TVET CERTICATE LEVE L5

IELTD 501 ELECTRICALTRANSMISSION/ DISTRIBUTION LINE

Perform Electrical Transmission / Distribution Line

Learning hours: 70

Credit:7

SECTOR: ENERGY

TRADE: INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICITY

LEVEL: 5

Purpose Statement
This particular module describes the skills, knowledge and attitude required t electrical
power distribution system. The electrician will be able to perform the wiring diagram according
to the site, elaborate technical specifications of the distribution line elements and estimate cost
of the work.

Page 1 of 124
Table of Contents

Elements of competence and performance criteria Page No.

Learning Unit Performance Criteria
1. Learning Unit 1: 3

1.1. Proper interpretation of electrical drawing

Identify activities to
be done 1.2Proper selection of tools, equipment and
material

1.3 Proper identification of transmission/

distribution systems and connection schemes

2. Learning Unit 2 53
Select elements of
2.1. Correct selection of protection devices
transmission/
distribution line 2.2 Correct selection of line insulators

2.3 Convenient selection of conductors

2.4 Proper selection of power transformers and

voltage regulating devices

3. Learning Unit 3 :Perform 114

electrical transmission/
3.1. Proper handling of elements of transmission
distribution line
and distribution lines

3..2. Proper connection of protection devices, line

insulators and stringing conductors

3.3. Convenient mounting a transformer

3.4 Correct connection of voltage regulating

devices

3.5 Proper testing of the work done and cleaning

of the workplace

Page 2 of 124
LU1. Identify activities to be done

Learning Outcomes1.1: Proper interpretation of electrical drawing

Content/Topic1 electrical drawing

Transmission and distribution line symbols

Elements of a transmission/ distribution line
Interpretation of schematic diagram of a distribution line
Interpretation of schematic diagram of transmission line

Proper interpretation of electrical drawing

Name Designators and Values

One of the biggest keys to being schematic-literate is being able to recognize which components
are which. The component symbols tell half the story, but each symbol should be paired with
both a name and value to complete it.

Names and Values

Values help define exactly what a component is. For schematic components like resistors,
capacitors, and inductors the value tells us how many ohms, farads, or henries they have. For
other components, like integrated circuits, the value may just be the name of the chip. Crystals
might list their oscillating frequency as their value. Basically, the value of a schematic component
calls out its most important characteristic.
Component names are usually a combination of one or two letters and a number. The letter part
of the name identifies the type of component – R’s for resistors, C’s for capacitors, U’s for
integrated circuits, etc. Each component name on a schematic should be unique; if you have
multiple resistors in a circuit, for example, they should be named R1, R2, R3, etc. Component
names help us reference specific points in schematics.

The prefixes of names are pretty well standardized. For some components, like resistors, the
prefix is just the first letter of the component. Other name prefixes are not so literal; inductors,

Page 3 of 124
for example, are L’s (because current has already taken I [but it starts with a C…electronics is a
silly place]). Here’s a quick table of common components and their name prefixe

Symbol Description Symbol Description

Electrical
Line inside a
distribution line
conduit
Electric power
Line inside a tube
transmission
duct...
Cable / Wire

Line through an Underground line

access chamber

Underwater line
Submarine power
Underground line
cable

Line block with oil Bypass Line of the

or gas gas or oil

Page 4 of 124
Line detection
Online probing
valved gas or oil

Line under Power line AC

plastering

Anodic protection Power line DC

/ Protection anode

End of line not

End of line not connected and
connected isolated

Overhead power
line Vertical retention

Page 5 of 124
Overhead line
support Inclined retention

Wooden stand for

Antiskid the cable
overhead line

Lampposts / Street
Metal holder for
light
overhead line

Overhead line on Electric tower

wood stand support

Overhead line on Electric

metal support switchboard

Page 6 of 124
Overhead line on
wood stand and Board embedded
inclined retention

Cabin for outdoor

Overhead line
installation
carrier and vertical
Generic symbol
retention

Cabin for outdoor

Underground line
installation
with bracket and
e. g. Cabin
luminaire
amplification

Overhead line with

wooden stand and
luminaire

Page 7 of 124
Page 8 of 124
Page 9 of 124
Learning Outcome 1.2: Select tools, equipment and materials

Content/Topic1 Type of tools

 Wattmeter
 Earth resistance meter
 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Tachometer
 Multi-meter
 Thermometer
 Manometer
 Frequency meter
 Hydrometer
 Hoe

Page 10 of 124
 Types of tools:
 Watt meter

Power in an electric circuit is the product (multiplication) of voltage and current, so any meter
designed to measure power must account for both of these variables.

A special meter movement designed especially for power measurement is called the
dynamometer movement, and is similar to a D’Arsonval or Weston movement in that a
lightweight coil of wire is attached to the pointer mechanism. However, unlike the D’Arsonval
or Weston movement, another (stationary) coil is used instead of a permanent magnet to
provide the magnetic field for the moving coil to react against. The moving coil is generally
energized by the voltage in the circuit, while the stationary coil is generally energized by the
current in the circuit. A dynamometer movement connected in a circuit looks something like
this:
The top (horizontal) coil of wire measures load current while the bottom (vertical) coil measures
load voltage. Just like the lightweight moving coils of voltmeter movements, the (moving)
voltage coil of a dynamometer is typically connected in series with a range resistor so that full
load voltage is not applied to it. Likewise, the (stationary) current coil of a dynamometer may
have precision shunt resistors to divide the load current around it. With custom-built
dynamometer movements, shunt resistors are less likely to be needed because the stationary
coil can be constructed with as heavy of wire as needed without impacting meter response,
unlike the moving coil which must be constructed of lightweight wire for minimum inertia.

Page 11 of 124
A wattmeter is an indicating instrument, which takes V and I, and performs the multiplication.
Wattmete
r

O I
U
ZL

A.C. Source Load

Page 12 of 124
 Earth resistance meter

Megohmmeter or megger is a special type of ohmmeter used to measure the electrical

resistance of insulators. Insulating components, for example cable jackets, must be tested for
their insulation strength at the time of commissioning and as part of maintenance of high
voltage electrical equipment and installations. For this purpose megohmmeters, which can
provide high DC voltages (typically in ranges from 500 V to 5 kV, some are up to 15 kV) at
specified current capacity, are used. Acceptable insulator resistance values are typically 1 to 10
megohms, depending on the standards referenced.
Operation

Resistance to be measured is connected across the terminals i.e. connected in series with the
deflecting coil and across the generator. When the current is supplied to the coils then they have
torque in opposite directions.

If resistance to be measured is high, no current will flow through the deflecting coil, the
controlling coil, will therefore, set itself perpendicular to the magnetic axis and hence set the
pointer to the infinity.

If the resistance to be measured is small, a high current flow through the deflecting coil and the
resulting torque sets the pointer to zero.

For intermediate value of resistance, depending upon the torque production, the pointer is set
at a point between zero and infinity.

The hand driven generator is of permanent magnet type and it is designed to generate from
500 to 2500 volts.....

 Voltmeter

Those are instrument used for determine the values of voltage

Analog voltmeters
Page 13 of 124
 As mentioned in the previous paragraph Methods voltmeter, analog voltmeter are rotating
device rotating frame Baazafh a resistance in series with the coil (frame) used as a voltmeter.
In fact voltmeter using A small frame (coil) placed in a strong magnetic field, measure the
voltage. This frame rotates and compresses a small spring frame rotation angle of the initial
position proportional flow through the frame (and thus the voltage across voltmeter) is
sensitive in terms of voltmeters «ohms per volt» expression. For example, a voltmeter with a
sensitivity of 1000 ohms at 1 mA current state can be sensitive to voltage. If the maximum
value measurable by a special voltmeter 200 V Bashd.mqavmt voltmeter can be 200, 000
ohms at 1 mA, in which case the frame deviates from its original condition. In most voltmeters
Andagyry voltage range can be changed it by changing the internal resistance V m will be
possible. Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference between two
points of the circuit used. And to measure the voltage of the AC (AC) and DC (direct) used and
pre-installed voltmeter should mode Multimetere according to the type of applied voltage
(which is often used on power supply The circuit is defined) then it can be determined.
Installation voltmeter in parallel circuit and should be noted that the measurement should
be larger range (measuring mode with higher voltage) should be initiated. Not to damage the
voltmeter. First direct voltage start DC.V. As you know, this episode has six measurement
basis is from 0.25 V to 1000 V DC can not fathom. Here's how it works almost as important is
that if we 10V selector on our devices can show up to 10 volts. This classification numbers on
the page number is part of three class can see. Left and mA circuit with DC.V specified. If you
wish to have a battery or a direct current power supply device test positive wire to the
positive power supply and the negative wire to the negative power supply devices connect.
If, for example, six-volt battery you should set the selector to the number 10. A few tips: 2)
To use a digital multimeter to measure voltage, while observing the above (1 choice and
2Mvazy connect the DC and AC voltmeter) connected to a voltmeter enough oats in place
COM and V installed. In case of displacement of the two wire voltmeter only negative
number, but in terms of the absolute value of the difference does not worry.

Digital voltmeter

Page 14 of 124
Measuring devices for digital measurement screen genotypes (Display) show usually
measured quantity units such as volts, amps, mA, ° C, etc. to the appropriate display. Including
measuring devices such as voltmeters, watt meters, Cosφ meter, frequency meter,
Dvrshmarha, thermometer and Vvmtr noted Nmvd. Measuring devices for digital
measurement screen genotypes (Display) show usually measured quantity units such as volts,
amps, mA, ° C, etc. to the appropriate display. Including measuring devices such as
voltmeters, watt meters, Cosφ meter, frequency meter, Dvrshmarha, thermometer and
Vvmtr noted Nmvd. Vvmtr part of a digital voltmeter DC. It Vvmtr like scorpions (analog) is,
as you know, is the main part of the galvanometer Darsvnval. Digital DC voltmeter on a
comparable basis. The voltage applied to the voltmeter, with a reference voltage (typically
100 mV and in some Vvmtrha suffered a volt AC) compared to the result compared to
electronic circuits and digital data representing the DC voltage applied to the V meters, will
appear on the screen. Today, most of these devices have automatic range (Auto Range) are.
Automatic range in this case is that after applying a DC voltage to the voltmeter, the voltmeter
automatically selects the first range. If the measured voltage range, some show it. If not in
this range of voltage measurement, voltmeter automatically selects a higher range until the
measured voltage in the range of the device. The advantage of digital devices Digital
measurement devices due to lack of moving parts, very high lifetime (if using them correctly)
are and to physical factors such as vibration, humidity, air cleanliness and ... not case
sensitive. While with the advancement of technology has made electronic devices today are
much more accurate. quantity, it records. Another advantage of a quantity measured by a
digital system is that when the value of this quantity is transferred to the computer, the
computer can take the necessary decisions on the value of this quantity. For example, if the
amount is less than what has already been set, the computer can special order for this issue.

 Ammeter

Page 15 of 124
Current is the measure of the rate of electron “flow” in a circuit. It is measured in the unit of the
Ampere, simply called “Amp,” (A).

The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and insert an
“ammeter” in series (in-line) with the circuit so that all electrons flowing through the circuit also
have to go through the meter. Because measuring current in this manner requires the meter be
made part of the circuit, it is a more difficult type of measurement to make than either voltage
or resistance.

Some digital meters, like the unit shown in the illustration, have a separate jack to insert the red
test lead plug when measuring current. Other meters, like most inexpensive analog meters, use
the same jacks for measuring voltage, resistance, and current. Consult your owner’s manual on
the particular model of meter you own for details on measuring current.

When an ammeter is placed in series with a circuit, it ideally drops no voltage as current goes
through it. In other words, it acts very much like a piece of wire, with very little resistance from
one test probe to the other. Consequently, an ammeter will act as a short circuit if placed in
parallel (across the terminals of) a substantial source of voltage. If this is done, a surge in current
will result, potentially damaging the meter:

Ammeters are generally protected from excessive current by means of a small fuse located inside
the meter housing. If the ammeter is accidently connected across a substantial voltage source,
the resultant surge in current will “blow” the fuse and render the meter incapable of measuring
current until the fuse is replaced. Be very careful to avoid this scenario!

You may test the condition of a multimeter’s fuse by switching it to the resistance mode and
measuring continuity through the test leads (and through the fuse). On a meter where the same
test lead jacks are used for both resistance and current measurement, simply leave the test lead
plugs where they are and touch the two probes together. On a meter where different jacks are
used, this is how you insert the test lead plugs to check the fuse:

Page 16 of 124
Build the one-battery, one-lamp circuit using jumper wires to connect the battery to the lamp,
and verify that the lamp lights up before connecting the meter in series with it. Then, break the
circuit open at any point and connect the meter’s test probes to the two points of the break to
measure current. As usual, if your meter is manually-ranged, begin by selecting the highest range
for current, then move the selector switch to lower range positions until the strongest indication
is obtained on the meter display without over-ranging it. If the meter indication is “backwards,”
(left motion on analog needle, or negative reading on a digital display), then reverse the test
probe connections and try again. When the ammeter indicates a normal reading (not
“backwards”), electrons are entering the black test lead and exiting the red. This is how you
determine direction of current using a meter.

 Multi-meter

Seeing as how a common meter movement can be made to function as a voltmeter, ammeter,
or ohmmeter simply by connecting it to different external resistor networks, it should make
sense that a multi-purpose meter (“multimeter”) could be designed in one unit with the
appropriate switch(es) and resistors.

For general purpose electronics work, the multimeter reigns supreme as the instrument of
choice. No other device is able to do so much with so little an investment in parts and elegant
simplicity of operation. As with most things in the world of electronics, the advent of solid-
state components like transistors has revolutionized the way things are done, and multimeter
design is no exception to this rule. However, in keeping with this chapter’s emphasis on
analog (“old-fashioned”) meter technology, I’ll show you a few pre-transistor meters.

The unit shown above is typical of a handheld analog multimeter, with ranges for voltage,
current, and resistance measurement. Note the many scales on the face of the meter

Page 17 of 124
movement for the different ranges and functions selectable by the rotary switch. The wires
for connecting this instrument to a circuit (the “test leads”) are plugged into the two copper
jacks (socket holes) at the bottom-center of the meter face marked “- TEST +”, black and red.

This multimeter (Barnett brand) takes a slightly different design approach than the previous
unit. Note how the rotary selector switch has fewer positions than the previous meter, but
also how there are many more jacks into which the test leads may be plugged into. Each one
of those jacks is labeled with a number indicating the respective full-scale range of the meter.

Lastly, here is a picture of a digital multimeter. Note that the familiar meter movement has
been replaced by a blank, gray-colored display screen. When powered, numerical digits
appear in that screen area, depicting the amount of voltage, current, or resistance being
measured. This particular brand and model of digital meter has a rotary selector switch and
four jacks into which test leads can be plugged. Two leads one red and one black are shown
plugged into the meter.

A close examination of this meter will reveal one “common” jack for the black test lead and
three others for the red test lead. The jack into which the red lead is shown inserted is labeled
for voltage and resistance measurement, while the other two jacks are labeled for current (A,
mA, and µA) measurement. This is a wise design feature of the multimeter, requiring the user
to move a test lead plug from one jack to another in order to switch from the voltage
measurement to the current measurement function. It would be hazardous to have the meter
set in current measurement mode while connected across a significant source of voltage
because of the low input resistance, and making it necessary to move a test lead plug rather
than just flip the selector switch to a different position helps ensure that the meter doesn’t
get set to measure current unintentionally.

Note that the selector switch still has different positions for voltage and current
measurement, so in order for the user to switch between these two modes of measurement
they must switch the position of the red test lead and move the selector switch to a different
position.

Page 18 of 124
Also note that neither the selector switch nor the jacks are labeled with measurement ranges.
In other words, there are no “100 volt” or “10 volt” or “1 volt” ranges (or any equivalent range
steps) on this meter. Rather, this meter is “auto-ranging,” meaning that it automatically picks
the appropriate range for the quantity being measured. Auto-ranging is a feature only found
on digital meters, but not all digital meters.

No two models of multimeters are designed to operate exactly the same, even if they’re
manufactured by the same company. In order to fully understand the operation of any
multimeter, the owner’s manual must be consulted.

In the switch’s three lower (most counter-clockwise) positions, the meter movement is
connected to the Common and V jacks through one of three different series range resistors
(Rmultiplier1 through Rmultiplier3), and so acts as a voltmeter. In the fourth position, the meter
movement is connected in parallel with the shunt resistor, and so acts as an ammeter for any
current entering the common jack and exiting the A jack. In the last (furthest clockwise)
position, the meter movement is disconnected from either red jack, but short-circuited
through the switch. This short-circuiting creates a dampening effect on the needle, guarding
against mechanical shock damage when the meter is handled and moved.

If an ohmmeter function is desired in this multimeter design, it may be substituted for one of
the three voltage ranges as such:

With all three fundamental functions available, this multimeter may also be known as a volt-
ohm-milliammeter.

Obtaining a reading from an analog multimeter when there is a multitude of ranges and only
one meter movement may seem daunting to the new technician. On an analog multimeter,
the meter movement is marked with several scales, each one useful for at least one range
setting.
Note that there are three types of scales on this meter face: a green scale for resistance at
the top, a set of black scales for DC voltage and current in the middle, and a set of blue scales

Page 19 of 124
 for AC voltage and current at the bottom. Both the DC and AC scales have three sub-scales,
one ranging 0 to 2.5, one ranging 0 to 5, and one ranging 0 to 10. The meter operator must
choose whichever scale best matches the range switch and plug settings in order to properly
interpret the meter’s indication.

This particular multimeter has several basic voltage measurement ranges: 2.5 volts, 10 volts,
50 volts, 250 volts, 500 volts, and 1000 volts. With the use of the voltage range extender unit
at the top of the multimeter, voltages up to 5000 volts can be measured. Suppose the meter
operator chose to switch the meter into the “volt” function and plug the red test lead into
the 10 volt jack. To interpret the needle’s position, he or she would have to read the scale
ending with the number “10”. If they moved the red test plug into the 250 volt jack, however,
they would read the meter indication on the scale ending with “2.5”, multiplying the direct
indication by a factor of 100 in order to find what the measured voltage was.

If current is measured with this meter, another jack is chosen for the red plug to be inserted
into and the range is selected via a rotary switch. This close-up photograph shows the switch
set to the 2.5 mA position:

Note how all current ranges are power-of-ten multiples of the three scale ranges shown on
the meter face: 2.5, 5, and 10. In some range settings, such as the 2.5 mA for example, the
meter indication may be read directly on the 0 to 2.5 scale. For other range settings (250 µA,
50 mA, 100 mA, and 500 mA), the meter indication must be read off the appropriate scale
and then multiplied by either 10 or 100 to obtain the real figure. The highest current range
available on this meter is obtained with the rotary switch in the 2.5/10 amp position. The
distinction between 2.5 amps and 10 amps is made by the red test plug position: a special
“10 amp” jack next to the regular current-measuring jack provides an alternative plug setting
to select the higher range.

Resistance in ohms, of course, is read by a nonlinear scale at the top of the meter face. It is
“backward,” just like all battery-operated analog ohmmeters, with zero at the right-hand side of
the face and infinity at the left-hand side. There is only one jack provided on this particular

Page 20 of 124
multimeter for “ohms,” so different resistance-measuring ranges must be selected by the rotary
switch. Notice on the switch how five different “multiplier” settings are provided for measuring
resistance: Rx1, Rx10, Rx100, Rx1000, and Rx10000. Just as you might suspect, the meter
indication is given by multiplying whatever needle position is shown on the meter face by the
power-of-ten multiplying factor set by the rotary switch.

 Manometer

Page 21 of 124
A Manometer is a device to measure pressures. A common simple manometer consists of
a U shaped tube of glass filled with some liquid. Typically the liquid is mercury because of its high
density.

Case 1

In the figure to the right we show such a U shaped tube filled with
a liquid. Note that both ends of the tube are open to the
atmosphere. Thus both points A and B are at atmospheric
pressure. The two points also have the same vertical height.

Case 2

Now the top of the tube on the left has been closed. We imagine
that there is a sample of gas in the closed end of the tube.

The right side of the tube remains open to the atmosphere. The
point A, then, is at atmospheric pressure.

The point C is at the pressure of the gas in the closed end of the
tube.

The point B has a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure due

to the weight of the column of liquid of height h.

The point C is at the same height as B, so it has the same pressure

as B. And we have already seen that this is equal to the pressure
of the gas in the closed end of the tube.

Page 22 of 124
Thus, in this case the pressure of the gas that is trapped in the
closed end of the tube is greater than atmospheric pressure by the
amount of pressure exerted by the column of liquid of height h.

Case 3

Now we show another possible arrangement of the manometer

with the top of the left side of the tube closed. Perhaps the closed
end of the tube contains a sample of gas as before, or perhaps it
contains a vacuum.

The point A is at atmospheric pressure.

The point C is at whatever pressure the gas in the closed end of

the tube has, or if the closed end contains a vacuum the pressure
is zero.

Since the point B is at the same height as point A, it must be at

atmospheric pressure too. But the pressure at B is also the sum of
the pressure at C plus the pressure exerted by the weight of the
column of liquid of height h in the tube.

We conclude that pressure at C, then, is less than atmospheric

pressure by the amount of pressure exerted by the column of
liquid of height h.

If the closed end of the tube contains a vacuum, then the pressure
at point C is zero, and atmospheric pressure is equal to the
pressure exerted by the weight of the column of liquid of height h.

Page 23 of 124
In this case, the manometer can be used as a barometer to
measure atmospheric pressure.

We conclude with a discussion of the units for pressure measurements. Recall that pressure is
defined as the force per area. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, which is one newton per
square meter.

hae

 Spade

A spade is a tool primarily for digging, comprising a blade – typically narrower and less curved
than that of a shovel and a long handle. Early spades were made of riven wood or of animal
bones (often shoulder blades). After the art of metalworking was developed, spades were
made with sharper tips of metal. Before the introduction of metal spades manual labor was
less efficient at moving earth, with picks being required to break up the soil in addition to a
spade for moving the dirt. With a metal tip, a spade can both break and move the earth in
most situations, increasing efficiency.

Pulley in oil derrick

Page 24 of 124
Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support
this block. If there are p of these parts of the rope supporting the load W, then a force balance
on the moving block shows that the tension in each of the parts of the rope must be W/p. This
means the input force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the input
force by the factor p.

A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks with two rope parts
supporting the load W.

Separation of the pulleys in the gun tackle show the force balance that results in a rope
tension of W/2.

Page 25 of 124
 A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks with four rope parts
supporting the load W.

Separation of the pulleys in the double tackle show the force balance that results in a rope
tension of W/4.

How it works

The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are
weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines
do not stretch.

In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in
the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This means that the two parts of the rope
supporting the moving block must each support half the load.

Fixed pulley

Page 26 of 124
 Content/Topic 2 Types of equipment
 Safety shoe

A steel-toe boot is a durable boot or shoe that has a protective reinforcement in the toe which
protects the foot from falling objects or compression, usually combined with a mid sole plate
to protect against punctures from below.

 Helmet

A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head from injuries. More
specifically, a helmet aids the skull in protecting the human brain. Ceremonial or symbolic
helmets (e.g. UK policeman's helmet) without protective function are sometimes used. The
oldest known use of helmets was by Assyrian soldiers in 900 BC, who wore thick leather or
bronze helmets to protect the head from blunt object and sword blows and arrow strikes in
combat. Soldiers still wear helmets, now often made from lightweight plastic materials.

Page 27 of 124
In civilian life, helmets are used for recreational activities and sports (e.g. jockeys in horse
racing, American football, ice hockey, cricket, baseball, camogie, hurling and rock climbing);
dangerous work activities (e.g. construction, mining, riot police); and transportation
(e.g. motorcycle helmets and bicycle helmets). Since the 1990s, most helmets are made
from resin or plastic, which may be reinforced with fibers such as aramids.

The word helmet is diminutive from helm, a medieval word for protective combat headgear.
The medieval great helm covers the whole head and often is accompanied
with camailprotecting throat and neck as well. Originally a helmet was a helm which
covered the head only partly.
 Drilling machine

1.Drill/Rotary Drill: This is a general hand held electric drill machine, having a normal
drill chuck. It is used for drilling in wood, metal and plastics. also used for screw
driving.

 Bolts

Page 28 of 124
A bolt is a type of fastener, usually made from metal, that commonly comprises a head at one
end, a chamfer at the other, and a shaft characterised by an external helical ridge known as a
‘thread’. Bolts are typically used to hold materials or objects together, or to position objects.

The chamfer at the opposite end of the head provides a slightly bevelled edge which helps with
inserting the bolt into holes and nuts. Bolts typically (but not always) require a nut which is
applied via torque while the bolt is held in place (or vice versa). Vibration or dynamic loads may
loosen nuts, necessitating the use of locknuts, lock washers or thread lockers which can provide
resistance to loosening.
 GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a network of about 30 satellites orbiting the Earth at an
altitude of 20,000 km. The system was originally developed by the US government for military
navigation but now anyone with a GPS device, be it a SatNav, mobile phone or handheld GPS
unit, can receive the radio signals that the satellites broadcast.

Wherever you are on the planet, at least four GPS satellites are ‘visible’ at any time. Each one
transmits information about its position and the current time at regular intervals. These signals,
travelling at the speed of light, are intercepted by your GPS receiver, which calculates how far
away each satellite is based on how long it took for the messages to arrive.

Once it has information on how far away at least three satellites are, your GPS receiver can
pinpoint your location using a process called trilateration.

Trilateration

Imagine you are standing somewhere on Earth with three satellites in the sky above you. If you
know how far away you are from satellite A, then you know you must be located somewhere on
the red circle. If you do the same for satellites B and C, you can work out your location by seeing
where the three circles intersect. This is just what your GPS receiver does, although it uses
overlapping spheres rather than circles.

Page 29 of 124
The more satellites there are above the horizon the more accurately your GPS unit can determine
where you are.

GPS and Relativity

GPS satellites have atomic clocks on board to keep accurate time. General and Special Relativity
however predict that differences will appear between these clocks and an identical clock on
Earth.

General Relativity predicts that time will appear to run slower under stronger gravitational pull –
the clocks on board the satellites will therefore seem to run faster than a clock on Earth.

Furthermore, Special Relativity predicts that because the satellites’ clocks are moving relative to
a clock on Earth, they will appear to run slower.

The whole GPS network has to make allowances for these effects – proof that Relativity has a
real impact.

Learning Outcome 1.3 : Identify transmission /distribution systems and

connection schem

Content/Topic 1: DC transmission and distribution system

DC transmission and distribution system type

 Two wire system

 Three wire system
 Overhead distribution system
 Underground distribution system
 Ring connection scheme
 Radial connection scheme
 Inter-connected scheme

Page 30 of 124
(a) a 6-phase mercury-arc rectifier gives 600 V d.c. power after the voltage has been stepped
down to a proper value by the transformers. This 600-V d.c. power is generally used by electric
railways and for electrolytic processes.

(b) a rotary converter gives 230 V d.c. power.

(c) a motor-generator set converts a.c. power to 500/250 d.c. power for 3-wire distribution

In Fig. above is shown a schematic diagram of low tension distribution system for d.c. power. The
whole system consists of a network of cables or conductors which convey power from central
station to the consumer’s premises. The station bus-bars are fed by a number of generators (only
two shown in the figure) running in parallel. From the bus-bars, the power is carried by many
feeders which radiate to various parts of a city or locality. These feeders deliver power at certain
points to a distributor which runs along the various streets. The points FF, as shown in the figure,
are known as feeding points. Power connections to the various consumers are given from this
distributor and not directly from the feeder. The wires which convey power from the distributor
to the consumer’s premises are known as service mains(S). Sometimes when there is only one
distributor in a locality, several sub-distributors (SD) branching off from the distributor are
employed and service mains are now connected to them instead of distributor as shown in the
figure. Obviously, a feeder is designed on the basis of its current-carrying capacity whereas the
design of distributor is based on the voltage drop occurring in it.

Page 31 of 124
Two-wire and three-wire Systems in d.c systems,

Power may be fed and distributed either by (i) 2-wire system or (ii) 3-wire system.

Page 32 of 124
In the 2-wire system, one is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative
wire. In the case of a 2-wire distributor, lamps, motors and other electrical apparatus are
connected in parallel between the two wires as shown in Fig. below. As seen, the potential
difference and current have their maximum values at feeding points F1 and F2. The standard
voltage between the conductors is 220 V. The 2-wire system when used for transmission
purposes, has much lower efficiency and economy as compared to the 3-wire system as shown
later. A 3-wire has not only a higher efficiency of transmission but when used for distribution
purposes, it makes available two voltages at the consumer’s end.

This 3-wire system consists of two ‘outers’ and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the
generator end. Its potential is mid way between that of the outers i.e. if the p.d. between the

outers is 460 V, then the p.d. of positive outer is 230 V above the neutral and that of negative
outer is 230 V below the neutral. Motors requiring higher voltage are connected across the outers
whereas lighting and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected between any one of
the outers and the neutral. The addition of the middle wire is made possible by the connection
diagram shown in Fig below G is the main generator which supplies power to the whole system.
M1 and M2 are two identical shunt machines coupled mechanically with their armatures and
shunt field winding joined in series across the outers. The junction of their armatures is earthed
and the neutral wire is taken out from there.

Voltage Drop and Transmission Efficiency

Page 33 of 124
Consider the case of a 2-wire feeder A B is the sending end and CD the receiving end. Obviously,
the p.d. at A B is higher than at CD. The difference in potential at the two ends is the potential
drop or ‘drop’ in the cable.

Example1: Suppose the transmitting voltage is 250 V, current in AC is 10 amperes, and resistance
of each feeder conductor is 0.5 Ω,

Then drop in each feeder conductor is 10 ×0.5 = 5 volt

And drop in both feeder conductor is 5 × 2 = 10 V P.d.

At Receiving end CD is = 250 − 10 = 240 V

Input power at A B = 250 × 10 = 2,500 W

Output power at CD = 240 × 10 = 2,400 W ∴ power lost in two feeders = 2,500 − 2,400 = 100W
the above power loss could also be found by using the formula

Power loss = 2 I 2 R = 2 × 102 × 0.5 = 100 W

The efficiency of transmission is defined, like any other efficiency, as the ratio of the output to in
put

Efficiency of transmission = power delivered by the line power received by the line In the present
case, power delivered by the feeder is = 2500 W and

Power received by it as 2400 W.

η = 2400 × 100/2500 = 96%

In general, if V1 is the voltage at the sending end and V2 at the receiving end and I the current
delivered, then Input = V1I output = V2 I

Page 34 of 124
Page 35 of 124
 Content/Topic 2: AC transmission and distribution system

 Two wire system

 Three wire system
 Overhead distribution system
 Underground distribution system
 Ring connection scheme
 Radial connection scheme
Inter-connected scheme

Page 36 of 124
Page 37 of 124
By transmission and distribution of electric power is meant its conveyance from the central
station where it is generated to places, where it is demanded by the consumers like mills,
factories, residential and commercial buildings, pumping stations etc

Page 38 of 124
Content/Topic3: Transmission Methods

. Electric power may be transmitted by two methods.

1. By overhead system

2. By underground system

this being especially suited for densely populated areas though it is some what costlier than the
first method.

In over-head system, power is conveyed by bare conductors of copper or aluminum which are
strung between wooden or steel poles erected at convenient distances along a route. The bare
copper or aluminium wire is fixed to an insulator which is itself fixed onto a cross-arm on the
pole. The number of cross-arms carried by a pole depends on the number of wires it has to carry.

Line supports consist of (i) pole structures and (ii) tower.

Poles which are made of:

wood, reinforced concrete or steel are used up to 66 kV

whereas steel towers are used for higher voltages.

The underground system employs insulated cables which may be single, double or triple-core
etc.

A good system whether overhead or underground should fulfill the following requirements :

1. The voltage at the consumer’s premises must be maintained within ± 4 or ± 6% of the

declared voltage, the actual value depending on the type of load*

. 2. The loss of power in the system itself should be a small percentage (about 10%) of the power
transmitted.

3. The transmission cost should not be unduly excessive.

4. The maximum current passing through the conductor should be limited to such a value as not
to overheat the conductor or damage its insulation.

5. The insulation resistance of the whole system should be very high so that there is no undue
leakage or danger to human life.

Page 39 of 124
It may, however, be mentioned here that these days all production of power is as a.c. power and
nearly all d.c. power is obtained from large a.c. power systems by using converting machinery
like synchronous or rotary converters, solid-state converters and motor-generator sets etc.

There are many sound reasons for producing power in the form of alternating current rather than
direct current.

(i) It is possible, in practice, to construct large high-speed a.c. generators of capacities up to

500 MW. Such generators are economical both in the matter of cost per kWh of electric
energy produced as well as in operation. Unfortunately, d.c. generators cannot be built
of ratings higher than 5 MW because of commutation trouble. More over, since they
must operate at low speeds, it necessitates large and heavy machines.

(ii) A.C. voltage can be efficiently and conveniently raised or lowered for economic
transmission and distribution of electric power respectively.

On the other hand, d.c. power has to be generated at comparatively low voltages by units
of relatively low power ratings. As yet, there is no economical method of raising the d.c.
voltage for transmission and lowering it for distribution. Fig. 40.1 shows a typical power
system for obtaining d.c. power from a.c. power. Other details such as instruments,
switches and circuit breakers etc. have been omitted. Two 13.8 kV alternators run in
parallel and supply power to the station bus-bars. The voltage is stepped up by 3-phase
transformers to 66 kV for transmission purposes and is again stepped down to 13.8 kV at
the sub-station for distribution purposes. Fig. below shows only three methods
commonly used for converting a.c. power to D.C. power at the sub-station.

Page 40 of 124
Page 41 of 124
Page 42 of 124
Page 43 of 124
Page 44 of 124
Page 45 of 124
Page 46 of 124
Page 47 of 124
Page 48 of 124
Page 49 of 124
Page 50 of 124
Page 51 of 124
Page 52 of 124
Page 53 of 124
Page 54 of 124
LEARNING UNIT 2: Select elements of transmission/ distribution line
Learning Outcome 2.1: Dissembling procedures

Content/Topic 1: Dissembling part

 Bonnet
 Back trunk
 Chassis
 All accessories:
Engine Transmission line system

Content/Topic 2 :Elements of a transmission/ distribution line

1. Conductors
2. Supports
3. Insulators
4. Cross arms
5. Miscellaneous

CONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Properties:

1. High electrical conductivity.

2. High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
3. Low cost so that it can be used for long distances
4. Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.

Commonly used conductor materials:-

a. Copper
b. Aluminium
c. Steel-cored aluminium
d. Galvanised steel
e. Cadmium copper

Page 55 of 124
Conductors are preferably stranded to increase flexibility.

(a) Copper
a. High electrical conductivity
b. Greater tensile strength
c. Hard drawn copper used
d. High current density

Content/Topic 3 :Stage of transmission line

 Types of materials:
 Conductors

Page 56 of 124
Wire and Cable are those two terms people still carry a blank expression when asked to define
or describe its functions. In the electrical field, wire and cable has a vital influence and are mainly
designed to carry electric current from one point to another. Often these two terms are used
interchangeably, despite being two different products. Thus, creating more confusion.

There is a noteworthy difference between wire and cable that needs to be understood.

So, here is the breakdown:

WIRE

A wire is a single conductor with one strand or sometimes multiple strands composed of copper
or aluminum conductive material to assure low resistance and cost and maintains its own identity
for conducting electricity. On the other hand, Wires are twisted and are manufactured with or
without insulation depending on the application.

All in all, It can be said that wires are a component in cables for easy and safe use and is measured
by looking at the diameter. A wire is grouped as per the gauge number and insulation type
electrical capacity. The gauge number runs from 0000 to 40 and differentiates the size and width
of the wires.

Talking of wires, they are categorized into two types: Solid wire and Stranded Wire

 Solid Wire: Solid conductor is less flexible but tougher than the stranded conductor.
Solid wire is a single-strand wire, constructed as one piece of metal.
 Stranded Wire: Stranded conductor is more flexible, durable, larger in size and more
costly than a solid conductor. The wire is composed of numerous small wires wrapped
together to make a single large conductor.
Both of these wires are used in the commercial and residential installation. A wire is a single
strand, yet we use wire in mobile applications (like vehicles) which are multi-stranded conductors
that become cable once you put multiple individually-jacketed conductors into a common
sheath. The conductor shouldn't be let to reach the heating temperature leading to cause a fire

Page 57 of 124
because there is a limit to the degree of heat that certain type of wire sizes and insulation can
withstand.

CABLE

A cable is a group of two or more insulated conductors used for transmission of electrical power
or signals. The conductor is normally classified as per the gauge number, wire number, and color
and there’s lot more design depending on the intended application. The conductor needs to be
used in areas that are subjected to harsh mechanical stress and insulated to offer better
protection than wires.

There are many types of cables such as:

 Twisted pair cable: This cable is used for carrying signals and has two cables twisted
across each other. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate.
The cable comes in shielded and unshielded varieties.
 Coaxial Cable: This cable has a single copper conductor at the center protected by the
insulating plastic layer between the center conductor and braided metal shield. Coaxial
cable is difficult to install but can support greater cable lengths between network
devices than twisted pair cable. It comes in two types: thick coaxial and thin coaxial
cable.
 Multi-Conductor cable: These cables are made up of the multiple numbers of
conductors with insulation sheaths placed in a single cable. The cable is used for
different applications such as machine control, data transmission systems,
communication system + more.
 Fiber optic cable: These cables help to transmit signals by a bundle of glass threads
surrounded by several layers of protective materials. The cables transmit signals to
much a longer distance than twisted pair cable and coaxial cable. Fiber optic cable
comes in single mode fiber and multimode fiber.
Some cables serve as a conduit with other wires inside that, in turn, are comprised of groups of
stranded wires. Cable also might have a shield or armor surrounding the wires this is an

Page 58 of 124
electrically conductive material designed to prevent EMP Electromagnetic interference or radio
frequency interference as well as to provide the extra level of protection to the wires, shields
can be braided, spiral or wrapped in a foil. The insulation and the outer jacket of the cable and
wires is also an important factor. The types of materials used are thermoplastic or thermal set.
A thermoplastic material can soften under heat while thermal set material could be vulcanized
when exposed to heat and pressure.
 Connectors

Electrical circuits are composed of a multitude of components, including wires and cables.
Electrical connectors are used to join these to form a continuous path for electrical current to
flow. Connectors have male-ends (plugs) and female-ends (jacks) which connect to each other
forming either a permanent connection or, more often, a temporary connection that can be
assembled and removed with special tools.

Specifications

To select the right electrical connectors that will get the job done and minimize risks, there are a
few factors which should be considered, depending on the application, type of connectors and
the strength of the electrical current the circuit will carry. These can be broken down into two
classifications:

 Performance Parameters

Performance parameters need to be selected based on the conditions in which the electrical
connector is going to operate-

o Current – The current rating describes the rate of electricity flow (current)
a connector is designed to accommodate. This is measured in amperes (A

Page 59 of 124
 or amps). The Current rating on a connector will usually be in the range of
1A to 50A, though smaller and larger ones are available for special
applications.
o Voltage – The voltage rating describes the range and type of voltage the
connector is designed to carry. This is measured in volts (V) for the voltage
and Alternating Current (AC) or Direct Current (DC). Typically, the ratings
can be 50V, 125V, 250V, and 600V, but others are available too.
o Operating Temperature – The operating temperature range describes the
range, recommended temperature and minimum/maximum safe
operating temperature for the electrical connector.
 Physical Parameters

Physical parameters should be selected carefully, since they describe how the electrical
connector is designed, the connections it can be used for and much more:

o Contact Pitch – This is the distance the centers of adjacent pins or the terminals in
a connector. It is usually measured in millimeters (mm). Larger contact pitches
mean fewer connections or pins per area, which reduces electrical arcing and
thereby, interference. However, it does increase the overall size of the connector.
o Number of Contacts – Apart from the type of contact pitch, the number of
contacts or individual conductive elements present in electrical connectors also
vary.
o Material – While the connector casings are usually made of plastic, the materials
used for the connectors are usually a combination of metal and plastic for
insulation, though just about any conductive material can be used. The properties
of the materials affect the performance, like conductivity, strength, resilience and
formability. Some commonly used ones include:
 Brass – Zinc content can vary from 5-40%; cheapest metal to purchase by
weight; springy; strong; high conductance, used in KK terminals

Page 60 of 124
  Phosphor Bronze – Good strength; tough; high conductibility and fatigue
resistance; flexible and elastic, used in electrical contact springs
 Beryllium Copper – Best alloy for spring terminals; cheaper than phosphor
bronze, used for high-performance applications
 High Copper Alloy – Strong modified copper; good electrical and thermal
properties; retains its form at high temperatures, mainly used in
automotive applications

Types of Electrical Connectors

There are many types of individual electrical connectors, which can be categorized
by level, function, and type of termination:

 Connector Level – Each of the connector types can be divided into one or
many of these five categories, referred to as connector levels:
o Wire-to-board or subassembly-to-subassembly
o Box-to-box or input/output
o IC chip or chip-to-package
o IC package or package-to-board
o PC board-to-board
 Connector Function – Although a lot of connectors are application-specific,
most of them can be classified based on their method of connection:

Terminal Block – In these connectors, multiple wires are individually connected to a single
terminal point and enclosed in housing. There are many sizes, but the lack of circuit protection
makes them more cumbersome in comparison with some others. The connections include
printed circuit board (PCB) terminal blocks, pluggable terminal blocks, multiple terminal
connectors (MTC), and barrier strips. These are used on PCBs and various other electrical devices.

Page 61 of 124
Binding Post – These connect bare wires to posts and fasten them with screws or clamps. The
other end can connect to terminals, pins, or plugs. Many posts can connect with banana plugs,
pin connectors, and lug terminals. These are used for a variety of audio and electronic testing
devices.

Plug and Socket – A female socket with one or more pins connects into a male socket or plug.
This provides easy, allowing connections to be made without tools. A pinout diagram can be
helpful for multi-pin connectors. The connection types include USB, network cable, HDMI, DVI,
RCA, SCSI, board mount, audio, coaxial, cable, etc. Often used in most consumer electronics
that handle video and audio, automotive applications, computing, and PCBs.

Rack and Panel – These connectors are usually used to connect stationary equipment with
removable electronic parts, especially when space or reliability of the connection are important
factors. Connection types include rack to panel, cable to cable, and cable to panel. They are often
used in printers, modems, home stereo systems and telecommunications.

Blade – Blade connectors connect individual wires to blade

receptacles with the use of flat conductive blades. Blades
connectors are sometimes hard-fastened to connecting wires in
some electronic devices, like speakers or thermostats. They are
usually used for connecting wire and are suitable for just about
every application that requires point to point connections.

o Ring and Spade – Like blade connectors, they connect a single wire,
except the connection is secures by sandwiching between a
threaded post and a screw or bolt The shape allows for easy
connections that can be removed when the lock is only partially
opened. These are mostly used for connecting wire and are also
suitable for just about any application that requires point to point
connections.

Page 62 of 124
  Connector Termination – Some connectors can be classified on the basis
of the method used to terminate or fasten the wire to the connector:
o Insulation Displacement – Insulation displacement connectors
(IDCs) connect insulated cable or wire without requiring any pre-
stripping of the insulation. A sharp blade or a series of blades in the
connector cut into the insulation when the wire or cable is inserted.
While the elimination of the stripping process cuts down time,
especially for manufacturers, the blades can severe the wire. This
lowers the current handling capability. Additionally, non-
production IDC tools are more expensive and less effective than
crimping tools.
o Crimping – Crimping creates a separable connection between
connectors and wires. A stripped wire is inserted into a metal barrel
or terminal and a crimping tool is used to compress a section over
the wire. This is commonly used to terminate stranded wire for
ring, blade and spade connectors. They are preferred for their
safety, easy-of-use, cost-effectiveness and post-production
reproducibility.

Barrel connections crimp cylindrical sections, usually into oval-like shapes and are widely used in
consumer electronics

Open-barrel connections crimp a pre-crimp section, resulting in a U or V shape. These are easier
to automate and generally stronger than the barrel-crimped connections

Soldering – Soldering involves melting filler metal (solder) over an electrical joint to create a
fused connection between conductors or terminals. This provides a very smooth and robust if
done correctly, using a solder that matches the metals being joined. These connections take a
longer time and are more involved than crimping. In PCBs, electrical connections are made by
soldering pins or wires onto the mounting locations. Components can also be mounted and

Page 63 of 124
soldered on the other side of the board using through-hole technology (THT).
 Insulators

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely; very
little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an electric field. This contrasts
with other materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric current more
easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher
resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.

 Types of Insulators:

The successful operation of an overhead Groo line depends to a considerable extent upon
condition of the proper selection of insulators. There are several Types of Insulators in
Transmission Lines but the most commonly used are pin type, suspension type, strain insulator
and shackle insulator.

1.Pin type insulators. The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in Fig.8.5 (i).

Page 64 of 124
As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole. There is a
groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes
through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire of the same material as the conductor
[See Fig. 8.5 (ii)].

Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages upto
33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and hence
uneconomical. Causes of Insulator Failure: Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical
and electrical stresses. The latter type is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the
breakdown of the insulator. The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-
over or puncture. In flash over, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin(i.e.,
earth) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps, following shortest distance. Fig. 8.6 shows
the arcing distance (i.e. a + b + c) for the insulator.

In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat
produced by the arc destroys the Insulator. In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from
conductor to pin through the body of the insulator: When such breakdown is involved, the
insulator is permanently destroyed due to excessive heat.

Page 65 of 124
In practice, sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid puncture by the
line voltage. The ratio of puncture strength to flash-over voltage is known as safety factor i.e., It
is desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flash-over takes place before the
insulator gets punctured. For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is about 10.

2.Suspension type insulators. The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the working
voltage is increased. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV. For high
voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in Fig. 8.7.
They consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a
string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the
string is secured to the cross arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say
11 kV. The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For
instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string.

Page 66 of 124
Advantages

 Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33
kV.
 Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually, 11kV
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in
series.
 If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the
damaged disc can be replaced by the sound one, The suspension arrangement provides
greater flexibility to the line.
 The connection at the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any
direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses me minimum.
 In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of
conductors.
 The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the sus-
pension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
 The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers.
 As the conductors run below the earthed cross-mm of the tower, therefore, this
arrangement provides partial protection from lightning.

Page 67 of 124
3.Strain insulators. When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line
is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators
me used For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However,
for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension
insulators as shown in Fig. 8.8. The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When
the tension in lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in
parallel.

4.Shackle insulators, In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But
now a days, they are used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either
in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt
or to the cross arm. Fig. 8.9 shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor in the
groove is fixed with a soft binding wire.

Page 68 of 124
  Line supports

The different types of structure (poles or towers) used for supporting the overhead lines or wires,
such types of structures are called line supports. The line support plays a major role in power
transmission. It kept the proper spacing between the conductors and maintained the conductor
at the prescribed distance from its ground parts. It also maintained the specified ground
clearance. These clearances are decided by the electrical and mechanical considerations.

Types of Line Supports

The main requirement of the line supports is low cost, low maintenance expense and long life.
The line supports are made up wood, concrete, steel or aluminium. It is mainly classified into two
types;

1. Electrical Pole
2. Electrical Tower
 Cross arms

An arm or bracket which crosses a pole or post: used on poles to carry wires and keep them
separated.

Page 69 of 124
Along with distribution and transmission lines, the electrical cross arm used to support and
anchor conductors. It holds the cable and the insulator to the main body usually the tower. It is
important as it keeps the conductor at a certain height above the ground.

Classification of Electrical Cross Arm

When it comes to buying electrical cross arms, you can choose from a range of designs available
in the market.

In most cases, the classification criteria will depend on the nature of the application at hand.

Look at these:

Page 70 of 124
Different types of the electrical cross arm – Photo courtesy: Steel Power Pole

1) Power pole cross arms

These are particular types of cross arms used on power poles to connect conductors and
insulators.

They are required on the power poles to ensure that the electricity is transmitted well.

It also has holes on it that will be used tightening the insulators and the conductors using bolts.

Page 71 of 124
2) Line-cross arms

Line arms are part of the cross arm found on both sides of the pole used for both short and long
transmissions.

It is usually a cross arm that has been separated by the pole in two distributing the weight equally.

The connection is generally on a straight line with extra support at the base of the cross arm.

3) Side arms

This type of electrical cross arm is also known as braced horizontal arms.

It is a single arm of the same sizes fastened to the pole line with a little support under it.

You can see the cross-arms on different levels of the pole for transmission on single circuits.

4) Telephone pole cross arms

Telephone cross arms are known to be one of the most extended cross arms because it allows
multiple connections.

It allows for more than two links on each side of the cross arm.

It is common to find more than one telephone pole cross arm on one pole depending on the
connection.

5) Light pole cross arms

This type of cross arm is used to provide support to lights such as street lights and also in traffic
lights.

They vary regarding length depending on the number of bulbs it is expected to hold.

Most of them are made of steel and hang at different levels of the pole.
 Poles

Page 72 of 124
A pole which is used for supporting the small voltage (not more than 115 kV) transmission
lines, such type of pole is called electrical pole. It is usually made up of woods, concrete or
steel. These poles are mainly classified into three types. Their types are explained below in
details;

Types of Electrical Poles

The choice of electrical poles depends on the cost, atmosphere, and line voltage of the
line.The electrical poles are mainly classified into following types.

a. Wood Poles

It is one of the cheapest types of line supports and used for lines where spans are short, and
tension is low. The wood poles have the limitations of height and diameter. The double pole
structure of the A or H types is used where greater strength is required.

The strength of these types of constructions varies from two to four times the strength of the
single pole. H-type of construction is usually employed for four terminal poles or those
carrying switchgear and transformers.

Page 73 of 124
Wood pole has a natural insulating property, and lesser flashovers are likely to take place due
to lightning. One of the drawbacks of wood poles is that their strength and durability cannot
be predicted with certainty.

b. Concrete Poles

Concrete pole gave greater strength and used in place of a wood pole. It has a longer life than
that of a wood pole because of little degradation. Their maintenance cost is low. Concrete
poles are very heavy and are liable to damage during loading, unloading, transportation and
erection due to their brittle nature.

Handlings and transportation difficulties are overcome by the use of pre-stressed concrete
supports which can be manufactured in pieces and then assembled at the job sites. The
weight of pre-stressed concrete poles is more durable than any other type of pole. The
material used is less, and it is more durable than any other types of poles.

c. Steel Poles

Page 74 of 124
 For low and medium voltage tubular steel poles or Grider steel supports are used. Longer
spans are possible with steel poles. The poles need to be galvanised or painted periodically
to prevent them from corrosion. Their maintenance expense is high.

Electrical Towers

The electrical tower is defined as the tower which is used for carrying the high voltage (above
230 kV) transmission lines. Such types of towers are made up aluminium or steel which gives
them strength for supporting the heavy electrical conductor. The electrical towers are broadly
classified into various types. These types are explained below.

Types of Supporting Towers

High voltage and extra high voltage lines require large air and ground clearances. They have large
mechanical loading and insulation costs. Such types of towers used very long spans. The long-
span construction cuts the insulation cost considerably as fewer supports are to be provided.
Such types of towers are either made up of steel or aluminium and hence the possibilities of
breakdown are reduced. These are classified as

a. Self- Supporting Towers

Self-supporting towers are divided into two categories; wide-base and narrow-base towers. In
the wide base tower, lattice (criss-cross) with the roasted connection is adopted. Each leg has a
separate foundation. The narrow-base designs used as a lattice (criss-cross) construction of
angle, channel or tubular steel section with bolted or welded connection. Self-supporting tower
is also classified as

 Tangent Tower – It is used for a straight run of the line. Suspension insulators are used with these
towers.
 Deviation Tower – It is used in a line where the transmission line changes direction.

Page 75 of 124
Strain insulators are used with these towers. They have a broader base, stronger members and
are costlier as compared to tangent towers. The narrow-based design requires less steel or
aluminium in comparison with a wide base tower, but its cost of foundation is more. The selection
between the two is based on the costs of material, foundations, and right-of-way requirement.

b. Guyed or Stayed Towers

Such types of towers are either portal types or V-types. Both of them had two supports connected
at the top by a cross arm and provided with four guys.

Page 76 of 124
In portal structure, each supports is resting on its foundation, whereas in V-support structure the
two supports are resting at an angle to one another on one thrust footing only which is of heavier
of type.

Learning Outcome 2.2 : Select protection devices

Content/Topic1 describe protection device

Circuitbreaker
4. Maintenance Guide of Circuit Breakers:
In brief, few important points are given as maintenance guide for circuit breakers:
1. Time of periodic inspection.

(a) Circuit breaker in normal operating conditions with infrequent operations (maximum three
times in 24 hours)—Once in six months.

(b) Circuit breakers with (i) frequent operations like ten to twelve operations in 24 hours—once
every month.

(c) On clearing a full short circuit the circuit breaker should be isolated and drawn out and
inspected for any damage in contacts or other parts.

2. Overhauling should be done every three years, and the (i) components which are worn out or
defective should be replaced.

3. Location of switchgear should be kept clean and free of any foreign materials and water/
dampness in case of indoor switchgears. It has been noticed that due to poor maintenance of the
substation rooms the water soaks from the .roof windows and falls on the switchgear panels.

Also it has been noticed that the windows being broken, rain water/dust etc. deposit on the
switchgear panel. For longer and proper performance of the circuit breaker, substation rooms
must not only be kept neat and clean, but it is to be ensured that no rain water can get into the

Page 77 of 124
substation and the panels, which will damage the insulation and eventually cause insulation
failure.

4. Important check-points for circuit breaker periodical maintenance are given in the chart below.

5. Types of Circuit Breakers:

For electrical engineers and technicians, some brief discussion is made here on the principles,
operation and testing of circuit breakers of OCB, ACB, VCB, SF-6B, type. In the mines, although
the enclosure is flame-proof in the underground but non-flame proof in the substations on the
ground, basic principles of the circuit breaker are the same.

When a fault occurs in a circuit, the protective relay senses the fault and closes the trip circuit of
the circuit breaker, and opens the circuit breaker within the pre-set time. The circuit breakers
have two opening positions-ON and OFF, i.e., CLOSED and OPEN. But in some breakers a third
position TEST is also provided. The operation of ON and OFF can be done manually and also

Page 78 of 124
automatically. The operation of automatic opening of the circuit break contact is achieved by
means of operating mechanism being actuated by the protective relays.

In control circuit, where the moment the relay contacts close, the trip circuit is closed and the
operating mechanism starts the opening operation. During this opening operation the contact of
the circuit breaker open and arc is drawn between them, and the arc is extinguished in the same
nature as current zero of a.c. wave.

In fact this process of extinguishing of the arc varies with the type of circuit breaker, like in case
of Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB), the arc is extinguished/ quenched in the oil, in Air Circuit Breaker
(ACB) this is done in air through arc quenching device, in Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB), this is
done in vacuum and in SF6-gas.

However, the process of circuit interruption is complete when the arc is extinguished and
quenched, either is oil, air, vacuum, or in SF6 gas, and finally the current reaches the zero value.
In fact when the fault occurs, the current increases, the relay gets actuated by operating the lever
mechanism due to the increase in the relay operating torque. However due to the basic design
feature of the relays, the relays are designed to take pre-set time to close its contacts.

As soon as the relay contacts close, the coil of the trip circuit gets energized and then the
operating mechanism of the circuit breaker starts, and within the pre-designed time, the main
contacts of circuit breaker open. But during this separation of the main contacts, heavy arc is
drawn between the breaker contacts.

This arc has to be extinguished/quenched in the circuit breakers by suitable techniques which
varies from breaker to breaker and type to type, and hence by successful arc-quenching
technique the current finally reaches to zero and does not restrike, thus completing the circuit
breaking operation.

As stated above, the circuit breaker type is determined according to the medium of arc extinction.

The classification of the circuit breakers is as below:

Page 79 of 124
1. Break Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB).

2. Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB).

3. Air Circuit Breaker (ACB).

4. Air Blast Circuit Breaker (ABCB).

5. Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB).

6. SF6 (Sulphur Hexa Flouride) Circuit Breaker (SF6 CB)

1. Break Oil Circuit Breaker:

In this type of BOCB oil is used as the dielectric or the arc-quenching medium. In fact the main
contact separation or breaking takes place in the steel tanks which is filled with oil up to a level
as per the design. During arc-extinction process, while breaking the circuit on load, gases are
formed due to the heat of the extended arc which set up a turbulent flow in the oil.

However, the process of the arc-extinction can be described briefly in the following steps:
After the main contacts are opened at a fault current, the heat of the arc is carried away by the
gas causing turbulent flow of oil. At the same instant the dielectric strength is rapidly building,
due to the heavy arc, gas is formed at high pressure. And this gas under high pressure has high
dielectric strength. However to guide and direct the arc extinction process, arc control devices
are fitted to the control assembly.

These are quenching devices are specially devised semi-closed chambers, made of high quality
dielectric material. The successful and efficient operation of the oil circuit breakers mainly
depends or the effective and zero defect performance of the arc control devices fitted on the
main contact assembly. In a BOCB the contacts are closed and opened in a tank of steel full of oil.

Page 80 of 124
2. Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB):
While large quantity of oil is required in the break-oil circuit breaker (BOCB) for clearance
between the contacts and the tank, in Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB) only a small quantity
of oil is required, and moreover no steel tank is required. In fact in MOCB, there are two chambers
of oil (for each pole of the 3-pole MOCB), separated from each other and both are filled with oil.

The upper chamber is the arc quenching chamber, and the lower chamber acts like a dielectric
support. Moreover, the oil from upper chamber cannot mix with the oil in the lower chamber.
Arc quenching chamber is fixed to the fixed contact fitted at the top inside the upper chamber.
The lower fixed contact, of ring shape, is fitted at the lower end of the upper chamber.

The moving contact is designed to make sliding contact with the lower fixed contact. The whole
contact assembly is enclosed by resin bonded bakelised paper cylinder. This cylinder is also filled
with oil but this oil does not mix with the oil outside the cylinder. Now the whole resin-bonded
bakelised cylinder is enclosed by a shrouded porcelain cylinder. In Fig 21.13 an idea of the MOCB
is given.

Page 81 of 124
3. Air Circuit Breaker (ACB):
In this type of circuit breakers the process of contact separation and arc-extension takes place in
sir at atmospheric pressure. In this breaker there are two sets of contacts, one is of main Contacts
and the other is of arcing contacts. Main contacts are designed to conduct the current in closed
position of the breaker, and have low contact resistance and are silver plated.

However, the arcing contacts are hard, made of copper alloy and are also heat resistant. At the
instant of breaking operation, the main contacts open first and then the current is shifted to the
arcing contacts, and the arcing contact open within the designed time, and the arc is drawn
between them.

In fact, due to the arc quenching chamber, this arc is forced upwards by the electromagnetic
forces and thermal action created in the arc quenching chamber. The arc travels upward along
the arcing horns, and is split by the arc splitter plates. From this process we find that the arc is

Page 82 of 124
quenched and extinguished by the process of lengthening, splitting, cooling and quenching in the
end.

Nowadays these ACBS are used mostly for d.c., and also medium and low voltage a.c. circuits,
generally up to 600 volts.

4. Air Blast Circuit Breaker (ABCB):

Air blast circuit breakers are also known as compressed air circuit breakers for the simple reason
that high pressure air is forced on the arc at the instant of control separation. By blasting high
pressure air in the arcing chamber, the ionized medium between the contacts after separation
of the main moving and fixed contacts, and thus the arc developed due to the contact separation,
is extinguished.

However, the process does not end here, as after the arc extinction, the chamber is filled with
high pressure air, which prevents restrike. However, isolator is also an integral part of this
breaker, but nowadays, Vacuum Circuit Breaker and SF6 Circuit Breaker are replacing these
breakers in low, high and extra high voltage system for efficient operation and because it hardly
requires any maintenance.

5. Vacuum Circuit Breaker – VCB:

In Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB) we find the successful application of the principal that the
extreme low gas pressure, approaching perfect vacuum, develop high dielectric strength and
low dielectric loss. There is no explosion hazards, no effect of atmospheric condition, extremely
high- speed of dielectric strength recovery, extremely rapid and quiet operation, and all these
properties are extremely desirable for arc quenching inside
the vacuum interrupter.

A typical vacuum interrupter has an outer wall made of ceramic material of special quality; the
vacuum chamber inside the housing is made of urethane foam. For arranging contact separation
inside the vacuum chamber, a glass fibre pull rod of high mechanical strength is used to separate

Page 83 of 124
the contact by lifting the moving contact upward, and the electromagnetic forces coupled with
gravitational effect force the moving contact downwards during the normal closing operation.

However design and manufacture of vacuum interrupter is difficult and requires special
manufacturing techniques to maintain vacuum inside the vacuum chamber and also permitting
perfect movement of moving contacts inside the vacuum chamber. Interrupters are being
developed and manufactured by BEL, GEC, Crompton up to 33KV grade and 3000A.

Vacuum Circuit Breakers, using these interrupters are becoming pretty popular, although the
prices are about twice the prices of OCBs, mainly because of extremely long and reliable life with
low maintenance. Unfortunately VCB manufacturers in India are not maintaining the stringent
quality control in manufacturing the mechanism of these VCBs.

In fact the long and reliable life of the VCBs using vacuum interruption greatly depends on the
reliability of the operating mechanism which requires special components made of steel alloys.
But some manufacturers are using ordinary Mild Steel (MS) in making these special mechanisms
and components of cars, vehicles etc., and thus causing not only damage to the VCBs but to the
system as a whole, sometime causing major accidents.

However there are manufacturers like Joyti and Seimens who are still making VCBs of good
quality with reliable performance. Therefore electrical engineers in mines and in projects, or in
Electricity Boards should select the VCBs not from the lowest price angle but from the angle of
quality and reliability of performance.

As circuit-breaking in vacuum is very much rapid and rate of building up of dielectric strength is
very high, the Vacuum Circuit Breaker has high opening speeds and the Vacuum Interrupters (VI)
has long life. Moreover in case of replacement of VI, the process of replacement is very easy.

6. Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit:

In the recent development of circuit breaking technology, after vacuum circuit breaker, perhaps
circuit breakers using SF6 gas as the arc-extinction medium are equally efficient if not better. In

Page 84 of 124
fact SF6 gas has almost all the properties required for arc-extinction process. However SF6-gas is
finding its use in special products like capacitors, gas-filled cables, switchgears, etc. In the SF6
circuit breaker the SF6-gas from high pressure tank is released in the arc-quenching chamber at
the instant of contact separation.

In fact the arc developed at the time of contact separation is quenched by the blast of SF6-gas
and the gas, after blasting operation, is discharged to a low pressure compartment from where
it is prompted back into the high-pressure compartment.

As such the gas follows a closed path and does not need any fresh gas, hence atmospheric,
pressure, moisture, weather, pollution, dust and dirt’s have no effect on the breaker’s circuit-
breaking capacity; moreover this breaker is almost noiseless in operation. The SF6 circuit
breakers are extremely useful in 33KV and higher voltage grade. However for 11KV range also,
design has been done and are manufactured and used.

The manufacturing technology of this SF6 breaker is also of advanced type, and presently in India,
only very few manufacturers are making these SF6-circuit breakers. However, from experience it
seems that in future, SF6-gas circuit breakers may replace the VCBs in most of the applications
for its technical advantage over other types of circuit breaking electrical equipment.

In fact, SF6 gas is known to be an electronegative gas, which means that the ability of an atom or
molecule to attract and hold the electrons. It is a non-toxic, non-flammable, odorless, colourless
and heavy gas, that is, the density at atmospheric temperature and pressure is five times that of
air, and so it is heavier than air. Moreover, it is a chemically inert gas, and it does not decompose
up to 600°C, nor does it attack structural materials at temperature below 500°C.

However, at the time of arcing, SF6 gas decomposes slowly-to SF4 and SF2 and of course the
metallic fluorides (without formation of any carbon) which are very good dielectrics, and so
dielectric strength increases at the time of opening.

Page 85 of 124
Therefore, we see that SF6 is much superior to air and oil. From our experience we find the
dielectric strength of SF6 is about 2-3 times that of air, and for oil this figure is about 1.3 times
more. There is no danger of explosion. Moreover thermal conductivity is very good and rate of
growth of dielectric strength is very fast.

6. Fault Clearance by Circuit Breakers:

A circuit breaker is always subjected to many arduous conditions during any fault like short
circuits, which develop huge electro dynamic forces. But the circuit breaker is designed for
switching during normal operating conditions for operation and maintenance, and also for
switching during abnormal conditions such as short circuits and interruption of fault currents.

In fact, from experience we see that there are several types of faults and abnormal conditions in
the power system, and if this abnormal condition is allowed to persist, the fault currents can and
will damage the power system causing severe losses and damage to the equipment, installations,
machines and even to human beings.

Therefore, this has to be restricted and avoided, and to do so, protective relay system is provided
where the relays sense the fault and send instructions to the circuit breaker contact to open and
hence the clear fault within the pre-set time which is in order of a few cycles. In a power system
in normal operating condition, the relaying equipment is always on guard so that the moment
any fault occurs, the protective relay system instantly acts by removing the faulty portion of the
system from the remaining power system.

However our experience tells us that the faults cannot be completely avoided. Whenever a fault
develops in a system the fault impedance being low, high currents start flowing to the fault. To
avoid any damage to the system and the equipment, this heavy rush of currents must be
interrupted as early as possible, although the most ideal thing is to interrupt the fault currents
instantly.

Page 86 of 124
The importance of this interruption is so great in modern systems that besides damage to the
costly equipment, delay in interruption causes loss of service. Each element of the power system
is provided with several protective schemes which are very carefully designed considering all the
complexities of the application and the design parameter of the equipment in the system.

However, in the event of a fault in the protected element, the relays get energized or actuated
and they close the trip circuit of the circuit breaker and then open the circuit breaker. For
example, when short circuit occurs in a power transformer the protective circuit is designed in
such a way that circuit breakers on either side of the transformers are tripped thus saving the
transformer from damage.

An electrical engineer in mines or in industries must have some idea about the type of faults the
circuit breakers are supposed to clear without any damage to itself and at the same time save
the equipment from being damaged. Generally our experience and knowledge say that a fault in
any electric circuit is defined as a partial or total failure of insulation or continuity of conductor.
In fact, in faulty condition, the flow of the current is along unpredicted and undesired path.

The fault may occur in electrical systems for various reasons like:
(1) Lightning strikes, storms, cables being damaged due to say falling of trees, damage by birds
of insulating bushing and supports for overhead lines.

(2) Underground cable failure or faults, mainly of insulation.

(3) Failure of insulation of transformers due to ageing of interterm and primary to secondary
cylinders, poor reinforcement of the core coil assembly, poor quality oil, faults in tap changes,
faults in bushings,

(4) Stator rotor faults in generators due to short circuit or failure of insulation between the coils
and earth, faults in auxiliaries, and protection scheme fault in turbines and

(5) Failure of insulation between phases and earth faults in mechanism of switchgear/circuit
breaker affecting making, breaking, speed protection, earthing & fault calculation. For designing

Page 87 of 124
an effective protection scheme an operation and maintenance engineer in mines or in industries
must have some idea of the earthing and fault calculation.

Earthing or neutral grounding is to be perfect in the power system. However there are a few
systems where floating, neutral or ungrounded system is used for their inherent design of the
system. But this is nowadays gradually becoming obsolete as it has more disadvantages than
advantages.

This system has been utilized in some Polish mines and in few Indian mines like Modidhi and
Sudamdih of BCCL (which was commissioned as per the Polish design and guidance). However,
in case a neutral or grounded point is not available, a special grounding transformer is installed
to obtain a neutral point, and neutral is grounded solidly through a resistor or through a reactor.

Neutral grounding is provided at least at one point on every voltage level as neutral grounding
provides:
(1) Stable voltages, healthy lines with respect to the earth/ground,

(2) A stable neutral point which is very much necessary for the healthy system,

(3) Simple design of earth fault, earth leakage etc. protection scheme,

(4) Discharge of excessive voltage due to lightning, to the ground.

To have information about the fault current and voltages at different points of the system under
different fault conditions, some brief idea is given about fault calculation. For detailed calculation
of fault current at various types of faults in a power system, a book specifically devoted to this
has to be referred. However, for an operation and maintenance engineer the following may be
useful while selecting the busbars circuit breakers of correct ratings, selecting the relay and
determining the relay setting, and also for designing the power system components.

Relays
Operation principles

Page 88 of 124
Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic
induction. Unlike switching type electromechanical relays with fixed and usually ill-defined
operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-established,
selectable, and adjustable time and current (or other operating parameter) operating
characteristics. Protection relays may use arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole, magnets,
operating and restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-
shifting networks.

Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make. A protective relay
may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current. Induction relays can
respond to the product of two quantities in two field coils, which could for example represent
the power in a circuit.

"It is not practical to make a relay that develops a torque equal to the quotient of two a.c.
quantities. This, however is not important; the only significant condition for a relay is its setting
and the setting can be made to correspond to a ratio regardless of the component values over a
wide range.

Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity of
response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of "operate torque"
and "restraint torque" can be produced in the relay.

By use of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be made to respond to current
in one direction differently from in another. Such polarized relays are used on direct-current
circuits to detect, for example, reverse current into a generator. These relays can be made
bistable, maintaining a contact closed with no coil current and requiring reverse current to reset.
For AC circuits, the principle is extended with a polarizing winding connected to a reference
voltage source.

Lightweight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate quickly, but small contacts can't carry
or break heavy currents. Often the measuring relay will trigger auxiliary telephone-type armature
relays.

Page 89 of 124
In a large installation of electromechanical relays, it would be difficult to determine which device
originated the signal that tripped the circuit. This information is useful to operating personnel to
determine the likely cause of the fault and to prevent its re-occurrence. Relays may be fitted with
a "target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates, to display a distinctive colored
signal when the relay has tripped.[11]

Types according to construction

Electromechanical

Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different types as follows:

 attracted armature  induction  mechanical

 moving coil  motor operated  thermal

"Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or knife-edge pivot, which
carries a moving contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current, but for
alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to maintain contact force throughout the
alternating current cycle. Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the moving armature
becomes much smaller when the relay has operated, the current required to maintain the relay
closed is much smaller than the current to first operate it. The "returning ratio" or "differential"
is the measure of how much the current must be reduced to reset the relay.

A variant application of the attraction principle is the plunger-type or solenoid operator. A reed
relay is another example of the attraction principle.

"Moving coil" meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar to
a galvanometer but with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These can be made with very high
sensitivity. Another type of moving coil suspends the coil from two conductive ligaments,
allowing very long travel of the coil.

Page 90 of 124
Induction disc overcurrent relay

When the input current is above the current limit, the disk rotates, the contact moves left and
reaches the fixed contact. The scale above the plate indicates the delay-time.

"Induction" disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate; the rotary
motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require alternating current; if two or more
coils are used, they must be at the same frequency otherwise no net operating force is
produced.[11]These electromagnetic relays use the induction principle discovered by Galileo
Ferraris in the late 19th century. The magnetic system in induction disc overcurrent relays is
designed to detect over currents in a power system and operate with a pre-determined time
delay when certain overcurrent limits have been reached. In order to operate, the magnetic
system in the relays produces torque that acts on a metal disc to make contact, according to the
following basic current/torque equation:

Where and are the two fluxes and is the phase angle between the fluxes

The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above equation.

 Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque production.
 Maximum torque is produced when the two alternating fluxes are 90 degrees apart.
 The resultant torque is steady and not a function of time.

Page 91 of 124
The relay's primary winding is supplied from the power systems current transformer via a plug
bridge, which is called the plug setting multiplier (psm). Usually seven equally spaced tappings or
operating bands determine the relays sensitivity. The primary winding is located on the upper
electromagnet. The secondary winding has connections on the upper electromagnet that are
energised from the primary winding and connected to the lower electromagnet. Once the upper
and lower electromagnets are energised they produce eddy currents that are induced onto the
metal disc and flow through the flux paths. This relationship of eddy currents and fluxes creates
torque proportional to the input current of the primary winding, due to the two flux paths being
out of phase by 90°.

In an overcurrent condition, a value of current will be reached that overcomes the control spring
pressure on the spindle and the braking magnet, causing the metal disc to rotate towards the
fixed contact. This initial movement of the disc is also held off to a critical positive value of current
by small slots that are often cut into the side of the disc. The time taken for rotation to make the
contacts is not only dependent on current but also the spindle backstop position, known as the
time multiplier (tm). The time multiplier is divided into 10 linear divisions of the full rotation time.

Providing the relay is free from dirt, the metal disc and the spindle with its contact will reach the
fixed contact, thus sending a signal to trip and isolate the circuit, within its designed time and
current specifications. Drop off current of the relay is much lower than its operating value, and
once reached the relay will be reset in a reverse motion by the pressure of the control spring
governed by the braking magnet.Static

Learning Outcome 2.3: Select line insulators

Content/Topic 1: Desirable properties of insulators

In general, Types of Insulators in Transmission Lines should have the following desirable
properties :

Page 92 of 124
  High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
 High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to earth.
 High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high.
 The insulator material be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks otherwise the
permittivity will be lowered.
 High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is porcelain but glass, steatite
and special composition materials are also used to a limited extent. Porcelain is produced by
firing at a high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quartz. It is stronger mechanically
than glass, gives less trouble from leakage and is less effected by changes of temperature.

 Underground system
Insulation is the covering conductors are enclosed in. This insulation protects the wiring and
prevents the electrical energy being carried from leaking into other materials to possibly cause
damage and hazards

There are several insulating materials. The most commonly used are tabulated below along with
their mechanical and electrical properties:

Series of letters are popularly used to identify cable insulation types. Some of the letters used
are:

(i) MI – Mineral Insulation

Page 93 of 124
(ii) R - Rubber Insulation

(iii) T - Thermoplastic Insulation

(iv) V - Varnished Insulation

(v) X - Cross-linked polymer Insulation

This lettering system is specified by NEC – National Electrical Code

The most popular amongst the above are thermoplastic and cross-linked polymer insulation
The ability of the insulation of the conductor material to withstand ambient conditions can be
also be used to classify cable insulation for example:

H - Heat resistant up to 75 deg C

HH – Heat resistant up to 90 deg C

W - Moisture resistant

UF – For use in underground direct burial applications

There are popular cable types in use today that we should know of. Some of them are tabulated
below:

Page 94 of 124
In most industrial environment you are likely to see THHN/THWN and XHHW.
They stand for:

CABLE DESIGNATION

THHN T - Thermoplastic insulation; HH - Heat resistant up to 90 degC ;

N - Non-metallicsheathed cable
THWN T - Thermoplastic insulation; H - Heat resistant up to 75 degC ;
W - MoistureResistant;
N - Non-metallic sheathed cable

XHHW X - Cross-linked polymer insulation; HH - Heat resistant up to 90 degC

W - Moisture resistant

 Overhead system
In general, Types of Insulators in Transmission Lines should have the following desirable
properties:
 High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
 High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to earth.
 High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high.

Page 95 of 124
  The insulator material be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks otherwise the
permittivity will be lowered.
 High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

 Types of insulators

The purpose of the insulator or insulation is to insulate the electrically charged part of any
equipment or machine from another charged part or uncharged metal part. At lower utilization
voltage the insulation also completely covers the live conductor and acts as a barrier and keeps
the live conductors unreachable from human being or animals. In case of the high voltage
overhead transmission and distribution the transmission towers or poles support the lines, and
insulators are used to insulate the live conductor from the transmission towers. The insulators
used in transmission and distribution system are also required to carry large tensional or
compressive load.

The HV/EHV insulators are broadly divided into two types based on the material used. One is
ceramic and the other is polymer (composite) insulator. Traditionally ceramic insulators of
porcelain are used in both transmission and distribution lines.

Now polymer or composite insulators are increasingly used in high voltage transmission systems.
The polymer insulators have a fibre rod surrounded by outer sheath of some polymer. Due to the
hydrophobic nature of the polymer insulator surface, dry areas are formed between wet areas
resulting in discontinuities in wet creepage path. This phenomenon helps improve the
performance of the polymer insulator in polluted and coastal areas. The polymer insulators have
one great advantage that it is quite lighter in comparison to porcelain insulators. Polymeric
insulator surface degrade faster in comparison to porcelain insulator. One important
disadvantage with porcelain insulator is that the porcelain insulators can bear large compressive
force but less tensional force. The porcelain insulators surface is hydrophilic in nature, which
means affinity for water. Polymer insulators age faster than ceramic insulators.

Page 96 of 124
Different types of Insulators used in Power Transmission for supporting the conductors on Tower
are as follows:

Pin Type Insulator:

This is the first developed insulators and being used for overhead lines for voltage grade up to 33
kV. The live conductor is place on the top of the insulator and the bottom of the insulator in
connected to earth. The insulator has to withstand the potential stress between conductor and
earth. When insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost conducting. Hence the flash over
distance of insulator is decreased. The electrical insulator is designed such that the decrease of
flash over distance is minimum when the insulator is wet. That is why the upper most petticoat
of a pin insulator has umbrella type designed so that it can protect the rest lower part of the
insulator from rain. The upper surface of top most petticoat is inclined as less as possible to
maintain maximum flash over voltage during raining.

Page 97 of 124
Post Insulators:

Post insulator is suitable for higher voltage. It has higher numbers of petticoats and has greater
height. This type of insulator can be mounted on supporting structure horizontally as well as
vertically. The insulator is made of one piece of porcelain and it has fixing clamp arrangement are
in both top and bottom end. For higher voltage application Two or more insulators can be fixed
together to meet the requirement.

Suspension Insulator:

Using post insulator in higher voltage is not economical and suspension type insulator is evolved.
Disc insulators are connected together in series to make a string which is suspension type
insulators. As per the voltage grade the no of disc isolators are increased or decreased so that is
is suitable for any voltage level. When suspension insulators are used a conductor is always
hanging / suspended below the metallic tower level and it is always protected from lightning. On
Page 98 of 124
the other hand in order to maintain minimum clearance between conductor and ground/
equipment the tower hight use to be higher. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger
in suspension insulator system, hence, more spacing between conductors should be provided.

String Insulators:

When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred as
string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the line
has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have
considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties. In
string Insulator, each porcelain disc is designed for 11 kV. Thus for 132 kV overhead line around
12 disc will be assembled.

Page 99 of 124
Stay Insulators:

For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used in
the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of porcelain and is so designed that in
case of breakage of the insulator the wire will not fall to the ground.

Shackle insulators:

It is usually used in low voltage distribution network. It can be used both in horizontal and vertical
position. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is fixed with the help of soft binding
wire.

Page 100 of 124

 Potential distribution over suspension insulator string
A string of suspension insulator consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series
through metallic links. Fig. 8.10 (i) shows 3-disc string of suspension insulator. The porcelain
portion of each disc is in between two metal links. Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor C as
shown in Fig. 8.10 (ii).

This is known as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual capacitance alone,
then charging current would have been the same through all the discs and consequently voltage
across each unit would have been the same i.e., V/3 as shown in Fig. 8.10 (ii). However, in actual
practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and tower or earth. This is
known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not the same
through all the discs of the string [See Fig. 8.10 (iii)]. Therefore, voltage across each disc will be
different. Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum voltage. Thus
referring to Fig. 8.10 (iii), V3 will be much more than V2 or V1.

Page 101 of 124

The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution over a string of suspension
insulators :
1.The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulator does not distribute itself uniformly
across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
2.The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards the
cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
3.The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be
punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the potential across each unit.
4.If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c., then voltage across each unit would be the
same.. It is because insulator capacitance are ineffective for d.c.

 String efficiency and its improvement

String Efficiency:

The total voltage applied across the string of suspension type insulators is not equally
distributed across all discs. In this distribution of voltage, disc nearest to the conductor will be
at higher potential than the other discs. This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is

Page 102 of 124

usually expressed in terms of string efficiency

What Is String Efficiency?

"The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the
voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency."

i.e.,String efficiency =Voltage across the string/(n ×Voltage across disc nearest to conductor)

Where n = number of discs in the string.

String efficiency is an important factor is transmission line designing. since it decides the potential
distribution along the string.to get uniform distribution string efficiency should be high. Thus
100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each disc will be exactly the
same. that gives easy calculations to no. of discs to be added. but it is impossible to achieve 100%
string efficiency, yet efforts should be made to improve it as close to this value as possible.

Page 103 of 124

Mathematical expression for String Efficiency:-

Above Fig. shows the equivalent circuit for a 3-disc string. Let us suppose that self capacitance
of each disc is C. Let us further assume that shunt capacitance C1 is some fraction K of self
capacitance i.e., C1 = KC. Starting from the cross arm or tower, the voltage across each unit is
V1,V2 and V3 respectively as shown.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get,

I2 = I1 + i1
or V2ω C* = V1ω C + V1ω C1
or V2ω C = V1ω C + V1ω K C
∴ V2 = V1 (1 + K) ...(i)

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node B, we get

I3 = I2 + i2

Page 104 of 124

or V3 ω C = V2ω C + (V1 + V2) ω C1
or V3 ω C = V2ω C + (V1 + V2) ω K C
or V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2)K
= KV1 + V2 (1 + K)
= KV1 + V1 (1 + K)2 since [ V2 = V1 (1 + K)]
= V1 [K + (1 + K)²]
∴ V3 = V1[1 + 3K + K²] ...(ii)
Voltage between conductor and earth (i.e., tower) is
V = V1 + V2 + V3
= V1 + V1(1 + K) + V1 (1 + 3K + K²)
= V1 (3 + 4K + K²)
∴ V = V1(1 + K) (3 + K) ...(iii)
From expressions (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
V1/1=V2/(1+K)=V3/(1 + 3K + K²)=V/(1+K)(3=K)

∴Voltage across top unit, V1 = V/(1 + K)(3 + K)

Voltage across second unit from top, V2 = V1 (1 + K)

Voltage across third unit from top, V3 = V1 (1 + 3K + K²)

%age String efficiency =Voltage across the string*100/(n ×Voltage across disc nearest to
conductor)
=V*100/3V3

Learning Outcome 2.4: Select conductors

Content/Topic 1 :selection of conductor

Types of conductors
Underground system

Page 105 of 124

These underground cables, of course, come with their own set of advantage and limitations.
Aside from better general appearance and lesser interference with other amenities, the
advantages include smaller voltage drops and lesser probability of fault occurrence. On the other
hand, they have higher production and installation costs, and hence are used wherever overhead
lines aren’t viable due to practical limitations or risks involved. Hence we employ them in specific
places such as urban areas with high population densities and across water bodies (as submarine
cables).

A typical underground cable will consist of a conductor/s covered by a number of insulating and
protective layers necessary for its satisfactory operation. Underground cables construction is
explained below:

Construction Of Underground Power Cables

Page 106 of 124

Construction of underground power cable

 Conductor: Usually, 1 or 3 conductors (depending upon the application) are used. These
conductors are stranded to reduce skin effect, proximity effect and to keep it flexible.
Conductors are made from electrolytic grade pure copper or aluminium.
 Conductor screen: It is a semi-conducting tape or an extruded layer of a semi-conductive
compound. Conductor screening is generally used in MV and HV cables to maintain uniform
electric field and minimise electrostatic stresses.
 Insulation: It is provided to withstand the electrostatic stress. Various types (and thickness)
of insulators like VIR (Vulcanized India Rubber), Impregnated paper, PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
and XLPE (Cross linked polyethylene) are utilised depending upon the applied voltage.
 Insulation screen: A layer of semi-conductive material generally used in MV and HV lines. It
serves the similar purpose as that of conductor screen.

Page 107 of 124

  Metallic Sheath: It provides protection to the cable from moisture and other chemicals
(acids or alkalies) present in the environment or soil. It’s usually made up of Aluminium or
Lead. It also provides a path for fault and leakage currents as the sheath is earthed at one
cable end.
 Bedding: It is a low grade insulator like Jute or Hessian which protects the metallic sheath
from corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
 Armouring: It provides mechanical protection from various stresses the cable may get
exposed to during its installation and operational life. It’s usually a steel tape wound around
the Bedding layer.
 Serving: Another layer of low grade insulator like Jute or Hessian or a thermoplastic
compound like PVC is again provided to protect the steel from atmospheric contaminants
and agents.
[Also read: Corona Discharge in overhead power lines]

Types Of Underground Cables

Underground cables are usually classified according to their Voltage ratings. They’re grouped as
follows:

1. Low tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 1000V
2. High tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 11kV
3. Super tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 33kV
4. Extra high tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 66kV
5. Extra super voltage cables which are used for applications with voltage requirement above
132kV.
[Read in details: Types of underground cables]

Page 108 of 124

Classification Of 3 Phase Underground Cables

1. Belted cables: As the name suggests, it has an additional layer of oil-impregnated paper which
is wound around the insulated conductors. Such an arrangement is useful for low and medium
voltage levels up to 11 kV.

2. Screened cables: Used only in particular applications with specialised construction, these
Underground cables can be further divided as H-type and S.L-type cables.

3. Pressure cables: These are used when the voltage requirement exceeds 66kV and solid cables
can't be used. Either pressurized gas or pressurized oil is used in these cables.
Overhead system
A conductor is one of the most important components of overhead lines. Selecting a proper type
of conductor for overhead lines is as important as selecting economic conductor
size and economic transmission voltage. A good conductor should have the following properties:

 high electrical conductivity

 high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses
 relatively lower cost without compromising much of other properties
 lower weight per unit volume

Conductor Materials

Copper was the preferred material for overhead conductors in earlier days, but, aluminium has
replaced copper because of the much lower cost and lighter weight of the aluminium conductor
compared with a copper conductor of the same resistance. Following are some materials that
are considered to be good conductors.

 Copper: Copper has a high conductivity and greater tensile strength. So, copper in hard
drawn stranded form is a great option for overhead lines. Copper has a high current density
which means more current carrying capacity per unit cross-sectional area. Therefore,

Page 109 of 124

 copper conductors have relatively smaller cross-sectional area. Also, copper is durable and
has high scrap value. However, due to its higher cost and non-availability, copper is rarely
used for overhead power lines.
 Aluminium: Aluminium has about 60% of the conductivity of copper; that means, for the
same resistance, the diameter of an aluminium conductor is about 1.26 times than that of
a copper conductor. However, an aluminium conductor has almost half the weight of an
equivalent copper conductor. Also, tensile strength of aluminium is less than that of copper.
Considering combined factors of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc., aluminium
has an edge over copper. Therefore, aluminium is being widely used for overhead
conductors.
 Cadmium-copper: Cadmium-copper alloys contain approximately 98 to 99% of copper and
up to 1.5% of cadmium. Addition of about 1% of cadmium to copper increases the tensile
strength by up to 50% and the conductivity is reduced only by about 15%. Therefore,
cadmium-copper conductors can be useful for exceptionally long spans. However, due to
high cost of cadmium, such conductors may be uneconomical in many cases.
 Other materials: There are many other metals and alloys that conduct electricity. Silver is
more conductive than copper, but due to its high cost, it is not practical in most of the cases.
Galvanised steel may also be used as a conductor. Although steel has very high tensile
strength, steel conductors are not suitable for transmitting power efficiently due to the
poor conductivity and high resistance of steel. High strength alloys such as phosphor-bronze
may also be used sometimes at extreme conditions.

Page 110 of 124

In over head power transmission lines suspend by towers and in this type of situation the
bare conductor on the transmission line is generally made out by using Aluminium
materials. There are various types of conductors which are use transmission line. The most
common conductors which use transmission line are Aluminum Alloy Conductors. There
are various types of sub conductors which use for Aluminum Alloy Conductors are AAAC -
HS, AACSR, ABB and ACAR. These types of conductors are use for transmission line for all
over the world over four decades. Normally high voltage transmission line varying form
66kV To 400kV voltage levels. AAC and ACSR are the most common type of conductors
which use in transmission line.

AAAC-HS and AAAC_HS type Conductors

The conductor of AAAC-HS consist the heat treatable Aluminium Alloy wire.elongation for
this wire is more than 4% and conducting of AAAC-HS wire is normally higher than 52.5%.
AA 6201 wire are the most commonly used wire in AAAC-HS type Transmission line
conductor. AAAC- HC are also much Like AAAC-HS conductors and UTS of this conductor
is varying between 20-26 kg/mm2 and elongation is vary between 2% to 4% .unlike AAAC-
HS ,AAAC- HC conductivity is little bit higher which is 56% to 59%.

ACAR ( Aluminium Conductor Alloy Reinforced)

Page 111 of 124

Aluminium Alloy conductor got great mechanical strength and overall electrical
conductivity of the ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Alloy Reinforced) conductivity is between
56% to 60%.

AACSR (Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced)

Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced (AACSR) conductor consist the high
mechanical strength high tensile galvanized steel core covered with Aluminum alloy wire s.
This type of conductors can use for any rough mechanical circumstances.

ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) Conductors

Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) Conductors consist more than seven
Aluminum and steel conductors. Center of the conductors comprised galvanized steel
and outer layers of the galvanized steel comprise Aluminum conductors. These types of
conductors are much use for long spans of transmission lines because these lines got
high tensile strength.

Bundle Conductors

Bundle conductors are widely use for transmission line and has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Bundle conductor is a conductor which consist several conductor cable
which connected. Bundle conductors also will help to increase the current carried in the
transmission line. The main disadvantage of Transmission line is its having high wind load
compare to other conductors.

Common used conductor materials

Copper

Because copper and aluminum wire have several different properties, there are different

Page 112 of 124

scenarios and purposes for each. This article will offer insight on which types of projects require
the use of wiring – and which type of conductor is appropriate.

Copper wire (left) compared to aluminum wire (right)

Copper Wire Applications and Considerations

For building wire, copper is often preferred over aluminum wire. Copper conductors are often
used in power distribution and power generation as well. Other than silver, copper is the most
common conductive metal there is.

Copper is more often used in the manufacturing of wire than aluminum, and most cables are
made of copper. This type of wire is usually relied on for power transmission, and copper is
resistant to corrosion. It can also withstand load surges better than aluminum wiring.

Page 113 of 124

Copper wire is a strong electrical conductor and is very stable over time. It won’t need to be
replaced often, and thus has a long life. Like aluminum, it can be used in commercial or industrial
buildings. Copper is heavier than aluminum wiring, and can be the most economical of all
conductors as well.

For electrical contractors, copper is the wire of choice for most jobs. The electrical contractor
prefers copper for several reasons – for one, copper will not creep. Creeping is the deformation
of metal conductors that results from subjection to stress or a pulling force, which can lead to
termination issues, such as a screw squeezing and deforming the conductor causing a loose
connection or other problems.

Another note of copper is that it is easy to work with. Copper is the preferred wire by electricians,
as it strips and bends easily – all without nicking or breaking. Copper wire is approved by electrical
codes nationwide.

Copper wiring installation is easy and well-known by electrical contractors. For this reason, it
means that a contractor’s electricians won’t have to take time out for any special instructions or
qualifications for installing a non-copper wiring.

Copper wiring can best handle overloads – and overloads will not loosen copper joints. Though
copper has been a popular choice for conducting electricity, aluminum, too, has some
advantages that make it attractive for specific applications.
Aluminium

Because copper and aluminum wire have several different properties, there are different
scenarios and purposes for each. This article will offer insight on which types of projects require
the use of wiring – and which type of conductor is appropriate.

Page 114 of 124

 Copper wire (left) compared to aluminum
wire (right)

Copper Wire Applications and Considerations

For building wire, copper is often preferred over aluminum wire. Copper conductors are often
used in power distribution and power generation as well. Other than silver, copper is the most
common conductive metal there is.

Copper is more often used in the manufacturing of wire than aluminum, and most cables are
made of copper. This type of wire is usually relied on for power transmission, and copper is
resistant to corrosion. It can also withstand load surges better than aluminum wiring.

Copper wire is a strong electrical conductor and is very stable over time. It won’t need to be
replaced often, and thus has a long life. Like aluminum, it can be used in commercial or industrial

Page 115 of 124

buildings. Copper is heavier than aluminum wiring, and can be the most economical of all
conductors as well.

For electrical contractors, copper is the wire of choice for most jobs. The electrical contractor
prefers copper for several reasons – for one, copper will not creep. Creeping is the deformation
of metal conductors that results from subjection to stress or a pulling force, which can lead to
termination issues, such as a screw squeezing and deforming the conductor causing a loose
connection or other problems.

Another note of copper is that it is easy to work with. Copper is the preferred wire by electricians,
as it strips and bends easily – all without nicking or breaking. Copper wire is approved by electrical
codes nationwide.

Copper wiring installation is easy and well-known by electrical contractors. For this reason, it
means that a contractor’s electricians won’t have to take time out for any special instructions or
qualifications for installing a non-copper wiring.

Copper wiring can best handle overloads – and overloads will not loosen copper joints. Though
copper has been a popular choice for conducting electricity, aluminum, too, has some advantages
that make it attractive for specific applications.

Aluminum Wire Applications and Considerations

Like Copper wiring, aluminum has many applications – however, it also has several differences to
that of copper. Electrical utilities use aluminum wiring for overhead transmission lines. Aluminum
has become more popular for use in commercial facilities – locations that take advantage of
aluminum wiring include high rise buildings, stadiums, shopping malls, commercial buildings,
wastewater treatment plants and manufacturing facilities.Aluminum wiring is popular within the
construction industry. Contractors have them installed in several places – including service
entrance conductors, large conductors as well as power distribution conductors.
Page 116 of 124
Learning Unit 3: Perform electrical transmission/ distribution line

Learning Outcome 3.1: Handle elements of transmission and distribution line

Content/Topic 1 : Handle elements of transmission

 Transport
 Mechanical characteristics of elements of transmission line
 Tensile strength
The maximum lengthwise stretching force that a cable can withstand without breaking. Tensile
strength must be considered during the installation process, because a pulling load is placed on
an optical fiber, in particular. Riser cables must be manufactured and installed with tensile
strength in mind, because they hang vertically in place for long periods of time. Aerial cables
run horizontally, attached to and suspended from poles placed at intervals along a cable
route.Aerial and riser cables commonly are manufactured with strength members, not only to
increase the overall tensile strength of the cable, but also to relieve the wires and fibers,
themselves, from bearing the load.
 Mechanical strength
The ability to withstand the stress of physical forces. Cable and wire systems, for example, must
be designed in consideration of the amount of twisting and bending (flex strength) they can
tolerate and the amount of weight or longitudinal stress a cable or wire can support (tensile
strength) without suffering deformation or breaking (break strength).
 Weight
If something is given a particular weight, it is given a particular value according to how
important or significant it is.

Learning Outcome 3.2: Connect protection devices, line insulators and string
conductors

Page 117 of 124

Content/ Topc 1 protection device

 Interpretation of schematic diagram of the transmission/ distribution system

 Line insulators

 String conductors

Page 118 of 124

 Interpretation of the schematic diagram of protection devices
 Circuit breaker

Learning Outcome 3.3: Mount a transformer

Content/Topic1 transformer mounting

 Internal Construction of a transformer

Electrical transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms electrical power from one
circuit to another circuit, without changing the frequency. Transformer can increase or decrease
Page 119 of 124
 Floor mounting

Ground-level mounting may be either the pad-mounted compartmental type or the unit
substation type. a typical pad-mounted compartmental transformer installation

 Platform mounting

Three-phase pad-mounted com-part mental transformers may be applied in ANSI standard

sizes through 2500 kVA, except that they will not be used where the primary voltage exceeds
15 kV or where fault currents are so large that standard equipment does not provide the
required primary interrupting duty

 Directly clamped to a pole

Aerial transformer installations may utilize a three-phase unit or banked single-phase units.
Transformers, either singly or in banks, having an individual unit or combined capacity greater
than 300 kVA will not be mounted on single wood poles. Special structural considerations will
be given for single-pole installations greater than 100 kVA.

Learning Outcome 3.4: Connect voltage regulating devices

Content/Topic 1 Voltage control

An automatic voltage regulator is a protection device. It controls all of the outputs of your diesel
generator and regulates a uniform amount of voltage from the terminals of the alternator of the
generator. They act as the main control switch of the output voltage of the connection of the
load. In this manner, with the automatic voltage regulator turned on, any sudden surge of the
load will not damage to your generator our power output destinations.

Automatic voltage regulators also play an important role in operating synchronous generator
sets. It acts as a controller of the voltage output as it controls the excitation current it produces.
In this case, automatic voltage regulators allow for more control of the total output of the
generator set.

Page 120 of 124

Content/Topic 2: Methods of voltage control

Voltage ratings of the various buses in the power system which includes generating station buses,
switching substation buses, receiving substation buses and distribution substation buses should
be within the permissible limits for satisfactory operation of all electrical equipments. The task
of voltage control is closely associated with fluctuating load conditions and corresponding
requirements of reactive power compensation. Therefore several voltage control methods are
employed in power system to keep the voltage levels within the desirable limits. In this article
some of the voltage control methods in power system are discussed.

 Excitation control and voltage regulators at the generating stations:

 Use of tap changing transformers at sending end and receiving end of the transmission
lines
 Switching in shunt reactors during low loads or while energizing long EHV lines
 Switching in shunt capacitors during high loads or low power factor loads
 use of series capacitors in long EHV transmission lines and distribution lines in case of load
fluctuations
 Use of tap changing transformers in industries, substations, distribution substations
 use of static shunt compensation having shunt capacitors and thyristorized control for
step-less control of reactive power
 Use of synchronous condensers in receiving end substations for reactive power
compensation

Page 121 of 124

Learning Outcome 3.5: Test the work and clean the workplace

Content/Topic1 work testing

 Preparation of the inspection checklist

 General condition of protection devices

Performance and design criteria for system-protection devices include reliability, selectivity,
speed, cost, and simplicity.

 Reliability: Devices must function consistently when fault conditions occur, regardless of
possibly being idle for months or years. Without this reliability, systems may cause costly
damages.
 Selectivity: Devices must avoid unwarranted, false trips.
 Speed: Devices must function quickly to reduce equipment damage and fault duration, with
only very precise intentional time delays.
 Economy: Devices must provide maximum protection at minimum cost.
 Simplicity: Devices must minimize protection circuitry and equipment.

 General condition of transformer

 General condition of Conductors

The term Transmission Lines broadly refers to overhead transmission lines and underground
cables. The key function of a transmission line is to transfer bulk power between generation
sources and load centres. Electra Net owns, manages and operates transmission lines at 275kV,

 General condition of Line insulators

Transmission line insulation has two primary functions:
a) To insulate energised components from earthed structures at rated operating voltages and
specified switching and lightning impulses; and

Page 122 of 124

b) To support the conductor system up to ultimate mechanical load limits and transfer the
mechanical loads to structure. Transmission line hardware has four primary functions:
a) To support the Insulator system up to electrical load limits;
b) To support the Insulator system up to ultimate mechanical load limits;
CLEANING TOOLS EVERYONE SHOULD OWN

So throughout the past couple of weeks, I’ve kept track of which tools I reach for time and again
to tackle various cleaning problems. Since I like devices that serve multiple purposes, I also made
notes of how I used them to make sure they are indispensable.

The result is this list which is a great place to start if you’re putting your first home together,
looking to round out your cleaning arsenal or know someone who is close

Content/Topic2 clean work place

Field Fabricated Experimental Equipment

 Types of waste materials (recyclable, bio-degradable, non- bio-degradable)

Effect of adding waste to the environment Human activities produce a lot of waste
materials which are thrown away into the environment. These wastes cause pollution of
air, water and soil. The waste materials produced are biodegradable wastes and non
biodegradable wastes.

Biodegradable wastes are decomposed into harmless substances by microorganisms. Examples

:- Vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals, cotton, jute, wool, wood, leather, paper, animal dung, animal
bones etc. Management of Toxic Waste

1: Organic wastes can be destroyed by incineration of high temperatures.

2: There should be strict regulations on the disposal of toxic waste.

3: Household toxic wastes should be disposed off with caution.

Page 123 of 124

4: Industries should break down chemical compounds into less dangerous form.
 Elaborate the report of the work done

Whether you are an employee writing a report for your boss, or a business owner reporting to
your general manager, the best tool is the "why-what-how" framework. Why are you writing
this report? What information does the reader need to know? How are you going to present
your recommendations or conclusions? Following this structure will give a logical flow to your
document. It will give your boss or executive the precise information needed to make a well-
informed business decision.

References

-https//www.researchgate.net

-transmission line and substation in introduction to electricity first edit.

- http:www.eia.gov/to day energy/detail.cfm.

-Principal of power system

Page 124 of 124