Media Studies

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 004

Representing the world

This Factsheet provides an introduction to the study of media This is not a happy family – it is a re-presentation of a happy
representations. family.
1. What is representation?
2. The Construction and Mediation of Representations This is a professionally-taken and
3. Audiences perceptions of representations – including i) the posed picture. Whilst there is no way
reflective, ii) the intentional and iii) the constructionist to know if the people in the picture are
approaches related, it is most probable they are
4. Why do we need to consider representations? not, but are professional models.

1. What is representation? The facial expressions connote

happiness and the framing shows
Representation is: unity and physical closeness. The
the constructed and mediated presentation of people, things, ‘mother’ acts as a nurturer as she has
ideas, places etc. her arms around two of the children
and the ‘father’, carrying the child,
and depicts a caring, masculine strength.
representation is: The framing of the picture and the
the process by which the media present the ‘real world’ (Rayner) angle of the shot focuses our attention on their faces showing
that their happiness is the most important aspect of this group
The idea of representation is an important one in understanding and other visual clues provide an understanding of a range of
meaning in media texts. ideals about family and gender roles: the female child is sweet
In other words, everything in the media is a representation – and sensitive; the small male child is boisterous and a bit of a
everything we see is being represented. handful (although controlled by a strong yet gentle father);
Individuals – Chantelle Houghton (Celebrity Big Brother: C4 both parents are patient, kind and conservatively dressed – not
2006) the kind of family you’ll see on Supernanny (C4).
Groups – Teenagers
Places - New York
Nations – Iran 2. The Construction and Mediation of Representations
Ideas – Religion/the family
A news photograph for example may appear to be presenting us
Regions/Locations - the North of England
with a factual image but it has been through a process of
construction:
Questions we would ask when analysing representations: • the photographer has selected his/her position, lens, angle,
WHO or WHAT is being represented? exposure and framing before taking the picture
HOW is the representation created? • the picture editor will decide if the image needs to be cropped,
WHO has created the representation? enhanced or in any way altered before inclusion into the paper
WHY is the representation created in that way? What is the • an editor will choose which, of the many available
intention? photographs of the image, will be the one chosen for inclusion
WHAT is the effect of the representation? in the newspaper and, importantly at this stage, the images
which do not meet the needs of the text will be rejected
When starting to consider this concept, it is worth considering the
word itself. Even then, further mediation takes place:
• Will the photograph be large or small?
• Will the photograph be on the front page or, less visible, on
Representations are … re/presentations
page 8?
The media re-presents people, ideas and events. What we see in the Placement choices like this, along with cropping and framing, act to
media is in some way a ‘second-hand’ version – it is clearly not the focus the attention of the reader in a certain way.
thing itself. The representation has been created or constructed by • What headline and text will be used to accompany the
the selection of specific media language elements. In addition, photograph?
everything we see in a media text has gone through some process • Will the photograph have a caption?
to get to us – this is called mediation. • Will it be positioned close to another photograph?

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Each of these choices will have an impact on the idea that the
audience takes from the image:
• a large photograph connotes importance as does placing it on
the front page of the newspaper,
• text can add either a negative or positive connotation to an image,
• by placing pictures next to each other the audience can be guided
into making connections between them.
So, even in the most apparently factual representations, choices
are made which means that the image is not simply a recording of an
actual event or a person. These images have been selected
depending on the ideas that need to be communicated by the text.
Every decision that is made about the person/place/object The Queen Victoria – Part of the mise-en-scene of Eastenders (BBC).
represented is made for a reason and this selection process can add The location has been created to look as realistic as possible.
to, take away from and alter meaning at each stage of the process. (www.bbc.co.uk)

A representation is the final product after all of the decisions have Some audience members may perceive the News, Documentaries and
been made. Meaning is made in the construction of the representation Reality TV for example as portraying a straightforward reality. News
and the combination of all the choices come together in order for broadcasts present information as fact and great care is taken to attempt
the audience to ‘read’ and interpret the information provided. to create an aura of authority and trust. Even with fictional programming,
the audience can often perceive what is presented as ‘real’.
To summarise, the selection process is:
• The decision over what is chosen to be represented and what is Soap Operas concentrate on making media language choices which
rejected; give the appearance of reality as it is an expectation of the genre.
• The choices made when organising the representation: Newspapers and magazines discuss fictional characters and events
• The options taken to focus the audience in a certain way. as if they were real and, often, dramatic story-lines are discussed
and debated as if they are happening to people we know.
AQA/OCR/WJEC?
Each awarding body cites representation as one of its central concepts This is not to say that the audience necessarily believes there is an
and it is part of the assessment of all textual analyses papers. OCR Albert Square or an area in Manchester called Weatherfield but
gives a number of specific representational topics that can be covered they need to believe that these places are in some way reflecting
as part of the textual analysis paper whereas WJEC details a range of the world as it is. For the British soap opera, this idea is crucial – it
media forms that should be studied. AQA does not specify what groups is one of the genre expectations the audience will have and it needs
or forms could be examined in textual analysis but expects that an fulfilling.
analysis of representations in the text provided will be part of the exam
response. Soaps need to generate an idea of identification within the audience.
The characters, places and events must be such that the audience
The concept is also central to the AS essay based exam topics set by
can relate them to their own lives and experiences of the world. This
AQA and WJEC.
is a genre convention and an important aspect of the success of
Representations will be developed further and examined at A2. soap operas.

All media texts are constructed in this way: Representing the Real in British Soap Operas
factual programming on TV is shot and edited before being British soaps try to maintain the illusion of reality. This occurs
broadcast; through the use of specific media language choices in each of the
five categories:
every aspect of the mise-en-scene of a film text is carefully chosen 1. Lighting – selected to appear as if diegetic. Light appears to
in order that it creates the right impression on the audience; come from natural sources – daylight, streetlights, lamps etc;
the words selected in newspaper and magazine articles are part of 2. Music – rarely non-diegetic. Pub jukeboxes and radios are
the construction of the final representations. often seen to be the source of music which is often carefully
selected to parallel the dramatic action;
A theorist called White spoke of the ‘gatekeepers’ - that is the
3. Editing - mainly straight cuts to create invisible editing;
people who are part of the decision making process in the
4. Camera work – predominantly eye-level shots. Mid-shots
construction of media texts. Magazine editors, journalists, writers,
and close ups are the main choice as they depict the action
photographers, directors etc. all play a part in the creation of
from the audience’s eye-level as if they are there observing
representations and act as gatekeepers selecting what information
the scene. Extreme close ups are also used when the director
will be passed on and how it will be communicated. They select
wants to show the significance of a specific item or facial
what will (and will not) be represented and how.
expression;
5. Mise–en-scene – soaps try to emulate a very ordinary setting.
Extras are used to populate public areas and houses are
3. Audience Perceptions of Representations decorated to look ‘lived in’. Dialogue is written to reflect real
A). Representations as Reflections (the reflective approach) conversations and clothes chosen to reflect current fashions.
Sometimes representations are assumed by an audience to simply
replicate the real world. The genre, therefore, emulates a recognisable world which
appears as if real. Of course, in doing so, what is also created are
ideas about values and ideologies – the attitudes, ideas about
morality and acceptable behaviour are also portrayed as real.
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B) Representations as Deliberate Constructions (the intentional However, the producers can be seen to be attempting to, as far as
approach) possible, create specific associations and ideas for the audience.

Exam Hint Even though some media texts can be seen to be very deliberately
When discussing representations, you will need to consider creating ideas and associations through representations, this way
HOW they are constructed through the media language choices of viewing the media can lead to an undermining of the audience.
made. However, you should also consider WHY they are cre- There is an assumption here that these intentionalist methods are
ated the way they are and impact of the representations: the always successful and the audience is ‘victim’ to the ideas created
meaning they create and the effect on the audience which will by the media. It assumes they are passive and unable to recognise
mean you will need to relate representation to the other media the techniques being used. Clearly this is a simplistic view of the
concepts such as audience, narrative, genre, institution and audience and does not take into account their ability to interpret
ideology. information for themselves. However, advertising does work.
Successful products and brands rely on it to alert the audience to
Sometimes, representations are seen to be a deliberate attempt to the existence of their product and to persuade them to choose it
create associations and ideas for the audience. over the alternatives that are available. They pay large amounts of
money for space on TV, in magazines, on billboards etc. specifically
Michael Moore can easily be seen to have a political agenda with for this purpose.
his documentary making. In Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004), his
Another approach to understanding the way the audience interpret
representation of President Bush was carefully constructed to create
representations takes both these factors this into account and
a specific idea of an idiotic and corrupt man. He selected images
considers how the audience is also active in the creation of meaning
and quotes carefully which would support his perspective and
in representations.
rejected images and quotes that may have challenged this idea of
the US president. He juxtaposed these images with news footage,
C). The Constructionist Approach
interviews and other images which would anchor his meaning and
A useful way of thinking about representation is that the meanings
ensure that throughout the film the idea of President Bush was
are created by the relationship between the producers, the text and
consolidated.
the audience:
• The representation is constructed with a set of ideas and values
Advertising can be seen in this way too as the linking together of
(producer’s intent/intended meaning)
ideas and images to a product is used to persuade the audience to
• The context of the representation is part of the representation
act in a certain way.
(media language choices, anchorage, media form, placement/
location, genre expectations etc.)
Men’s shavers/razors are often represented
• The audience reacts to this representation and this depends on
alongside images of cars and planes. The
their own personal interpretational context: age, gender, political/
colours used in the adverts are those with
religious beliefs, nationality etc. (negotiated meaning)
associations of masculinity: silver, black
and red dominate in the advertising.
Thinking about representation in this way takes into account the
Sporting celebrities such as David
personal interpretations made by individuals and accepts that one
Beckham are used to endorse the products
representation may create different meanings for different audience
and the culmination of these elements in
members. This is a useful way to consider media texts – if the target
the representation are that razors are
audience for the text is taken into account when thinking about
associated with strength and an idea of
representations it can help with determining the different responses
machismo and sophistication. However,
that texts can create.
there is nothing essentially masculine
about the razor. It is simply a tool that is
In The Day After Tomorrow (2004, dir. R. Emmerich) there is a
required for a specific purpose.
representation of a group of British scientists who assist the hero
of the text (an American scientist) by providing him with information
Women also purchase this tool but when it is marketed to them
on the impending ecological changes that act as the main conflict
pastel colours, curved shapes and words with feminine association
for the film.
are used.
The representation shows the British as living in a low-tech
Whether you use a Mach 3 or a Venus, the
environment and this is in sharp contrast to the technologically
effect is the same, the removal of body hair.
advanced laboratory used by the Americans. The British are depicted
However, the way the products are
in extreme peril and the representation uses the stereotype of the
represented creates very different
‘stiff upper lip’ mentality as they are represented dealing with danger
associations, all linked to ideas about
calmly and pragmatically. They salute the Queen and Manchester
gender identity and expectations.
United and deal with the crisis by opening a bottle of well matured
whisky.
These associations are part of the
representations of the product and are a
calculated and deliberate appeal to the
consumer group that is targeted. Nothing
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forces the audience to accept the
representations as presented.

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This representation plays on a number of national stereotypes that may not be as obvious to the target audience of the film. (Even though
Hollywood films are marketed for a global audience the majority of their profits will come from the domestic audience – that is other
Americans). As a British audience watching this film, we may be struck by the limited view of the British. This representation will be
interpreted differently depending on the perspective of the audience.

This is not to say that the director is ignorant about the British or that he deliberately constructed the British to look weaker than the
Americans. He would have used past textual examples to base his representations on and his own experience of the British which would
almost certainly not be as detailed or accurate as the knowledge the British have about themselves as a nation.

Therefore, the representation’s meaning is dependent on who is watching, reading and interpreting the text.

4. Why do we need to consider representations? (Activity)

Q. Think of at least three different movies, television shows or other types of media meant to represent you (your age group, your
gender, your race, your religion).
Answer each of the following questions for each movie you picked.
How accurate are these representations?Who do you think is creating the representation? Is it someone like you?
Explain in a paragraph for each movie you chose.

As Media students it is important to recognise how what we see in any media text is a constructed
representation rather than a simple reflection of reality. Once this is recognised it is important to
consider the meanings created by these representations and both the reasons why they are created
the way they are and the effects the representations may have. It is also important to consider that
most representations are constructed by someone outside the group that is being depicted.

Dyer said: ‘How we are seen determines how we are treated, how we treat others is based on how we
see them. How we see them comes from representation.’ Given the volume of representations we are
exposed to whilst accessing the media, it is unsurprising that they are seen to be influential in the way
we the audience make sense of the world.

Image Web references

www.ivillage.co.uk
www.bbc.co.uk
www.amazon.com
www.pharmacy2u.co.uk

Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Steph Hendry
Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Sociology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching
staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
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