wall ?

Whitewash cures through a reaction with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form calcium
carbonate in the form of calcite, a type of reaction generally known as carbonation or by the more
specific term, carbonatation. When the paste of CaO and Ca(OH)2 is used for white washing it
combines with atmospheric CO2 to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which gives it a shiny texture.

Why the atmosphere of Venus appears Yellow ?

Planets have the colors that they have because of what they are made of and how their surfaces
and/or atmospheres reflect and absorb sunlight. Venus is entirely covered with a thick carbon
dioxide atmosphere and sulphuric acid clouds which give it a light yellowish appearance.

What is Thermal Decomposition ?

Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical decomposition caused by heat. The

decomposition temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance chemically
decomposes. The reaction is usually endothermic as heat is required to break chemical bonds in the
compound undergoing decomposition.

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10 Chapter 1 : Chemical Reactions and Equations

PREPARED BY: JOYDEEP DAS (M.TECH, PhD PURSUING) PH: 7005008567/ 9863027277