AN OVERVIEW OF LIFE-PLANT KINGDOM:

There is a trend from simple to complex.

​Simply - complex
It is very much obvious in life ( plants & Animals).

Background

There are 5 kingdom system of classification:

1) Monera
2) Protista
3) Fungi
4) Plants
5) Animals

1)Kingdom Monera

1. These organisms are prokaryotic and unicellular.

2. They do not have a well-defined nucleus and also lack cell organelles.
3. Bacteria can be heterotrophic and autotrophic.
4. Bacteria occur everywhere and they are microscopic in nature.
5. Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria, and Mycoplasma

2)Kingdom Protista

1. They are unicellular and eukaryotic organisms.

2. Sexual reproduction is by a process of cell fusion and zygote formation.
3. These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
4. Some of them have cilia or flagella for mobility.
5. Example: Diatoms, Protozoans like Amoeba, Paramecium

3)Kingdom Fungi

1. Composed of organisms with eukaryotic cells.

2. They can be unicellular, are multicellular with no tissues.
3. They are heterotrophic decomposers.
4. They have cell walls, which are made up of a substance called Chitin.
5. Fungi also form a symbiotic association with some blue-green algae.
6. Example: Yeast, Mushroom, Aspergillus,Fungi.

4)Kingdom Plantae
 1. These are Eukaryotic, Multicellular organisms with a cell wall that is made up of
cellulose.
2. They are autotrophs and synthesize their own food through the process of
photosynthesis. This kingdom includes all plants.
3. Plants reproduce through asexual vegetative propagation and sexual method.
4. They usually live in water.
5. Examples: Spirogyra, Ferns, Pines, and Mango Plant etc.

5)Kingdom Animalia

1. This Kingdom includes organisms that are Multicellular, Eukaryotic, without the presence
of cell wall .
2. They have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
3. Many of the animals are adept for locomotion.
4. They reproduce by sexual mode of reproduction.
5. Example: insects, animals, birds, humans etc.

That new organism was completely different from all the organisms of all these kingdoms known
as Archaea.

Therefore life was divided into ​3​ domains.

​Archaea​ ​Prokarya​ ​Eukarya

Bacteria Plants
Cyanobacteria Animals
Fungi
Protists

Overview

Atom compounds
(C6, H12, O6)
&
Hydrogen molecules
Oxygen ( H2 , O2)
Carbon

Atoms​ are the smallest particles of matter. Atoms make up everything around us.
Atoms combine to form compounds & molecules.
Compounds​ are made up of different types of atoms.
Molecules​ are the combinations of atoms.
Viruses
​Composed of Proteins, DNA/RNA, Envelope.

"​Viruses are noncellular particles made up of genetic material and protein that can invade living
cells."

Characteristics of Viruses

1. Viruses are smaller than bacteria, they range in size between 20 - 300 nanometer.
2. Viruses contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, but never both.
3. Viruses lack cellular organelles, such as mitochondria and ribosomes.
4. Viruses do not undergo binary fission.
5. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.

Prokaryotic Organisms
​ Greek words “pro” means before, and “karyon” means core.

"A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or

any other eukaryotic membrane-bound organelle."
Prokaryotes are divided into two domains
1) Archaea
2) Bacteria

Characteristics of Prokaryotes

1. Prokaryotes are the simplest type of cell.

2. Prokaryotes are the largest group of organisms.
3. Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that are found in all environments.
4. Prokaryotes have a simple internal structure.
5. Prokaryotes are smaller in size when compared to eukaryotes.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

The prokaryotic cells have ​4​ main components:

1)Plasma Membrane

It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid molecules which separates the cell from the
surrounding environment.

2)Cytoplasm

It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell organelles are suspended in it.

3)DNA

It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a circular DNA. It directs what
proteins the cell creates. It also regulates the actions of the cell.

4)Ribosomes

Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia and flagella which helps in locomotion.

Reproduction in Prokaryotes
A prokaryote reproduces in two ways:

1)Asexually by binary fission

2)Sexually by recombination

1)Binary Fission

1. The DNA of an organism replicates and the new copies attach to the cell membrane.
 2. The cell wall starts increasing in size and starts moving inwards.
3. A cell wall is then formed between each DNA, dividing the cell into two daughter cells.

2)Recombination

In this process, genes from one bacteria are transferred to the genome of other bacteria.

It takes place in ​3​ ways

1) Conjugation
2) Transformation
3) Transduction

1)Conjugation

The process in which genes are transferred between two bacteria through a protein tube
structure called pilus.

2)Transformation

The mode of sexual reproduction in which the DNA from the surroundings is taken by the
bacterial cell and incorporated in its DNA.

3)Transduction

The process in which the genetic material is transferred into the bacterial cell with the help of
viruses. Bacteriophages are the virus that initiates the process.

Evolution

"​The first prokaryotic cells evolved around 3.5 billion years ago. The eukaryotic cells were
formed after the prokaryotic cells and are believed to have evolved from them."
1)Protists

The term ‘Protista’ is derived from the Greek word “protistos”, meaning “the very first“.

"​Protists are eukaryotic organisms that aren't plants, animals or fungi, which mainly live
in water, and they are unicellular in nature."

Types of Protists

There are ​3​ types of Protists.

1)Protozoa
2)Algae
3)Moulds

1)Protozoa
It is the animal like protists,
(resemble animals in the way they get food)
All are unicellular.

2)Algae
Its plant like protists, (Photosynthesis to make their food).

3)Moulds
( Decompose dead organisms)
Unlike fungi.
Its fungus like protists are able to move at the same point of their life and do not have chitin in
their cell walls.

Characteristics of Protists
 1. Most are one-called, but some have many cells.
2. Cell have a membrane around the nucleus.
3. Some get energy from the sun, and nutrients from the water.
4. Some get nutrients and energy by eating other organisms.
5. Example: Amoeba, Kelp etc.

Economic Importance of Protists

1. Protists are important to ecosystems because they are decomposed.

2. Protists are the primary sources of food for many animals.
3. Some protists also produce oxygen and may be used to produce biofuel.
4. Protists serve as the foundation of the food chain.
5. Phytoplankton is one of the sole food sources for whales.

2)Bryophytes
"T​he division of green plants, refers to embryophytes which in literal terms, are land plants,
especially the non-vascular ones."

Characteristics of Bryophytes

1. The plant body is thallus like, i.e. prostrate.

2. Plants occur in damp and shaded areas.
3. Plants lack the vascular system (xylem, phloem).
4. They lack true vegetative structure and have a root-like, stem-like and leaf-like structure.
5. The dominant part of the plant body is gametophyte which is haploid.

Classification Of Bryophytes

Bryophyta is divided into three classes:

1. Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
2. Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts)
3. Bryopsida (Mosses)

1)Hepaticopsida (Liverworts):

"​The name hepaticopsida comes from the word “hepatic” meaning liver. Liverworts come under
this class."

Characteristics of the class Hepaticopsida

1. Gametophyte plant is either thalloid or foliose.

2. Rhizoids are unicellular, branched and aseptate
3. Sex organs are borne dorsally embedded in gametophytic tissues

2)Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts):

There are around 300 species present in this class. They are commonly known as hornworts. It
has only one order.

Characteristics of the class Anthocerotopsida

1. Rhizoids are smooth-walled.

2. Each cell has one chloroplast with a pyrenoid.
3. Sex organs are present dorsally embedded in the thallus.

3)Bryopsida (Mosses):
It is the largest class of Bryophyta with around 1400 species. They are commonly called
mosses.
Examples​:
Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum etc.

Characteristics of the class Bryopsida

1. Rhizoids are multicellular with oblique septa.

2. Sex organs are borne apically on stem.
3. Elaters are absent.

3)Pteridophytes

"​Pteridophytes are vascular plants that reproduce using spores. They do not produce flowers
and seeds and are hence also known as cryptogams."
Characteristics

1. Plants with feather like leaves.

2. Most of them having herbaceous stem.
3. Stem usually branched.
4. Stomata are present on both surface of leaf.
5. Vascular system composed of Xylem and Phloem.

Classification of Pteridophytes

There are four classes

​1)Psilopsida
2)Lycopsida
3)Sphenopsida
4)Pteropsida
1)Psilopsida

The plant body is rootless and have fungal association.

Gametophyto is colourless and have fungal association.
Photosyntheic stem leaves often absent protostele.
Example: fossil genera Rhynla and Homeophyton.

2)Lycopsida

The plant body is differentiated into root stem and leaves.

Leaves are small.
Ligules are present.
Differentiated plant body.
Gymetophyte depends on fungus for food
Protostele sometimes siphonostele.

3)Sphenopsida

The plant body is differentiated into root, stem, and leaves.

Stem shows jointed nodes and internodes.
Leaves are arranged at nodes in whole.

4)Pteropsida

The plant body is differentiated into root, stem, and leaves.

Includes all megaphyllous pteridophytes.
Leaf gap is present sporangia are organized into sorus.
Both hemosporus and heterosporus are present.

4)Gymnosperms

"Gymnosperms are a group of plants that produce seeds not enclosed within the ovary or fruit."

Characteristics of Gymnosperms

1. They do not produce flowers.

2. They are found in colder regions where snowfall occurs.
3. They develop needle-like leaves.
4. Seeds are not formed inside a fruit. They are naked.
5. They are not differentiated into ovary, style and stigma.

Classification of Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms are classified into four types:

​1) Cycadophyta
2) Ginkgophyta
3) Gnetophyta
 4) Coniferophyta

1)Cycadophyta

Cycads are seed-bearing plants where the majority of the members are now extinct. They had
flourished during the Jurassic and late Triassic era.
These plants usually have large compound leaves, thick trunks and small leaflets which are
attached to a single central stem. They range in height anywhere between a few centimetres to
several meters.

2)Ginkgophyta

The Ginkgo trees are characterised by their large size and their fan-like leaves. Also, Ginkgo
trees have a large number of applications ranging from medicine to cooking. Ginkgo leaves are
ingested as a remedy for memory-related disorders like Alzheimer’s.

Ginkgo trees are also very resistant to pollution, and they are resilient against diseases and
insect infestations.

3)Gnetophyta

Gnetophytes usually consist of tropical plants, trees, and shrubs. They are characterised by
flowery leaves that have a soft coating. This coating reveals an ancestral connection with the
angiosperms.

Gnetophytes differ from other members of this class as they possess vessel elements in their
xylem.

4)Coniferophyta

They are evergreen; hence they do not shed their leaves in the winter. These are mainly
characterised by male and female cones which form needle-like structures.
5)Angiosperms

"​Angiosperms are vascular plants with stems, roots, and leaves. The seeds of the angiosperm
are found in a flower. These make up the majority of all plants on earth. The seeds develop
inside the plant organs and form fruit. Hence, they are also known as flowering plants."

Characteristics of Angiosperms

1. The vascular system has true vessels in the xylem and companion cells in the phloem.
2. A single functional megaspore is permanently retained within the nucellus.
3. The root system is very complex and consists of cortex, xylem, phloem, and epidermis.
4. The carpels enclose developing seeds that may turn into a fruit.
5. The sporophytes are diploid.

Classification of Angiosperms

Monocotyledons

1. The seeds have a single cotyledon.

2. The leaves are simples and the veins are parallel.
3. This group contains adventitious roots.
4. It has closed vascular bundles and large in number.
5. Example: banana, sugarcane, lilies, etc.

Dicotyledons
1. The seeds of these plants have two cotyledons.
2. They contain tap roots, instead of adventitious roots.
3. The leaves depict a reticulate venation.
4. The flowers are tetramerous or pentamerous and the vascular bundles are organized in
rings.
5. Example: grapes, sunflower, tomatoes, etc.