The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.

43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
30.1.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2020-21.

GEOLOGY

STANDARD TWELVE

Download DIKSHA App on your smartphone. If

you scan the Q.R. Code on this page of your
textbook, you will be able to access full text and
the audio-visual study material relevant to each
lesson provided as teaching and learning aids.

2020
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research, Pune.
First Edition : © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004.
2020 The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Third Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
Reprint : 2022 should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

Illustrations : Bhatu Bagale

Geology Subject Committee :
Cover : Ganesh S. Dhavale
Dr. N. J. Pawar (Chairperson), Pune
Typesetting : DTP Section,
Dr. Satish Jagdeo Sangode, Pune Textbook Bureau, Pune

Mrs. Suneeti J. Malik, Pune Paper : 70 GSM Creamwove

Dr. Sudhakar Janardan Pandit, Pune Print Order :

Shri Ajit Vaman Vartak, Pune
Printer :
Shri Abhijit Jaysingrao Patil, Kolhapur

Shri R. J. Jadhav, Member-Secretary

Production
Shri Sachchitanand Aphale
Chief Production Officer
Shri Prasant Harne
Geology Study Group : Production Officer
Dr. Hrishikesh Samant, Mumbai

Dr. Ashwini Supekar Ganjave, Pune

Publisher
Dr. Dipak Panaskar, Nanded
Shri Vivek Uttam Gosavi
Mr. Arun Keshav Khadilkar, Solapur Controller
Maharashtra State Textbook
Dr. Vinay Madhusudan Dikshit, Solapur Bureau, Prabhadevi,
Mumbai - 400 025
NATIONAL ANTHEM
 Preface

Dear Students,
Heartfelt congratulations and welcome to standard XII !
Your study of the geology so far, has enriched you with knowledge about the
fascinating world of minerals, formed on and within our planet earth, the processes that
lead to their formation and to the creation and evolution of the magnificent landforms
from the lofty Himalayas to the deep ocean trenches. In your previous studies of the
subject, as a part of geography during your school years and as a separate subject of
geology in your XI standard, you have been introduced to the basic ideas about the
various geological processes.
This new edition of the book presents an extended view of the subject from an
earth and planetary sciences point of view. The various applied aspects of the subject
of geology have been presented to interesting and thought provoking writings on
hydrogeology, economic mineral deposits and geohazards. The science of data collection
and interpretation of satellite data has also been introduced. It gives me immense
satisfaction and pleasure to present this new edition of class XII text book.
Just like the XI standard text book, this book too is an accessible and comprehensive
guide to the important topics in geology, more so from an applied science point of view.
The topics are illustrated with examples and case studies from India in general and the
state of Maharashtra in particular. The book also includes numerous thought provoking
activities and questions.
Studying and understanding the dynamics of our planet, its resources, even the play
of internal forces and surface atmospheric phenomena which sometimes cause loss of
human lives and property, will surely lead to the formation of an aware and sensitive
citizen, who is equipped to work towards the betterment of the planet. You are encouraged
to use the QR code and links given within the text for achieving a better understanding
the various topics. This book is sure to cause many students to take up earth science as
a lifelong career.

(Vivek Gosavi)
Pune Director
Date: 21 February 2020 Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Bhartiya Saur : 2 Phalguna 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune
 STD. XII Geology

Learning Outcomes

q The goal of this book is to introduce students with

fundamental knowledge of diverse applied fields in geology
like hydrogeology, palaeontology, stratigraphy, petrology,
geohazards and structural geology and remote sensing.

q In addition, the analytical exercises incorporated within the

text will imbibe the habit of scientific and analytical thinking
in the learner.

q Understand the origin and classification of the common rocks

found on the earth’s surface.

q Know the processes involved in the formation of various

surface landforms due to the interaction of the earths internal
forces with the crustal layers.

q Identify the common rocks and their underlying processes of

formation.

q Understand the science of palaeontology and fossil formation.

q Collect, illustrate and analyse basic geological information

from the field.

q Interpret geological maps and construct cross sections.

q Develop and aptitude for detailed understanding of rocks

and structures.

q Communicate observations and interpretation in a geological

report.
 - For Teachers -

You have been teaching Earth sciences in and therefore you are expected to utilize the
general and geology specifically, and as allotted number of periods fully. Do not
experienced mentors, we all know that the finish the chapter in a hurry.
subject of Geology is interdisciplinary and
” Major concepts of geology are complex and
hence teaching Geology is a challenging task
need deep understanding. Hence, encourage
that needs integration of both theoretical and
group work putting in collective efforts.
practical aspects. As the field of Earth sciences
This will help the students to assimilate the
has seen a continuous evolution in the accepted
content without feeling the ‘burden of
theories and due to the improved technologies,
learning’.
leading to better understanding of natural
” Facilitate peer learning as much as possible
phenomena, the need to update and upgrade
by frequently reorganizing the class
the first edition of the book published in 2012
structure.
was felt necessary. In this context, following
guidelines should be strictly adhered to, to ” Please do not teach the lessons in the book
improve the overall teaching of the subject. by just reading them aloud.
” Please refer to Science and Geography ” Follow the order of the chapters as given
textbooks from standard V to standard X in the content as the concepts have been
before using this textbook. introduced in a sequence to facilitate
knowledge building.
” It is expected that the teacher and student
is well versed with the topics and subject ” USE the highlighted boxed in texts titled
matter dealt with in the new edition of the ‘Do you know?’ for adding value and joy
Std. XI textbook, published in 2019. to the process of understanding the subject.
” To begin with, get familiar with the ” The contents of ‘DO You Know?’ are NOT
textbook yourself and enhance the subject to be used for evaluation.
by referencing and cross referencing the ” Use QR Code given in the textbook. Some
concepts, adding case studies and updating weblinks have been given at the end of the
new information. book.
” Plan carefully and independently for the ” Teacher as well as students are expected to
teaching of the content and supervising use these references. These references will
activities in each chapter. surely help to explore knowledge beyond
” The present book has been prepared for the textbook.
constructive and activity-based teaching. ” Please bear in mind that extra reading is
” The teaching learning interactions, processes always helpful for in depth understanding
and participation of all students is very of the subject.
necessary and so is your active guidance. ” Use thought-provoking, activity-oriented,
” Use geological aids for appropriate open-ended, multiple choice questions for
understanding of the concepts. evaluation. Some examples are given at the
” Some chapters may be difficult to follow end of every chapter.
 Contents

Sr. No. Name of the Chapter Page No.

1. The Dynamic Earth 1 - 12

2. Petrology 13 - 27

3. Palaeontology and Stratigraphy 28 - 43

4. Structural Geology 44 - 55

5. Economic Minerals and Rocks 56 - 72

6. Hydrogeology 73 - 82

7. Geohazards 83 - 97

8. Remote Sensing and GIS 98 - 115

* Practicals 116 - 127

* Glossary and Biblography 128

DISCLAIMER Note : All attempts have been made to contact copy right/s (©) but we have not heard from them. We will
be pleased to acknowledge the copy right holder (s) in our next edition if we learn from them.

Front Page : A mosaic depicting various chapters as well as the dynamic nature of our planet Earth.
Back Page : Calcite (nail head spar) on fine quartz crystals. Location Chandivli quarries, Mumbai, Maharashtra
Dimensions : 6.5cm × 2.5cm × 4.0cm,
Green Apophyllite - Location: Pashan quarries, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Dimensions: 2.5cm × 2.0cm × 1.5cm

Acknowledgement : Back page photos by Mr. Arnav Samant

 1 The Dynamic Earth

Introduction : layering (fig. 1.2). The heat loss occurs by

processes such as conduction, convection and
Away from the bustling noise of crowded
advection. Whereas, the heat generated is mainly
cities or man-made activities; the Earth
in the form of the primordial heat accrued during
appears like a stable, calm and peaceful
the formation of the planet. Convection and
planet in tranquillity of nature. It is however
advection being physical processes, the Earth
a highly dynamic planet similar to all other
material in the form of magma is simultaneously
planets in the Solar system; and is orbiting
undergoing differentiation and mixing to cause
around the Sun at ~ 30 km/s. It is also internally
depletion of original magma that was available
dynamic, as evident from the phenomena of
during the early part of planetary evolution.
plate tectonics operating through geological
Convection plays a major role in driving the
ages. The Earth on its surface is undergoing
plates, (fig. 1.2, 1.3) while advection gives rise
many dynamic processes as expressed by the
to formation of ocean floor and other events like
activity of oceans, rivers, glaciers, winds and
lava eruption on the surface.
atmospheric circulation. We can distinguish
0.4 MRE
the Earth’s dynamism into: a) the orbital or 0.5
0.6
0.3 MRE
planetary dynamics; b) the surface dynamics
0.2 MRE
or Earth surface processes; and c) the internal Moon
Radius
0.1 MRE
dynamics as part of the evolution of the Earth. Formation
0.7
4.56 Ga of core
This chapter describes the internal dynamics
of the Earth. It is therefore, necessary to learn 30 Ma journey of the Earth
about the internal structure/interior of the from a small planetesimal
0.8
Earth in order to understand its expression
on the surface by the processes such as plate 1

tectonics. 0.9
1
MRE
The Interior of the Earth :
The Earth evolved as a planet from Solar Fig. 1.1 : Evolution of the Earth from a
nebula at about 4.56 Ga, and gradually shaped planetismal state
into a spherical body (fig.1.1). With the ongoing Formation of the Earth from an asteroid
cooling, the outermost layer called the crust like body to a spherically layered Earth
was formed. The temperature of the universe is system at ~4.53 Ga is one of the most dynamic
of the order of -270 °C, and the Earth’s interior internal process the Earth has experienced in
is at >4000 °C. Presently the average surface its early stage of evolution. Note the step-wise
temperature of the Earth is 14°C - 15°C, and differentiation particularly at 0.3 MRE (mean
the temperature at the core of the Earth is 6000 radius of the Earth), initiation of magma oceans
°C. This results in temperature gradient with the at ~0.5 MRE and segregation of the core at 0.7
Earth's interior. This temperature gradient of the MRE (fig 1.1). The overall size of the planet is
Earth is however not linear and shows several increased because of addition of mass as the
kinks that are influenced by the compositional Earth cleared its own orbit.
1
 Temp in degree C process facilitates layering of the Earth where
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
0 compositional and temperature stabilities are
achieved. These processes were more dynamic
1000 during the initial phase of evolution of the Earth.
Mantle
Heavier elements like Fe and Ni sank towards
2000
the center of gravity of the Earth forming the
Depth in Km

3000
D prime layer inner core.
Core Mantle boundary
A) The Core:
4000 Core is divided into inner and outer core
Outer Core as a result of P-T stability conditions of Fe-Ni
5000
compounds wherein P increases the melting
Inner Core point of Fe-Ni compounds making the inner
6000
core to remain solid. Lowering of the Pressure
Fig. 1.2 : Internal layering of the Earth at about 5100 km results in melting of Fe-Ni
Earth comprises mainly of silicate matter to produce the liquid outer core. The outer
compounds (minerals) having definite crystal core being liquid, is therefore more dynamic and
structures and compositions that remain stable the convection currents created are supposed to
at particular pressure (P) and temperature generate the Earth’s magnetic field.Information
(T) conditions of the molten magma to about the core is obtained indirectly from
solid rocks. Molten magma is dynamic and seismology.
experiences changing Pressure - Temperature Do you know?
(P-T) conditions due to its upward/downward The magnetic field generated by the Earth’s
movement (convection and advection). Change core, protects it's surface from the solar
in temperature with depth is influenced by winds that are high energy electromagnetic
the convection current that governs physical radiations, of potentially harmfully charged
movement of the magma. particles. Without the magnetic field, the
The Crust is divided into tectonic plates Earth would be an inhospitable planet.
interacting with each other
ic Shield
The mantle is zone of molten Magnet
d
silicates and other minerals.
Solar Win
The mantle heat drives
CONVECTION CURRENT
which is the driving force
for the plates movement. Solar Auroral
Mantle is 2900 km thick Flare Oval

Magne
tic Fie
ld

The crust is of two

types i) Oceanic is
denser, younger and
thinner, ii) Continental is
older, thicker and less dense.
Inner Core :
The temperature at the centre of the Earth
Fig. 1.3 : Convection current governing the surface reaches upto ~ 6,000°C and is largely considered
dynamics of the Earth
to be the heat left over after the planet’s creation
Convection also facilitates differentiation (primordial heat), apart from other sources like
of magma compounds, where heavier melt heat generated by radioactive decay. Inner core
(compounds) sink deeper into the Earth. This is ~1,200 km thick, and is about the same size
2
as the Earth’s moon. Due to the tremendous silicon and oxygen with small amounts of iron,
pressure, material in the core does not melt and calcium, and aluminium to forms a typical
hence it remains solid. mineral known as perovskite (MgSiO3).
The Outer Core : Upper mantle : The upper mantle consists
The outer core is ~2,200 km thick. of two different types of layers, namely
Density of the outer core is about 10 -12 gm/ lithosphere and the asthenosphere. The rigid
cc. The temperature in the outer core ranges lithosphere is composed of a rocky crust that is
from 2,200°C to 4,900°C. The molten material ~40 kms to 280 km thick and floats on top of
comprises mostly of iron with little nickel. the asthenosphere. Asthenosphere is ~180 km
About 10% of it is made up of other elements, thick with temperature as high as ~1,450°C.
most likely oxygen and sulphur. Asthenosphere is less rigid than the lithosphere
Discontinuities are layered boundaries and behaves plastically. Lithosphere mainly
in the interior of the Earth discovered through represents the rock composition known as
seismic studies. peridotites, which contains the mineral olivine
Boundary between inner core and outer and pyroxene. Peridotites are heavier than most
core is named as Lehmann discontinuity after of the crustal rocks and therefore they tend to
its discovery by the Danish seismologist Inge sink into the upper mantle.
Lehmann (fig. 1.4). The Crust :
CRUST LITHOSPHERE The Crust is brittle and most fragile
Moho
discontinuity outermost layer of the Earth and is the main
ASTHENOSPHERE
source of earthquakes. It represents mountains,
UPPER
MANTLE ocean floor and all the landforms and is part
Repetti
of lithosphere. Crust under the oceans is thin,
Discontinuity
MESOSPHERE measuring 5 to 10 km and under land is between
LOWER
MANTLE
20 and 70 km. It is therefore, divided into two
types: oceanic crust and continental crust.
The oceanic crust found beneath the oceans
Guttenberg
Discontinuity is composed of basalt, while the continental
OUTER crust is largely made up of granites. However,
CORE
BARYSPHERE a large part of the continental crust is eroded
Lehmann
Discontinuity
INNER
and transferred to the ocean basins in the form
CORE
of sediments which can later be recycled along
Fig. 1.4 : Discontinuities in the interior of the Earth with the oceanic crust. Rocks as old as 3.8 Ga
B) The Mantle : can be found on the continental crusts; and are
Earth's Mantle has a thickness of about 2900 the source of information for the geodynamic
kms. It is the most important layer governing the history of the Earth. Continents are therefore a
geodynamic processes of the Earth. Mantle is rich source of knowledge about the evolution of
divided into upper (~640 kms ) and lower mantle the Earth.
(~2200 kms). Earliest impressions of the dynamics of
Lower mantle : It is more viscous than the the Earth were philosophically routed and
upper mantle and it convects slowly. It is known several hypothesis were proposed. It was
to have temperatures as high as 2,200°C. Lower during the early 17th century that the dynamics
mantle compositionally contains magnesium, of the Earth were understood from geological

3
records. As discussed and hypothesized by
‘Gondwana’ (after the indigenous homeland
many philosophers and geologists during the
of the Gond people of India). He defined it as
17th century, continents are floating over
an ancient supercontinent ‘Gondwana Land’
the asthenosphere making the continental/
surrounded by the ancient ocean named
lithospheric plates. The most acceptable
‘Tethys’.
explanation of these observations has been
offered by the theory of ‘Continental Drift’. 1910 American physicist and glaciologist
Frank Bursley Taylor proposed the concept
The Continental Drift Theory:
of ‘continental drift’ to explain the apparent
Internal dynamics of the Earth is expressed
geological continuity of the American
by changes on its surface i.e., the crust. For over
Appalachian mountain belt (extending
a long time, humans were unable to explain the
from Alabama to Newfoundland) with
origin of various surface features of the Earth,
the Caledonian Mountains of NW Europe
and it was during early 17th Century when the
(Scotland and Scandinavia), occurring on two
geological idea of continental drift evolved
opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
as a hypothesis and a school of thought. It
faced many criticisms due to imagination and 1912 Alfred Wegener, the German
limitations to explain the driving forces. This meteorologist who spent his entire life to
was also due to the state of knowledge of science gather evidences re-proposed the theory of
and technology until the advent of geophysics continental drift. He compiled a considerable
(particularly seismology and magnetism) during amount of data, and suggested that during
the nineteenth century. However, the continental the late Permian, all the continents were
drift is the basic theory which evolved the concept once assembled into a supercontinent named
of plate tectonics, a revolution in geology. It is ‘Pangaea’, meaning all Earth. Pangaea
therefore necessary to learn both these aspects in began to break apart after the beginning
detail which are pivotal to understand many of of the Mesozoic Era, about 200 Ma ago,
different subjects within the scope of Geology. and continents then slowly drifted into their
current positions.
Do you know?
1937 South African geologist Alexander du
The theories of continental drift and plate
Toit supported to the theory by drawing maps
tectonics are evolved over four centuries as
accounted in the time line below : illustrating a northern supercontinent called
Laurasia (i.e. the assembled land mass of
1620 Francis Bacon noted ‘conformable
North America, Greenland, Europe and Asia)
instances’ along the opposite sides of the
as explanation for distribution of coal-forming
mapped Atlantic coastlines.
plants, and widely scattered coal deposits in
1858 Antonio Snider-Pellegrini suggested the Northern Hemisphere.
that ‘the continents were linked during
1944 Wegener's theory was also consistently
Carboniferous Period’. He observed that plant
promoted by an eminent British geologist and
fossils in coal-bearing strata of that age were
geomorphologist Arthur Holmes in 1930s and
similar in both Europe and North America.
1940s, through his renowned book ‘Principles
1885 The famous Austrian geologist Edward
of Physical Geology’.
Seuss identified similarities between plant
fossils from South America, India, Australia, 1940–1960 The ocean floor topography
Africa and Antarctica to suggest the name was discovered through improvements in

4
 geophysical surveying after World War II.
Harry Hess (captain in the US Navy, later
professor at Princeton), proposed ‘Seafloor Eurasia

Spreading’, a pivotal concept to continental

drift and plate tectonics North America

1961 The American geologists Robert Dietz,

Bruce Heezen and Harry Hess proposed that
Africa
the linear volcanic chains called mid-ocean South America

ridges in the ocean basins are the sites of India

ocean floor spreading. Antarctica

lia
tra
1963 Two British geologists, Fred Vine and

us
A
Drummond Matthews, finally proposed
Fig. 1.5 : Reconstruction of the supercontinent Pangea
a hypothesis that convincingly explained
He further gathered various evidences to
magnetic reversal stripes onto the ocean
prove that the Continents were drifted to present
floor. They suggested that the new oceanic
positions. The evidences used in support of conti-
crust formed in the process of ocean floor
nental drift hypothesis are shown in (fig . 1.6): A) Fit
spreading acquired its magnetisation in
of the continents, B) Fossil similarities across
the prevailing global magnetic field. By
continents, C) Matching of mountain ranges on
linking these observations to Hess's sea-
different continents, D) Rock types, structural
floor spreading model, they laid the most
similarities and E) Paleoclimate evidences.
convincing foundation and proof for modern A
plate tectonics.
1965 Canadian Professor J. Tuzo Wilson
offered a fundamental reinterpretation
of Wegener's continental drift theory and Africa
South America
became the first person to use the term ‘plates’
to describe the division and pattern of relative
movement between different regions of the
Earth's surface (i.e. plate tectonics).
1960s - Present day. There was an increasingly
wide acceptance of the theory of plate
tectonics gaining a better understanding of the B
boundaries and structure of the lithospheric
Fossil evidence
plates, with several modern tools of approach. AFRICA
INDIA of the Triassic
land reptile
Lystrosaurus
Continental Drift Theory :
Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA

1915 published in a book entitled ‘The Origin ANTARCTICA

of Continents and Oceans’. He proposed the

existence of Supercontinent called Pangaea that Fossils of the fern
Fossil remains of
began breaking apart about 200 million years Cynognathus, a Fossil remains of
the freshwater reptile
Glossopteris. Found in
all of the southem
Triassic land reptile continents. Show that
ago (fig. 1.5). approximately 3m long. Mesosaurus. they were once joined.

5
 C Caledonian nents broke through the ocean crust, much like ice
Mountains
breakers cut through ice was not convincing. The
British renewed interest in continental drift was support-
North Isles
America
Scandinavia ed by the ocean floor magnetic anomalies and the
Appalachian apparent polar wandering. Records from ocean
Mountains floor also explained the driving mechanism and
Africa forces. This encompassed the foundation to an-
other great theory called Plate tectonics.
South
America Plate Tectonics :
During the 1950’s and 1960’s new
D technology permitted extensive mapping of
the ocean floor which mainly benefited the
geoscience community to refine the continental
drift with scientific evidences. In 1963, Fred
Vine and D. Matthews linked the discovery of
North
America Europe magnetic stripes in the ocean crust near ridges
to Hess’s concept of seafloor spreading. They
revealed that the ridges were spreading and
Africa creating new crusts (fig. 1.7); and if dated they
South
America
can find the rate of sea floor spreading. These
rates of seafloor spreading are accurate to the
drifting of adjoining continents.
FORMATION OF MAGNETIC ANOMALIES AT A MID-OCEAN RIDGE

Present
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 Age before present
Continental shelf Normal Magnetic Polarity (millions of years)
Matching ancient
rock assemblages Calculated magnetic profile
Reversed Magnetic Polarity assuming seafloor spreading
E
Observed magnetic profile
Mid Ocean Ridge
form oceanographic survery
Africa

South
America
India
Lithosphere
Oceanlc crust Zone of magma injection, cooling, and http://usgs.gov
"locking in" of magnetic polarity

Antarctica Australia Enduring Resources for Earth Science Education - http://earthref.org/ERESE

http://earthref.org/cgi-bin/erda.cgi?n=212

Fig. 1.7 : Symmetry of anomaly pattern with respect

to ridge depicting the centre of spreading in opposite
Fig 1.6 : (A-E). Various evidences as foundation to the direction
theory of continental drift Plates are well defined by belts of seismicity
Major objection against the theory of conti- e.g. linear pattern of earthquake. Earthquakes
nental drift was its inability to provide a mech- are generated as the plates interact. Thus all
anism capable of moving continents across the the plates on the globe are interacting with each
globe. Wegener drift theory suggests that, conti- other (fig. 1.8)
6
 Fig. 1.8 : Major Lithospheric plates on the globe
Plate boundaries : of boundaries and new plate boundaries can be
All major interactions among individual created.
plates occur along their boundaries that are 1) Divergent plate boundaries :
classified into different types : (1) Divergent These boundaries are located along the
plate boundaries (also called constructive oceanic ridges where the ocean floor is spreading
margins); (2) Convergent plate boundaries and are called as constructive plate margins as
(destructive margins) and (3) Transform fault they form new plate material (fig. 1.9). Along
boundaries (conservative margins). Each plate well-developed divergent plate boundaries, the
is bounded by a combination of the three types seafloor is elevated forming the oceanic ridges.
Upwarping

Continental crust
A Lithosphere

Rift valley

Linear Sea

Mid-oceanic ridge

Rift

D Continental crust Oceanic crust

Fig. 1.9 : Development of Midoceanic Ridge in the ocean

7
 Continental rifts are a kind of divergent A Continental
volcanic arc
plate boundaries where the landmass is split into
two or more smaller segments. The best example
Trench
for such a boundary can be seen in East African Oceanic crust
rifts valleys (fig. 1.10) and the Rhine Valley in SubductingOc Continental crust Continental
ean Ethosphere
northern Europe. ic E
tho 100 km
sph
ere Melting
Asthenosphere
200 km

Volcanic island arc

B Trench

Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Oceanic Ethosphere her
e
hosp
ic Lit
Melting ean 100 km
g Oc
tin
Asthenosphere bd
uc
Su
200 km

Suture
Continental Continental
lithosphere lithosphere
100 km
late
ni cp
O cea Asthenosphere 200 km
Fig. 1.11 : Types of convergent plate boundaries

3) Transform fault boundaries :

Plates slide past one another without
creating/destroying any new lithosphere
as transform faults (fig. 1.12). Most of the
transform faults join two segments of a mid-
ocean ridge as parts of prominent linear breaks
Fig. 1.10 : East African Rift valley as an example of
divergent continental margin in the oceanic crust known as fracture zones.
Some interesting examples of Transform fault
2) Convergent plate boundaries :
are the San Andreas fault (USA) (fig. 1.13) and
Older portions of oceanic plates are the Alpine fault of New Zealand cutting through
returned to the mantle along the destructive continental crust.
plate margins. The descending plate forms Oceanic Ridge Crest

Transform Fault
an ocean trench called subduction zones (fig.
1.11). The plate dips at an average angle of
45° where it descends into the mantle. There Fracture
Zone

are three types of convergent plate boundaries. Fracture

Zone

A) Ocean – continent convergence

Oceanic
B) Ocean – ocean convergence Ridge Crest

C) Continent – continent convergence

Fig. 1.12 : Concept of transform fault

8
 CANADA sedimentation. The younger mountains achieve
JUAN
Souttle highest elevation as the rate of uplift exceeds
DE FUCA WASHINGTON
PLATE the rate of erosion e.g., Mount Everest (8848
Portland
Mandoclno
transform
m). Different mechanisms of mountain building
OREGON
process evolve into various types of mountains.
Cape Mandocino
Point Arena
CA There are four main types of mountains: i)
Tomales Bay NEVADA fold mountains, ii) fault-block mountains, iii)
LI

San Francisco
FO

Santa Cruz U. S. A. volcanic mountains, and iv) relict mountain.

RN

San Juan Bautista

IA

Sa
n
Fold Mountains are formed when two plates
An
Los Angeles dre
ss collide or a compressive force is developed within
ARIZONA
Fa

a plate. Many of the world's great mountain

ul
t

ranges are fold mountains including the Andes,

PACIFIC OCEAN
Himalayas, and the Rockies.
M E X I C O
Fault-block Mountains are formed along
Gulf of California fault lines and either side of the fault are called
fault blocks. Some of the fault blocks are pushed
0 200 400 Km.
up, while others are pushed down resulting in the
0 200 400 Mi.
difference in elevation. Satpuras and Vindhyans
Fig. 1.13 : San Andreas Transform Faults are considered as fault-block mountains.
Types of Mountains : Volcanic Mountains are caused by volcanic
Mountains express the dynamics of the activity when magma erupts all the way to the
interior of the Earth and hence are very significant surface of the Earth. The hot magma will cool
in understanding plate tectonics. They are positive and harden forming a mountain. Examples of the
relief structures or landforms rising above the volcanic mountains include Mount Fuji in Japan
surrounding land. Mountain building involves a and Barren island in the Bay of Bengal, the only
combination of movements and processes such active volcano in India.
as upliftment, folding, deformation, faulting, Relict type of mountains are formed by
metamorphism, igneous activity, erosion and differential erosion e.g. Sahyadris.

Do you know?
Mountain ranges of India : India is a unique country representing almost all kinds of mountain
types of the world. Below is the summary of information on some of the important mountain
ranges of India. Students may search a map of India from reliable web resources to locate the
mountains listed in the table as an activity.
Mountains Salient Features
Karakoram Range A sub range of the Hindu Kush Himalaya, K2, the second highest peak in the world
is located here
Famous Glaciers : Siachen Glacier, Biafo Glacier.
Ladakh Range Southeastern extension of the Karakoram Range. from the mouth of the Shyok
River in Ladakh to the border with Tibet
Zanskar Range Boundary line between Ladakh region of Kashmir & remaining two regions of the
state i.e. Jammu and Kashmir
Highest peak : Kamet. Coldest place in India: Dras (The Gateway to Ladakh)
Famous Passes : Shipki, Lipu Lekh (Lipulieke), and Mana Pass

9
Pirpanjal Range Separates Jammu Hills to the south from the Kashmir (Kashmir Valley), beyond
which lie the Great Himalayas
Highest Point : Indrasan. India’s longest rail tunnel known as Pir Panjal Railway
Tunnel, Banihal road tunnel
Famous Passes : Pir Panjal Pass, Banihal Pass, Rohtang pass
Dhauladhar Range Spread in J & K and Himachal, with home to major hill stations like Kullu, Manali
(White Range) & Shimla
Highest peak : Hanuman ji Ka Tiba, or ‘White Mountain’
Shivalik Range Southernmost & Outer Himalayas also known as Manak Parbat in ancient times.
About 2,400 km long from Indus till Brahmaputra.
Aravali Range Means ‘line of peaks’, runs across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana & Delhi, and
Mewar hills
Highest Peak : Gurushikhar, Mt Abu. Famous passes : Pipli Ghat, Haldi Ghat.
Kaimur Range Eastern portion of the Vindhya Range in MP, UP & Bihar, Parallel to river Son
Mahadeo Range Forms the central part of the Satpura Range, located in MP. Highest peak :
Dhoopgarh
Ajanta Range Maharashtra, south of river Tapi, sheltering caves of world famous paintings of
Gupta period
Rajmahal Hills In Jharkhand, made up of basaltic rocks, Point of Ganges bifurcation,
Garo Khasi Jaintia Continuous mountain range in Meghalaya a group of hills located to the south of
Hills, Mikir Hills the Kaziranga National Park (Assam), a part of the Karbi Anglong Plateau
Abor Hills Hills of Arunachal Pradesh , near the border with China, bordered by Mishmi and
Miri Hills
Mishmi Hills In Arunachal Pradesh with its northern & eastern parts touching China. Situated
at the junction of North Eastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma ranges
Patkai Range Also known as Purvanchal Range, consist of three major hills. The Patkai-Bum,
the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and Lushai Hills
situated on India’s north-eastern border with Burma
Vindhya Range A complex, discontinuous chain of mountain ridges, hill ranges, highlands &
plateaus running through Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
Highest peak – Sadbhawna Shikhar.
Satpura Range A range of hills in central India. Passes through Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh
Highest peak : Dhupgarh
Dalma Hills Located in Jamshedpur, famous for Dalma national park & minerals like iron ore
& manganese
Girnar Hills Gujarat
Harishchandra At Pune, acts as a water divide between Godavari & Krishna, hills made up of
Deccan basaltic lava
Balaghat range Between MP & Maharashtra, famous for manganese deposits.
Nilgiri Hills Referred as Blue mountains, a range of mountains in the westernmost part of
Tamil Nadu at the junction of Karnataka and Kerala
Hills are separated from the Karnataka plateau to the north by the Moyar River
and from the Anaimalai Hills & Palni Hills to the south by the Palghat Gap

10
 Palani Hills Eastward extension of the Western Ghats ranges,adjoin the high Anamalai range
on the west, and extend east into the plains of Tamil Nadu
Anamalai Hills Also known as Elephant Hill. A range of mountains in the Western Ghats in Tamil
Nadu and Kerala with highest peak Anamudi
Cardmom Hills Part of the southern, Western Ghats located in southeast Kerala and southwest
Tamil Nadu
Pachamalai Hills Also known as the Pachais, Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu

Summary : activities such as plate tectonics.

x Surface of the Earth is an expression of the x Plate tectonics is one of the most important
dynamic processes that are occurring in the phenomenon which explains several important
interior of the Earth. processes occurring on the surface.
x The Earth's interior is divided into several x Mountain ranges are the locations where the
compositional and thermal layers interacting signatures of the Earth's internal dynamics
with each other by conduction, convection since geological past are evident and can be
or advection resulting into many dynamic studied readily by geologists.

EXERCISE

Q. 1. Choose the correct alternative : b) Volcanic mountains

1) The difference between the temperature of c) Domal mountains
Universe and the interior of the Earth is of the d) Fold mountains
order of
Q. 2. Very short answer :
a) 2000° C b) 10000° C
1) How do the convection currents maintain the
c) 600° C d) 6000° C
temperature of the mantle?
2) The lower boundary of mantle convection is set 2) What controls the temperature gradient of the
at about …… Km from the surface of the Earth. Earth?
a) 5000 km b) 2000 km
3) What is the main driving force for plate motion?
c) 2900 km d) 300 km
4) Why has the radius of the Earth increased from
3) Although the inner core and outer core are of its very early stage of formation?
approximately the same composition (Fe-Ni),
Q. 3. Short answer :
the inner core remains solid due to
a) Increase in melting point of the compound 1) Write down any two major points describing
due to increase in Pressure. the difference between Continental crust and
b) Decrease in melting point of the compound Oceanic crust.
due to increase in Pressure 2) The Himalaya and Sahayadri are two different
c) Increase in melting point of the compound types of mountains, justify this sentence.
due to decrease in Pressure 3) Mention any two most important properties of
d) The source of heat is in the outer core. asthenosphere.
4) When two plates collide, they are likely to 4) Give any two examples of the continental
form landmasses that broke up as a result of break-
a) Fault-block mountains up of the supercontinent PANGEA.

11
Q. 4. Short answer : so that next we can ask what material will match the
1) Give any three evidences that indicate the density at any specified depth”.
continents have drifted. Quoted from : The Inaccessible Earth: An integrated
2) Describe how magnetic strips on the ocean view to its structure and composition By Brown and
floor explain the Plate tectonics. Musset p.2
3) Give an example of the divergent continental 1) What does the authors wants to indicate
margin. by saying “reasonable precision when
4) Describe how relict type of mountains are determination of the density”.
formed. 2) How is the density of such a large body like the
Earth's is determined?
Q. 5. Long answer :
3) How the composition of the material at great
1) Describe what tectonic activity is undergoing at
depths in the interior of the Earth is determined?
the western margin of South American plate.
4) What is the interrelation of density, mass,
2) Describe what are the limitations of Continental
temperature and pressure?
drift theory and how the theory of Plate tectonics
resolved them. Q. 7. Unseen para :
3) Describe different types of plate boundaries “A theory of mantle convection is a dynamical
and exemplify then with the Indian-Australian theory of geology, in that it describes the forces that
plate. give rise to the motions apparent in the deformation
4) Write a short note on the San Andreas Transform of the Earth's crust and in earthquakes and to the
fault of North America. magmatism and metamorphism that has repeatedly
affected the crust. Such a dynamical theory is a
5) Give an account on the internal layering of the
more fundamental one than plate tectonics, which
Earth.
is a kinematic theory it describes the motions of
Q. 6. Assessing Unseen para : plates but not the forces that move them. Also plate
“To find out whether these changes are tectonics does not encompass mantle plumes, which
due to changes of composition, temperature or comprise a distinct mode of mantle convection”.
other parameters, we turn to density, which is Quoted from : Dynamic Earth: Plates, Plumes and
the most useful quantity that can be determined Mantle Convection - GEOFFREY F. DAVIES p.4
with reasonable precision. Density is deduced
1) In what way the author emphasizes that the
by combining information from seismology with
Earth's crust is linked to the mantle?
knowledge of the mass of the Earth, deduced from
its gravitational attraction, and its moment of inertia, 2) Distinguish between some of the kinematic and
determined from the movement, or precession, of its dynamic aspects of the Earth.
axis of rotation. The resulting density variation with 3) How the author emphasize mantle plume to
depth inside the Earth is not uniquely determined, but explain both dynamic and kinematic changes
it is known within fairly close limits at most depths, of the Earth.

‹‹‹

12
 2 Petrology

Minerals of the igneous rock are broadly

Introduction :
classified into two groups viz. i) Primary
Petrology is the branch of geology,
and ii) Secondary. Primary minerals are the
which deals with the study of rocks. The
minerals which have developed as a result
term petrology is derived from the Greek
of crystallization from magma or lava (i.e.,
word ‘petros’ meaning rocks and ‘logos’
pyrogenetic minerals), while secondary
meaning study. Petrology, therefore,
minerals are those which are formed after the
includes the mineralogical, textural and
solidification of the rock either by alteration of
chemical description of rocks along with the primary minerals or by precipitation from
their geological origin, mode of occurrence solution, in voids or vesicles of rocks.
and their relation to the physico-chemical
Primary minerals can be grouped into two,
environment of the Earth. Petrological
viz., 1) essential and 2) accessory.
studies are carried out under two major
heads as follows, viz, Essential minerals are necessary for the
classification, identification or nomenclature
a) Petrography : Description and systematic
of the rock. Accessory minerals are present in
classification of rocks
small amounts and are therefore, not important
b) Petrogenesis : Studies of the origin / in the nomenclature e.g., in granite, quartz and
genesis of the rocks feldspar are essential minerals, while biotite and
Rock is an aggregate of minerals. Most / or hornblende are accessory minerals. Presence
rocks are composed of two or more minerals or absence of accessory minerals does not make
(e.g. granite). However, a few are composed any difference in nomenclature of rocks.
of a single mineral (e.g., dunite). Some rocks Secondary minerals are those which are
may also contain fossil remains of plants formed from secondary solutions in cavities of
and animals (fossiliferous limestone) or they igneous rocks, most commonly found in volcanic
may be formed by recrystallization of pre- igneous rocks, e.g., calcite, zeolites etc.
existing rocks (e.g. marble). The minerals may be felsic or mafic. The
IGNEOUS PETROLOGY felsic minerals are light in colour, with low
The first formed rocks on the Earth are specific gravity, e.g., minerals from silica
igneous/ primary rocks. The term igneous, is and feldspar groups. Mafic minerals are dark
derived from the Latin word ‘igneus’ meaning coloured, with higher specific gravity, e.g.,
fire. They are formed through cooling and minerals belonging to pyroxene, amphibole,
solidification of magma or lava. These rocks mica, olivine groups and iron ores.
may form with or without crystallization either Rocks are described as a) phaneric or
below the surface, as intrusive (plutonic) rocks phanero-crystalline, if their minerals can be
or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. distinguished separately with the naked eye, e.g.
Magma, may be derived from melting of pre- a coarse grained rock like granite. b) rocks, in
existing rocks either in the mantle or in crust. which the mineral grains cannot be distinguished
One or more processes such as increase in by the naked eye, are described as aphanitic,
temperature, decrease in pressure, or change in e.g. a fine grained rock like basalt or rhyolite.
composition cause melting. (fig. 2.1)
13
Classification of Igneous rocks : coloured and are called melanocratic, such
1) Based on mode of occurrence : Igneous as, basic rocks which are rich in augite,
rocks formed at great depths inside the hornblende and olivine (e.g., basalt).
Earth are called plutonic rocks. The name d) Ultrabasic rocks are very dark in colour and
is derived from Greek God of underworld hence, are classified as hyper-melanocratic
– Pluto. They have a slow rate of cooling (e.g. peridotite).
and are characterized by a coarse grained,
equigranular texture. Granite is a typical
plutonic rock.
Rocks, which solidify on the Earth’s
surface from lava, are described as volcanic
rocks. The lavas may have erupted either
from a volcano or through fissures. A very
rapid rate of cooling of the lava makes
these rocks fine grained or even glassy. a) Phaneric

They show characteristic features such as

vesicles, amygdales and flow structure.
Volcanic rocks may show inequigranular
textures under the microscope, e.g., basalt.
The hypabyssal rocks consolidate at a
depth in between volcanic and plutonic
depths. They show characters which are
intermediate between plutonic and the b) Aphanitic
volcanic rocks, e.g., dolerite. Fig 2.1 : Degree of crystallinity
2) Based on SiO2 percentage : The percentage Textures of Igneous rocks :
of SiO2 in a rock decides the nomenclature Texture describes the mutual relationship
of the igneous rock as : of the minerals and /or glass, contained in a
a) Acidic with SiO2 greater than 65% e.g. rock. It takes into account relative amounts of
granite; crystalline and glassy matter, as well as the size,
b) Intermediate with SiO2 - 55 - 65%; e.g. shape and the arrangement of minerals.
syenite a) Equigranular texture : If rock consists of
c) Basic with SiO2 - 45 - 55% e.g. basalt and mineral grains of almost equal size, it is
d) Ultrabasic with less than 45% SiO2 e.g. said to possess an equigranular texture. As
peridotite this texture is characteristically exhibited
3) Based on colour index : by granite it is also known as Granitic
a) Rocks rich in felsic minerals are often light texture (fig. 2.2).
coloured and are termed as leucocratic b) Inequigranular texture : If the rock
i.e., acidic rocks which contain essentially possesses mineral grains and other
quartz and alkali feldspar (e.g., granite). constituents like glass having different
b) Intermediate igneous rocks have a colour sizes, it is said to exhibit inequigranular
index between acidic and basic rocks and texture e.g. porphyritic texture, where large
are called mesocratic (e.g., syenite). crystals called phenocrysts are embedded in a
c) Rocks rich in mafic minerals are dark matrix of finer grains or glassy groundmass.
14
 Porphyritic texture is typically shown by Structures of Igneous Rocks :
some volcanic rocks like basalt (fig. 2.3). They are large and easily recognizable
features to the naked eye. Structures provide
information about genesis of the rock.
Some of the common igneous structures are
as follows :
i) Vesicular structure : Magma erupts on
the surface in the form of lava . When lava
is rich in gaseous content i.e., volatiles it
erupts and gases escape into the atmosphere
Fig. 2.2 : Equigranular leaving behind the cavities of various
shapes and sizes. These cavities are called
vesicles and the resulting structure is called
vesicular structure e.g. vesicular basalt.
Vesicles can also be pipe shaped.
ii) Amygdaloidal structure : Vesicles can
subsequently get filled by secondary
minerals such as calcite, zeolites and
varieties of silica. Such filled vesicles are
Fig. 2.3 : Inequigranular (Porphyritic) called amygdales. The rock is then said
Tabular Classification of Igneous rocks : to exhibit amygdaloidal structure e.g.
Interme- Ultra- Amygdaloidal basalt (fig. 2.4)
Acidic Basic
diate basic
Depth of
occurrence Silica> Silica Silica 45 Silica
55 -
65% -55 % <45%
65 %

Plutonic Granite Syenite Gabbro Dunite

Hypa- Pegma-
Texture becomes finer

Dolerite
byssal tite
Fig. 2.4 : Amygdaloidal basalt
Volcanic Rhyolite Trachyte Basalt iii) Ropy structure : Lavas of basic
composition are mobile, due to low viscosity
Ess- and can flow greater distances. During this
Ess-
Quartz, Ess- Feldspar, process, their upper surface gets wrinkled
Feld- Feld- Augite
Mineral spar. resembling ropes. This structure is termed
spar. Acc-Ol- Olivine
content Acc-Bi- Acc- ivine as ropy structure.
otite, Quartz Quartz
Horn- absent iv) Columnar structure : During rapid cooling
blende

Colour Leuco- Meso- Melano-

Hyper of basic lava, number of cooling centres are
melano- developed. Lava tries to aggregate around
Index cratic cratic cratic
cratic
[Ess - essential, Acc - Accessory] these centres. It is the result of contraction
Quartz content reduces as Silica % decreases of lava during cooling. Due to this, tensile
stress is developed. At right angles to the
15
 stress direction, vertical joints or cracks are cover an area from a few meters to many square
formed. Such joints results in the formation kilometers. The Deccan plateau of western India
of hexagonal or polygonal columns, giving is the example of lava flows.
rise to columnar structure e.g. Columnar B) Intrusive bodies :
basalt. The forms of Intrusive bodies are dependent
v) Pillow structure : This structure is most upon viscosity of magma and the structure of
commonly observed when hot lava erupts the rocks they intrude. Igneous intrusive bodies
under water. In this structure, the volcanic are classified as concordant and discordant
igneous body appears as pile of numerous depending on their structural relation with the
overlapping pillows or sacks stacked one host rock. Concordant bodies are more or less
above the other. parallel to the structure of the host rocks and
As the lava flows, its upper surface gets discordant bodies cut across the host rocks.
solidified immediately due to contact with 1) Concordant igneous bodies :
water, hence crust of a pillow shows glassy a) Sill : Sill means shelf or slab of stone. It
texture. is a tabular sheet of igneous rock intruded
Types of Igneous bodies : between and parallel to the existing strata.
The magma rising from mantle may or They are thin tabular sheets of magma
may not reach the surface of the Earth forming which have been intruded along the
extrusive or intrusive igneous bodies respectively bedding planes or foliations. They show
(fig. 2.5) nearly parallel upper and lower margins
and pinch out with distance. Their thickness
A) Extrusive bodies :
may vary from a few meters to hundreds of
When lava travelling through fissures and
meters and may extend laterally for few
volcanoes cools rapidly at the Earth's surface it
kilometres. On the basis of their origin, sills
forms Extrusive igneous bodies.
are differentiated into simple, multiple and
Lava flows : composite types. Simple sill is formed by
The only extrusive form of igneous bodies a single intrusion. Multiple sills are formed
is lava flows. Their thicknesses may range by two or more intrusions. Composite sills
from few centimetres to hundreds of meters and consist of more than one rock type, formed
volcano

parasitic
cone

e
dyk
lith
co
lac
sill
phacoli
ths form
ed in
saucer-shaped lopolith anticlin
es and sy
nclines

sill

batholith

Fig. 2.5 : Concordant and discordant Igneous bodies

16
 by more than one intrusive episode. several kilometres.
b) Laccolith : The term laccolith is derived Dykes are frequently more resistant to
from the Greek word ‘lakkos’ meaning a erosion than the enclosing rocks and tend
cistern and ‘litho’ meaning stone. It is a to project as ‘walls’ above the surface.
bun shaped structure having a flat base and However, dykes can also be excavated
domed top and does not spread very far, out to form a ‘trench’ due to weathering
tends to heaps itself up around the orifice and erosion. Many a times dykes bake and
of the eruption. The strata above it are harden the adjacent country rock on either
generally lifted up in the form of an inverted side. They may occur as isolated bodies
bowl. Laccolith may be a few Kilometers or as ‘swarms’. Dykes may be vertical,
in diameter and about thousands of meters inclined, ring shaped, radiating or arcuate
thick. in nature. Outwardly dipping dykes from a
common centre are called as ‘cone sheet’.
c) Lopolith : Lenticular, centrally sunken
saucer or basin-like concordant igneous b) Batholith : The term Batholith is derived
bodies are called as lopoliths. In Greek from Greek word ‘bathos’ meaning
‘lopos’ mean basin. Generally, their depth. Batholiths are large scale igneous
thickness varies by 1/10th to 1/20th of their intrusions. They have extremely large
width, and diameters range from tens to dimensions, with steeply dipping walls.
hundreds of kilometers. The characteristic They extend on the surface up to thousands
shape is the result of sagging caused by the of kilometres with irregular outline. They
weight of intruding magma. are generally granitic in composition.
Stock and boss are offshoots of batholiths
d) Phacolith : The Greek word ‘phaco’
where stock is irregular in shape and boss is
meaning lens. These are crescent shaped
more or less circular and both are less than
structures found in highly folded regions.
100 sq. kms in aerial extent. A roof pendant
They are formed at the crests and troughs
is a pendant shaped body of country rock
of folds which are regions of weakness and
hanging from the roof of the batholith.
tension. They exhibit doubly convex lens- Xenoliths are fragments of country rocks
like form. found within the batholiths.
2) Discordant igneous bodies : SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY
Discordant igneous bodies show cross Sedimentary rocks are one of the three main
cutting relationship with the structures of the rock groups, along with igneous and metamorphic
host rocks. They are described as follows : rocks. They are formed as a result of :
a) Dyke : The word Dyke is derived from 1) Deposition of the weathered remains of
the Scottish term ‘dike’ meaning a wall of other rocks.
stone. Dyke is a vertical or near vertical 2) Biogenic activity and.
wall-like body of igneous rock intruded 3) Precipitation from solution.
into the older rocks. They cut across the Formation of Sedimentary Rocks :
foliation or bedding of the country rocks. It Formation of sedimentary rocks is a slow
is a narrow, elongated, parallel sided wall process that may require millions of years.
of igneous rock. Its thickness varies from a Sedimentary rock formation begins when the
few centimetres to many meters. Similarly pre-existing rocks are exposed to weathering
its length can vary from a few meters to processes.
17
 The formation of sedimentary rocks of pore spaces and water within them. The
involves five different processes as shown in dissolved minerals get precipitated in these
fig. 2.6 : pore spaces to act as cement binding the
1) Weathering : The first step is transforming minerals.
solid rock into smaller fragments or Classification of sedimentary rocks :
dissolved ions by physical and chemical By considering the manner in which the
weathering. detritus (particles of sediment) is distributed,
2) Erosion : Erosion begins with the transported and deposited, a simple, tabular
transportation of the weathered products classification for sedimentary rocks, based on the
from their original location. This can take products of weathering is depicted in table 2.1.
place by gravity, running water, wind, or Products of Weathering
moving ice.
Residual Sedimentary deposits
3) Transportation : Sediment can be (non-transported) (transported deposits)
transported by sliding down slopes, being e.g. Laterite,
picked up by the wind, or carried by running Bauxite, Soils (based on type of transport)
water. Longer transportation of sediments Transported in suspension Transported in solution
results into finer sediments. (based on average grain size)
4) Deposition : Sediments are deposited when
the energy of the transporting medium drops Rudaceous Arenaceous Argillaceous
(256 to 2 mm) (2 to 0.06 mm) (< 0.06 mm)
resulting in their settling. The final sediment (boulders, pebbles (sand) (clay, dust and mud)
cobbles and gravels)
thus reflects the energy of the transporting
e.g. Conglomerate Sandstone Shale, Mudstone
medium. Breccia
(based on type of deposition)
5) Lithification and cementation :
Lithification is the process that converts
Chemical deposits Organic deposits
sediments into sedimentary rock. The (precipitation, (activity of animals
evaporation etc.) and plants)
processes of compaction and cementation
are involved in this change. Increased load e.g. Chemical limestone Coral / Shell limestone
of overlying sediments results in reduction Table 2.1: Products of Weathering

Erosion
Particles carried away
from their source by
water or wind Deposition
Particles deposited
as loosely packed
sediment

Compaction
Particles squeezed
together under
great pressure

Key Compaction
Particles glued
Increasing together as mineral
pressure solutions harden

Fig.
Fi 2.6
2 6 Processes
P involved
i l d in
i formation
f ti off sedimentary
di t rocks
k

18
1) Non-transported (Residual deposits) by rolling or creeping. e.g. Conglomerates-
2) Transported deposits in which constituent grains are rounded,
1) Non-transported (Residual deposits) : (fig. 2.8 a) and breccia in which constituent
These are also known as sedentary grains are angular (fig. 2.8 b).
deposits formed due to accumulation
and consolidation of the materials which
were left behind as residue. These are the
insoluble products of rock weathering. e.g.
Laterite and bauxite (fig. 2.7. a and b).

a) Conglomerate

a) Laterite

b) Breccia
Fig. 2.8 : a and b : Examples of Rudaceous rocks
(ii) Arenaceous rocks (Arenites) : These
rocks consist of sand-sized grains. They are
transported by either saltation or suspension.
b) Bauxite Grain size ranges between 2 mm and
Fig. 2.7 : a and b : Examples of residual deposits 1/16 mm. e.g. siliceous sandstone and (b)
2) Transported deposits : They are formed ferruginous sandstone (fig. 2.9. a and b)
from the materials that have been
transported mechanically by saltation,
traction and suspension or chemically in
solution. Besides, some organic processes
also play an active role in the formation of
transported deposits. These are classified
into two groups :
a) Siliceous sandstone
A) Clastic rocks B) Non-clastic rocks
A) Clastic rocks : These detrital rock
fragments are carried and deposited by
mechanical means and later cemented. On
the basis of grain size, the clastic rocks are
further classified as :
(i) Rudaceous rocks (Rudites) : Very coarse
grained rocks with grain size more than 2
mm in diameter. Boulders, cobbles, pebbles b) Ferruginous sandstone
and gravel are transported by traction i.e. Fig. 2.9 : a and b: Examples of arenaceous rocks

19
 Do you know? (b) Shale : It is made up of clay particles,
Wentworth’s scheme of classification usually transported in suspension e.g.
of grain size. Claystone, Mudstone, Shale etc. Their
grain size is finer than Silt rocks i.e., less
Size Name Group Consolidated
range of Rocks
than 1/16 mm. Shales normally exhibit
(mm) particle laminations (fig. 2.11).
>256 Boulder Conglomerate,
Breccia
>64 Cobble
Rudaceous
>4 Pebble
>2 Gravel
>1 Very Sandstone,
coarse Arkose, Grit
sand
>1/2 Coarse Fig. 2.11 : Shale
sand B) Non-clastic rocks : These are the rocks
>1/4 Medium formed due to chemical precipitation as
sand well as due to the activity of biological
>1/8 Fine agents. They are of two types :
sand Arenaceous i) Chemical deposits ii) Organic deposits
>1/16 Very
fine
i) Chemical deposits : They may be formed
sand a) Due to evaporation of saturated solutions,
>1/32 Coarse Siltstone giving rise to deposits of Salt and Gypsum
silt (fig. 2.12)
>1/64 Medium
silt
Argillaceous
>1/128 Fine silt
>1/256 Very
fine silt
<1/256 Clay Claystone

(iii) Argillaceous rocks (Argillite) :

(a) Siltstone : Constituent particles in siltstone
a) Salt
are finer than sand and coarser than clay.
These grains are transported by suspension.
(fig. 2.10).

b) Gypsum
Fig. 2.10 : Siltstone Fig. 2.12. a and b : Examples of chemical deposits

20
 b) As a result of reaction between the e) Carbonaceous : Coal is a product of
components carried in solution e.g. siliceous deposition and burial of plant matter
(chert fig. 2.13 and flint), ferruginous (fig. 2.15).
and carbonate (limestone fig. 2.13 and
dolomite) deposits.

Fig. 2.14 : Fossiliferous Limestones

Fig. 2.13 : a) Chert

Fig. 2.15 : Coal

Texture and structures of sedimentary rocks :

Fig. 2.13 : b) Limestone 1) Clastic texture :
ii) Organic deposits : These are products of Loose detrital fragments derived from
accumulation of organic matter preserved weathering of pre-existing rocks undergo erosion
under suitable conditions. The deposition and transportation. They are finally deposited
may be bio- chemical or bio-mechanical. and are bound together by fine grained particles
Organic deposits are of five types : known as the matrix. This arrangement of grains
a) Siliceous : Radiolarian ooze; diatomites. and the matrix after compaction gives rise to
b) Calcareous : These deposits are formed clastic texture (fig. 2.16).
as a result of biomechanical as well as
biochemical processes eg. Fossiliferous
Limestone (fig. 2.14), Chalk, Marl etc.
c) Phosphatic : Calcium Phosphate is utilized
by certain organisms, especially fish and
brachiopod which are consumed by birds
and bats. The bird and bats droppings
accumulate in heaps and later get Fig 2.16 : Conglomerate showing clastic texture
transformed into ‘Guano’. 2) Sedimentary Structures :
d) Ferruginous : These deposits are formed The process of deposition usually imparts
by biochemical oxidation of Fe carried variations in layering, bed forms or other
in solution in bogs and deposited as bog- structures that give clues to the depositional
iron ore. environment.
21
I) Stratification and bedding : bedded strata are useful indicators of
a) Stratification : It is layering formed during current direction and tops and bottoms of
deposition. Stratification results by changes the beds (fig. 2.19).
in depositional conditions with time. (fig.
2.17)

Fig. 2.19 : Cross bedding

iii) Graded Bedding : As current velocity

Fig. 2.17 : Bedding in sedimentary rocks decreases, the larger or heavier particles are
b) Bedding : The beds in sedimentary rocks deposited first, followed by finer particles
are evident because of differences in (fig. 2.20 a and b). This results in bedding
mineralogy, clast size and degree of sorting showing a decrease in grain size from the
or colour of the different layers (fig. 2.17). bottom of the bed to the top of the bed. This
i) Planar bedding : It is the simplest helps in determining top and bottom of beds.
sedimentary structure formed generally
in all sedimentary environments and also
under a variety of depositional conditions Top Fine
(fig. 2.18).

Graded Medium
Ded

Coarse
Bottom
Fig. 2.20 : a) - Graded bedding

Fig. 2.18 : Planar bedding

ii) Cross Bedding : It consists of sets of beds

that are inclined relative to each other.
The beds are inclined in the direction of
movement of the wind or water. Boundaries
between sets of cross beds usually represent
an erosional surface. It is very common
in beach deposits, sand dunes and river
deposits. Individual beds within cross- Fig. 2.20 : b) Graded bedding in sedimentary rocks

22
iv) Ripple marks : It is the wavy pattern seen dehydration and melting of the earlier minerals.
on mud or sand deposits. Ripple marks are a) Geothermal gradient, proximity of magma or
produced by wave action when the sand emplaced igneous rocks and the ascending gases
is moved up and down in an oscillatory and get solutions from the Earth's interior are
motion by wind or water. Ripples can be responsible for the rise in tempature.
symmetrical or asymmetrical (fig. 2.21). b) During metamorphism, pressure may act in
two ways viz. i) confining or uniform pressure
and ii) Directed pressure or stress.
i) Confining pressure is a non-directional
and uniform pressure resulting from the waight
of the overlying rocks. Confining pressure
increases with depth.
ii) Directed pressure, is most effective in
techonically active zones of the lithosphere.
Reduction in melting point of minerals, thereby
Fig. 2.21 : Ripple marks in Sedimentary rocks increasing ther solubility, is the effect of directed
pressure.
METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY :
Metamorphic, (Meta=other; morph=form) c) Accelaration of metamorphic reactions by
heating the rocks in contact is possible due to the
rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks are
high temperature chemically active fluids rising
transformed into new rocks by heat, pressure
from the magma chember.
and chemically active fluids below the Earth’s
surface or along the boundary of tectonic plates. Types of metamorphism :
The predominant agent of metamorphism
In general, metamorphism means a partial or
defines the kind of metamorphism. Thus, the
complete re-crystallisation of minerals in the major kinds of metamorphism are :
pre-existing rocks and the production of new (a) Cataclastic, (b) Thermal or contact and
structures. Therefore, metamorphic rocks result (c) Dynamo-thermal metamorphism.
when the pre-existing rocks lose their stability (a) Cataclastic metamorphism : It is a
due to the pronounced changes of temperature, metamorphism in which directed pressure
pressure and chemical environments, below (or stress) plays the major role. The directed
the shell of weathering and have re-established pressure mechanically breaks down the pre-
stability by adjusting to the new environment. existing rocks giving rise to crushing and
Thus, metamorphism is ‘response of solid fracturing, but without the formation of any
new mineral in the affected rock. This causes
rocks to the pronounced changes in temperature,
the lamination of the argillaceous rocks to
pressure and chemically active fluids’.
get deformed with the development of slaty
Agents of metamorphism : cleavages (e.g. shale metamorphoses into
Metamorphism results because of slate).
the changes in the physical and chemical (b) Thermal or contact metamorphism :
environment of the original or pre-existing rock. Rocks are thermally metamorphosed
The agents responsible for metamorphic changes when they are intruded by magma and the
are : high temperature of the magma heats the
country rocks. The pressure (either directed
(a) Temperature, (b) Pressure and (c) Presence
or uniform) effects are almost negligible
of chemically active fluids. and recrystallization occurs due to thermal
Temperature plays a major role in the metamorphism. Hence, the calcareous rocks
chemical processes of metamorphism such as like limestone and arenaceous rocks like
23
 sandstone develop a granulose structure when directed pressure, the sedimentary rocks
thermally metamorphosed. Limestone forms like limestones and sandstones simply
Marble and Sandstone forms Quartzite. recrystallize to give marble (fig. 2.23 a)
(c) Dynamothermal metamorphism : and quartzite (fig. 2.23 b) respectively.
Dynamothermal metamorphism involves
both high temperature and high pressure
effects at a high level. The pre-existing
rocks are therefore, subjected to more or less
complete recrystallisation and result in the
development of new structures. Foliation
is a characteristic feature and the typical
rocks are schists and gneisses.
Intensity of dynamothermal meta-
morphism increases with depth. Hence,
in the initial stages of metamorphism, the Fig. 2.23 : a) Marble exhibiting Granulose structure
argillaceous rocks like shales are altered They show interlocking grains of
to Phyllites and with further increase calcite and quartz respectivelyof almost
in temperature and pressure, schists are equal size with polygonal shapes.
developed. At much higher temperature and
pressure gneisses are formed.
Structures of metamorphic rocks :
The structures of metamorphic rocks are
formed by the deformation and recrystallisation
of the minerals in the preexisting rocks. The
different metamorphic structures are 1) slaty
cleavage, 2) granulose, 3) schistose and
4) gneissose.
Fig 2.23 : b) Quartzite exhibiting Granulose structure
1) Slaty cleavage : The slaty cleavage
results from the flattening and rotation 3) Schistose structure : This structure is
of mineral fragments under the action marked by the linear or parallel arrangement
of directed pressure (fig. 2.22). When of minerals in a direction perpendicular to
the argillaceous rocks are subjected the maximum stress (fig. 2.24)
to cataclastic metamorphism it results
in the formation of slates, which are
generally rich in micaceous minerals.

Fig. 2.24 : Muscovite exhibiting Schistose structure

Fig. 2.22 : Slate exhibiting slaty cleavage
The schistose structure is developed
due to the unidirectional alignment of the
2) Granulose structure : This structure is
minerals such as biotite, muscovite, chlorite
developed by thermal metamorphism in
and talc, which are flaky and hornblende
which original rock undergoes only re-
which is prismatic with a columnar or
crystallisation. As there is no action of
rod-like appearance. These structures are

24
 developed with high temperatures and with and marble. Rocks durable to weathering are
strong directed pressures or stress. Because appropriate for roofing e.g. slate, limestone.
of directed pressure, the minerals form Owing to its attractive colour and softness,
layers or folia arranged in parallel layers or marble is used for decorative purpose and for
bands. This parallel alignment of the flaky sculpture or face work of buildings. Laterites are
or the platy minerals characteristically suitable for small-scale constructions. Neatly
gives rise to foliation in metamorphic rocks, dressed sandstone can be suitable for walls.
which is also called as schistose structure. For superstructure construction, rock should
4) Gneissose Structure : This structure is be easily workable and available in plenty.
developed when the original rock possesses Thus, different rocks are suitable for different
both flaky minerals and quartz. The flaky purposes, by virtue of their special physical
minerals like mica give rise to a schistose properties which are inherent and characteristic
band while the hard and resistant minerals to them.
like quartz and feldspar recrystallize to Building stones :
form a granulose band. For construction of large civil structures
When both, granulose and schistose like dams, highways, bridges, tunnels etc, an
bands alternate with each other, they engineer must know the engineering properties
give rise to gneissose structure which of rocks, such as strength, durability, colour,
is a composite structure (fig. 2.25) appearance, workability etc. These properties
are very important because different rocks are
suitable for specific purposes and no rock is
ideal or best suited for all kinds of constructions.
According to the need of construction a building
stone is cut and shaped. All tests are performed
in the geotechnical lab in accordance with the
Bureau of Indian Standards Code (BIS).
For selection of good qualities of building
stones, following properties are important.
1) Crushing strength, 2) Transverse strength,
3) Porosity, 4) Density, 5) Abrasive resistance,
6) Frost and fire resistance, 7) Durability and
8) Appearance.
Fig. 2.25 : Gneissose structure 1) Crushing strength / Compressive strength
Alternate bands of Biotic and Quartz exhibiting
: It is the maximum load per unit area which
Gneissose structure
a rock can withstand without undergoing
This structure develops due to the effect of
failure/fracturing. Crushing strength should
high temperature and directed pressure on
be greater than 100N/mm2.
the pre- existing rock.
2) Transverse strength : It is the capacity of
4) Importance of petrology in civil a stone to withstand bending loads. Shear
engineering : strength is determined when the stone is
In engineering geology, knowledge of rock used as a column.
properties is important for the construction of 3) Porosity : It is the ratio between the total
large structures. Rocks, which are competent, volume of pore spaces and total volume of
durable and free from weak planes, are suitable rock sample.
for foundation (e.g. granite, syenite, gabbro,
4) Density : Density of a rock is the weight per
Quartzite sandstone). For flooring purpose,
unit volume. Bulk density refers to weight
they should be resistant to abrasion. i.e. able per unit volume of a rock with natural
to withstand wear and tear. e.g. limestone moisture content.
25
 5) Abrasive resistance : It is the resistance processes that occurred over the long course of
offered by a rock to mechanical wear geological time. Petrology relies heavily on the
and tear i.e. abrasive resistance refers to principles and methods of mineralogy because
hardness of rocks. most rocks consist of minerals and are formed
6) Frost and Fire resistance : The freezing under the same conditions. It can be studied
of water in cracks may break rock into under the branches of igneous, metamorphic,
angular fragments known as frost action. and sedimentary petrology.
Fire resistance of rocks becomes necessary x Igneous petrology focuses on the
when they are used near furnaces. composition, forms of igneous bodies and
7) Durability : It refers to the life of a texture of igneous rocks. Igneous rocks
structure. Durability of a building stone include volcanic and plutonic rocks.
is also susceptibility or resistance to the x Sedimentary petrology highlights the
weathering. composition and texture of sedimentary
rocks. They are classified as sandstone,
8) Appearance : Rocks which are to be used siltstone and shale based on the grain size
for face work should be decent, uniform in and are bound together in a matrix of finer
colour, capable of retaining polish and free material. These rocks are further classified
from clay, cavities, spots of other colour, based on the products of weathering into
bands etc. Light colours are pleasing. residual and transported deposits.
Summary : x Metamorphic petrology deals with the
The study of rocks provide us with important composition and texture of metamorphic
information about the nature of the Earth's crust rocks which have undergone chemical,
and mantle. In addition, it enables us to gain a mineralogical or textural changes due to
sense of the Earth's history, including tectonic change of pressure, temperature or both.

EXERCISE

Q. 1. Select and write the correct answer : 5) Thermal metamorphism of sandstone results in
the formation of .................... .
1) An example of a discordant igneous intrusion is
.................... . a) Marble b) Slate
c) Quartzite d) Mica schist
a) Sill b) Lopolith
c) Laccolith d) Batholith 6) Foliation in rocks is a characteristic feature
2) The hypabyssal equivalent of basalt is resulting from .................... .
.................... . a) cataclastic metamorphism
a) Gabbro b) Dolerite b) dynamothermal metamorphism
c) Pegmatite d) Dunite c) thermal metamorphism
d) plutonic metamorphism
3) A sedimentary rock in which the constituent
grains are rounded is .................... . 7) a) Examples of concordant bodies are sill, dyke,
a) Breccia b) Sandstone laccolith, lopolith.
c) Conglomerate d) Laterite b) Examples of concordant bodies are sill,
laccolith, lopolith, batholith.
4) One of the structures exhibited by sedimentary
rocks is .................... . c) Examples of concordant bodies are sill,
laccolith, lopolith.
a) granitic b) schistose
d) Examples of concordant bodies are sill, dyke,
c) clastic d) cross bedding laccolith, lopolith, batholith.

26
 8) a) The wavy pattern seen on beach sands is 5) What is stratification?
called ripple marks. 6) What is graded bedding?
b) The wavy pattern seen on beach sands is 7) What is meant by metamorphism of rocks?
called graded bedding.
8) Describe confining pressure ?
c) The wavy pattern seen on beach sands is
9) Describe directed pressure ?
called cross bedding.
d) The wavy pattern seen on beach sands is
called stratification. Q. 3. Answer in brief :
1) How are extrusive igneous rocks formed? Give
9) a) Syenite i) Hypabyssal acidic rock.
an example.
b) Rhyolite ii) Plutonic acidic rock.
2) What are sills? Describe with neatly labelled
c) Granite iii) Plutonic intermediate rock. diagram.
d) Pegmatite iv) Volcanic acidic rock. 3) Write a short note on clastic texture with
A) a) – iv); b) – i); c) – iii); d) – ii). example.
B) a) – ii); b) – iii); c) – i); d) – iv). 4) What are organic deposits? Give examples.
C) a) – iii); b) – iv); c) – ii); d) – i). 5) Describe slaty cleavage.
D) a) – i); b) – ii); c) – iv); d) – iii). 6) What is meant by thermal/ contact
metamorphism?
10) a) Residual rock i) Shale
b) Chemical deposit ii) Phosphorite 7) Mention the factors responsible for rise in
c) Argillaceous rock iii) Limestone temperature.
d) Organic deposit iv) Bauxite 8) Explain the role of fluids in metamorphism.
A) a) – i); b) – iv); c) – ii); d) – iii). Q. 4. Write short notes :
B) a) – iii); b) – ii); c) – iv); d) – i). 1) How is equigranular texture formed in igneous
C) a) – ii); b) – i); c) – iii); d) – iv). rocks? Explain with diagram.
D) a) – iv); b) – iii); c) – i); d) – ii). 2) What is a laccolith? Describe its characteristics
with the help of a neatly labelled diagram.
11) a) Slaty cleavage i) alternate light
3) What is meant by cross bedding? Explain in
and dark coloured bands.
brief with the help of a diagram.
b) Gneissose ii) cataclastic
4) What are residual deposits? Describe with
structure metamorphism.
examples.
c) Schistose iii) thermal 5) Which are the major agents of metamorphism?
structure metamorphism. Describe their role in brief.
d) Granulose iv) parallel arrangement 6) What is meant by cataclastic metamorphism?
structure of minerals.
Q. 5. Describe the following :
A) a) – iv); b) – iii); c) – ii); d) – i). 1) Classify igneous rocks on the basis of mode of
B) a) – ii); b) – i); c) – iv); d) – iii). occurrence/ depth of formation. Give examples.
C) a) – iii); b) – ii); c) – i); d) – iv). 2) How are vesicular and amygdaloidal structures
D) a) – i); b) – iv); c) – iii); d) – ii). formed? Describe with diagrams.
Q. 2. Answer the following : 3) Describe in brief, the processes involved in the
1) What is a rock? formation of sedimentary rocks.
4) Classify sedimentary rocks according to their
2) What is meant by the term ‘textures of rocks’?
grain size, giving examples of each.
3) Name the texture of igneous rocks which
5) Explain schistose and gneissose structures with
exhibits a large variation in grain sizes and
the help of labelled diagrams.
shapes.
4) Give two examples of evaporites. ‹‹‹

27
 3 Palaeontology and Stratigraphy

Two major branches of palaeontology are

Introduction :
recognized, viz. Palaeozoology and Palaeobotany.
Palaeontology is the study of ancient Palaeobotany deals with study of plant fossils
life that is preserved in the form of fossils. and palaeozoology with vertebrate and
‘Palaeo’ means ancient, ‘Ontos’ means life invertebrate animal fossils. Micropalaeontology
and ‘Logos’ is study. Initially, the term fossil is a specialized branch that deals with the study
was applied to any object dug up from the of microfossils. Paleoichnology comprises
ground. the study of Ichnofossils and/or Trace fossils.
Today the word fossil is used to refer only Palynology or Palaeopalynology is yet another
to objects associated with prehistoric life branch, which deals with the study of organic
forms older tha 11,000 years. The term fossil walled microfossils like pollen, spores, seeds,
was coined by the German mineralogist seed coats etc.
Georgius Agricola (1494 -1555). Generally
Do you know?
fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
1) Aristotle, the Greek philosopher was one of
The term fossil is further extended to any
the first to classify living things into either
recognizable structure in sedimentary rocks
plants or animals.
that indicates some sort of life. Life on Earth 2) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) stressed
in its primitive form probably came into that fossils were organic in nature and
existence about 3500 to 3600 million years natural in origin.
ago. Currently, we are in geological time 3) William Smith (1789-1839) a British
interval known as the Holocene epoch, which engineer was the first to note that there
began about 11,000 years ago. Therefore, is an intimate relation between the fossils
any remains or evidence of ancient life forms and sedimentary rocks containing them.
before the Holocene Epoch i.e. before 11,000 He realized the importance of fossils and
years ago definitely counts as a fossil. Fossils further, described and defined sedimentary
can range in size. Macrofossils can be held in rock units on the basis of fossils contained
the hand and examined with good hand lens. in them. William Smith’s observation was
They can be several meters long and weigh the beginning of a new era as integrated
several tons like logs of petrified wood and approach was significant in the study of
dinosaur bones. Microfossils are very small palaeontology and stratigraphy.
and require a microscope to study them. Their
Prerequisites of fossilisation :
size can be in micrometres, e.g. fossilised
When an organism is buried quickly, there
pollen and spores.
is less decay and a better chance for it to be
Palaeontological studies deals with preserved as it does not come in contact with
taxonomy, morphology of hard parts, their oxygen. Hard parts of organisms, such as bones,
nature, inter - relationship, environmental shells and teeth have a better chance of being
implications, distribution, age and evolution fossilised. Number of prehistoric organisms
of ancient life. living in geologic past exceeds many billions.
It has been estimated that only one out of every
28
10,000 organisms leaves behind fossil record. Modes of preservation of organisms for
So far only about 91,000 species of fossils are fossilisation :
known. 1) Entire organism preserved : Rarely,
If an organism is to be preserved in the form the organisms are preserved in a virtually
of a fossil there are a set of certain prerequisites unaltered state. Ice, amber, and tar can
like : preserve entire organisms e.g. Woolly
1) It is necessary that the organism possesses mammoth preserved in ice from Siberia,
a skeleton of hard parts that can withstand insects preserved in amber from Baltic
decomposition. countries (fig. 3.1), Dominican Republic,
2) Composition and structure of its hard parts fossils from tar pits of Rancho La Brea,
should be suitable for preservation. California, USA.
3) Further, it should be covered or buried
quickly by some sediment (deposits), so
that dispersal and disintegration of hard
parts of skeleton is prevented.
Possession of a skeleton or hard parts
and quick burial are the two most important
prerequisites for preservation that are most
commonly fulfilled in case of aquatic organisms.
Fig. 3.1: Insect preserved in amber
After the death of an aquatic organism, its
body sinks to bottom of the water body. Later, 2) Entire skeleton preserved : Most of the
it is quickly buried by sediment, preventing vertebrate skeletons are entirely preserved
destruction and dispersal. Chances of burial due to differential solubility. Such skeletons
and preservation of terrestrial or land animals and shells once buried remain unaltered
are higher when they die on the banks of lakes e.g. entire skeletons of the giant reptiles
or rivers. Rarely land animals may be covered of the Mesozoic era such as Mesosaurus
by volcanic ash and instantaneously preserved. braziliansis (fig. 3.2).
The probability of an animal being preserved as
a fossil is further governed by the composition
and structure of its hard parts. If the skeleton
consists of thin fragile shell, it can easily broken
and chances of preservation diminish; whereas
tough and strong skeletons are more likely to be
preserved. It is not only the nature of skeleton,
but its composition which determines the degree
of fossilization. If the skeleton is composed
of siliceous matter, and calcium carbonate
(invertebrates), chances of fossilization are high
whereas, phosphatic vertebrate skeletons and Fig. 3.2 : Entire skeleton of Mesosaurus braziliansis

chitinous skeletons of insects have maximum 3) Petrification : The process of removal and
chances of preservation, as they dissolve with replacement of organic matter by inorganic
difficulties. minerals thereby converting the material

29
 into rock is known as petrification. In
this process, the replacement takes place
molecule by molecule. Such fossils show
internal and external details permitting the
study of anatomy and morphology in detail.
A variety of minerals are known to cause
petrification. The most common replacing
material is silica, calcite, dolomite, pyrite
and accordingly, petrification may be
a result of silicification, calcification,
pyritization. e.g. Petrified wood fossils Fig. 3.4 : impression of carbonised plant fossils
from Akal wood fossil park, Rajasthan, 5) Imprints : Imprint as a mode of
National fossil wood park, Thiruvakkarai preservation is more common in case of
T.N., National fossil wood park, Sathanur, soft bodied organisms like jelly fish (fig.
T.N, and petrified woods near Chandrapur, 3.5). They leave behind their impression
Maharashtra (fig. 3.3). on the surface of fine grained sediments.
These preserved impression are indicative
of many morphological features.

Fig. 3.3 : Petrified wood

Fig. 3.5 : Imprint of jelly fish
4) Carbonization : Process of carbonisation 6) Cast and Mould : Sometimes, open pores in
forms carbonized fossils. It is a process the rock let water and air reach the organism
of incomplete chemical decomposition or part of it, causing it to decay or dissolve,
of organic matter, reducing it to a carbon leaving behind a cavity in the sediment.
residue or a thin film. Parts of plants are This empty cavity is called a mould. A
usually preserved with this mode. Buried mould shows the original shape and the
broken parts of stems, leaves etc., undergo external morphology of the organism.
dehydration and decomposition loosing Later, sand or mud may fill the mould
nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. Carbon and harden, forming a cast of the original
contained within the remains of a soft- organism. A cast is a replica of the original
bodied animal or plant forms a stamp-like organism. This is the most common mode
impression on the sediment Organisms of preservation of invertebrate fossils e.g.
like graptolites and plant fossils from shells from Cretaceous of Tiruchirappalli
Gondwana are preserved as carbonized (TN), Bagh Beds (MP) and Jurassic of
fossils (fig. 3.4). Kutch (Gujarat) (fig. 3.6)
30
 Do you know?
Various kinds of trace fossils : Track : an
impression made by a single foot.
Trackway : a number of tracks made
during a single trip.
Trail : an impression made by an animal
Fig 3.6: Cast and Mould of bivalve
without legs.
Types of fossils :
Burrows : a hole dug by a life form in loose
Broadly speaking, paleontologists divide
sediment (like mud).
fossils into two main groups :
Borings : a hole dug by a life form into a
1) Body fossils 2) Trace fossils
hard substrate (like wood or rock).
1) Body fossils : Body fossils are remains of
Coprolites : animal faecal pellets that have
body parts of ancient animals, plants and
other life forms. They may be preserved fossilized.
intact or fragmented (fig. 3.7a). Uses of fossils :
Fossil records have facilitated palaeonto-
logists, stratigraphers and biologists to unravel
the geological events. Many uses of fossils are
known. Some important uses are as follows :
1) Determination of the geological age of
strata : Geological age of the fossils is
the geological age of the rocks they are
Fig. 3.7. a) Body fossil contained in.
2) Trace fossils : Trace fossils (sometimes also 2) Information of Palaeo- environment
called ichnofossils) provide evidence about and history of deposition : Characters
the movements and/or activities of ancient of animals and plants from different
organisms, but not necessarily about environments vary. Presence of vertebrate
their appearance. Tracks, trails, burrows, fossils and plant fossils indicate terrestrial
footprints, nests, worm burrows, gizzard environments like lakes, ponds, rivers,
stones, and coprolites are considered to be flood plains, etc. Marine environments
trace fossils. They range in size from worm are indicated by th exclusive presence of
burrows to dinosaur footprints (fig. 3.7 b). fossils of corals, trilobites, brachiopods,
ammonoids, nautiloids etc.
3) Determination of palaeo-climate :
Terrestrial plants thrive in specific climatic
conditions. The occurrence of fossils of
such plants is evidence of the existence of
climatic conditions in the geologic past. For
example occurrence of palm fossils indicate
tropical climate.
Fig. 3.7. b) Trace fossil

31
4) Correlation of widely separated the general public as well as support
strata : Fossils are frequently used to sustainable economic development of the
determine relative or comparative ages of area, primarily through the development of
sedimentary rocks. Similarity of fossils in geological tourism.
widely separated rocks indicates equality in It is interesting to know that the first stamp
their age. So by associating similar fossils on fossils was issued by India. This stamp
among such rocks, they can be correlated. was issued to commemorate the Centenary
5) Reconstruction organic evolution : Fossil of Geological Survey of India in 1951. The
record is invaluable for reconstruction stamp features a fossil elephant: Stegodon
of organic evolution because change in ganesa”, which was the probable direct
characters of animals and plants is gradual. ancestor of our modern day elephant. Such
This change is recorded in the fossils fossils were reported from Siwalik Hills of
found in successively younger strata. For Himalayas.
example, the earliest horse of Eocene age
was the size of a dog with five toes. It was
succeeded by forms with lesser number of
toes and increased height. Finally, modern
day horse has evolved. This is the evidence
of the evolution of modern day horse.
Terminologies used in palaeontology :
6) Exploration of Petroleum and Coal
1) Index fossil : These are fossils which are
Reserves : Some microfossils like
easily recognisable, distinctive, widely
Foraminifera and Ostracoda are very
distributed and abundant. They existed for
sensitive to the environment. Therefore,
a limited life span. (e.g Ammonites from
they are indicators of environments. Marine
Mesozoic, trilobites from Palaeozoic).
reducing environment with rapid deposition,
Index fossils are used as stratigraphic
good compaction ratio, low current index
markers.
and ideal temperature condition are essential
2) Chemical fossils : When some organisms
for the generation of hydrocarbons. All
decompose they leave a characteristic
these factors can be inferred with the help or
chemical signature. Such chemical traces
microfossils. For exploration of petroleum,
provide indirect evidence for the existence
deep drilling is required. Such drilling
of past life.
must have stratigraphic control. For this
purpose, accurate correlation of subsurface 3) Pseudo fossils : These are visual patterns
rocks is essential. Such correlation can be in rocks that are produced by naturally
established by using microfossils, especially occurring geological processes rather than
Foraminifers and Ostracods. Plant fossils biologic processes. They can easily be
are useful in the study of coal deposits. mistaken for real fossils, for e.g. dendritic
markings formed by filling of fissures in a
Do you know? rock by manganese oxide, which are tree
Geo Parks aim to protect geodiversity like.
(rocks, minerals, landforms and fossils) 4) Living fossils : Living fossils are present
and promote geological heritage within day forms which also exists as fossils. (e.g.

32
 cyanobacteria, horseshoe crabs, ginkgo
x Salkhan Fossils Park, Uttar Pradesh
biloba, cycads).
x Akal Wood Fossil Park, Rajasthan
5) Reworked fossil : Reworking can happen
x Amkhoi fossil park, West Bengal
to any fossil. It simply means that the
x Raiyoli dinosaur fossil park, Gujarat
fossil may have been removed from its
original sedimentary layer and redeposited
in a younger layer. A reworked fossil can Do you know?
mislead a geologists about age of the rock Narmada human
in which it was found On December 5, 1982, the geologist Arun
Sonakia discovered the only known fossil
Do you know? of a human ancestor from South Asia on
Lagerstatten Unique windows into the past the banks of the Narmada, at a place called
These spectacular fossil deposits Hathnora village in Sehore district, nearly
represent an amazing ‘snapshot’ in time. 35 kilometres east of Hoshangabad in
These extraordinary fossil deposits, where Madhya Pradesh.
organisms are so well preserved that even Fossil skull of Narmada human, belongs
their soft parts remain as carbon films, are to the ancestor category of Homo erectus,
referred to as Lagerstätten, a German word who inhabited the Earth from 1.8 million
meaning ‘deposit places’. to 200,000 years ago and preceded Homo
sapiens.
Do you know?
Fossil parks in India Activity 1 :
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) Recreation of Fossil Moulds and Fossil
currently maintains the following fossil Casts
parks: Expected duration : Two, thirty minute
x Siwalik Fossil Park, near Saketi, Himachal sessions on separate days.
Pradesh is notable for its life-size models Instructions :
of the vertebrates that might have roamed 1) Place some clay at the bottom of a small
the Sivalik Hills 1.5-2.5 million years ago. container. This clay represents the bottom
x Mandla Plant Fossils National Park, near of the ocean.
Dindori, Madhya Pradesh is a park that 2) Press a shell or bone into the clay. This is
attempts to preserve the fossil remains of a hard part of organism that was buried in
a primordial forest that covered the region the clay.
40—150 million years ago.
3) Remove the shell or bone, and observe
x National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai the imprint in the clay. This imprint is a
in Tamil Nadu. mould of the shell/ bone.
x National Fossil Wood Park, Sathanur, in 4) In a second container, prepare some
Tamil Nadu. plaster of paris by adding water and
Other fossil parks in India include : mixing until it is creamy.
x Indroda Dinosaur and Fossil Park, Gujarat 5) Pour the Plaster of Paris into the mould
x Ghughua Fossil Park, Madhya Pradesh that has been created.

33
 The basic idea of stratigraphy is to arrange
6) Next day, gently tap and remove the fossil
the rock units in chronological sequence, so that
cast.
continuous history of the Earth can emerge. This
7) Examine the fossil specimens from the is essential because rocks of different ages are
first investigation. Identify the fossils as found at different places.
moulds, casts, or other.
Principles of stratigraphy :
Stratigraphy is based upon three
Activity 2 :
fundamental principles :
Simulation of process of petrification :
1) Principle of Uniformitarianism : The
Expected duration: Thirty minutes session
concept of uniformitarianism was given by
for initial set up, several days for observations
a Scottish geologist, James Hutton (1726-
and thirty minutes session for conclusion and
1799). In its simplest form, it states that the
discussion.
processes which have acted in the past, are
We will model a process whereby the essentially the same as those in operation
remains of a buried organism or part of an on the Earth today. It can be summarized
organism are replaced by minerals. in the statement ‘present holds the key to
1) Cut two pieces of white sponge into a bone the past’. By actual observation, we can
shape. One piece will be used to simulate see that layering and variation of grain size
fossil formation and the other will be used seen in the sediments, on the banks of the
for comparison. modern stream, are the result of fluctuations
2) Fill a cup with hot water. Prepare in the velocity of the stream. Hence, we
a saturated solution of Epsom salts can summarize that the same phenomenon
(MgSO4) and add a few drops of food was responsible for the layering in ancient
colouring. fluvial sediments. Likewise, we know that
the ripple marks observed on beaches is
3) Pour the solution into a pan.
a product of wave action. It is, therefore,
4) Immerse one bone shaped sponge into the
logical to conclude that ripple marks
pan and observe the movement of water
present in sedimentary rocks were formed
through the holes of the sponge.
by the same process.
5) Leave the pan untouched for several days
until the sponge is dry. Do you know?
6) Examine the dry sponge. James Hutton FRSE (Edinburgh 1797)
was a Scottish physician,
STRATIGRAPHY geologist, naturalist,
It is a branch of geology that deals with the chemical manufacturer and
study of stratified and sedimentary rocks with experimental agriculturalist.
reference to their description, identification, His work helped to establish
content, correlation and extent, both horizontal the basis of modern geology.
and vertical. ‘Stratum’ means a layer and His theories of geology and geologic time,
‘graphy’ means description. Therefore, also called deep time, came to be included
stratigraphy is a descriptive study of layered or in theories which were called plutonism and
stratified (generally sedimentary) rocks. uniformitarianism.

34
 2) Order of Superposition : In 1669 Danish or stratigraphic position between two rock units
physician Steno on the basis of observation that are widely separated. Correlation may be
along the walls of the Arno Valley in local, regional, intra or inter basinal, short range
Italy suggested the concept of Order of or long range.
Superposition. He pointed out that in any Methods of Stratigraphic correlation :
series of sedimentary layers, lying in a
There are two methods of Stratigraphic
normal disposition; the rocks at the bottom
correlation i) Lithological correlation and ii)
of a sequence are older than the rocks at the
Palaeontological correlation. It can be achieved
top of the sequence. However, where the
by a) Physical/ lateral continuity and b) presence
rocks are over folded and thrusted or faulted,
of marker horizon or key beds.
it is first necessary to determine whether the
Most simple way of correlating strata
rocks are in their normal position or if are
on local scale is by ascertaining, if there is a
overturned.
physical continuity of strata. If one can walk
3) Faunal Succession : The British surveyor, physically from one locality to another on the
William Smith (1769-1839), is regarded as same rock type, then correlation is established
the father of modern stratigraphy and was by the principle of continuity of strata (fig.3.8).
the first to recognize the fact, that fossils
could be used to correlate and date the i) Lithological correlation :
strata in which they were found. During the If succession of lithological units is
course of his work, he noticed that the same similar at different localities then there is every
assemblage of fossils always occurred possibility that corresponding rock units are of
in the same rock layers. Fossil species in the same age and can be correlated (fig. 3.9).
A B C
layers above and below these layers were 1
distinctly different. The fossils occurred A B C 2
in the same order in widely separated 3
localities. This discovery of William Smith
4
led to the establishment of the ‘Law of
Faunal Succession’. 5
Stratigraphic Correlation : Correlation is a 6
method of finding equivalence in geological age Fig. 3.9 : Correlation based on lithological succession

Sandstone layer

A) Floor of sedimentary basin

B) Fig. 3.8 : Correlation of strata using the principle of continuity

35
 In the lower part the lithological succession
Do you know?
is similar and the beds of shale and sandstone
Nicolas Steno (1638, 1686)
can be correlated in section A , B and C. It may
be noted that, there is a slight variation in the A scientist and a pioneer in both
thickness of these beds, at different localities. As anatomy and geology. Steno
we move upwards the limestone bed is missing was trained in the classical
in section c but correlated in Section A and B. If texts on science. However, by
in a particular exposure only a small part of the 1659 he seriously questioned
succession is seen, then there can be difficulty in accepted knowledge of the
correlation.When the horizons pinch or die out, natural world. Importantly he questioned
the presence of a Marker Horizon or Key Horizon explanations for tear production, the idea that
is extremely useful. This bed is relatively thin fossils grew in the ground and explanations
but persistent bed having distinctive lithological of rock formation. His investigations and his
or structural characters, which permit its subsequent conclusions on fossils and rock
identification without any difficulty. formation have led scholars to consider him
From the above discussion, it is evident one of the founders of modern stratigraphy
that lithological characters are useful only to and modern geology.
limited extent. In areas where there is repetition Standard Geological Time Scale :
of beds of identical composition and where
Age of the Earth is about 4600 million years.
marker horizons are missing, other methods like
This enormous geological time is divided into
Palaeontological correlation are more useful.
different durations. The successive sequential
ii) Palaeontological correlation : arrangement of geological time units for global
It is entirely based on fossils or fossil reference is called as Standard Geological
assemblages. Organisms evolve with age and it is Time Scale (fig. 3.11). It is based on the
possible to differentiate between beds having the following criteria. The periods of non-deposition
same lithology but with fossils of different age (and consequently of erosion) are called as
(fig. 3.10). Moreover a given species is likely to unconformities, that are related to widespread
be present at widely separated localities during a tectonic activities. The regional unconformities
particular period. This enables palaeontological provide the natural boundaries for subdivisions
correlation on a regional scale. of geological time into different units. Fossils
are also of great importance in recognition of
particular space of geological time. Radiometric
age analysis of older rocks formed before
biogenesis is also useful in this respect. The
Lava flow 450 m.y. Geological Time Scale is also based on principles
of stratigraphy that are discussed earlier.
The time units are Eons, Eras, Periods and
Epochs. The largest time unit is known as Eon.
It is successively divided into Eras, Periods and
Epochs.
Granite Section A Section B Most commonly two Eons Precambrian and
480 m.y.
Phanerozoic are recognized. The former indicates
Fig. 3.10 : Palaeontological Correlation the time during which life was either absent,
36
obscure or very primitive and the latter suggests Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous
the time when evolved life was in existence. and Permian. Carboniferous is again subdivided
Precambrian Era is further sub divided into into Missisippian and Pennsylvanian.
Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic. Mesozoic Era is further subdivided into three
The second Eon Phanerozoic is subdivided Periods, viz. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
into three Eras viz. Palaeozoic Era containing Cenozoic Era is subdivided into three
ancient life, Mesozoic of middle life and Cenozoic Periods, viz. Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.
contains modern/recent life. The life (animals/ Palaeogene Period consists of Palaeocene,
plants) of these eras (organic evolution) is shown Eocene, and Oligocene Epochs and Neogene
in (fig. 3.11). Period consists of Miocene and Pliocene Epochs.
The Palaeozoic Era is further subdivided into Quaternary Period is subdivided into Pleistocene
(from older too younger) six Periods viz. Cambrian, and Holocene Epochs.

0 Era Period Events

Quaternary Evolution of humans
Cenozoic

2.6
Neogene
Mammals diversify
50 Paleogene
Extinction of dinosaurs
100 Cretaceous First primates
First flowering plants
Mesozoic

150
First birds
Jurassic
Dinosaurs diversify
200
First mammals
Triassic
First dinosaurs
Millions of years ago

250
Major extinctions
Permian
Reptiles diversify
300
Carbon-

First reptiles
iferous

Pennsylvanian
Scale trees
Mississippian Seed ferns
350
Paleozoic

First amphibians
Devonian
400 Jawed fishes diversify

Silurian First vascular land plants

450 Sudden diversification
Ordovician of metazoan families
500 First fishes
Cambrian
First chordates
550
Late Proterozoic

First skeletal elements

First soft-bodied metazoans
600 First animal traces

650
Fig 3.11 : Geologic time scale, 650 million years ago to the present

37
Do you know? Major Events in Geological Past do you know
Era Period Geological Events Life (Animals-Plants)
Quaternary Early period known for ice age formation of Ape like man appeared in Pleistocene,
Laterites Aves, Fish, Important Age of man. Dicot-
Cenozoic

Monocot dominated.
Paleogene and Most of the Continents and oceans occupied their Age of mammals placental. marsupials,
Neogene present positions, India collided with Asia, Alpine- elephants, horses, pigs, dear, cows,
Himalayan orogeny, Himalaya-Alps formed, Red primates, flowering plants dominated.
Sea opened.
Cretaceous Few phases of marine transgression General Great extinction of ammonites, dinosaurs.
elevation of land, fragments of Gondwanaland and Abundance of plants, extinction of cycades
Laurasia separated Andes and Rockys mountains plants Mammals evolved.
formed.
Mesozoic

Jurassic Fragmentation of Gondwanaland and Laurasia Age of dinosaurs Flying reptiles first bird
started, Atlantic ocean formed, Continental drift Archaeopterix. True mammals appeared
continued. Gymnosperms dominated.
Triassic Pangea broke into Gondwanaland and Laurasia, General recession in marine fauna Early
Period of marine regression and salinity crisis dinosaurs came into existence Egg laying
mammals, primitive flowering plants
Angiosperms appeared.
Permian Siberia joined Laurassia-Gondwana, Formation of Reptiles diversified, brachiopod declined,
Pangaea, Ancient Atlantic closed. trilobites extinct. New land plants appeared
Carboniferous Gondwana was on South pole and covered by Early reptiles evolved from amphibians.
ice sheets, Gondwana collided with Laurassia, Amphibians were important. Luxuriant
Hercynian orogeny began, Appalachian mountains growth of bearing (gymnosperms)
formed. Spermatophytic plants Major Coal seams
formed.
Devonian Formation of Laurassia, Mountain building Golden age of fish. Arrival of amphibians.
activities on peak, Caledonian mountains formed, Vascular seedless pteridophytic plants
Old Red Sandstaones of Europe formed. abundant Graptolites become extinct.
Paleozoic

Silurian Caledonian orogeny. Baltica-Laurentia collided, Graptolites important, many trilobites

Formation of Caledonian mountains began, Siberia declined in number Jawless fish appeared.
drifted to North. First land Appeared.
Ordovician Main continents converged-diverged, Gondwana Bush like graptolites are index fossils.
moved towards South pole, Baltica to South and Cambrian invertebrates continued
Siberia to North Probably by the end of Ordovician, first
land plants appeared
Cambrian Six to Seven continents lying 60º N and 60º S, All major groups of invertebrate protozoans,
Present Antarctica was on Equator, there existed mollusca, trilobites, graptolites, sponges,
Panthalassic and echinoides, lapetus oceans. They corals, brachiopods, bryozoans present
were shallow Trilobites are index fossils. Calcareous
blue-green Algae present.
Ancient supercontinent Rodinia split and Ediacara fauna of Australia is important
fragmented, fragments reunited to form another Unicelluar life thrived. Stromatolites
Proterozoic

supercontinent Pannotia, Panthalassic ocean (biosedimentary structures) important.

present. A chunk of Pannotia tore into fragments. Burrows of soft bodied worms and
Era began with tectonic zonation with formation termites.
of geosynclinal and platformal types of basins.
Atmosphere-Hydrosphere purified.
Older shield areas formed. Extensive volcanism and Probably no life.
plutonism. Highest degree metamorphism. Earth
Archean

attained present shape. Ancient continents and

oceans formed. Differentiation of Earth into crust,
mantle and core. Accretion of Earth complete.

38
 Table 3.1 Major Lithostratigraphic units of
Do you know?
Peninsular India.
William Smith (1769 –1839) was an English
Era Period Litho. Unit
geologist, credited with
Quaternary Laterite-Bauxite
creating the first detailed,

Cenozoic
nationwide geological Tertiary Tertiary of Assam, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra
map of U.K. It was only and East Coast.
late in his life that Smith Cretaceous Deccan Basalts.

Mesozoic
received recognition for his
Jurassic Upper Gondwana
accomplishments, and became known as the
Triassic Midde Gondwana
"Father of English Geology".
Permian Lower Gondwana
Brief outline of stratigraphy of Peninsular Carboniferous

Paleozoic
India : Devonian
Lithostratigraphy is one of the elements Silurian
of stratigraphy. It deals with organization of Ordovician
strata into sequential successive rock units Cambrian
arranged in a chronological order, entirely
Archean Proterozoic Vindhyan Supergroup
based on lithological characters. It has its
own lithostratigraphic units, like; Supergroup, Cuddapah Supergroup
Precambrian

Group, Formation, Member and Bed. Many

comparable mutually related rock layers form Dharwar Supergroup
a Bed. Numerous Beds constitute a Member, Peninsular Gneisses
several such Members give rise to Formation.
Basement complex of
Formation is the fundamental unit recognizable
South India-Karnataka-
and mapable in the field and can be distinguished Sargur Schist complex.
locally in a small area. Many such formations
make still larger units, covering larger area Do you know?
called Group. An association of similar mutually Sir Thomas Henry Holland KCSI KCIE
related Groups constitutes a Supergroup that FRS FRSE (22 November
spreads over a very larger time span of the order 1868 – 15 May 1947) was a
of an Era. British geologist who worked
Study of the Indian lithostratigraphic units in India with the Geological
with reference to their origin, distribution, content, Survey of India, serving as
age relationship and correlation is known as its director from 1903 to
Indian stratigraphy. Important lithostratigraphic 1910. He later worked as an educational
units of peninsula India, according to their age administrator at Edinburgh University.
and correlation are depicted in table 3.1. Dharwar Supergroup :
The important lithostratigraphic units of Dharwar Supergroup is named after
Peninsular India are described, in brief, with Dharwar district of Karnataka, where it is best
reference to their distribution, age, lithological exposed. The term Dharwar system was coined
characters, fossils and economic importance. by R. Bruce Foote in1888.

39
Distribution : They occur in Dharwar-Mysore without any fossils.
region. Older Dharwars are developed in Fossils : These rocks are mostly non- fossiliferous
Bababudan Hills in Chikmagular region.
Economic importance : Economic resources
Younger Dharwars are observed at Chitradurga
of the Cuddapah system include limestone,
and Ranibenur regions.
iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, barites,
Age : Archean. asbestos, steatite, diamonds and other minerals.
Lithology : It is divided into three divisions
Vindhyan Supergroup :
as lower, middle and upper Dharwars. The
Vindhyan Supergroup of India is one of the
Lower Dharwar contains rhyolites, schists and
largest and thickest sedimentary successions of
gneisses. The Middle Dharwar comprises of
the world. Vindhyan Supergroup has been named
the granite porphyries, basic and ultrabasic
intrusive igneous rocks, volcanic products and after great Vindhyan Mountain in Central India,
banded ironstones. The Upper Dharwar contains where these rocks are well exposed. It can be
cherts, ferruginous silts, clay, conglomerates separated into Lower and Upper divisions on
and quartzites. the basis of an unconformity marked at various
places.
Fossils : No evidence of life.
Distribution : These rocks cover an area of
Economic importance : They are known to
about 1,00,000 sq. km. in Central India and are
contain largest iron ore and manganese deposits.
well exposed in the Son valley.
The associated granitic rocks supply best quality
of granites for decorative purpose as well as Age : Upper Proterozoic.
building material. Gold and chromite deposits Lithology : This group consists of sedimentary
are also believed to belong to Dharwars. The rocks such as sandstones, shales and limestones
other minerals include copper, lead, zinc, mica, with thickness often over 4000 m. to 6000 m.
asbestos and kyanite. Fossils : In the evolution of Peninsular India,
Cuddapah Supergroup : for the first time some structures indicative of
Cuddapah Supergroup has been named after primitive organisms have been reported.
the Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh, where Economic importance : Shales from the
it is best exposed in the form of crescent- shaped Vindhyan Supergroup contain workable pyrite
outcrop, covering about 42,000 Sq km. area. mineralization. All types of limestone, sandstone
These rocks are separated from the underlying and shale are used as building materials. Huge
Archean rocks by the Eparchean unconformity. limestone deposits supply basic raw material to
Distribution : The Cuddapah Basin of Andhra cement industries. Most of the Indian diamonds
Pradesh has an east-west width of about 140 km. are obtained from Vindhyan Supergroup. They
from Tadpatri to Nellore and is over 300 km. are recovered either from Kimberlite pipes
north-south in length from Ongole to Tirupati (volcanic necks) or from the diamond bearing
Nagari Hills. The Cuddapah rocks are largely conglomerate horizons. Excellent quality of
undisturbed except along the eastern margin, glass sand is obtained from the weathered
where they are folded and faulted. The thickness sandstone found in Vindhyans.
of the Cuddapahs is about 6100 m. Gondwana Supergroup :
Age : Lower Proterozoic. Gondwana rocks are named after the Gond
Lithology : The Cuddapah Supergroup consists tribe in Madhya Pradesh where these rocks are
of quartzites, limestones, sandstones and slates best exposed. Subsequent to the deposition of the
40
Vindhyan, there was a break in sedimentation in Age : Cretaceous- Eocene.
Peninsular India, till Carboniferous times. It was Lithology : The volcanic rock type generally
followed by the deposition, of thick sequence called as basalt is a fine grained, dark grey to
of fluviatile sediments constituting Gondwana porphyritic rock with vesicular to amygdaloidal
sediments. structures. They contain a rich assemblage of
Distribution : Gondwana rocks mostly occur secondary minerals, like; quartz and zeolites.
in the states of Madhya Pradesh, W. Bengal, Acidic and intermediate differentiates occur
Chattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, Telangana and along the west coast of India. In the lower part, the
Maharashtra. Isolated outcrops occur in Gujarat basalt flows are sometimes separated by fluvial
and Rajasthan. Gondwana Supergroup is today sedimentary beds, called the intertrappeans. The
exposed in linear tracts largely corresponding intertrappean beds show fresh water lacustrine
to the valleys of the river Narmada, Damodar, deposit. Best examples of such sandwiched
Mahanadi and Godavari. intertrappeans are in Malabar hills of Mumbai.
Age : Permo-Carboniferous to Jurassic. Fossils : Fossils of turtle, frogs, molluscs and
Lithology : They consist of alternation of some plant remains are reported from the
sandstones, green sandstones, gritty sandstones, intertrappean beds.
shales, limestones and coal. Economic importance : Compact basalt is
Fossils : Plant fossils such as glossopteris, extensively used for building constructions. Old
gangamopteris, conifers, cycades, and animal temples, forts and buildings are built with basalt.
fossils such as crustaceans, fish, insects, reptiles, Deccan basalts host amazing zeolites and silica
dinosaur (bones and eggs), coproliths and bearing minerals (amethyst, quartz, chalcedony,
amphibians are found. agates) as secondary minerals in the cavities
within the deccan basalts. A thin capping of
Economic importance : Gondwanas contain
thick coal seams which contribute practically all bauxite is used as an ore of aluminium. Along
of India's coal output. Gondwana Supergroup is the coastal Konkan area of Maharashtra, the
well known for its good steam and gas quality laterite blocks are used as building material.
of coal. Beds of oxides of iron ore products Cenozoic rocks :
have been worked out for blast furnace. Clay In Peninsular India, Cenozoic sedimentary
for terracotta, pottery. Sandstone is extensively rocks of marine origin are found in Rajasthan,
used as building material. along the onshore and offshore regions of
Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP) : Gujarat and offshore regions of Maharashtra.
Deccan Volcanic Province cover an area These rocks are also developed along the east
of over 500,000 sq. km. in western India, with coast in Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins.
flat-topped hills, hence also known as plateau These are important because they form reservoir
basalts. They also show step-like terrace form rocks for oil and natural gas.
and consist of sub- horizontal flows. Distribution : These rocks occur in Rajasthan,
Distribution : They occur almost in all parts Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
of Maharashtra and extend to cover parts of Gujarat
adjacent states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Age : Eocene to Pliocene.
Telangana and Karnataka. Maximum thickness Lithology : Majority of the rocks are
of Deccan Basalts, (> 3500 m), is towards west. conglomerates, sandstones, limestones and
They thin out towards east. shales.

41
Fossils : foraminifera and ostracoda.
of Sciences, India (1937-39 and 1943-44)and
Economic importance : Some of the Tertiary as an Honorary President of the International
rocks contain huge lignite (Neyvelli) deposits, Botanical Congress, Stockholm in 1950.
Oil and gas reserves and hydrocarbons (Bombay
High, Cambay, K-G Basin). Summary :
Palaeontology is the scientific and systematic
Do you know? study of fossils. It includes classification of
Birbal Sahni FRS (14 November 1891 organisms and study interactions with each
– 10 April 1949) was an other and their environments. There are different
Indian palaeobotanist who modes of preservation of organisms depending
studied the fossils of the upon the presence or absence of hard parts,
Indian subcontinent, was conditions of preservations and depositional
also a geologist who took environments. Fossils are useful in finding
an interest in archaeology. geological ages and correlation of the strata.
He founded the Birbal Sahni . Stratigraphy works as a basic source of all
Institute of Palaeobotany in Lucknow, India. geological information, about probable sites of
His greatest contributions lie in the study of oil and gas, coal reserves, metals (ore) and non-
fossil plants of India. Apart from writing metallic deposits etc. Stratigraphy acts as an
numerous papers on these topics he also agent of identifying geological events. It unites
served as the President, National Academy the global information of rocks.

EXERCISE

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks : 7) The largest time unit is known as .................. .

1) Cenozoic era is age of .................. . (Eon, Era, Epoch, Period)
(Fishes, Trilobites, Reptiles, Mammals) 8) The Dharwar Supergroup of rocks have
2) The principle of uniformitarianism was given .................. .
by .................. . (Evidence of life, Evidence of no life, Fishes,
(James Hutton, Steno, William Smith, Wadia) Trilobite, Mammals, Reptiles)
3) Any evidence of ancient life before .................. Q. 2. True or False :
epoch is considered.
1) In petrification only soft parts of an organism
(Holocene, Pliocene, Miocene, Eocene)
are preserved
4) The branch of geology dealing with study of
trace fossils is known as .................. . 2) Index fossils are useful in correlation.
(Paleobotany, Paleoichnology, Palynology, 3) The age of trilobite is Devonian.
Paleozoology) 4) Age of deccan basalts is Carboniferous.
5) Insect preserved in amber is an example of 5) The principle of faunal succession was given by
.................. . William Smith.
(Imprint, Petrification, Entire organism
6) Track and trails are the examples of body
preserved, Carbonization)
fossils/ Trace fossils.
6) Paleozoic Era is subdivided into ..................
7) The study of growth rings in a tree trunk is
periods.
known as Ichnology.
(4, 5, 6, 7)

42
 8) A method of finding equivalence in geological ii) A B
age or stratigraphic position between two rock a) Dharwars i) Coal
units is known as correlation. b) Cuddapah ii) Gold
9) Dharwar Supergroup rocks do not have any c) Gondwana iii) Limestone
evidence of life. d) Deccan Trap iv) Basalt
10) The rocks of Vindhyan Supergroup are Upper 1) a-ii b-iii c-i d-iv
Proterozoic in age. 2) a-i b-ii c-iv d-iii
11) The rocks of Gondwana Supergroup are of 3) a-iii b-i c-ii d-ii
Permo-Carboniferous to Jurrassic age. 4) a-iv b-iv c-iii d-iii
12) Gondwana Super group is well known for good Q. 5 Write short notes on :
quality of coal, plant fossils, reptiles and other
1) Uniformitarianism
fossils.
2) Lithological Correlation
Q. 3 Choose the correct alternative :
3) Carbonisation
1) The process of carbonisation takes place in
4) Economic importance of Gondwana rocks
case of …
5) Branches of Paleontology
a) Plants
b) Animals 6) Imprints
c) Both Plants and Animals Q. 6 Answer in brief :
d) All of the above
1) Uses of fossils in organic evolution
2) The diamond bearing beds are found in …
2) Tertiary rocks of India
i) Sandstones of Vindhyans
3) Economics of Deccan Volcanic Province
ii) Conglomerates of Vindhyans
4) Stratigraphy of India
iii) Limestones of Vindhyans
iv) Shales of Vindhyans Q. 7 Answer in detail :

Q. 4 Match the following : 1) Differentiate between Imprint and Trace fossil.

i) A B 2) Describe the uses of fossils.
a) Devonian i) Dinosaurs 3) Discuss the various methods of correlation.
b) Cenozoic ii) Mammals 4) Describe in detail different modes of
c) Jurassic iii) Fish preservation of fossils.
d) Cambrian iv) Trilobites
5) Describe Dharwar Super Group.
1) a-iii b-ii c-i d-iv
2) a-iv b-i c-ii d-iii 6) Describe Conditions necessary for fossilisation
3) a-i b-iii c-iii d-ii 7) Describe the Geological Time Scale
4) a-i b-iv c-iv d-i 8) Describe Lithology of Vindhyan Super Group

‹‹‹

43
 4 Structural Geology

(i) Tensional stress (stretching/ extension)

Introduction :
(ii) Compressional stress (squeezing)
Rocks constituting the Earth`s crust
have varying mechanical properties that (iii) Shearing stress
get modified with increase in pressure and Differential Stress
(i) (ii) (iii)
temperature as we go deeper within the
Earth. The rocks are subjected to stress
due to tectonic forces which cause their
deformation. The driving force for tectonic Fig. 4.2 : Types of directional stresses
activity is derived from convection within Strain :
the upper mantle and the heat released from Strain is the deformation of rocks in response
the core of the Earth. Deformation of rocks to stress.
results into different structural features such Types of Deformation :
as folds, faults, joints etc. The study of these Four basic types of deformation are
structural features constitutes structural described as follows :
geology. 1) Elastic deformation : For small directional
stresses, less than the yield strength, rock
Stress and Strain :
deforms like a spring as described by
Stress is the pressure applied to rocks and is
Hooke’s Law. It changes shape by a very
expressed as force per unit area (F/A)
small amount in response to the stress, but
Rocks can be subjected to different kinds of
the deformation is not permanent. If the
stresses, such as:
stress is be released, the rock returns to its
a) Lithostatic stress : Rocks beneath the
original shape (fig. 4.3).
Earth's surface experience equal pressure
2) Plastic deformation : Rocks undergo plastic
exerted on them from all directions because
deformation and flow when the differential
of the weight of the overlying rocks. It is like
stress applied is stronger than their yield
the hydrostatic stress (water pressure) that a
strength. This occurs in the lower continental
person feels pressing all around their body
crust and in the mantle (fig. 4.3).
when diving deep into the water (fig. 4.1).
3) Brittle deformation : Near the Earth's
Lithostatic
surface, rock behaves in its familiar brittle
fashion. If the differential stress applied is
greater than the rock's yield strength, the
rock breaks, i.e. it fractures or fails with the
development of weak zone/ plane (fig. 4.4).
Stress 4) Ductile deformation : At depths greater
Fig. 4.1 : Depiction of lithostatic stress than 10 kms, the enormous lithostatic stress
b) Directional stress : In many cases, rocks makes it nearly impossible to produce a
may experience an additional, unequal fracture or crack, as the high temperature
stress due to tectonic forces. Three basic makes the rock softer, less brittle and more
types of differential stresses are : (fig. 4.2) malleable (fig. 4.4).
44
 fracture (3) strike angle North exposed rock
Stress Û: layers
dip direction
plastic region (2)
Strike
horizontal surfa
ce
represented by
water

dip angle s
er
Û6: lay
elastic region (1) ry
nta
e
m
edi
S
Strain
Fig. 4.3 Fig exhibiting stress strain relationship in rocks
: With increasing stress, the rocks undergo: 1. elastic Fig. 4.5 : Attitude of beds
deformation 2. plastic deformation and 3. fracture
Strike refers to the direction of a horizontal
line on any inclined plane such as a bed, fault
Undeformed Strain
block plane, or any other planar feature. The strike
direction is the direction of the line of intersection
of that feature with a horizontal plane.
Dip literally means slope or inclination.
In structural geology, dip is expressed both
Brittle deformation Ductile deformation
(faulting - broken block) (flow - stretched block) as a direction and its amount or angle.
Fig. 4.4 : Brittle and ductile deformation Dip direction is the direction along which
Measuring the attitude of beds : maximum inclination of the bedding plane
The simplest form of deformation that occurs. It is measured in a direction which is 90°
is exhibited in any region, is tilting of initially to the strike direction. This is called the true dip.
horizontal sedimentary beds. The amount of The amount of dip or angle of dip gives the
tilting may vary within wide limits. The position steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or feature
of the bed on the ground surface is expressed relative to a horizontal plane. This is given in
as its attitude. This attitude of the beds can be degrees (0°-90°) and the direction in which the
quantified by their Strike and Dip. bed is dipping.
The study of structural Geology requires
Do you know?
measurement and documentation of the
geometric features. The most common tool to A Brunton compass, properly known as
measure strike and dip of an inclined bed is the the Brunton Pocket Transit, is a precision
compass or Brunton and/ or Clinometer compass. compass made by Brunton, Inc. of Riverton,
Wyoming. The Pocket Transit may be
Strike and Dip of Beds :
adjusted for declination angle according to
Any geological formation exposed on
one's location on the Earth. It is used to get
the surface is called an outcrop. Outcrops
directional degree measurements (azimuth)
help geologists in examining and measuring
through use of the Earth's magnetic field.
the structural characteristics of rock beds and
Holding the compass at waist-height, the user
describing their orientation or position in space.
looks down into the mirror and lines up the
Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude
target, needle, and guide line that is on the
of a geologic feature. (fig. 4.5)

45
 mirror. Once all three are lined up and the dip of the inclined bed will vary according to
compass is level, the reading for that azimuth the direction in which it is measured, being zero
can be made. Arguably the most frequent use parallel to strike and increasing in other directions
for the Brunton in the field is the calculation till it is equal to the true dip when the direction
of the strike and dip of geological features of measurement is perpendicular to the strike.
(faults, contacts, foliation, sedimentary Table 4.1 describes the relationship between the
strata, etc.). Strike is measured by leveling orientation of the bed in relation to strike and dip.
(with the bull's eye level) the compass along Table 4.1 : Orientation of the bed in relation to
the plane being measured. Dip is taken by strike and dip
laying the side of the compass perpendicular Orientation Strike Dip Dip
of bed Direction Direction Amount
to the strike measurement and rotating
(Angle)
horizontal level until the bubble is stable and
Horizontal Absent Absent Zero
the reading has been made. If field conditions
allow, additional features of the compass Vertical Present Absent 90°
allow users to measure such geological Inclined Present Present > 0° and < 90°
attributes from a distance. Folds, faults, joints and unconformities :
As with most traditional compasses, Structural deformation or defects are
directional measurements are made in represented by folds, faults, joints etc.
reference to the Earth's magnetic field. Thus, These are internal features exhibited by
measurements are sensitive to magnetic rocks as a resulting due to tectonic disturbances.
interference. For example, if the user is
Folds :
near an outcrop that contains magnetite or
some other iron-bearing material, compass When a set of layers are subjected to
readings can be affected anywhere from compressive forces, they bend upward or
several inches from the outcrop to tens of downward. Such bends in rocks are called folds.
yards away (depending on the strength of These bends or curves are a result of permanent
the magnetic field). Since they are measured deformation due to tectonic forces. Folds may
with a rotating level, dip measurements are occur singly, isolated or as extensive fold trains
unaffected by magnetic interference. of different sizes. A set of folds distributed on a
regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common
Mirror
feature in orogenic zones.
Needle Parts or Elements of a fold :
Clinometer Different parts of a fold can be described as
Level
Bull's Eye follows :
Sighting Arm Level
Axial plane : An imaginary plane that divides
Compass
Card the fold as symmetrically as possible.
Lift Pin for Needle
Axis or Hinge : It is an imaginary line along
Apparent Dip and True Dip : which the bedding plane has suffered maximum
The dip angle and amount measured in bending or curvature .It may or may not coincide
a direction other than perpendicular the strike with the axial plane.
direction is called apparent dip. True dip is Crest : The convex or the up-arched part of the
always greater than apparent dip. The apparent fold.
46
 Trough : The concave or the down-arched part
of the fold.
Limbs or Flanks : The sides of a fold. In a series Axial
plane
of folds, it is the part between the crest of one
fold and the trough of the adjacent fold.

Axial Planes
Anticline
Axis
Hinge lines Syncline
(fold axes) Hinge
line
b

Fig. 4.7 : Symmetrical folds (anticline and syncline)

Lim

Symmetrical Folds are of two types :

Symmetrical Anticline : The axial plane is
mb
Li vertical and the two limbs dip away from each
Lim

Li b
mb m other by the same angle.
Li
b

Symmetrical Syncline : The axial plane is

vertical and the two limbs dip towards each other
Fig. 4.6 : parts/ elements of a fold by the same angle.
Types of Folds :  4) Asymmetrical Folds : The axial plane is
1) Anticline : The name is derived from Greek inclined. In such folds, the two limbs dip at
term meaning ‘opposite inclined’. Shape different angles on either side of the axial
of this fold is convex upwards. The limbs plane. The unequal angles of dip imply that
of the anticline dip away from each other the forces acting on the beds from the two
with reference to its axial plane. In such a sides were unequal (fig. 4.8).
fold, the older beds occur towards the core
or centre of curvature (fig. 4.6).
2) Syncline : The name is derived from the Axial
Greek term meaning ‘together inclined’. plane
Syncline is opposite of anticline. Shape of
the fold is convex downwards. The limbs
of the syncline dip towards each other with
reference to its axial plane. In this fold, the
younger beds occur towards the core or
centre of curvature (fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.8: Asymmetrical folds (anticline and syncline)
3) Symmetrical Folds : The axial plane is
vertical and divides the fold into two equal Asymmetrical folds may be two types:
halves in such a way that one half is the Asymmetrical Anticline : The axial plane is
mirror image of the other. In such folds, the inclined and the two limbs dip away from each
two limbs dip by the same angle on either other by different angles.
side of the axial plane. The compressive Asymmetrical Syncline : The axial plane is
forces acting on the beds from either side inclined and the two limbs dip towards each
are equal (fig. 4.7). other by different angles.
47
Significance of Folds :
fault traps and fold traps. In case of Bombay
1) Mountain building : Folds result in the most
High, the structure is a north-northwest to
stable features like mountains. Folds can
south-southeast trending doubly plunging
give rise to valleys, hills and long mountains
Anticline with a faulted east limb, 65 km long
ranges. The great, lofty mountains like the
and 23 km wide and is the most probable
Himalayas in India are fold mountains.
reason for calling it ‘Bombay High’.
2) Groundwater occurrence : In terms The oil field consists of two blocks named
of ground water occurrence, synclines Mumbai High North (MHN) and Mumbai
sometimes furnish favourable conditions to High South (MHS). The blocks were divided
tap enormous quantities of ground water. based on shale barrier assisting in independent
Thus, some artesian springs and wells, exploitation of reserves at the north and south
which are good sources of groundwater owe fields of Mumbai High.
their origin to synclinal structures. The discovery of Bombay High with
3) Oil and Gas deposits : Occurrence of subsequent other discoveries of oil and gas
important oil and gas deposits of the world fields in western offshore changed the oil
are associated with anticlinal folds which scenario of India.
serve as good structural traps of these
valuable and strategic deposits (fig. 4.9).
Gas

k
p roc
Ca Oil
k Water
r roc
i
vo
eser
R

Fig. 4.9 : Anticlinal trap Faults :

  Fault is a planar fracture in a volume of
Do you know? rock across which there has been significant
Mumbai High Field displacement along the fracture as a result of
Bombay High (now Mumbai High) is an Earth movements. (fig. 4.10). Energy release
offshore oilfield located in the Arabian Sea, associated with rapid movement on active faults
approximately 160 km west of the Mumbai is the main cause of earthquakes.
coast. Discovered in 1974, by the Russian
and Indian oil exploration team from seismic
exploration vessel Academic Arkhangelsky
while mapping the Gulf of Khambhat
between 1964 and 1967. The field started
production in 1976 and is operated by Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC).
Every oil resource rock requires Structural
traps which are mainly salt domes, coral reefs,
Fig. 4.10 : Displacement along a fault

48
Parts or Elements of a Fault : dip direction (dip slip) or along both (fig.
The different parts of a fault are: 4.13).
1) Fault Plane : This is the plane along which 2) Heave and Throw : The horizontal
the adjacent blocks are relatively displaced. component of displacement is called ‘heave’
In other words, this is the fractured surface and the vertical component of displacement
on either side of which the rocks have is called ‘throw’ of the fault (fig. 4.13).
moved past one another (FFF) (fig. 4.11). Its Fault displacement
1
intersection with the horizontal plane gives
2
the strike of the fault (ss). The direction
5
(d) along which the fault plane has the
3
maximum slope is its true dip amount.(T)
F A
4
s
d B
F s
T 1-Heave 2-Throw 3-Slip 4-Strike slip 5-Dip slip
X
a Fig. 4.13 : Components of displacement along a fault

Types of Faults :
Y Faults are classified on the basis of relative
movement of footwall and hanging wall.
D
1) Normal Faults : In a Normal fault or
Gravity fault, hanging wall is displaced
F
Fig. 4.11 : Parts of a Fault down with reference to the footwall. These
2) Foot wall and Hanging wall : In an inclined terms are very appropriate because the
fault, the faulted block which lies below the hanging wall is normally expected to move
fault plane is called the footwall (Y) and down along the slope of the fault plane,
the other block which rests above the fault under the influence of gravity. Normal faults
plane is called hanging wall (X) (fig. 4.12). have dips greater than 45°. Lengthening
and extension of the crust occurs in normal
faults. They result from strong tensional
forces (fig. 4.14).
Fault trace
Fault plane
Hanging wall
Footwall Block Hanging Wall Block

Normal Fault
Footwall
Fig. 4.14 : Faulting due to tensional forces
Fig.4.12 : Foot wall and hanging wall
2) Reverse Faults : Hanging wall block moves
Measurement of movement along fault plane :
up relative to the footwall. Reverse faults
1) Slip : The displacement that occurs have dips greater than 45°. Shortening of
during faulting is called the slip. The total the crust occurs in case of reverse faults.
displacement is known as the net slip. This They result from strong compressional
may be along the strike (strike slip) or the forces (fig. 4.15).
49
 Hanging Wall Block

Footwall Block

Reverse Fault
Fig.4.18 : Step faults

Fig. 4.15 : Faulting due to compressional forces 5) Horst and Graben : When normal faults
with mutually diverging or converging
Thrust Faults :
fault planes occur, then a few wedge-
  A special case of reverse faults is the thrust
shaped blocks called ‘horsts’ are displaced
Fault. Thrust faults are characterised by low dip
upwards and other blocks called ‘grabens’
angles (less than 45°) (fig. 4.16).
are displaced downwards (fig. 4.19).
Horst
Thrust Fault

Graben

Fig. 4.16 : Thrust fault

Fig. 4.19 : Horst and Graben
3) Strike Slip Faults : In this type of fault,
Horst and Graben of large magnitudes
the blocks slide past each other along the
result in the formation of block mountains and
direction of strike. This fault is also called
rift valleys respectively.
lateral fault, trans-current fault, wrench
fault or tear fault (fig. 4.17). Significance of Faults :
Right Lateral Faults are important due to their various
Strike-Slip Fault
disastrous as well as useful effects.
These can be briefly given as follows :
(i) Faults cause considerable damage to rocks
and are therefore real hazards in mining and
engineering works.
(ii) Fault breccia and fault gouge (pulverized
Left Lateral Strike-Slip Fault rocks) have low strength and are poor
foundation materials.
(iii) Earthquakes and landslides are likely to be
triggered by faults.
(iv) It is necessary to have knowledge of the
faults as they are conducive to earthquakes.
Fig. 4.17 : Strike slip fault This helps in proper designing of large
4) Step Faults : When a set of parallel normal civil structures for e.g. dams tunnels etc. to
faults occur at regular intervals, they give prevent them from damage.
a step-like appearance and are called step (v) Many fault zones are most suitable sites for
faults (fig. 4.18). mineralization of gold, silver, copper etc.
50
 (vi) Faults may create lakes, swamps, marshy A A
zones, hot water springs etc. These hot water S
d
springs are good sources of geothermal S D
M N
energy.
(vii) Some fault zones form potential oil traps. D
T B B
Joints : C
 Joints are fractures found in all types of
rocks. They are cracks or openings along which C O
there is no displacement parallel to the joint
Fig. 4.22 : Dip joint (MNO)
plane. The presence of joints divides the rocks
into a number of parts or blocks. Though joints  3) Diagonal Joints : Joint is oblique to the
may be described as mere cracks in rocks, strike and dip direction of the adjacent beds
(fig.
g. 4.23) A A
they differ mutually. Joints, like cleavages of
minerals, occur oriented in a definite direction S D

and as sets (fig. 4.20). M d

D

S
B N B
T
C

O C

Fig 4.23 : Oblique joint(MNO)

 4) Bedding Joints : Joint is parallel to the

Fig. 4.20 : Geological outcrop showing joints bedding plane (fig. 4.24).
A A M
Types of Joints : S
d
 1) Strike Joints : Joint is parallel to the strike
B B N S
of adjacent beds (fig. 4.21). P
T
MA A
D
S
D O
d
C
N B B S D C
T Fig 4.24 : Bedding Joint (MNOP)
C
5) Columnar Joints : Columnar joints are
sets of intersecting closely spaced fractures.
They occur in many types of igneous rocks
C and form as the rock cools and contracts.
O Columnar joints can occur in cooling lava
Fig. 4.21 : Strike joint (MNO) flows as well as in some shallow intrusions
 2) Dip Joints : Joint is parallel to the dip (fig. 4.25).
direction of adjacent beds (fig. 4.22). These columns can vary from few
51
 centimetres to few metres in diameter, and Columnar joints are not restricted to basalt.
can be several hundred metres in height. This structure can also form in other types of
They are typically parallel and straight, but rocks that undergo cooling and contraction e.g
can also be curved and vary in dimension. columns in rhyolite at Utan in Thane district.
The number of sides of the individual Significance of Joints :
columns can vary from 3 to 8. From the civil engineering point of view,
Most commonly, columnar joints are joints are important because they split the rocks
observed in basalts. Figure explains the into a number of blocks, which in turn reduce the
genesis or mode of formation of columnar competence of rock mass, increase their porosity
joints. and permeability and make them susceptible to
Cool quick decay and weathering.
C C
Occurrence of joints increases the ground
C water potential in any place. The area affected
by joints can be easily improved by suitable
C C
methods such as cement grouting or plugging.
Unconformities :
 Unconformities are a product of
diastorphism and involve tectonic activity
Hot in the form of upliftment and subsidence of
landmass. When sediments are deposited
heat flow heat flow continuously, without any major break, they are
Fig. 4.25 : Columnar joints
said to be conformable. All the beds belonging
When lava cools it contracts, giving
to a conformable set possess the same strike, dip
rise to the formation of cracks or fractures. If
direction and dip amount. On the other hand, if
contraction occurs at centres which are equally
a major break occurs in sedimentation between
spaced, then polygonal fracture pattern develops.
two sets of conformable beds, it is termed as an
If the cooling centres are not evenly spaced, then
unconformity. Thus, an unconformity is a contact
other geometries of fractures, such as 5-sided or
between two rock units that are unconformable
7-sided columns may occur. e.g., columnar joints
with each other. An unconformity, typically,
in basalts of Naldurga Fort, Osmanabad, Panhala
is a buried erosional surface that represents a
Fort, Kolhapur, Gilbert Hill, Mumbai, St. Mary’s
break in the geologic record. An expected age
island in Arabian sea off the coast of Malpe in
of layer or layers of rocks is/are missing due to
Udupi, Karnataka, India (fig. 4.26).
erosion and some period in geologic time is not
represented. This is known as a hiatus.
Types of Unconformities :
Different types of unconformities can be
recognised as follows :
1) Angular Unconformity : When the younger
beds and the older set of strata are not
mutually parallel, then the unconformity is
called an angular unconformity. In such a
Fig. 4.26 : Columnar joints at St. Mary’s island Malpe case, beds of one set occur with a greater tilt
in Udupi, Karnataka, India or folding (fig. 4.27 and fig. 4.28).
52
 U

U U

Fig. 4.30 : Field example of Disconformity

Fig. 4.27 : Angular unconformity
Disconformity between sedimentary
rocks in California, with conglomerate
deposited upon an erosion surface on the
underlying rocks.
A gap in the fossil record indicates a gap
in deposition. Disconformities are usually
a result of erosion, but can occasionally
represent periods of non –deposition (fig.
4.29 and fig. 4.30).
Fig. 4.28 : Field example of angular unconformity 3) Nonconformity : When the underlying
Hutton’s angular unconformity at Siccar older formation is represented by
Point where 345-million-year-old Devonian Old igneous or metamorphic rocks and the
Red Sandstone overlies 425-million-year-old overlying younger formation is made up
Silurian greywacke. of sedimentary rocks, the unconformity is
2) Disconformity : Disconformities are usually called non-conformity. A nonconformity
erosional contacts that separate parallel suggests that a period of long-term uplift,
bedding planes of the upper and lower weathering and erosion occurred to expose
rock units. Since disconformities are hard the older, deeper rock at the surface before it
to recognize in a layered sedimentary rock is finally buried by the younger rocks above
sequence, they are often discovered when the it. A nonconformity is the old erosional
fossils in the upper and lower rock units are surface on the underlying rock (fig. 4.31
tudied.
studied. and fig. 4.32).

U
U

U
U
Fig. 4.29 : Disconformity Fig. 4.31: Nonconformity

53
 conditions for engineering works. It generally
forms a weak zone.
Application of Structural Geology :
 x In Engineering geology and geotechnology
: Problems such as construction of bridges,
dams, power plants, highways, airports and
issues related to building foundations.
 x In Environmental geology : Problems such
as land use, planning, earthquake hazard,
Fig. 4.32 : Nonconformity at yellow stone highway volcanic hazard, distribution of groundwater.
Wyoming  x In Petroleum and mining geology :
Significance of unconformities : Understanding geometric techniques,
projection of faults, geologic contacts,
1) An unconformity represents a gap, break or
trends of regional processes that control the
interval in deposition of beds and forms a
concentration of minerals and hydrocarbons.
record of a gap in time.
2) Recognition of unconformities is useful Summary :
for subdividing stratigraphic units, This chapter deals with the study and
determining the timing of tectonic activity, interpretation of different structural features like
correlating certain stratigraphic boundaries, folds, faults, joints, unconformities, etc. found
interpreting sea-level changes etc. within rocks which constitute the Earth’s crust.
3) In certain situations, an unconformity It helps to interpret their mode and mechanism
produces oil traps and aquifers. of formation. This study is used as a framework
to analyze and understand global, regional and
4) Unconformities help in visualizing and
local scale features. It is of prime importance in
in reconstructing palaeogeography of a
the fields of Economic Geology, both, Petroleum
region.
Geology and Mining Geology and has varied
5) Unconformities are favourable sites for
applications in Geotechnical Investigations and
mineralization (e.g., uranium, aluminium,
Engineering Geology. Environmental geologists
phosphates and gold).
and Hydro geologists apply this knowledge in the
6) It is an important structure that affects site selection of suitable geological sites.

EXERCISE

Q. 1. Select and write the correct answer : 3) An anticline is a fold that is……..
1) The direction of a line formed due to intersection a) Convex upwards and has its youngest bed at
of an inclined bed with the horizontal plane is the core
called…….. b) Convex downwards and has its youngest bed
a) Strike b) dip c) hade d) heave at the core
2) An imaginary plane that divides the fold into c) Convex downwards and has its oldest bed at
two equal halves is known as…….. the core
a) Axis b) Axial plane d) Convex upwards and has its oldest bed at
c) Fault plane d) Crest the core

54
 4) In an asymmetrical syncline, the two 3) a) Angular unconformity i) surface of erosion
limbs…….. or non deposition.
a) Dip towards each other by the same angle b) Nonconformity ii) older series
b) Dip away from each other by the same angle parallel to younger
series.
c) Dip towards each other by different angles
c) Unconformity iii) older series not
d) Dip away from each other by different
parallel to younger
angles
series.
5) A fracture along which there has been no d) Disconformity iv) older bed made
slipping or displacement of rocks is called a … up of plutonic
a) Joint b) Unconformity igneous rocks.
c) Fault d) Fold 1) a-i b-ii c-iii d-iv
2) a-iv b-i c-ii d-iii
6) A type of fault in which the hanging wall block
3) a-ii b-iii c-iv d-i
has been displaced upwards with respect to the
4) a-iii b-iv c-i d-ii
footwall block is called ……
a) Graben b) Normal fault. Q. 2. Answer the following :
c) Horst d) Reverse fault 1) How will you explain the terms strike and dip
of beds?
7) An unconformity in which the older bed is
made up of igneous or metamorphic rocks is 2) Differentiate between true dip and apparent dip
called………. of a bed.
a) Conformity b) Nonconformity 3) Which are the different parts of a fold? Describe
c) Angular unconformity with a neatly labelled diagram.
d) Disconformity 4) Explain the characteristics of an anticline/
syncline with a neatly labelled diagrams.
Q. 2. Match the following :
5) Which are the different types of folds? Describe
1) a) throw i) hanging wall displaced
with neatly labelled diagrams.
upwards
6) Describe the different parts of fault with neatly
b) Normal fault ii) Horizontal displacement.
labelled diagram.
c) Heave iii) Footwall displaced
7) Differentiate between Normal and Reverse
upwards.
faults?
d) Reverse fault iv) Vertical displacement
8) Which are the different types of joints?
1) a-i, b-iv, c-iii, d-ii
2) a-iv, b-iii, c- ii, d-i Q. 4. Answer in detail :
3) a-iii, b-ii, c-I, d-iv 1) Differentiate between Symmetrical fold and an
4) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d- ii Asymmetrical fold?
2) Explain the different types of faults with neatly
2) a) anticline i) limbs dip by
labelled diagrams.
equal angle
3) What are columnar joints? How are they
b) Asymmetrical fold ii) Convex downwards
formed?
c) Syncline iii) Convex upward
4) What is an unconformity? Discuss its process of
d) Symmetrical iv) Limbs dip by
formation.
unequal angles
5) Differentiate between a Disconformity and
1) a-i, b-ii, c-iv, d-iii
Nonconformity?
2) a-ii, b-iii, c-I, d-iv
3) a-iii, b- iv, c-ii, d- i ‹‹‹
4) a-iv, b-iv, c-iii, d- ii

55
 5 Economic Minerals and Rocks

Terminology used in economic geology :

Introduction : An ore is a natural concentration of one
The branch of Geology that deals with or more minerals, i.e. rock from which one or
the economically important minerals is more metals can be extracted economically.
known as Economic Geology. Economic i.e. the value of the metal obtained must be
Geology studies the exploration, exploitation more than the cost of mining, transportation
and origin of the mineral deposits. Economic and processing. Ores of important metals such
mineral deposits are geologic bodies that as iron aluminium, gold, platinum, copper etc.
may be worked for one or more minerals or are part of economic and industrial growth of
metals. Many geological processes result in the country. Ore is explored through systematic
the concentration of minerals and elements knowledge of economic and mining geology.
that are exploited as natural resources. Ore comprises of ore minerals, gangue
Minerals are the most important natural minerals, and country rock. Earlier the metal
resources that dictate the industrial and bearing deposits were considered as ores
economic development of a country. There however, more recently, nonmetallic minerals
is an ever-increasing global demand for of commercial importance are also considered
these resources due to improved standards ore minerals.
Gangue comprises of minerals which are
of living, industrialization and the growth of
associated with the ore. Gangue minerals are
population.
commercially insignificant in a particular period
The occurrence of economic minerals is of time, possibly becoming ore minerals at a later
therefore restricted to particular geological date. They are commonly silicates, carbonates,
process and hence the geographic location. or fluorides, and rarely sulfides.
Some igneous processes give rise to the ore Tenor is the metal content of the ore. It is
deposits containing base metals (Cu-Pb-Zn) generally expressed as a percentage and in case
whereas the coal and petroleum are formed of precious metals, it is expressed in parts per
through sedimentary processes. Diamonds million (ppm). Tenor depends on the price of the
are generally restricted to a rock called metal. Higher the price of the metal, the lower the
Kimberlite and chromite is found in a rock metallic content necessary and vice- versa. The
called peridotite. It is therefore necessary to minimum acceptable cut-off grade of the metal
understand the mode of origin of the rocks content in an ore depends on various factors
and explore their mineralogy to find whether like nature and size of the deposit, its location in
the rock contains any economic mineral of terms of distance and transportation, metal price
exploitable value or not. and the cost of its extraction.
There are serious implications of the Do you know?
availability of these resources to development Several government agenies such as GSI,
of any civilization. In modern times, the MECL and Mining companies in India carry
industrial revolution has heavily depended on out geological exploration. The license,
the availability of natural mineral resources. records and the economic values of these

56
 industrial interests and metallic mineral (ores)
minerals are maintained by the government
are shown in table 1. Metallic minerals (ores)
agencies like Indian Bureau of Mines and
occur in combination with other elements which
State Departments of Geology and mining.
must be separated. Iron, copper, gold, silver,
Minerals that contains elements or metals
lead, tin, zinc, aluminum, platinum etc. are
used in national security and defense
metallic minerals whereas, clay, limestone, sand,
industries are Strategic Minerals, and they
salt, sulphur, phosphate etc. are non-metallic
are mined and exploited by the agencies
minerals. The non-metallic minerals can be
like AMD and IRE. These regulatory
used in their raw form. Non metallic minerals
organizations manage the industrial supply
and use of these metals in India. occur in abundance and are available on a local
level for local consumption. Thus while metals
The natural resources of economic values are international commodities most of the non-
can be classified into fuel, non-fuel, metallic metals rarely enter into world trades (there are
and non-metallic. The resources of particular exceptions such as diamonds).

Metallic Resources

Heavy Metals Light Metals Rare Metals Nobel Metals

Sp gr > 5 Sp.gr. <.< 5 Ta, Nb, Cd, Au
Li Ag
Hg, Pd, Te
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Mg Pt
Be Pa
Fe, Mn Cu, Pb Al
Cr, Va Zn, Sn
Mo, W Sb, Bi
Ni, Co
Ti Table 1 : Classification of Economic minerals

57
Mineral deposits in India : Hardness: 5.5 to 6.5.
The mineral resources of our country are Specific Gravity : 4.9 to 5.3
vast and varied. The minerals that are found Uses : Used as an ore of iron, as a gem stone and
abundantly, are exported and those in which in preparation of Ayurvedic medicines.
India is deficient, are imported.
Occurrence : In metamorphic rocks like Banded
Some of the important minerals are Haematite Quartzite (BHQ).
described with respect to their chemical
composition, physical properties, occurrence ii) Magnetite :
and State wise distribution in India. Originally called loadstone, is a variety of
magnetite i.e. natural magnet (fig. 5.2). Named
Ore Minerals:
in 1854 by Wilhelm Karl Von Hai dinger after
Iron ores :
the locality Magnesia, Greece.
The word iron itself comes from ‘iren’ in
Anglo-Saxon. Iron is the fourth most abundant
element {5.00%} in the Earth’s crust by
weight.Iron ore is most often found in the forms
of hematite and magnetite.
i) Haematite :
Originally named about by Theophrastus
from the Greek word ‘Haematitislithos’ for Fig. 5.2 : Magnetite
‘blood stone’ in 300/325 BCE. It is possibly Chemical Composition : Fe3O4
the first mineral ever named ending with a Colour : Iron black.
‘-ite’suffix. Translated in 79 AD Pliny the Elder
Lustre : Metallic to submetallic.
to haematites, or ‘bloodlike’ in allusion to the
Streak : Black.
vivid red colour of the powder. It is known as
Gairika in Ayurveda. (fig. 5.1) Form : Massive, granular
Cleavage : Absent.
Fracture : Uneven.
Hardness : 5.5 to 6.5.
Specific Gravity : 5.18.
Uses : Magnetite is used as an iron ore, abrasive,
fertilisers, pigment in paint and as an aggregate
in high density concrete.
Fig. 5.1 : Haematite Occurrence : As primary constituent in igneous
Chemical Composition : Fe2O3 and metamorphic rocks (banded magnetite
Colour : Steel grey, iron black quartzite) or as a sedimentary deposit.
Lustre : Submetallic. Geographic Distribution in India :
Streak : Cherry red. Iron ores occurs on a large scale in India.
Form : Reniform, compact microcrystalline or Large deposits of haematite are found in
scaly aggregates and sometimes botryoidal. Chhattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Cleavage : Absent. Maharashtra and Odisha. Most of these ores
Fracture : Uneven. are embedded in Banded Haematite Quartzite

58
(BHQ). The ore deposits consist of alternating Hardness : 6 to 6.5
bands of haematite and recrystallized Quartz. Specific Gravity : 4.4 - 5
In Maharashtra, the iron ore deposits occur Uses : Important ore of manganese.
mainly in Chandrapur, Ratnagiri and Bhandara
Occurrence : Large deposits formed in a bog,
Districts.
lacustrine or shallow water environments.
Manganese ores :
ii) Psilomelane :
Manganese is found as a free element
The name Psilomelane is derived from
in nature. It is often found in combination
Greek word ‘psilos’ meaning smooth or bald and
as a large variety of minerals. The name of
‘melas’ meaning black in allusion to form and
manganese may have come either from the Latin
colour (fig.
g. 5.4).
word ‘magnes’ meaning magnet, or from black
magnesium oxide ‘magnesia-nigra’. It is the 12th
most abundant element in the Earth’s crust.
India is the world’s fifth largest producer
of manganese ore with iron. Polymetallic
nodules also called manganese nodules, are rock
concretions found on the sea bottom. Manganese
is chiefly obtained from ore minerals like
Pyrolusite and Psilomelane.
i) Pyrolusite : Fig. 5.4 : Psilomelane
The name pyrolusite is derived from Greek
Chemical Composition : MnO2.H2O (Hydrated
word ‘pyro’ means fire and ‘louein’ means to oxide of manganese).
wash (fig. 5.3). It was used to remove brown and
Colour : Iron black to steel grey, brownish black.
green tints in making of glass.
Lustre : Sub- metallic.
Streak : Brownish black
Form : Massive, botryoidal, reniform, stalactitic.
Cleavage : Absent.
Fracture : Uneven.
Hardness : 5 to 6.
Specific Gravity : 3.7 to 4.7.
Fig. 5.3 : Pyrolusite Uses : Important ore of manganese.
Chemical Composition : MnO2 (Manganese Occurrence : As a secondary mineral formed
oxide). by the weathering of other manganese bearing
Colour : Black, Iron grey or dark steel grey. minerals, and also as large deposits formed in
lacustrine or shallow water environments.
Lustre : Metallic, dull, Earthy.
Geographic Distribution in India :
Streak : Black, iron black or dark steel grey.
Manganese ores are mostly found in
Form : Botryoidal, reniform, massive.
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh which
Cleavage : Absent. together produce more than half of India’s
Fracture : Brittle, uneven, Earthy. manganese.
59
Copper ores : ii) Malachite :
Copper gets its name from Latin word Named after the Greek ‘mallows’ in allusion
‘cuprum’ meaning from the island of Cyprus. to the green colour of the leaves. Referred to as
Copper ranks as the third most consumed Sasyaka in Ayurveda.
industrial metal in the world after iron and Chemical composition : Cu2 (CO3) (OH)2
aluminium. Colour : Bright green
Copper was probably the first metal used by Streak : Pale green
human. It is a soft but tough metal, very ductile Lustre : Adamantine, vitreous, silky, dull.
and malleable and therefore is used in electrical
Form : Acicular, fibrous, botryoidal, granular
industry and utensils. Copper is used in various
Cleavage : Perfect
alloys like brass (Cu+Zn), bronze (Cu+Sn+Al),
Fracture : Conchoidal, uneven
and Electrum (Au+Cu+Ag).
The important ores of Copper are Hardness : 3.5 to 4
Chalcopyrite, Malachite, Cuprite and Native Specific gravity : 3.6 to 4
copper. Geographic Distribution in India :
Copper ore is chiefly found in Andhra
i) Chalcopyrite :
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Jammu and Kashmir,
Name-named in 1725 by Johann Friedrich
Kerala, Rajasthan and West Bengal.
Henckel from the Greek word ‘chalkos’ meaning
copper and ‘pyrites’ means strike. Also called Lead ore :
Maxika in Ayurveda (fig. 5.5) Native lead was probably first discovered
in The Langban dist. in the nineteenth century.
The Latin name is also source of the
English word ‘Plumbing’ and ‘Plumber’ due
to the historic use of lead in water pipes.
Some researchers have argued that Roman’s
wide spread use of lead for water pipes and
eating utensils have in part contributed to their
civilization decline.
Lead is commonly found to be occurring
Fig. 5.5 : Chalcopyrite
with zinc as polymeric Sulphides (ZnS). The
Chemical Composition : CuFeS2. important ore of Lead is Galena (PbS).
Colour : Brass yellow.
i) Galena :
Lustre : Metallic. Galena—Named by Pliny the Elder in 77-
Streak : Greenish black. 79 AD. from the Greek word ‘galena’ meaning
Form : Massive. ‘lead ore’ (fig. 5.6).
Cleavage : Poor or indistinct.
Fracture : Uneven, conchoidal.
Hardness : 3.5 to 4.
Specific Gravity : 4.1 to 4.3.
Uses : Important ore of copper.
Occurrence : It mainly occurs as hydrothermal
vein deposit. Fig. 5.6 : Galena

60
Chemical Composition : PbS Fracture : Conchoidal.
Colour : Lead grey. Hardness : 3.5 to 4.
Lustre : Metallic. Specific Gravity : 3.9 to 4.1.
Streak : Black, lead grey. Uses : Important ore of Zinc.
Form : Massive, octahedral or cubic crystals, Occurrence : It is found in metamorphic, igneous
granular. and sedimentary rocks.
Cleavage : Three sets, perfect Geographic Distribution in India :
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand,
Fracture : Uneven, sub conchoidal.
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and
Hardness : 2.5.
Rajasthan.
Specific Gravity : 7.4 to 7.6.
Aluminium ore :
Uses : Used to extract lead. It is mainly used in The name aluminium is derived from Latin
lead acid batteries. word ‘alumen’ means älum. It is the third most
Occurrence : It is found in structurally disturbed abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Aluminium
metamorphic terrains and also as hydrothermal is most widely used after iron.
deposits. It occurs in pegmatites and limestones The chief ore of aluminium is Bauxite (fig.
and many a times associated with zinc ores. 5.7). The term ‘Bauxite’ is used for a rock made
Geographic distribution in India : of aluminium oxides and is named after Les
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Beaux in France, where it was first located. It is
Rajasthan,Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and mixture of hydrated aluminium oxide minerals
Uttarakhand. like gibbsite, diaspore and bohemite. Large
Zinc Ore : amount of high- grade Bauxite is found in India
(around 2500 million tons.)
The name Zinc comes from it’s Latin name
‘Zincum’. Sphalerite is an important ore mineral. i) Bauxite :

Uses : The important ore mineral is Sphalerite.

i) Sphalerite :
Named in 1847 by Ernst Friedrich
Glockerfron the Greek word ‘sphaleros’ means
‘treacherous rock’ in allusion to the ease with
which dark variety was mistaken for galena,but
yielded no lead. Fig. 5.7 : Bauxite
Sphalerite also known as blend or zinc Chemical Composition : Al2O3.2H2O.
blend, is the major ore of zinc. Colour : Yellowish, off-white, pinkish, reddish
Chemical Composition : ZnS. brown.
Colour : Yellow, light to dark brown, black, red Lustre : Dull, Earthy.
brown, colourless, light blue, green. Streak : Whitish,yellowish
Streak : Pale yellow to brown. Form : Pisolitic, Amorphous.
Lustre : Admantine, resinous. Cleavage : Absent.
Form : Massive, granular, crystalline. Fracture : Uneven.
Cleavage : Perfect. Hardness : 2.5 to 6.5

61
Specific Gravity : 2.3 to 3.5. Geographic Distribution in India :
Uses : Used as an ore of aluminium and in the Rajasthan, Bihar, Karnataka, Odisha,
abrasive, refractory. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Occurrence : It occurs as residual sedimentary Industrial Minerals:
deposit, formed as a result of weathering of These are non-metalliferous and are used,
rocks, under tropical conditions in alternate dry with or without processing in various industries,
and humid climates. Bauxite occurs as capping for purposes other than extraction of metal.
on the parent rock. Various industries like petroleum, cement,
Geographic Distribution in India : abrasive, ceramic, refractory and medicine, use
Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, these minerals as a major chunk of their raw
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, materials. It includes even those minerals that
Odisha. are used in metallurgical industry as fluxes, e.g.
muscovite, asbestos etc.
Radioactive minerals :
Conventional Resources :
Radioactive minerals contain natural
Conventional petroleum resources are oil
radioactive elements in excess. The most
and gas deposits that can be extracted using
abundant radioactive mineral is :
traditional drilling methods.
i) Monazite : I) Coal and Petroleum/ Fuel Industry :
The name monazite is derived from the Coal and petroleum are considered
Greek word ‘monazeis’ means to be alone in conventional sources of energy. Coals are
allusion to it’s isolated crystals. oxygenated hydrocarbons. Combustion of coal
Chemical composition : (Ce, La, Nd, Th) (PO4. releases tremendous amount of heat. Therefore,
SiO4) it is used as fuel in thermal power plants and in
Colour : Reddish brown to brown, shades of the cement industry.
green to brown, yellowish brown. Coal is a black, stratified rock made up
Streak : White of hydrocarbons. Coal has basically originated
Lustre : Resinous, waxy, vitreous. from the decomposition of the vegetable matter.
Grade or rank of coal depends on the degree of
Form : Crystalline, granular.
decomposition. Therefore, it does not possess a
Cleavage : Good to poor. fixed chemical composition.
Fracture : Uneven, conchoidal Peat, Lignite, Bituminous Coal and
Hardness : 5 to 5.5 Anthracite are 4 varieties of coal. These varieties
Specific gravity : 4.6 to 5.4 are indicative of the maturity of the Coal. During
the conversion of Peat to Anthracite, there is
Uses : Important source of thorium and rare
general darkening in the colour, compactness,
Earths.
hardness, loss of moisture and volatiles along
Occurrence : In the beach sand. Usually occurs
with an increase of carbon content. Thus,
in Igneous (granite, pegmatite) and metamorphic
Anthracite is supposed to be the best variety of
(schist and gneiss) rocks. Monazite grains are
Coal.
resistant to weathering and become concentrated
Geographic Distribution in India :
in soils and sediments derived from the primary
Coal deposits in Maharashtra belong to
source. They may also be mined for their rare
Gondwana group occurring in Nagpur and
Earth and thorium content.

62
Chandrapur districts. At the following coal prospects for exploration and exploitation of
fields: i) Kamptee coal fields, ii) Umrer coal CBM. The Gondwana sediments of eastern India
fields, iii) Bokhara coal fields, iv) Wardha host the bulk of India’s coal reserves and all the
valley coal fields and v) Ghugus-Sasti- Rajura CBM producing blocks (Jharkhand, West Bengal
coal fileds. and Madhya Pradesh).
Petroleum : Shale Gas : The term ‘Shale Gas’ refers to
The word Petroleum is derived from the natural gas that is trapped underground in shale
greek word ‘Petra’ meaning rock and ‘Oleum’ deposits. Shale is a fine grained, very porous rock.
meaning oil. It is not a mineral in the geological These pores are not well connected, which makes
sense. It has an organic origin and is a mixture extracting the trapped natural gas difficult.
of liquid hydrocarbons of complex composition. Gas Hydrates : The term ‘Gas Hydrates’ refers
Petroleum accumulations are commonly to gas molecules that are encased in ice. These
associated with gas such as methane, propane, are naturally occurring structures that can be
butane etc. which is called natural gas. found in permafrost sediments in the Arctic or
Petroleum is derived from the decomposition buried in sediments deep under water.
and distillation of organic matter, contained in Hydrocarbon is an organic compound
composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon
sediments of shallow water, marine origin. It is
atoms. Hydrocarbon molecules naturally occur
found to be occurring in the pores and cracks of
and are found in crude oil, natural gas, coal,
sedimentary rocks.
gas hydrates and other important sources of
The petroleum extracted from the Earth energy. Burning hydrocarbons in the presence of
is called as ‘crude oil’, then it is processed in sufficient oxygen produces carbon di oxide, water
refineries to separate its constituent ‘fractions’, and heat because of which they are desirable as
each with distinctive properties and uses. Petrol, fuels.
kerosene, diesel, lubricating oil, paraffin wax Hydrocarbons form naturally from plant
and asphalt are some of the products. and animal remains that are compressed through
Geographic Distribution in India : temperature and pressure over millions of years.
Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Off-shore Crude oil, tar, bitumen are all liquid forms of
regions petroleum hydrocarbons, while Propane, butane
and methane are gaseous hydrocarbons.
Unconventional Resources :
II) Cement Industry :
Unconventional petroleum resources are oil
A mixture of limestone and gypsum ground
and gas deposits that are much more difficult to to powder and mixed with water hardens rapidly
extract, and require unconventional specialized into stony consistency is called cement. Cement
techniques and tools. For example Coal Bed industry utilizes Limestone as the chief raw
Methane (CBM), Shale Gas and Gas Hydrates. materials followed by gypsum, bauxite and clay
Coal Bed Methane (CBM) : It is an minerals.
unconventional source of natural gas, Gypsum :
predominantly methane (CH4) generated during Name Gypsum has originated from the
coal formation and stored or adsorbed in coal greek word ‘Gypsos’ meaning plaster. Mineral
seams. It generally does not contain hydrogen gypsum found in abundance near Paris is
sulphide (H2S). It is considered to be more eco- called Plaster of Paris. Gypsum is added to
friendly than other sources. raw materials of Portland cement, because it
As India has the fifth largest proven coal regulates the setting or hardening time i.e. it
reserves in the world, it therefore holds significant prevents the cement from hardening too quickly.

63
Chemical composition : CaSO4.2H2O.
x Fly ash and slag, along with other mineral
Colour : White. mixtures, are used to substitute cement
Lustre : Vitreous, pearly, silky. for making concrete used in construction
Streak : White. activities.
Form : Laminated, fibrous, massive.
Cleavage : Perfect 2 sets. III) Abrasive Industry :
Fracture : Hackly, even An abrasive is a substance which is used
for cutting, polishing, grinding and sharpening
Hardness : 2
another substance.
Specific Gravity : 2.3
Abrasives are categorized into two types :
Occurrence : In sedimentary rocks as evaporites.
i) Natural Abrasives - these include hard and
Geographic Distribution in India :
tough minerals. The common abrasives are
Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Tamil
Diamond, Corundum, Quartz and Garnet.
Nadu, Uttarakhand.
ii) Artificial Abrasives.
Limestone :
Limestone is bulk raw material used in Diamond :
cement industry. For making cement, a naturally Diamond is named after the greek word
clayey Limestone or clay and limestone mixed ‘adamas’ meaning invincible because of its
in correct proportion is burnt. The resultant mass hardness. Diamond being the hardest mineral, is
is powdered and mixed with water. A chemical used as an abrasive.
reaction takes place and hardens into dense Chemical composition : Pure Carbon.
compact mass. All limestone deposits may not Colour : White, colourless, sometimes yellow,
be suitable for the manufacture of cement. The red or green.
specifications for cement grade are:(a) MgO Lustre : Adamantine.
not more than 2.5%, (b) CaO not less than 42%, Streak : Not obtained on the porcelain plate.
(c) SiO2 not more than 14% and (d) P2O5 not Form : Cubic crystals with curved surfaces.
more than 1%. Some limestones fulfill these Cleavage : One set.
conditions.
Fracture : Conchoidal.
Geographic Distribution in India :
Hardness : 10.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Specific Gravity : 3.52.
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha.
Geographic Distribution in India :
Do you know? Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
The manufacturing of cement requires Corundum :
large amounts of energy. This increases Named after a Sanskrit word ‘kuruvind’
the emission of greenhouse gases in the which means ruby. Corundum is next to Diamond
atmosphere. Hence, substitute materials, in hardness and being cheaper than diamond
such as fly ash and slag, are being used in can also be used in polishing or grinding rough
place of cement. surfaces.
x Fly ash is a by-product produced in thermal Chemical composition : Al2O3.
power plants. Colour : Yellow, brown, red, blue
x Slag is a by-product produced in iron and
Lustre : Vitreous, sometimes dull on crystal
steel plants.
faces.
64
Streak : Not obtained on the porcelain plate. Crystalline Silica :
Form : Columnar, massive. Colour : Colourless or white, also shows variety
Cleavage : Absent. of colours.
Fracture : Conchoidal to uneven. Streak : White.
Hardness : 9. Lustre : Vitreous, subvitreous, waxy.
Specific Gravity : 3.9 - 4.1 Form : Prismatic, botryoidal , massive.
Geographic Distribution in India : Cleavage : Absent.
Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka Fracture : Conchoidal to subconchoidal,
and Tamil Nadu uneven.
Quartz : Hardness : 5.5 - 7 (variable depending upon
Quartz was used during the stone age. The silica variety)
word quartz is derived from the German word Specific gravity : Approx 2.65
‘Quarz’ which came from the Polish dialect Occurrence : It occurs in igneous rocks like
term ‘Kwardy’, corresponding to the Czech term granite, pegmatite; as secondary mineral within
‘Tvrdy’ meaning hard. Quartz is the second cavities of basalts; in sedimentary rocks such
most abundant mineral in the Earth’s crust. as sandstone and in metamorphic rocks like
Silica group constitutes 12% to 15% of quartzite, schist and gneiss.
all rock forming minerals. This group includes
Geographic Distribution in India :
crystalline, cryptocrystalline and amorphous
W.Bengal, Maharashtra, Jharkhand,
minerals. In glass, ceramics, abrasive and
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
refractory industries, piezoelectric crystal
Pradesh.
plates used in quartz watches and also used as
decorative and semi-precious stone. Garnet :
Flint was used in the manufacture of tools Named from ‘granatum’ (a pomegranate)
as it had the property of splitting into thin, sharp for its resemblance to seed of this fruit. It is used
splinters when struck by another hard object. as an abrasive and gemstone.
Chemical composition : The minerals of this
group are characterised by same chemical
composition i.e. SiO2. Crystalline quartz is most
abundant.
The composition varies from crystalline to
cryptocrystalline silica, i.e. from SiO2 to SiO2.
nH2O. Varieties of cryptocrystalline silica are
mixtures of cryptocrystalline silica (chalcedony) Fig. 5.9 : Garnet
and hydrous silica (opal). Chemical composition : X3Y2Si3O12, where
X= Ca2+, Mg, Fe,
Mn etc., (divalent ions) Y= Al3+, Fe, Cr and Ti
(trivalent ions).
Complex silicates of Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn.
Colour : Red, brown, yellow.
Lustre : Vitreous.
Fig. 5.8 : Opal Streak : Not determined.
65
Form : Crystallized, massive (Rhomb field and ‘Spat’ meaning a rock (that does not
dodecahedron). contain ore).
Fracture : Uneven-Subconchoidal. Feldspars are used in the ceramic industry
Cleavage : Absent. due to their glazed lustre property. They are used
in the manufacture of glass, porcelain, sanitary
Hardness : 7.0 - 7.5.
ware and as filler in paints, plastic, rubber and
Specific gravity : 3.4.
adhesive industries. Feldspars are also used as
Occurrence : In metamorphic rocks. gemstones e.g., moonstone (orthoclase), sunstone
Geographic Distribution in India : (labradorite) and amazonite (microcline).
Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Andhra
Silicate structure : All feldspars are
Pradesh.
tectosilicates. Ca, Na, K cations also occur in
IV) Ceramic Industry : tectosilicates.
Crockery, glazed tiles, sanitary ware, Chemical composition : It is expressed as X(Al
insulators are ceramic products. Ceramic SiO)4O8,where X is Ca, Na, K and Ba.
material is also used in electrical, electronic and
Varieties : This group is sub-divided on the basis
automobile industries.
of chemical composition and isomorphism into:
Kaolin : i) Alkali feldspars ii) Calc-alkalifeldspars
Named as per an ancient chinese type
i) Alkali feldspars or Potassium Sodium
locality ‘kaoling (Gaolong)’: meaning high
feldspars. e.g. orthoclase and microcline.
ridge.
Albite (NaAlSi3O8) to Orthoclase
Chemical Composition : Al2(Si2O5)OH4 (KAlSi3O8) isomorphous minerals. It is a
Colour : white to cream, pale yellow substitution of sodium by potassium.
Lustre : waxy, pearly, dull, Earthy Orthoclase : Name has its origin in the Greek
Streak : white words- ‘Orthos’ meaning right, ‘Clase’meaning
Form : massive to cleave (cleavages are at right angles)
Cleavage : perfect (fig.5.10).
Fracture : uneven, conchoidal to sub-conchoidal
Hardness : 2 to 2.5
Specific Gravity : 2.63
Occurrence : occurs in sedimentary rocks
Geographic Distribution in India :
Gujarat, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Fig. 5.10 : Orthoclase
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Feldspars :
Feldspar is one of the most abundant
minerals found in the continental
crust. This group constitutes over 50% of the
Earth’s crust.
The name feldspar is derived from the
German word ‘Feldspat’. ‘Feld’ meaning Fig. 5.11 : Microcline

66
 ii) Calc-alkali feldspars - Plagioclase series Use of ceramics :
of feldspars or lime soda feldspars, e.g. In recent times, ceramics and glass fibres
plagioclase (fig. 5.11) and labradorite (fig. are replacing iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
5.12). etc. The following is a brief account of the use of
ceramics and glass fibres.
In the construction industry, the use of
ceramics in place of cement is increasing.
Ceramics are used as insulators, semiconductors
and magnets. Mobile phones, computers,
television and a number of other electronic
Fig. 5.12 : Plagioclase products make use of ceramics. The use of
ceramics reduces polluting emissions. Ceramic
catalytic converters in vehicles help to convert
poisonous hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide
into harmless carbon dioxide and water.
Nowadays, the telecommunication industry
uses optical fibres in place of copper wires.
Optical fibres increase the speed and volume
of transmission. The demand for copper has
Fig. 5.13 : Labradorite come down because of the increasing use of this
Plagioclase feldspars : Plagioclase series of technology. Therefore, the negative impact of
feldspar minerals are a homogeneous mixture copper mining has also decreased.
of albite and anorthite. In this series Na-Si is Do you know?
replaced by Ca-Al. The minerals so formed are Lightweight reusable ceramic tiles are
called isomorphs. The two boundary minerals used in NASA’s space shuttles. These tiles
albite and anorthite are called end members. make a thermal barrier that protects the
Albite(Ab) 'Anorthite(An). astronauts and the shuttle’s aluminium
Physical properties of feldspar group : frame from extreme external temperatures
(approximately 1600°C) when the shuttle
Colour : Blue, orange, pink, white, green and
re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere on its way
gray.
back.
Streak : White or pale shade of body colour.
Lustre : Vitreous to sub vitreous V) Refractory Industry:
Form : Tabular Refractories are those minerals and mineral
Cleavage : Two sets, at right angles products, which can withstand high temperatures
Fracture : Conchoidal to uneven of preferably above 1500°C, without softening
Hardness : 6 - 6.5 and fusion.
Specific gravity : 2.55 - 2.76 Refractories are used for lining furnaces, in
Occurrence : Feldspars are found in igneous the manufacture of crucibles for melting metals,
rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, pegmatite), wherever resistance to high temperature and
sedimentary rocks (e.g., arkose a variety of corrosion is required. A good refractory should
sandstone containing at least 25% feldspar) and satisfy the following conditions :
metamorphic rocks (e.g., gneiss). a) It should have a very high melting point.
67
 b) It should not crack or soften at high source of Alumina. It is very hard, resists high
temperatures. temperature and is poor conductor of heat and
c) It should resist chemical action and physical electricity. Hence, Bauxite is added to clay in
wear and tear. the manufacture of high alumina bricks, that
d) It should not react chemically with the are used to line furnaces to withstand high
substance being fused init. temperatures upto 1800ºC.

The refractories are classified into three Zircon :

categories : Industrial properties : Due to their resistance
1) Acidic : Fire clay and Kaolin, Kyanite and to corrosion , high thermal shake stability and
Sillimanite. low ability to generate defects in glass it is
2) Basic : Bauxite, Magnesite and Corundum. widely used in refractories and glass furnaces,
refractory coatings, ceramic dentures and other
3) Neutral : Zircon, Chromite and Graphite.
dental procedures.
Raw Materials : The raw materials for the
Chemical Composition : ZrSiO4
refractory industries are Fire Clay, Kyanite,
Bauxite and Zircon. Colour : Usually yellow, brown or red,
colourless, blue and green
Kyanite :
Lustre : Vitreous to adamantine, sometimes oily
Derived from greek word ‘Kyanos’ meaning
blue. Streak : colourless
Industrial properties : When Kyanite is Form : tabular, prismatic crystals, massive
heated to a temperature of 1545°C, it changes Cleavage : imperfect
into Mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2). It is stable at high Fracture : uneven
temperatures of above 1800°C and possesses Hardness : 7.5
good mechanical strength, low coefficient of
Specific Gravity : 4.6 – 4.7
expansion and high electrical resistance. Hence,
Uses : Ore of zirconium metal, ore of zirconium
Kyanite is used as raw material in refractory
dioxide, whitening agents, gemstone, radiometric
industry.
dating.
Chemical composition : Al2SiO5.
Occurrence : Occurs in igneous (pegmatite),
Colour : Blue, green, bluish grey.
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
Lustre : Pearly
Geographic Distribution in India :
Streak : White
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Form : Bladed
Odisha.
Cleavage : Two sets
VI) Medicine Industry :
Fracture : Uneven
Medicinal minerals : Use of minerals in
Hardness : 4 - 7
ayurvedic system of medicine is known since
Specific Gravity : 3.58 to 3.65
about 2500 years and this branch of ayurvedic
Geographic Distribution in India : pharmacology is called ‘Rasashastra’. It is a
Jharkhand and Maharashtra science and art of manufacturing drugs from
Bauxite : minerals and native metals, for the preparation
(For physical properties refer to page no. 66) of ayurvedic medicines the minerals have to go
Industrial properties : Bauxite is the chief through very definitive refining procedures or

68
‘samskaras’ before they can be incorporated into Chalcopyrite, Pyrite and Malachite.
medicine. Some of the samskaras are shodhana, Mica :
marana. Micas are important rock forming minerals.
A systematic and scientific treatment They can be cleaved into thin elastic plates.
of mineral medicines has been presented by Name Mica has its origin in the Latin word
Vagbhata in the 14th century. ‘Micare’ meaning to flash or glisten.
Do you know? Chemical composition : Micas are silicates of
Vagbhata’s ‘Rasaratna Samuchchaya’ Al and K with Mg or Fe. Some varieties contain
gives systematic and easy presentation of Na, Li or Ti. Hydroxyl group is present in micas
minerals. Vaghbata has classified minerals and is partially replaced by fluorine.
employed in medicine into Maharasas, Mica is populary called ‘abhraka’ in
Uparasas, Sadharanaras. ayurveda. It is grouped into different varieties
based on its changes during heating, namely
Minerals of Rasashastra are classified,
such as Pinaka, Naga, Manduka and Vajra.
generaly based essentially on their degree of
Abhraka which separates into packed
utility in preparation of mineral recipes.
layers by the contact of fire is called ‘pinaka’.
But the basis of such classification is
Abhraka which gives out hissing sound
not well documented. Whether the frequent
when heated is called ‘naga’.
employment of such items has qualified these
Abhraka which produces sound of frog and
materials or their importance in Rasashastra
jumps on heating is called ‘manduka’.
in order to qualify them to be classified as
Abhraka which will not change when
Maharasas is not clear.
heated is called ‘vajra’. The vajra is the best
It has not been possible to understand employed in medicinal preparation.
the basis of Vagbhata’s classification of
Muscovite : Hydrated silicate of Aluminium
Uparasas. However, the suffix ‘Upa’ would
and Potassium with Fluorine and is silvery white
suggest that these substances are not so
in colour. Name Muscovite originated from
important as the Maharasas.
‘Muscovy glass’ because it came from Muscovy
However, the basis of classification is
province of Russia (fig. 5.14).
wanting as in the case of other rasas.
Sadharanrasas may mean that these items In Ayurveda muscovite is termed as ‘shewta
may be used sparingly in Ayurveda medicine. abhraka’ due to its white colour.
Some of the important minerals in
maharasas are —
Mica (Abhraka), Chalcopyrite (Maxika),
Pyrite (Vimala) and Malachite (Sasyaka).
Some of the important minerals in Uparasas
are — Sulfur (Gandhaka) and Haematite
(Gairika).
Fig. 5.14 Muscovite
One of the important minerals in
sadharanarasas is— Cinnabar (Hingula). Biotite : Hydrated silicate of Mg, Fe, Al, and K
with F, black to brown in colour (fig. 5.15).
A) Maharasas : In ayurveda biotite is termed as ‘krishna
There are four Maharasas Mica, abhraka’ due to its black colour.
69
 base concretes, cements and wall coatings are
used where resistance to chemical attack is
important.
Chemical composition : S8
Colour : Yellow, Beownish or greenish yellow,
orange, white.
Streak : Colourless
Fig. 5.15 Biotite
Lustre : Resinous, greasy
Physical properties of mica group :
Form : Tabular, massive, reniform, spheriodal
Colour : Colourless, silvery white, dark green,
Cleavage : Imperfect
brown, black.
Fracture : Uneven, conchoidal
Streak : White, colourless.
Hardness : 1.5 to 2.5
Lustre : Pearly, silky.
Specific gravity : 2.0 to 2.1
Form : Foliated, flaky, lamellar
Cleavage : One set, perfect Geographic Distribution in India :
Bihar, Rajasthan and Ladakh
Fracture : Uneven.
Hardness : 2 - 3 C) Sadharanarasas
Specific gravity : 2.76 - 3.1 Cinnabar :
Occurrence : In igneous rocks, it occurs in Name- From Persian ‘zinjifrah’, original
pegmatite and granite; in sedimentary rocks meaning lost (dragon’s blood). Referred to as
such as sandstone and in metamorphic rocks Hingula in Ayurveda.
like schist and gneiss. It is an important ore of mercury. Used in
Uses : As insulator in electrical industries, as ayurvedic medicine, pigment and jewellery and
filler in rubber, in lubricants and paints, has ornaments.
wide applications in ayurvedic medicines. Mica Chemical composition : HgS
is used as medicine for treating diseases like Colour : Tint or shade of red, cochineal red,
anemia, bronchial asthma, low blood pressure, brownish red.
pleurisy, tuberculosis and coronary cardiac Streak : Red-brown to scarlet.
failure. It is also a heart tonic.
Lustre : Metallic, adamantine to dull.
Geographic Distribution in India :
Form : Crystals-rhombohedral, massive,
Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand and Rajasthan.
granular.
B) Uparasas Cleavage : Perfect.
Sulfur : Fracture : Uneven, subconchoidal.
The name sulfur is derived either from
Hatdness : 2 - 2.5
the Sanskrit word ‘sulvari’ or the Latin word
Specific gravity : 8.17 to 8.20
‘sulfurium’. In ayurveda, it is termed as
‘gandhaka’. Geographic Distribution in India :
Sulfur is used to make sulfuric acid, Rajasthan and Gujarat
fungicide, in skin medicine, in vulcanization of Mineral /rock based industries :
rubber, gun powder, matches, fire works. Sulfur The Industrial Policy initiatives were
70
undertaken by the Government of India in 1991, 4) Site and Service : The physical,
to meet the International Standards and compete geographical and geological conditions
in the world market. For the sake of efficiency are very important, since the ground has
and economy of production, it is important to be sufficiently stable for supporting the
that the location of industry should be suitably foundation of the factory.
selected. Various factors affect the choice of 5) Capital : Effective and competitive
particular locations for individual industries. production requires quality production in
The major factors that govern the criteria for the minimum time. Advanced technology and
selection for localization of establishing industry skilled labour required, are available at high
are as follows : costs, thus, sufficient capital is required.
1) Raw Materials : The total cost of the
6) Government Policy : Before establishing
raw material includes, the amount spent
an industry, the Industrial policy and
on its transportation to the factory. Those
provisions, plus renewal etc. need to be
materials that lose considerable weight
considered.
during manufacture are known as ‘weight-
losing materials’, while those which retain Summary :
weight are known as ‘pure materials’. In The prosperity of any nation is measured
order to avoid loss during transportation, on the availability of natural resources within its
the industries are generally located near geographical boundaries. Wars are fought till this
the market. The ‘weight- losing’ materials day to acquire lands rich in mineral resources.
may be immediately processed, if they Minerals which are industrially important
are located close to the industries. For directly contribute to the GDP of a nation which
example in case of cement industry, most are in turn decides the living standards of the
of the manufacturing units are located near citizens of that country. The exploration and
the limestone deposits. Limestone being judicious exploitation of economic or industrially
the important raw material used in the important mineral resources is intrinsically the
manufacture of cement. Similarly, iron and job of a geologist.
steel industries are located near the iron ore
India is a land blessed with a range of
and coal deposits.
mineral resources and has substantial reserves of
2) Market : Some industries need to be located yet to be exploited materials. We are among the
near the markets. Industries manufacturing world leaders in having reserves of coal, iron ore,
fragile products like glass, ceramics or aluminum ore and clay minerals. India also has
pottery need to be established near the the largest deposit of monazite sands, which is a
market, in order to avoid the loss during source of thorium for nuclear power generation.
transportation due to damage or breakage. There are many other minerals which are
3) Skilled Labour : A manufacturing available in India, though not in huge amounts,
industry requires skilled, sufficient and but important from a national security and hence
efficient labour. Industries are attracted to of strategic importance, like petroleum, and we
regions where cheap and capable labour is explore and exploits that too. Minerals also play
available. For example, glass industries are an important role in the formulations of medicines
located near Agra. used in Ayurveda.

71
 EXERCISE

Q. 1 Choose the correct alternative : Q. 2 Answer the following questions :

1) Tenor of ore is ……………….. 1) What is an ore mineral? Give an example.
a) natural concentration of one or more 2) Name the 2 manganese ore minerals giving
minerals their chemical composition.
b) metal content of an ore 3) Write the chemical composition of mineral
malachite.
c) deposit from which metal can be extracted
4) What is a radioactive mineral? Give an
profitably
example.
d) vein of metal
Q. 3 Answer the following questions :
2) a) Iron ore minerals are Pyrolusite and
1) What is the role of mineral gypsum in the
Psilomelane
cement industry? Add a note on its geographical
b) Iron ore minerals are Pyrolusite and
distribution in India.
Magnetite 2) Give the physical properties of corundum.
c) Iron ore minerals are Pyrolusite and 3) Give the uses of feldspars and its distribution in
Haematite India.
d) Iron ore minerals are Magnetite and 4) List the physical properties of mineral zircon?
Haematite
Q.4 Answer the following questions :
3) a) Sphalerite i) Al2O3.2H2O 1) Name the ore minerals of lead, zinc and
b) Chalcopyrite ii) Pbs aluminium, listing their physical properties,
c) Galena iii) ZnS occurrence and use.
d) Bauxite iv) CuFeS2 2) Describe in detail radioactive mineral monazite
A) a-iv, b-i, c-iii, d-ii 3) Describe the unconventional source of
B) a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-iv petroleum?
C) a-iii, b-iv, c-ii, d-i 4) Describe sulphur/cinnabar as minerals used in
D) a-i, b-ii, c-iv, d-iii medicine

a) Diamond i) Cement industry Q. 5 Answer the following questions :

1) Explain Iron/ manganese ore minerals in detail.
b) Limestone ii) Ceramic industry
2) Describe copper ore minerals in detail.
c) Kyanite iii) Abrasive industry
3) Give a brief account of the fuel industry.
d) Feldspars iv) Refractory industry
4) Describe in detail, the raw materials used in the
A) a-iv, b-ii, c-i, d-iii cement industry.
B) a-iii, b-i, c-iv, d-ii 5) List and describe the physical properties of any
C) a-i, b-iii, c-ii, d-iv two abrasive minerals and give their distribution
D) a-ii, b-iv, c-iii, d-i in India.

‹‹‹

72
 6 Hydrogeology

is known as percolation. Groundwater can

Introduction :
also be derived directly from atmospheric
Hydrogeology, is a branch of geology
moisture by condensation of water vapour
dealing with the study of groundwater, its
from air circulating through the pores
occurrence and movement. It is therefore
and interstices. This is also known as
often referred to as groundwater hydrology,
‘condensational water’ and is known to
geohydrology or hydrogeology.
replenish the water table in arid and semi-
Groundwater is extremely important for
arid areas.
the existence of humans, as it is the major
source of drinking water. It is also an b) Connate Water : It is another important
important source for the agricultural and source of groundwater that is contained in
industrial sector all around the globe. About pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks. It is
50% of water required for drinking as well as entrapped in the interstices of sedimentary
domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes rocks at the time of deposition. Generally it
comes from groundwater. Groundwater is highly mineralized and salty and does not
is an integral part of hydrological cycle mix readily with meteoric groundwater.
and its availability depends on the rainfall c) Magmatic Water : Hot magma contains
and recharge conditions. Although considerable amount of gases and water
industrialization and urban growth have vapours. The water vapours on condensation
started contaminating groundwater, it is still are converted into groundwater called
considered a dependable source of potable magmatic water. It is also called juvenile
water. water. Such water is considered to have
Groundwater makes up about only 1% of been generated in the interior of the Earth.
the total water on the Earth. It occurs beneath
Vertical distribution of Groundwater :
the Earth’s surface, but is usually restricted
to depths less than about 750 meters. This Water occurs underground in two zones
water occurs in the pore spaces and fractures separated by water table. The level beneath
of rocks and sediments. It originates as which all the pore spaces in the rocks are filled
rainfall or snow, and then moves down with water is known as water table (fig. 6.1).
the soil into the groundwater system, and The zone extending from the water table to an
eventually makes its way back to the surface impermeable layer is called saturated zone,
in the form of springs or streams. wherein all voids are completely filled with
water. In this zone, water is held at a pressure
Sources of Groundwater : greater than the atmospheric pressure, and hence
a) Meteoric Water : The main source of it moves in a direction based on the continuous
groundwater, which originates in the hydraulic situation. The zone between the
atmosphere and is received in the form ground surface and the top of capillary fringe is
of rain or snow. The downward entry of called unsaturated zone (zone of aeration) which
the water into the soils and rock surface consists of voids (pores or interstices) partially
is called infiltration. The flow of water filled with water and partially with air. Water
through soil and porous or fractured rocks is held at a pressure less than the atmospheric

73
pressure in the unsaturated zone. Zone between are small enough to hold surface tension forces
bottom of the unsaturated zone and top of the (fig. 6.1). They can be further classified into two
water table is called capillary zone, wherein types; namely super capillary and sub-capillary.
most voids are filled with water but the water The former is large and may sometimes be as
is held at a pressure less than the atmospheric large as a limestone cave. The latter is very small
pressure. and water is held in them mainly by molecular
The unsaturated zone can be further sub- forces.
Ground surface
divided into ‘soil-water zone’ and ‘intermediate Soil-water

Zone of aeration
zone
zone’ (fig. 6.1). This zone between the ground

Ground water or Vadose water

Vadose
surface and the top of water table is known as the zone
vadose zone and is part of the unsaturated zone
Capillary
and capillary zone (also known as ‘capillary zone Water table

phreatic water
saturation
fringe’). Water present in the vadose zone is

Zone of
Impermeablee
called vadose water, and is held at a pressure less rock

than the atmospheric pressure. The term vadose

zone is technically more appropriate than the Fig. 6.1 : Vertical distribution of groundwater
conventional term of unsaturated zone because
Hydrological properties of rocks :
portions of the vadose zone may actually be
a) Porosity :
saturated, even though the pressure of water is
Porosity of a rock is its property to possess
below the atmospheric pressure.
open spaces or interstices (fig. 6.2. a) like voids,
Broadly speaking, the water stored in the zone fractures, cracks, joints, crevices etc. Porosity
of saturation is called as groundwater. However, is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
not all underground water is groundwater, rather total volume of the rock or Earth material. It is
only free water or gravitational water (the water the voids or openings of the rock or soil and is
that moves freely under the force of gravity into sometimes expressed as a percentage. Effective
wells) constitutes the groundwater. Therefore, a porosity is the void volume that contributes to
practical explanation of groundwater as given water movement and is roughly equivalent
by Bouwer in 1978 is: “Groundwater is that to specific yield. Specific yield is the ratio of
portion of the water beneath the Earth’s surface, volume of the water that a saturated rock as soil
which can be collected through wells, tunnels, or will yield by gravity to the total volume of the
drainage galleries, or which flows naturally to rock or soil. It is usually expressed in percentage.
the Earth’s surface via seeps or springs”. Porosity is an indication of the amount of water
Inter-granular spaces vary widely in terms in the subsurface, but does not equate to the
of size. Minute voids between the component volume that can be released from storage.
particles of clay, shale and slate may feature on
one end, while large spaces between the pebbles
of well-sorted and unconsolidated valley gravel
may feature on the other end of the spectrum. Water
Massive spaces are those that occur between
large blocks of rocks such as fractures, joints
and bedding planes sometimes enlarged by the
process of solution. (a)

Capillary interstices or spaces are those that Fig. 6.2 : a) Porasity 1 mm

74
 When the pores are formed during the has an impermeable layer at its base is
formation of rocks, like pore spaces produced called an unconfined aquifer (fig. 6.3). It
by the process of sedimentation, it is called as is necessarily exposed to the atmosphere
primary porosity (e.g. porosity in sandstone). and its upper portion is partly saturated
When the pores or fractures are formed due to with water. The upper surface of saturation
external Earth processes, after the formation of is called water table which is under
the rocks it is called as secondary porosity (e.g. atmospheric pressure. Therefore this aquifer
vesicles in basalts). is also called phreatic aquifer.

b) Permeability : Well
The capacity of water bearing formation to
transmit water is called permeability (fig. 6.2. Unsaturated Water table
zone
b). Thus it is the ease with which a fluid can pass
Unconfined or
through a porous medium. It is the volume of Saturated
zone water table aquifer
fluid discharged from a unit area of an aquifer
under unit hydraulic gradient in unit time. Bed rock

Fig. 6.3 : Unconfined Aquifer

b) Perched Aquifer : It is a special case of

an unconfined aquifer. This type of aquifer
occurs when an impermeable or relatively
impermeable layer of limited area in the
form of a lens is located in the water bearing
unconfined aquifer. As shown in following
Fig. 6.2 : b) Permeability (fig. 6.4) the water storage created above
the lens is perched aquifer and its top layer
Aquifers :
is called perched water table.
An aquifer is a rock formation of porous
material. It has considerable porosity and
permeability with sufficient volume to yield Perched water table
Perched aquifer
appreciable quantities of water.
Water table
Characteristics of Aquifers :
An aquiclude, is a rock formation which Unconfined aquifer
is porous enough to hold sufficient quantity of
water, but does not allow an easy and quick
Fig. 6.4 : Perched Aquifer
flow through it (e.g. clay). An aquifuge is an
impermeable rock formation through which c) Confined Aquifer : It is also called an
there is no possibility of storage or movement of artesian aquifer. It is overlain as well as
water (e.g. compact granite). An aquitard is a underlain by confining layers. The water
rock formation which permits the flow of water within the aquifer is therefore, held under
but does not yield sufficient quantity of water pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.
when compared to an aquifer (e.g. sandy clay). A well intersecting such an aquifer will yield
Aquifers can be classified into four kinds : water without pumping. The imaginary
a) Unconfined Aquifer : An aquifer which level up to which the water will rise is called
piezometric surface (fig. 6.5).
75
Area of recharge A) Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting : It is
Water rises to this elevation
the technique through which rainwater
Well is collected from the roof of the house or
Land surface
Vadose zo
ne Water building. The collected water can either
Aquitard table be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial
Confined recharge system. This method is less
aquifer
expensive and very effective in augmenting
the groundwater level of the area. The
Fig. 6.5 : Confined Aquifer
augmented resource can be harvested at the
d) Leaky Aquifer : An aquifer which is time of need.
overlain or underlain by semi-pervious
Methods of Roof Top Rain Water harvesting:
layer through which leakage of water takes
i) Recharge pit : A recharge pit is the most
place is called as leaky aquifer.
popular method for artificially recharging
Do you know? of aquifers. This technique is favourable
Artesian is a term originally applied to for recharging shallow aquifers and where
boreholes in Artois in France from which permeable strata permits infiltration of
a constant supply of water was obtained water. The pitcan be of any shape and size
because groundwater spontaneously but generally it is 1 to 2m wide and 2 to
discharged from them. It is suspected that the 3 m deep. The excavated recharge pit is
term was then applied to confined aquifers backfilled with boulders of 5-20 cm size at
into which a number of artesian boreholes bottom, gravels of 5-10 mm size in between
had been sunk. The term artesian aquifer is and coarse sand of 1.5-2 mm size at the top
probably a misnomer and the term confined (fig. 6.6).
aquifer should rather be used.
Inlet
Conservation and Management of
Groundwater :
Water conservation includes all the policies,
Recharge
strategies and activities to sustainably manage Pit
the natural resources of fresh water, to meet
the current and future human demand. Water
conservation is the practice of using water
efficiently to reduce unnecessary water usage. Sand
It is important because fresh clean water is a
limited resource. Aggregates
Groundwater management should include
Pebbles
objectives of renewability (replenishment,
recharge) of the resources, practical exploitation Aggregates
and rational consumption. Rainwater harvesting
is one easy and affordable method of groundwater Pebbles

replenishment and recharge.

Boulders
Methods of Rainwater Harvesting :
Broadly there are two ways of harvesting
Fig. 6.6 : Recharge pit
rainwater.
76
 A mesh must be provided on the top of sand layer. First one or two showers are
the pit to prevent the solid material from diverted from entering the recharge pit.
entering it. Another mesh should be provided ii) Recharge Tube wells : This recharge
between the sand and gravel layer to avoid method is applicable to existing tube wells
the sand from escaping towards the bottom. which tap less amount of water. Roof water
Periodically the sand layer must be cleaned is collected with the help of PVC pipes
for maintaining the rate of recharge. having 10 cm diameter. PVC filter of 1 – 1.2
INLET FLUSH OUT VALVE
ii) Recharge trench : A recharge trench is m length is provided before the tube well.
excavated on the ground for harvesting
runoff water. this may vary in size depending
upon the amount of runoff water. Generally BIG PEBBLES
20 - 40 mm
it is 0.5 to 1 m wide, 1 to 1.5 m deep and 10 PERFORATED
to 20 m long. It is then filled with boulders PIPE

of 5 - 20 cm size at the bottom, gravels of 5 IMPERVIOUS LAYER PEBBLES

12 - 20 mm
- 10 mm size in between and coarse sand of
GRAVEL
PROOUS FORMATION
1.5 – 2 mm size at the top. A bore well can 6 - 10 mm

be provided inside the trench to enhance the WATER

IMPERVIOUS LAYER

percolation of water (fig. 6.7). TABLE

Solid material must be prevented from PROOUS FORMATION SLOTTED

PIPE
entering the pit. This can be done by using
a mesh on the top. Another mesh should be IMPERVIOUS LAYER
placed in between the sand and gravel layer
in order to prevent the sand from escaping
towards the bottom. Rate of recharge can Fig. 6.8 : Recharge Tube Well
be maintained by periodically cleaning the

Vegetated
Buffer Strip
Capped
Observation Well

Barrier

Aggregate
Surface Layer

Aggregate Subbase
Filter Fabric Linning

Sheetflow Runoff
From Pavement Area
Credit and Source: https://www.buildinggreen.com/feature/stormwater-management-environmentally-sound-approaches
Fig. 6.7 : Recharge Trench

77
 Diameter of the filter may vary depending
on the roof area. The filter is divided into
three chambers. First chamber is filled with
gravel of 6 – 10 mm size, middle chamber
with pebbles of 12 – 20 mm size and last
chamber with bigger pebbles of 20 – 40 mm
size (fig. 6.8).
B) Surface runoff harvesting : Surface
runoff water harvesting is the collection,
accumulation, treatment or purification, Fig. 6.9 : Gully plug
and storing of storm water for its eventual
ii) Contour Bund : It is constructed on land
reuse. It can also include other catchment
with moderate slopes. A line of stones is
areas from manmade surfaces, such as
placed along the contour. This helps in
roads, or other urban environments such as
reducing the runoff. The spacing between
parks, gardens and playing fields. Surface
two contour bunds depend on the slope of
runoff (also known as overland flow) is the the area. Contour bund also reduces soil
flow of water that occurs when excess storm erosion (fig. 6.10).
water, meltwater, or other sources flow
over the Earth's surface. This can occur
when the soil is saturated to full capacity,
and additional precipitation is greater
than the soil absorption capacity. Surface
runoff often occurs because impervious
areas (such as roofs and pavement) do not
allow water to soak into the ground. It is the
primary agent of soil erosion by water. The
land area producing runoff that drains to a Fig. 6.10 : Stone contour bunding
common point is called a drainage basin. iii) Check Dam : They are constructed across
Surface runoff in urban areas is a small streams having gentle slope. The
primary cause of urban flooding, which purpose is to retain water upstream. Series
can result in property damage and street of such check dams can be constructed to
flooding. In urban areas rainwater flows have recharge on regional scale (fig. 6.11).
away as surface runoff. This runoff may
be used for recharging aquifers by adopting
appropriate methods.
Methods of Surface Rain Water Harvesting :
i) Gully Plug : They are built across small
gullies. They are built with stones and
soil. Gully plugs lowers the speed of water
flow, prevents soil erosion and keeps soil
moisture. It passes water through it but
stops soil flowing through it (fig. 6.9). Fig. 6.11 : Loose rock check dam

78
iv) Gabion Structure : This structure is a mesh filled with pebbles, gravels and coarse sand.
of steel wires filled with rocks and anchored These chambers are periodically cleaned to
to the stream bank. This is constructed on maintain the efficiency (fig. 6.14).
small streams with width less than 10 m. The Silt Barrier

height of such structure is less than a meter Gravel

Wire Mesh
(fig. 6.12).
Silty Water

Delivery Pipe
Slab
Coarse Sand Pebbles

Well
Water Level
Fig.6.14 : Dugwell Recharge

Activity :
Calculating the quantity of water
available from rooftop rainwater harvesting.
Fig. 6.12 : Gabion dam on stream The quantity of the Rain water harvested
v) Percolation Tank : Percolation tanks is (Q) can be calculated using the following
a shallow tank which allows the excess formula :
waters to flow freely. The subsurface rock Q=AXCXP
strata in the submergence area should A = Area in Sq. meter
be permeable to allow percolation with C = Is the Runoff Coefficient (decide the
minimum evaporation losses. These are runoff coefficient according to the type of
earthen dams and pitching with stones for Roof from the Table 1)
the upstream wall reduces the damage of P = Mean annual Rainfall in mm
the tank wall (fig. 6.13). The purpose of the Table 1. Runoff Coefficient for various types of
percolation tanks is to conserve the surface catchments.
runoff and recharge the aquifers. Sr. Type of Runoff
No. Catchment Coefficient
Roof Catchment
1 Galvanised Iron Sheet 0.90
2 Asbestos Sheet 0.80
3 Tiled Roof 0.75
4 Concrete Roof 0.70
5 Organic (Thatched 0.20
Roof
Fig.6.13 : Percolation tank Ground Surface
Coverings
iv) Dugwell Recharge : The runoff water in
6 Concrete, Asphalt 0.6 – 0.8
the existing and abandoned dug wells is
7 Brick Pavement 0.5 – 0.6
discharged through pipes. To avoid the
8 Hard Flat ground 0.25 – 0.75
sediments or silt from entering the dug
without Vegetation
wells, a desilting chamber or filter chamber
9 Hard Flat ground with 0.15 – 0.60
is provided before the water discharge point.
Vegetation
The desilting chamber or filter chamber is

79
 4) Manage and utilize runoff water for useful
Example :
purposes.
For a building with a concrete roof of
5) Conserve and improve watershed land for
size 10 m X 12 m (120 sq. meter) in a city
more efficient and sustained production.
with average annual rainfall of 900 mm, the
quantity of rainwater that can be harvested 6) Rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
in a year is 7) Moderate floods in downstream areas.
Q = 120 sq. meter X 900 mm X 0.70 = 75600 8) Increase infiltration of rainwater.
litres/year
Do you know?
Watershed management : Water Audit
Watershed management is the study of the A water audit is an accounting procedure
relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed that monitors where and how much water
at the sustainable distribution of its resources. enters and leaves a water system. This allows
It involves the processes of creating and the assessment of current usage, provides
implementing plans, programs, and projects to data needed to reduce water and revenue
sustain and enhance watershed functions that losses, and allows forecasts of future water
affect the plant, animal, and human communities. needs. The principal purpose of a water audit
Watershed is a geo-hydrological unit is to accurately determine the amount of un-
draining to a common point by a system of accounted water in a water system, which
natural drains. It is an area of land and water includes water loss through leakages, etc.
bound by a drainage divide within which the
Conducting a Household Water Audit :
surface runoff collects and flows out of the
watershed through a single outlet into a larger A household water audit is an assessment
river or lake. of how much water is used and how much water
can be saved in a household. Conducting a water
A) Types of Watershed :
audit involves calculating water use for different
Watersheds is classified depending upon activities and identifying simple ways for saving
the size, drainage, shape and land use pattern. water in a household.
x Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hectare)
Benefits of conducting a Water Audit :
x Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hectare)
Conducting a water audit can help you
x Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hectare)
protect your water supply and the community's
x Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hectare) aquifer. Conducting a water audit will make you
x Mini watershed (1-100 Hectare) aware of how you use your water and help to
B) Objectives of watershed management : identify ways you can minimize water use by
implementing certain conservation measures. It
The different objectives of watershed
is possible to cut your water usage by as much
management programmes are :
as 20 to 40 percent by implementing simple
1) Enhance the groundwater recharge,
conservation measures and without drastically
wherever applicable.
modifying your lifestyle.
2) Check soil erosion and reduce the effect of
Summary :
sediment loss in the watershed.
A basic knowledge of hydrogeology is
3) Control excessive runoff and degradation
essential for the geologist or civil engineer
thereby conserving soil and water.
80
engaged in the development, utilization and water than what is sustainable, the role of water
management of water resources. It helps conservation and management assumes utmost
assessing the quantity of water available importance.
for domestic consumption, industrial usage, A watershed, affects the people in every
agriculture, hydro-electricity generation and sphere of life. The sustained productivity of
other developmental works. Knowledge of food, fuel, forage, fibre, fruit and water by the
hydrogeology is also required for the design management of vital resources of water, soil
of large and small water storage/ percolation and vegetation and phenomena like floods
structures such as dams and weirs. and droughts are determined by the nature of
In a world that today consumes more watershed functioning.

EXERCISE

Q. 1. Choose the correct alternative : c) volume of void space to the total volume of
1) Hydrogeology is often referred to as the rock or Earth material.
groundwater hydrology, geohydrology or d) volume of solid space to the total density of
hydrogeology the rock or Earth material.
a) groundwater hydrology, geohydrology or 5) The capacity of water bearing formation to
hydraulics transmit water is called
b) groundwater hydrology, geohydrology or a) Porosity b) Hydraulic constant
hydrogeology c) Permeability d) Aquaclude

c) underground water hydraulics, groundwater 6) An unconfined aquifer is also called a

hydrology or geohydrology a) Phreatic aquifer b) Artesian aquifer

d) groundwater hydraulics, geohydrology or c) Compact aquifer d) Perched aquifer

hydrogeology 7) Is not a method of rooftop rainwater harvesting
a) Recharge pit b) Recharge trench
2) ................ is the main source of groundwater,
c) Recharge tubewell d) Recharge gabion
which originates in the atmosphere and is
received in the form of rain or snow. 8) They are constructed across small streams
having gentle slope, for surface rain water
a) Volcanic water b) Magmatic water
harvesting:
c) Meteoric water d) Artesian water
a) Gabions b) Contour trenches
3) The zone between the ground surface and the c) Percolation trenches d) Check dams
top of capillary fringe is called 9) Gully plug
a) saturated zone b) zone of aeration a) Allows the passage of water through it but
c) supersaturated zone d) ‘o’ zone stops soil flowing through it.
4) Porosity is the ratio of the b) Allows the passage of soil through it but
stops water flowing through it
a) volume of solid soil to the total volume of
the rock forming the soil material. c) Allows the passage of soil through it but
stops silt passing through it
b) volume of void space to the total volume of
the soil or organic material in the aquifer. d) Stops the passage of water through it but
allows to flow soil through it
81
10) A roof top rain water recharge pit is filled from Q. 4. Short Answers :
bottom to top in this sequence: 1) Explain the terms Porosity and Permeability.
a) 40 mm gravel, 20mm pebbles, Coarse sand 2) ‘Generally, a sandstone is more porous than
b) Coarse Sand, 20mm pebbles, 40mm gravel basalt’- Explain.
3) ‘A porous rock is not always a good aquifer’ –
c) 20mm pebbles, 40mm gravel, 60mm large
Explain.
cobbles
d) Fine sand, 40mm pebbles, 60mm large Q. 5. Long Answers :
gravel 1) Explain with illustrations the various methods
of roof-top rainwater harvesting.
Q. 2. Very Short Answers :
2) What is a ‘Watershed’? What are the objectives
1) Explain the term ‘Aquifer’ of watershed management?
2) Define the term ‘Aquitard’ 3) Why is watershed management the need of
3) What constitutes an ‘Aquifuge’ the hour? Explain in context to the present day
drought scenario in central Maharashtra.
4) Explain the term ‘Aquiclude’
4) What is the need of surface runoff harvesting?
Q. 3. Short Answers : Why is it important to implement it in our rural
1) What is meteoric water? areas?
2) What are the characteristics of a good aquifer? 5) What are the rainwater harvesting methods you
would recommend in an urban area where most
3) What are the characteristics of the vadose zone?
of the land area is under built-up land.

‹‹‹

82
 7 Geohazards

Indtroduction : the indicators of the dynamic and unstable nature

In Chapter I, we learned about dynamic of the Earth’s interior apart from the expressions
processes of the Earth. All layers of the of plate interactions. On an average, more than
Earth (internal, surface and atmospheric) a million earthquakes of varying intensities
are continuously under the process of occur annually, resulting over 10,000 deaths
evolution, equilibration and interaction. all over the world. A detailed knowledge of the
Amongst these, the surface layer is of earthquakes is therefore required to understand
greatest concern to humans, especially these major geohazard activities.
when these natural processes act as hazards Seismology deals with the behaviour of the
or geo-hazards. Geohazards are geological seismic waves produced by earthquakes. The
and environmental conditions that may waves transfer energy (and not matter) from one
lead to widespread damage or risk to life place to another by vibration of particles. By
and infrastructure based on some long- anology, these waves are similar to the waves
term or short-term natural processes. (/ripples) produced when a stone is dropped into
Some of the most significant geohazards a pond of calm water (fig. 7.1). Waves travel in
include: landslides, debris flows, snow/ all directions and their amplitude decrease with
rock avalanche, volcanoes, earthquakes, distance of travel from the point (/focus).
tsunami, cloud burst and flash floods,
glacial lake outbursts and coastal erosion.
Amongst these, earthquakes, volcanoes
and landslides make the most common
geological phenomena or happenings over
the years as great disasters.

EARTHQUAKE
The 1755 Lisabon earthquake in Portugal
that killed 32000 people was the benchmark for Fig. 7.1 : Visualization of ripples to understand the
concerted efforts on earthquakes giving birth propogation of seismic waves due to an earthquake
to the branch of seismology (seismos means Mainly two types of particle motion
‘earthquake’ in Greek). Afterwards, some of (oscillation) occur in this instance. When the
the deadliest earthquakes like Shaanxi (China) particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction
in 1956 with a death toll of 8,30,000 and Tang- of propagation such waves are termed as
shan (China) in 1976 killing 7,00,000 lives transverse waves and when the oscillations
encouraged funding, research and detailed are parallel to the propagation those are called
studies in Seismology. The devastating longitudinal waves. An earthquake produces
earthquakes that shook India includes Assam similar kind of waves in the Earth's crust with
(1897), Kangra (1905), Nepal-Bihar (1934), the transverse waves known as secondary or S
Assam (1950), Koyna (1967), Killari (1993), waves and the longitudinal waves are primary
Kutch (2001) and Nepal (2015). Earthquakes are or P waves.
83
Origin of the Earthquakes : along the fault plane. This allows the blocks
Earthquakes are explained by plate on either side of it to return into less strained
tectonics and the elastic rebound theory. The state. The energy that had been accumulating
elastic rebound theory was proposed by H.F. over time in the strained volume of rock is then
Reid of Johns Hopkins University in 1906. It suddenly released.
says that the constant motion of rocks along Science of seismology deals with the
one side of a fault boundary causes the rocks on fundamental concepts of origin of the earthquake
the opposite side to bend (fig. 7.2). The bending and its tectonic relationship, behaviour of rocks
leads to a build-up of elastic energy which is under different stress conditions, locating the
created when a rock is deformed elastically, earthquake, measuring the energy released
like a stretched rubber band. Rocks can also by an earthquake, earthquake prediction and
be deformed non-elastically, as a combination recurrence, building of earthquake resistant
of the two. Frictional forces holding the rocks structures and long term behavior of faults.
together are overcome and the rocks break at the
weakest point along the fault plane, known as the Terminology used in Seismology :
focus of the earthquake (fig. 7.2). The deformed The subject of seismology uses a universal
rock experiences slippage and then snaps back terminology to describe the phenomenon.
to its original position. The energy released by Following are the most common terms frequently
this slippage causes earthquake vibrations. used to explain the earthquakes.
The energy released by the earthquake i) Focus : It is a point within the Earth along
travels through the Earth in the form of waves the fault plane where the earthquake
classified as primary (P), secondary (S) and originates.
surface waves (L and R). The sudden breaking ii) Epicentre : This is the point on the Earth’s
also called rupture usually results when the surface, which is vertically above the focus.
tectonic forces develop the strain beyond the
iii) Isoseismal lines : Imaginary lines joining
limit of their strength (the elastic limit). When the
points on the Earth’s surface, which have
shear (/frictional) forces are steadily increased
the same earthquake intensity.
between the two blocks of rocks separated by
an existing fault, initially there is no movement. iv) Focal depth : Vertical distance between
Finally, when the strain exceeds the strength of focus and epicentre of an earthquake is
the fault, it results in rupture that extends rapidly called as focal depth or depth of focus.
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT REVERSE FAULT NORMAL FAULT

Plates are moving

constantly, but
very slowly

Stress builds up...

...until the energy is

suddenly released,
causing an earthquake

The crust near the fault

line is offset. The plates
continue moving
Fig. 7.2 : Diagrammatic representation of elastic rebound theory proposed by
H. H. Reid to explain the origin of the earthquake

84
 Depending upon the depth of focus three Seismic waves are of two types (fig. 7.5),
types of earthquakes are recognized : i.e., body waves and surface waves. The body
a) Shallow focus earthquakes : Depth of focii waves are further divided into :
within ~60 kms from the surface. These 1) P waves also called compressional/
earthquakes are large in number and more longitudinal/primary waves are the first
disastrous. to generate and travel fastest at velocities
between 1.5 and 8 km/sec in the Earth's crust.
b) Intermediate focus earthquakes : Depth
2) S waves also called shear/ translational/
of focii is between ~60 - 300 kms.
secondary waves travel at 60% to 70%
c) Deep focus earthquakes : Focal depth
of the velocity of P waves. This can be
is more than 300 kms and upto 700 kms. reasoned as P waves shake the ground in
These are recorded on a global scale and the direction of propagation, while S waves
are less disastrous. shake perpendicularly or transverse to the
Isoseismal direction of propagation.
lines V IV
Depth of P-Wave
Epicentre focus
S-Wave
III
Surface wave

Focus Surface wave

Seismograph
Fig. 7.3 : Focus, Epicentre and Isoseismal lines station
Seismogram : S-Wave
The seismogram is the record that consists P-Wave
of various types of zig-zag lines, that are
intermittently recorded in between almost Core Mantle
(Source:https://prezi.com/ctor9n6ebotf/lesson-11-cat-events/)
straight lines. The zig-zag lines represent the
Fig. 7.5 : Types of seismic waves and their relative velocities
seismic waves generated by the earthquake,
The second type of waves called surface
while straight lines are characteristic of the quiet
waves travel along the surface of the Earth are
time span, when there is no seismicity (fig. 7.4).
divided into L waves and R waves. The L waves
2. P waves 4. Surface waves
arrives 3. S waves
arrive
arrive last moves ground from side to side like a snake
first
1. Background
noise moves whereas the R waves roll the ground
apparently up and down. The surface waves are
S-P most damaging to property and infrastructure.
time
interval Although wave speeds vary by a factor of
0 2 4 6 8 10
ten or more in the Earth, the ratio between the
average speeds of a P wave and of its following S
Fig. 7.4 : A typical seismogram wave (Vp/Vs) is quite constant. This fact enables
Seismic Waves : to simply time the delay between the arrival of
The energy released by an earthquake can the P wave and the arrival of the S wave. This
be traced in the form of seismic waves. Seismic helps to get a quick and reasonably accurate
waves travel through various layers of the Earth estimate of the distance of the earthquake from
to reach a detector instrument. the observation station (fig. 7.6).
85
 For a quick examination the seismologists damages on the surface caused by them. Surface
multiply the S minus P (S-P) time, by a factor waves are generated by most seismic sources
of 8 km/s to get the approximate distance of an and often have the largest amplitude responsible
earthquake epicentre from the earthquake. for damage on the surface.
o_ mP a n
waves dS Earthquakes as geohazards :
v es or S wa
ve
a P ss
w No 1) In developed or urbanised areas :

Pa
Shadow e
nly S
_m

nd

en
No
o

zone During an earthquake, the land surface

o
S
wa
so

mechanically responds to the waves. It

ves
wave

P wave results in partial to complete damage or

s
Outer
mP

Inner collapse of buildings, walls, bridges, dams

core core
Earthquake and other man-made structures. It often
destroys power supply, water, oil and gas
pipe lines. Railway lines and fences get
twisted and the roads may crack open or get
displaced. Loss of life may result from the
collapse of structures or from fire caused
(Source:https://multimediascienceleahaviscounte.weebly.com/seismic- due to leakage of gas, friction, electric
waves.html).
Fig 7.6 : Distribution pattern of the body waves from current and other inflammable objects.
the focus resulting from the reflection/refraction of the Fire was a major cause of damage in
waves due to internal structure of the Earth
the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and
Do you know? in the Kobe earthquake in Japan in 1995.
It is therefore essential to evaluate every
How Secret Nuclear Tests are detected
building as measure to damage and safety
by seismology?
in the event of an earthquake. Earthquake
Nuclear explosion generates similar
resistant structures and buildings sustain
kind of energy to that of an earthquake.
the damage to a large extent.
Seismologist sitting in distant countries
can differentiate an explosion from an
earthquake by looking at the ratio of P to S
wave velocities. Earthquakes generate weak
P waves and strong S waves. Explosions,
on the other hand, generate strong P waves
and weak S waves. A powerful explosions
have higher P:S ratio than earthquakes.
Further, the earthquakes will be detected
very deep compared to nuclear explosion.
The duration of the wave and its frequency
is also characteristic of the explosion and Fig. 7.7: Effects of an earthquake in urbanized area
earthquakes. example from 2015 Nepal earthquake (source: https://
www.preventionweb.net/news/view/51350)

Both types of surface wave are slower 2) Morphological changes : Rivers and
than P- and S waves and so are rarely used for streams may change their course and
measuring travel-times, but they are important cause floods or blocking. Groundwater
to understand the geohazards due to greater circulation gets disturbed. The water from
86
 lakes and wells may drain off through method. The recorded data from a minimum of
cracks and fractures. New lakes may come three stations can be shared to find the radius
into existence. Old springs may dry out and of an imaginary circle drawn around each
new ones may arise elsewhere. station. The intersection of at least three such
3) Damage in coastal areas : Loose sediments circles would enable to know the location of an
on the continental shelf may slide down to earthquake (fig. 7.8).
Given : distance to epicentre from each seismograph station
the sea floor. Some coastal land may get
Station 1 = 2500 km Earthquake epicentre
submerged, while new land may emerge Station 2 = 3500 km
Station 3 = 4500 km
from the sea.
4) Tsunamis : These are huge sea waves that Draw a circle on map
Station 1 Station 3
strike the coastal regions, resulting from a at each station
with radius equal to distance
strong submarine earthquake. The waves Station 2
generated by these shocks reach coastal Intersection of three circles
would locate the epicentre
areas with very large amplitudes and
cause inundation of land. Tsunamis are Fig. 7.8 : Triangulation method of locating epicentre
generated when a mass of water is abruptly of an Earthquake

displaced by movement of the sea floor, The traces of an earthquake recorded

often by an earthquake, volcanic eruptions at number of seismic stations in the form of
and landslides. The tsunami waves travel arrival time of P and S waves are converted into
across the deep oceans with a wavelength of distance. As S-waves travel more slowly than
perhaps 100 km and an amplitude of about P-waves, the more distant the earthquake from
the receiver, greater is the time lag between
a meter. When the waves reach the shallow
arrivals of S after the P waves. By matching this
water near a coast they ‘break’ and surf
delay to standard P and S travel-time curves, the
landwards. Tsunamis may reach a height of
distance of the earthquake from a given station
30 m or more, and historical evidences are
can be located (fig. 7.9).
found carrying ships to improbable places
The distance from epicentre
and devastating towns. Though the waves
travel at ~800 km/hr, they still take several
e

hours to cross an ocean.

im
lt
ve

5) Damage in mountainous regions :

t ra
e

Landslides and avalanches may be set off

av

e
im
W

et
S-

and where glaciers enter the sea, they may tra v

e
av
break off to form icebergs. Pw
S-P interval for
Locating an Earthquake : station 3

When an earthquake occurs the most S-P interval for

urgent information needed is about location station 2
of earthquake i.e. the epicentre. Since the S-P interval for station 1
earthquake is a sudden phenomenon, the
immediate information about its location is
vital to any rescue agency. The location of Distance (km)

earthquake can be immediately established by Fig. 7.9 : The concept of using standard travel-time
graph to calculate the distance from station to epicentre
finding the epicenter, by using triangulation using P-S time lag
87
Table. 1: Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale Damage great in poorly built
Zone Intensity Abbreviated Description of structures. Fall of chimneys,
Effects factory stacks, columns,
I Not felt Not felt except by a very few monuments, walls. Heavy
under especially favorable furniture overturned.
conditions. IX Ruinous Damage considerable in
II Feeble Felt only by a few persons at specially designed structures;
rest, especially on upper floors well-designed frame structures
of buildings. thrown out of plumb. Damage
III Slight Felt quite noticeably by great in substantial buildings,
persons indoors, especially with partial collapse. Buildings
on upper floors of buildings. shifted off foundations.
Many people do not recognize X Disastrous Some well-built wooden
it as an earthquake. Standing structures destroyed; most
motor cars may rock slightly. masonary and frame structures
Vibrations similar to the
destroyed with foundations.
passing of a truck. Duration
Rails bent.
estimated.
XI Very Few, if any (masonary)
IV Moderate Felt indoors by many, outdoors
disastrous structures remain standing.
by few during the day. At
night, some awakened. Dishes, Bridges destroyed. Rails bent
windows, doors disturbed; greatly.
walls make cracking sound. XII Cata- Damage total. Lines of sight
Sensation like heavy truck strophic and level are distorted. Objects
striking building. Standing thrown into the air.
motor cars rocked noticeably. Earthquake Intensity : An earthquake is
V Reasona- Felt by nearly everyone; many
bly strong awakened. Some dishes,
expressed by its intensity and magnitude.
windows broken. Unstable Intensity is the severity of damage by an
objects overturned. Pendulum earthquake at a given locality or region. Size of
clocks may stop. an earthquake is proportionate to the effects at
VI Strong Felt by all, many frightened. the locality or of the disturbance at the source.
Some heavy furniture moved;
The scale most commonly used to measure the
a few instances of fallen
plaster. Damage slight. intensity is Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale of
VII Very Damage negligible in 1931, with twelve categories, I to XII (See table
strong buildings of good design 1). It allows the intensity at each locality to be
and construction; slight to estimated after the earthquake, by observing
moderate in well-built ordinary
and defining the damages with the recording
structures; considerable
damage in poorly built or done immediately after the earthquake.
badly designed structures; Earthquake Magnitude :
some chimneys broken.
VIII Destruc- Damage slight in specially
The most widely used Richter scale
tive designed structures; measures the total amount of energy released by
considerable damage in an earthquake as magnitude of the earthquake.
ordinary substantial buildings In this scale, the amplitude of the largest wave
with partial collapse. produced by an earthquake is corrected for
distance and assigned a value on an open-ended

88
 logarithmic scale (fig. 7.10). One order increase belts. These belts are;
in magnitude of Richter scale corresponds to 1) Circum-Pacific belt
tenfold increase in amplitude. 2) Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
3) Mid-oceanic ridge belt
Measure the
amplitude of the Fig. 7.11, defines the plate boundaries
largest seismic
wave. along with the earthquake belts.
and the time
1) Circum-Pacific belt : This belt runs along
interval between the margin of Pacific ocean and passes
the P and
S-waves (I.e., through Japan, Philippines, Chile, New
the distance
from the
Guinea, New Zealand, Alaska and the west
epicenter. coasts of North and South America. The
Connect the San Andreas fault in United States falls
points to
determine
under this belt. Almost 70% of the deep
the Richter focus earthquakes occur in this belt.
magnitude.
2) Trans-Mediterranean belt : This belt runs
Fig. 7.10 : Description and example of Richter Scale for
assigning the magnitude of an earthquake (Source: http:// between Gibraltar and south-east Asia.
earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/education/eq_guide/eq_booklet_ It passes through the Mediterranean Sea,
measuring_size_eqs.htm)
Iran, Himalayas and Myanmar. About 21%
Earthquake belts : of the past deep focus earthquakes have
A survey of the Earth’s seismic activity over occurred in this belt.
the years reveals that majority of earthquakes 3) Mid-Oceanic Ridge belt : This belt passes
are restricted to narrow and elongated zones on through most of the ocean floors of the
the Earth’s surface, which are called earthquake Earth.
Global seismic centres in 1975-99
earthquakes of magnitude 5.5 and greater

600 N 600 N
EUROPE
ASIA
NORTH
AMERICA
300 N 300 N

AFRICA

00 Equator 00

SOUTH
AMERICA

300 S AUSTRALIA 300 S

600 S 600 S

Depth of earthquake focus ANTARCTICA

km km
0 1000 2000 3000 mi
0 0
33 21
Fig. 7.11: Major earthquake belts of the world

89
Prediction and mitigation of the earthquake : in electrical and other properties of ground;
Earthquakes are caused by tectonic forces variation in the water level in wells and its radon
that are beyond our control. Precise prediction content. Efforts are needed to reduce the severity
of the size, location and time of an earthquake of damage due to an earthquake and is called
is essential. Despite of all the developments in the mitigation of the earthquakes adopting
earthquake science and technology, till date precautionary measures. Earthquake prone
there is no reliable method for such accurate areas have been identified from.
prediction. However, a number of possible a) Detailed geology (seismo tectonics),
precursors warn us of an impending earthquake. b) Study of geomorphology (active tectonics),
These include changes in seismicity; variation c) Paleo seismicity signatures and historical records.

72°E 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

34° 34°
V Srinagar
IV
Jammu
V
Amritsar
30° Jalandhar 30°
Dehradun V
Meerut
Delhi
III Barelley
26°
Agra
V 26°
Lucknow
II
Kanpur
III V
Patna Guwahati
Varanasi
V IV
Dhanbad
Jamnagar Ahmadabad Jabalpur Asansol
22° Rajkot 22°
Indore
II Kolkata
Vadodara
Surat III IV
Nashik
Cuttack
Mumbai
II Bhubaneshwar
18° Pune III 18°
IV
LEGEND
Vijaywada
Zone II
Zone III
14°
II Zone IV 14°
III Zone V
Mangalore
Chennai

Kozhikode Coimbatore N
10°N
III III 10°
Kochi

500 250 0 500 Km.

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Fig. 7.12 : Seismic Hazard Zonation map of India

(Source : National Institute of Disaster Management: https://nidm.gov.in/safety_earthquake.asp)

90
 Such information is used to develop hazard regolith (loose unconsolidated mixture of soil
zonation maps and draw appropriate building and rock particles that cover the Earth’s Surface)
codes to reduce the damage. Currently a hazard and soil in response to gravitational stresses is
zonation map of India is available for such referred to as Land slide/ Slope failure or mass
activity wasting. Three major types of mass wasting are
Seismic Hazard Zonation : classified by the type of downslope movement;
The government agencies and research they are falls, slides and flows.
institutes classified the country into different Types of Landslides :
zones based on the intensity of damage or Earth materials may fail and move or deform
frequency of earthquake occurrences. Such in several ways. Rotational slumps involve
zonation provides guidelines and regulations sliding along a curved slip plain producing
to adopt norms for design of buildings in these slump blocks (fig. 7.13a). Translational sliding
zones (fig. 7.12). is downslope movement of Earth materials along
a planar slip plane such as a bedding plane or
Do you know?
fracture (fig.
( g 7.13b).
)
Mohorovicic discontinuity,
usually referred to as the
Moho. It is the boundary Scarp

between Earth’s crust

and the mantle. Named Hummocky
after pioneering Croatian Rotated toe
block
seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic, Moho
separates both oceanic crust and continental
crust from underlying mantle. It defines
the lithosphere – asthenosphere boundary. Rotational movement

Mohorovicic discontinuity was first identified

in 1909 by Mohorovicic, when he observed
that seismograms from shallow-focus
earthquakes had two sets of P- waves and
S-waves, one that followed a direct path near
Earth’s surface and the other refracted by a
high velocity medium.
Mohorovicic discontinuity is 5 to 10
km below the ocean floor and 20 to 90 km
beneath typical continents, with an average Translational movement
Fig. 7.13 a, b: Types of movements due to landslides
depth of 35 km.
Landslides are commonly complex
LANDSLIDES combination of sliding and flowage. Such
Landslide is a naturally occurring complex landslides may form when water-
phenomenon. As a geologist, one must know saturated Earth materials flow from the lower
the processes, make predictions, and assess the part of the slope, undermining the upper part and
risk of this threat in order to acclimatize to the causing slumping of blocks of Earth materials.
potential hazards. Important variables in classifying downslope
The downslope movement of rock debris/ movements are the type of movement (slide,

91
 fall, flow, slump, or complex movement), slope the free slope.
material type, amount of water present and x Joints : Very few rocks are free from joints.
rate of movement. In general, the movement is Joints occur in sets, thereby reducing the
considered rapid if it can be discerned with the strength. While studying the joints, their
naked eye; otherwise, it is classified as slow (fig. inclination must be carefully studied. A set
7.14 a-l). Actual rates vary from a slow creep of of joints inclined towards the free side of
a few millimeters or centimeters per year to very the slope reduces the stability of the slope.
rapid, at 1.5 m (5 ft) per day, to extremely rapid, Joints may be more vulnerable to failure
at 30 m (98 ft) or more per second. when lubricated with water.
Impact of Geological structures on landslides: Monitoring and prevention of landslides :
Geology is a critical component in the The effect of human use on the magnitude
study of landslides. Specific factors related to and frequency of landslides varies from nearly
the cause of a landslide that can be identified insignificant to very significant. In cases where
and attributed to geology are low strength rock human use has increased the number and severity
or soil, faults, joints, bedding planes, etc. of landslides, we need to learn how to recognize,
x Bedding Planes : This is the plane of least control, and minimize their occurrence wherever
cohesion in the layered rock masses. Bedding possible.
plane may be horizontal, inclined or even Identifying areas with high potential for
vertical. Horizontal beds tend to be most landslides is the first step in developing a plan
stable as compared to the inclined ones. to avoid landslide hazards. Slide tendency can
x Schistosity and foliation : They behave be recognized by examining both geologic
as planes of weakness. Failure is most conditions in the field and aerial photographs
common when they are inclined towards to identify previous slides. This information can
Main track
Source area
Sandstone Slip plane Depositional
Rotated area
block Toe

Shade

(g) Earthflow (h) Debris flow

(a) Rock Slump (b) Soil Slump Firm clay

Soft clay with water bearing

Bedrock silt and sand layers
Surface of
Surface rupture rupture
(j) Lateral spread

(c) Rock slide (d) Soil slide (i) Debris avalanche

Curved tree trunks

Tilted pole
Soil ripples
(k) Subsidence

Head scarp
Upper slump
Fence out of alignment

(e) Rockfall (f) Soil creep Lower flow

Toe

Fig 7.14 (a-l): Types of landslides (l) Complex slide

92
then be used to evaluate the risk and produce i) Shield volcano : They are the largest of
slope stability maps. the three types, are gently sloping and built
Preventing large, natural landslides is almost entirely of low viscosity basaltic
difficult, but common sense and good lava flows (fig. 7.15). The eruptions are
engineering practices can help to minimize generally non-explosive due to the low
the hazard. Common engineering techniques silica content. Shield volcanoes are typified
for landslide prevention include provisions by those on the Hawaiian and Galapagos
for surface and subsurface drainage, removal Islands and on Iceland. Numerous small
of unstable slope materials, construction of shield volcanoes are typical throughout the
retaining walls or other supporting structures, eastern Snake River Plain in Idaho, USA.
or combination of these. Examples include the Wapi lava field and
The amount of water infiltrating a slope Hells Half Acre U.S.A.
can be controlled by covering the slope with an
impermeable layer such as soil-cement, asphalt,
or even plastic. Groundwater may be inhibited
from entering a slope by constructing subsurface
drains. Cut-and-fill can be practiced where the
Separate lava flows
material from the upper part of a slope is removed
and placed near the base. The overall gradient is Conduits
thus reduced. However, this method is not practical
on very steep slopes. As an alternative, the slope Magma chamber
may be cut into a series of benches or steps. The Fig 7.15 : Shield volcano in cross section
benches are designed with surface drains to divert ii) Composite volcanoes : They are also called
runoff. The benches reduce the overall slope of as strato-volcanoes and are the most beautiful
the land and are good collection sites for falling and most deadly of the volcano types (fig.
rock and small slides. Slope Supports, retaining 7.16). They are steep-sided, symmetrical
walls constructed from concrete, stone-filled wire cones built up by eruptions of intermediate
baskets, bolting, or piles (long concrete, steel, or viscosity andesitic lava and explosive
wooden beams driven into the ground are some of tephra, giving rise to crude stratification and
the methods for prevention of landslides). hence the name. Examples of composite
VOLCANOES volcanoes, are Mount Shasta in California,
The word volcano comes from the little Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in
island of Vulcano in the Mediterranean Sea, off Washington state, and Mount Fuji in Japan.
Sicily. A volcano is simply a vent at the surface of Crater
the Earth through which lava and other volcanic
materials are ejected from the Earth`s interior. Lava flows Pyroclastic layers

Lava is the term used for magma that has reached

the surface because of a volcanic eruption.
Magma is the molten material below the Earth's
surface.
Types of Volcanoes : Magma chamber
There are three primary types of volcanoes: Composite volcano
i) Shield ii) Composite and iii) Dome. Fig 7.16 : Cross-section of a composite volcano

93
iii) Volcanic Domes : These comprise the Volcanic hazard refers to any potentially
third primary type of volcano. They are dangerous volcanic process. It may lead to
formed by highly viscous rhyolitic magma potential loss or damage. It may negatively
(approximately 70% silica) (fig. 7.17). impact the productive capacity/ sustainability of
Volcanic domes are typically small. Some a population.
are subject to explosive blowouts during Many eruptions are explosive in nature.
dome building processes. Domes commonly They produce fragmental rocks from erupting
occur adjacent to or within craters of lava and the surrounding country rock. Some
composite volcanoes. Other domes begin as eruptions are highly explosive and produce fine
shallow laccolithic intrusions that grow and volcanic ash that rises many kilometers into
expand beyond subsurface confinement. the atmosphere. Explosive activity also causes
dome widespread ash fall, pyroclastic flows, debris
avalanches, landslides, pyroclastic surges and
lahars.
Types of volcanic hazards :
layers of lava and
pyroclastic tephra
i) Lava flows : These are less dangerous
to human life than to property, traffic
magma chamber and communication. Highly viscous
lava generally does not advance far but
Fig 7.17 : Cross-section of a volcanic dome
commonly piles up above an active vent
as a Lava dome. Such domes collapse
Volcanic hazards :
repeatedly and generate hot block and ash
The effects of volcanoes are studied as they
flows, hot surges and blasts.
cause a lot of human concern. Lava flows, ash-
flows, lateral blasts, ash-falls, gases, lahars/ ii) Ash Falls : A volcanic eruption generally
mudflows, floods, fires, and tsunamis are the does not directly endanger life, although the
various types of volcanic hazards (fig. 7.18) that collapse of roof and houses under the ash
disrupt normal human activities. load are most common.
Prevailing Wind iii) Pyroclastic flows : Low density surges
that are frequently associated with blasts
Debris Avalanche are extremely hazardous types of volcanic
Tephra (Ash) Fall
(Landslide) eruptions. Pyroclastic flows are a mixture
Bombs
Pyroclastic
Lava Dome
Flow
of volcanic gases and ash are generated
Vent
during many volcanic eruptions.
Pyroclastic
Flow
iv) Volcanic Debris/ Avalanches : They
are commonly generated by sliding of
larger portions of volcanic cones. These
Conduit Ground Water
avalanches are highly mobile and may bury
Lava Flow
Lahar (Mud or Debris Flow) large tracts of land and block streams to
Crack form lakes that can drain catastrophically
and generate lahars and floods.
Magma v) Lahars (volcanic mud and debris flow) :
Fig 7.18 : Visualization of volcanic hazards These are common major volcanic hazard
94
 to life and property. Lahars proceed very taken before, during and after a volcanic eruption.
quickly and possess great destructive Preparation of hazard maps help to determine
power. They develop either as a direct whether a volcano is potentially hazardous and
consequence of a volcanic eruption, or as to assess the risk. Monitoring of volcanoes by
a secondary event resulting due to heavy satellite must be increased in order to detect
rainfall or sometimes as an after effect of possible changes. Public must be informed and
eruption. educated using brochures, placards, lectures,
Effects of Volcanic hazards : advertisements on the television etc.
A volcanic eruption cannot be potentially
Damage to human life, social structure
controlled by man. However limited possibilities
and property may not always be induced only
to control its effects such as barriers against
by direct effects of volcanic eruption. Some
lava flows, cooling lava flow with sea water,
of the most dangerous secondary phenomena
channeling small lahars by artificial dams and
are tsunamis, contaminated ashes or long-
artificially draining the lahar crater lakes can be
lasting aerosol clouds that can orbit the Earth
practiced.
for years after large volcanic eruption (e.g.,
Toba volcano). Aerosol clouds are composed Summary :
of condensed volcanic gases, mainly sulphuric Amongst the natural hazards, earthquakes
acid. The emission of large quantities of SO2 and are the most disastrous, as these cannot be
also possibly halogens into the stratosphere may predicted by time and exact location. Earthquake
lead to a temperature decrease on the Earth’s release an enormous energy, and their prevention
surface by increasing the global albedo. is impossible. However the risk of damage to
property and life can be reduced by acquiring
Prediction of Volcanic activity :
detailed knowledge on seismology and adopting
Prediction of a volcanic eruption is methods such as construction of earthquake
extremely important to provide early evacuation resistant structures.
of densely populated regions. Prediction based The landslides present one of the most
on statistics of previous eruptions is too vague for common relatively small scale disasters. The
specific and short term prediction of an eruption. damage due to landslides can be reduced
A forecast is a general announcement that a by mapping of the landslide prone area and
volcano will probably erupt in the near future. A retrofitting the causes for landslide occurrence.
prediction is a relatively precise statement that For this purpose the fundamental knowledge on
describes the future volcanic event, its time and the origin, occurrence and types of landslide is
type of eruption. essential.
Volcanic eruptions are often announced
The volcanoes are the disasters with well-
years, months, days or hours in advance. The
known occurrences of active volcanoes in the
relatively slow ascent of viscous magma to
given region. The volcanic eruption cause
the upper crust generates a surface expansion
primary as well as secondary disasters. Primary
that can be measured with modern geodetic
disasters are associated with direct contact of
instruments.
volcanic material to property or life causing loss.
Prevention and mitigation of volcanic hazard : Proper study of the given volcano and correct
In order to reduce the after effects of a monitoring can produce warning of a volcanic
volcanic hazard, a series of measures must be activity with sufficient time of evacuation.

95
 EXERCISE

Q. 1. Fill In the blanks : Q. 2. Choose the correct alternative :

1) Downslope movement of rock debris in response 1) The Geohazards can originate
to gravitational stresses is called ................. a) Only from the surface processes,
a) faulting b) slip b) Surface to atmospheric interaction,
c) thrusting d) landslide c) Only from the interior of the Earth,
2) Debris avalanche is a ................. d) All of the above
a) Very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow 2) The seismic waves can be correlated with the
b) Slow to extremely slow debris flow analogy of ripples in pond for
c) Very rapid to slow debris flow a) Their travel away from the source
d) Very rapid to extremely rapid rock fall b) Their velocities inside the Earth
3) Landslides are a complex combination of …..... c) Distribution of body and surface waves
and …............ d) Origin of fault
a) Sliding and slippage 3) The elastic rebound theory of H H Reid explains
b) Thrusting and flowage a) The origin of earthquake
c) Sliding and flowage b) The origin of body waves
d) Slipping and flowage c) The distribution of earthquakes
4) Water contributes to …............. when sediment d) Rheology of material
pores are partially filled with water. 4) The contours of imaginary lines on maps
a) Gravitational forces joining points of the same earthquake intensity
b) Resisting forces are called.
c) Driving forces a) Isoquake lines b) Isoseismal lines
d) Centrifugal forces c) Isotropic lines d) Richter lines
5) The record of zig-zag lines representing the
5) ..........….. are the most beautiful but deadliest
seismic waves generated by an earthquake is
volcanoes called:
a) Composite b) Shield a) Seismograph b) Seismogram
c) Fissure d) Dome c) Seismic train d) Velocity graph
6) ………. slumps involve sliding along a curved 6) Shield volcanoes are:
slip plain producing slump blocks i) largest of the three types,
a) Translational b) motional ii) gently sloping
c) rotational d) gravitational iii) highly viscous basaltic lava flows
7) For a quick estimation of the distance of an iv) eruptions are generally non-explosive
earthquake epicentre from the seismic station, a) all statements are true
seismologists use a multiplication factor of b) statements i, ii and iv are true
………. to the S minus P (S-P) time. c) statements ii, iii and iv are true
8) The most common scale to measure the intensity d) statements i, iii and iv are true
of an earthquake is ………. Q. 3. Short answers :
9) Globally the earthquake occurrence belt 1) Why do earthquakes not occur deeper than 700
coincides with ………. km.
10) In Richter scale the ………. of the largest 2) Velocities of P waves are greater than S waves.
wave produced by an earthquake is corrected Explain.
for distance and assigned a value on an open- 3) Why are surface waves more damaging as
ended logarithmic scale. geohazards than the body waves.

96
 4) In how many seismic zones is India divided and Figure: Seiemogram showing the first arrival times
which area of the country is the most susceptible for the P-waves and S-waves. The lag time is the
to seismic hazards? interval between P- and S- wave arrivals.
5) What are the major types of mass movements? This exercise is to learn the key concept of
6) Discuss the role of joints on occurrence of seismic wave travel time and to understand how
landslides. seismograms are used to find the distance to an
7) What is the difference between intensity and earthquake epicenter. Imagine that car A and car
magnitude of earthquake? B depart together at same starting point and same
8) What is the standard method to find the distance time. However the car A travels at a speed of 100
between an earthquake and the recording km per hour (kph), and the car B travels at 85 kph.
station? An observer anywhere along the cars’ route can
9) How can volcanic hazards be mitigated? calculate exactly how far they had traveled simply
10) Discuss the importance of monitoring and by measuring the arrival time difference between the
prevention of landslides. cars at given location. Now consider that the car A
passes a given spot at 2:30 pm, and car B passes the
Q. 4. Long answers same spot at 2:45 pm, then find the distance between
1) Explain the role of geology in occurrence of a that spot and the cars’ point of departure.
landslide.
We know that the distance travelled (d) is the
2) Compare amongst the three major geohazards product of rate (r) and time (t):
(Earthquake, Volcano and landslides) for their
scale, predictability and mitigation. d = r * t ………………………..(1.1)
3) Describe why the earthquakes cannot be Because the distance travelled is the same for
predicted precisely. both cars, the following must be true:
4) Describe the different types of seismic waves d = rA * tA = rB * tB………………… (1.2)
and how they are produced.
5) Which conditions of volcano are the most Given the speed of the two cars (rA and rB) and
significant in prevention of hazards? that car B passed the spot 15 minutes after car A (tB
= tA + 0.25 hrs), Equation 1.2 becomes:
6) Discuss the effects of landslides during planning
and execution of developmental projects in a 100 km/hr * tA = 85 km/hr * (tA + 0.25 hrs)………….
region. (1.3)
7) Which type of volcanic hazard generally does Simplifying and solving for
not directly endanger life
tA = 1.42 hr………..(1.4)
Practical exercise Combining Equations 1.4 and 1.2:
Locating the epicenter of an Earthquake d = rA * tA…………………. (1.5)
The different types of seismic waves travel d = 100 km/hr * 1.42 hr……………….. (1.6)
at different speeds. P-waves travel faster relative
to S-waves, and the surface waves are still slower. d = 142 km…………….. (1.7)
These different travel times of seismic waves after an Explanations : In case of the earthquake data, a
earthquake occur is the basis of locating the epicenters seismogram at given station is used to find the time
of earthquakes (refer figures 7.5, 7.6, 7.8 and 7.9). lag as shown in the figure. Then this time (lag)
for P and S wave is plotted along the Y- axis of a
tabulation diagram like Figure 7.9 and on X- axis the
distance from the epicenter is obtained. Such data
from minimum three stations is required to get the
epicenter as shown in figure 7.8. In practice however,
the seismologists plot the data from more number of
stations to reduce the error and get the exact location
of the epicenter of an earthquake.
‹‹‹

97
 8 Remote Sensing and GIS

Introduction : 1, formerly the ‘Earth Resources Technology

Satellite 1’ (ERTS 1) which proudly takes its
The term Remote Sensing envisages :
place in any museum of technology. The data
“The process of measurement or acquisition
from this satellite and its younger and better
of information of some property of some
siblings, is since the early 1970’ regarded as
object or phenomenon by a recording device
the longest span of consistently acquired visual
that is not in physical or intimate contact
record of our planetary surface. Efforts of a
with the object under study”
similar kind are also being successfully carried
So, as per this definition, processes
out by the IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellites)
like medical imaging (CT Scan, MRI,
series, albeit since the early 1988. Till today,
Sonography), seismic imaging etc would
the ISRO has launched a host of remote sensing
also be included under the ambit of remote
satellites and we have 13 fully functional remote
sensing. But, for the sake of brevity, the term
sensing satellites in orbit as of date. This also
Remote Sensing is almost restrictively used
includes the RISAT- 1 a radar satellite.
for the process of image (data) acquisition
by orbiting satellites and photography of the Do you know?
Earth by cameras on aircraft and drones. x Who coined the term remote sensing?
The term ‘remote sensing’, first used in the
Historical account of remote sensing : United States in the 1950s by
As a spin-off from the surveillance Ms. Evelyn Pruitt of the U.S.
technology effectively used by defense Office of Naval Research,
establishments around the world since man is now commonly used to
hoisted a camera on a hot-air balloon in year describe the science—and
1858 for photographing terra firma, remote Ms. Evelyn Pruitt
art—of identifying, observing,
(1908 – 1969)
sensing has come a long way. Among the very and measuring an object
first ‘civilian’ efforts mandated exclusively without coming into direct contact with it.
for ‘Earth Observation’ (EO) is the LandSat

Do you know?
Indian Remote Sensing Satellites launched by ISRO and their status. Source: NRSC/ISRO

Sr. No. Satellite Date of Launch Launch Vehicle Status

1 IRS-1A 17 March 1988 Vostok, USSR Mission Completed
2 IRS-1B 29 August 1991 Vostok, USSR Mission Completed
Crashed, due to launch
3 IRS-P1 (also IE) 20 September 1993 PSLV-D1
failure of PSLV
4 IRS-P2 15 October 1994 PSLV-D2 Mission Completed
5 IRS-1C 28 December 1995 Molniya, Russia Mission Completed
6 IRS-P3 21 March 1996 PSLV-D3 Mission Completed
7 IRS 1D 29 September 1997 PSLV-C1 Mission Completed

98
 Sr. No. Satellite Date of Launch Launch Vehicle Status
8 IRS-P4 (Oceansat-1) 27 May 1999 PSLV-C2 Mission Completed
Technology Experiment
9 22 October 2001 PSLV-C3 Mission Completed
Satellite (TES)
10 IRS P6 (Resourcesat-1) 17 October 2003 PSLV-C5 In Service
11 IRS P5 (Cartosat 1) 5 May 2005 PSLV-C6 In Service
12 IRS P7 (Cartosat 2) 10 January 2007 PSLV-C7 In Service
13 Cartosat 2A 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 In Service
14 IMS 1 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 In Service
15 Oceansat-2 23 September 2009 PSLV-C14 In Service
16 Cartosat-2B 12 July 2010 PSLV-C15 In Service
17 Resourcesat-2 20 April 2011 PSLV-C16 In Service
18 Megha-Tropiques 12 October 2011 PSLV-C18 In Service
19 RISAT-1 26 April 2012 PSLV-C19 In Service
20 SARAL 25 Feb 2013 PSLV-C20 In Service
21 RESOURCESAT-2A 07 Dec 2016 PSLV-C36 In Service
22 Cartosat-2D 15 Feb 2017 PSLV-C37 In Service
23 Cartosat-2E 23 June 2017 PSLV-C38 In Service
24 Cartosat-2F 12 Jan 2018 PSLV-C40 In Service

 x RESOURCESAT-3 is a planned Satellite Fig. 8.1 illustrates the generalized processes

to carry Atmospheric Correction Sensor and elements involved in Earth observation
(ACS) and is stated to be launched in 2021. through remote sensing satellites or platforms
This satellite is also important from the like aircraft with digital imaging systems. Two
point of mineral exploration. basic processes involved are data acquisition
and data analysis.
Process of remote sensing :
DATA ACQUISITION DATA ANALYSIS

Reference
data

Pictorial Visual
Digital
(d) Retransmission Digital
through the (i)
atmosphere Users
(a) Sources of energy
(b) Propagation through
the atmosphere (e) (f) (g) (h)
Sensing systems Sensing products Interpretation Information
(c) Earth surface features and analysis products

Fig. 8.1 : The process of remote sensing

99
 i) The elements of the data acquisition the reflected sunlight from the Earth’s surface,
process are : and hence cannot collect image data during
a) Energy sources : night. Such a mode of remote sensing is called –
b) Propogation or transmission of energy ‘passive’ remote sensing (fig. 8.2). The example
(sunlight) through the atmosphere is, a simple camera without a flash.
c) Energy interactions with Earth’s surface Satellites like India’s RISAT are different,
d) Retransmission of the reflected energy and they carry a source of electro – magnetic
through the atmosphere energy in form of RADAR. Such satellites are
e) Spaceborne (satellites) or airborne (drones, also capable of imaging during night, though the
aircraft) sensors images so obtained do not contain information
f) Generation of sensor data in digital or about the sunlight being reflected from the
picture form Earth’s surface, and are used primarily for
ii) The data analysis process includes preparing contour maps. This mode of remote
a) Studying the pictorial data, visually or sensing is known as ‘active’ remote sensing (fig.
digital data using computers. Reference 8.3). Here a simple example is the same camera
data in the form of ground truth or ‘spectral as stated above, but now equipped with a flash for
signature files’ is used to create output illumination.
images/information which is thematic eg.
geology, landuse, vegetation cover etc.
b) This information is then compiled, generally
in the form of maps or datatables, which
can also be used as an input in GIS.
Classification and Types of remote sensing :
The most common source of illumination Fig. 8.2 : Passive Remote sensing – Sun is the primary
of the Earth’s surface is sunlight. Most of our source of illumination. Carried out by remote sensing
satellites which record data in the visible and near
remote sensing satellites that orbit around the infra-red wavelengths. e.g. IRS and Cartosat series of
Earth, have sensors that are designed to record satellites launched by ISRO.

Do you know?
Dr. Pisharoth Rama Pisharoty (10 February 1909 – 24 September 2002)
was an Indian physicist and meteorologist, and is considered to be the father of
remote sensing in India. Dr. Pisharoty became the Director of Colaba and Alibag
Magnetic Observatories in 1959 and Founder Director of the Indian Institute
of Tropical Meteorology, Pune in 1962. In 1967 he retired as Director of the
Institute of Tropical Meteorology and joined the Physical Research Laboratory,
Ahmedabad as a senior professor at the invitation of Vikram Sarabhai. He was entrusted with the
job of introducing remote sensing technology to India. His pioneering experiment of detection of
coconut wilt-root disease using Soviet aircraft and US equipment was considered to be the first
success in remote sensing in India.
Dr. Pisharoty served as the Director, Remote Sensing and Satellite Meteorology, at ISRO
Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad during 1972-75. He also served as the Vice-President of
the International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences, and as a member of Joint
Organising Committee for Global Atmospheric Research Programme from 1969 to 1977.

100
 range from 300 kms to 700 kms above the
Earths surface. The need for repetitive coverage
necesseciates that these satellites be secured in
a ‘sun synchronous polar orbit’ (fig. 8.5). This
orbit allows for repetitive coverage of the Earth’s
surface, where the local equatorial crossing time
of the polar orbit is adjusted to be between 10:30
and 11:00 hrs. This aids in obtaining imagery
Fig. 8.3 : Active Remote Sensing – External source with the optimum illumination from the sun
of Electro Magnetic Energy (EME). Carried out by
remote sensing satellites which carry a RADAR. e.g. and also the slight shadow from topographic
RISAT I launched by ISRO. features, which aids in visual interpretation.
The most popular and commonly used data
from remote sensing satellites is usually the ALTITUDE | 700-800 Km

one collected in the visible wavelength of light

(detected by human eye) and in the near infra-
red as well as thermal infra-red wavelengths
Û
as depicted (fig. 8.4). The visible and thermal
EQURTORIAL
range data is recorded by sensors called multi CROSSING TIME
10.30 A.M.(LOCAL)
spectral scanners. The multispectral scanner
(MSS) onboard our IRS series of satellites is GROUND
TRACK
called LISS (Linear Imaging Self Scanning).
Frequency (Hz) SATELLITE
4 8 12 18 20 24 ORBIT
10 10 10 10 10 10
Fig. 8.5 : Orbit of a remote sensing satellite
AM FM Microwaves Ultr-
Radio waves Infrared violet X-rays Gamma rays Sometimes, for special missions, remote
4 -4 -8 -12 -16
sensing satellites are also launched in a LEO
10 1 10 10 10 10
14 14
Wavelength (m) which is oblique equatorial orbit. e.g. Razaksat
4.0x10 Hz 7.9x10 Hz
Visible light - the Malaysian remote sensing satellite, which
Fig. 8.4 : Wavelengths of Electromagnetic Spectrum exclusively scans a narrow region on either
(EMS) used in remote sensing side of the equator, allowing quick repetitive
Sources of remote sensing data : coverage of Malaysia.
Data from our remote sensing satellites is
Do you know?
available from the National Remote Sensing
Communication satellites are placed in
Centre in Hyderabad. Data is made available
Geo Stationary Orbit (GEO) which is about
as printed imageries and also in digital format.
36000 to 41000 km above Earth’s Surface.
Most of the data collected by our satellites in the
India`s INSAT series of satellites are
past decade has been made available by ISRO
communication satellite which also transmit
for free. We can download digital data from the
television signals.
BHUVAN portal.
(https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/thematic/ Resolution of satellite data:
thematic/index.php) The term ‘resolution’ of a satellite imagery,
Orbit of remote sensing satellites : generally refers to – spatial resolution – or
Almost all remote sensing satellites are what is very simply understood as the size of
placed in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) which the smallest object on the Earth’s surface that
101
can be distinctly identified. Our early satellites water vapour in the atmosphere.
like the IRS 1A had sensors (digital cameras) Types of Satellite imagery data :
which scanned the Earth at a ground resolution
Pan Chromatic : This is an imagery with a
of 72.5 m and today we have our Cartosat 2F
single band image, but the data usually has a
which has sensors that can scan the Earth at a
very high ground resolution. e.g. PAN sensor of
resolution of less than 1m. The (fig. 8.6) depicts
Cartosat 2E - is capable of taking panchromatic
sample imagery taken from our IRS satellites,
(black and white) images in a selected portion
demonstrating the impact of higher resolution
of the visible and near-infrared spectrum (0.50–
on the interpretability of the features seen in the
0.85 μm) at a resolution of 65 cm.
images.
Colour Composites : A colour imagery requires
Satellite Imagery :
data in multiple bands, so that one primary
Remote sensing satellites record data in
colour can be assigned to each of the bands. As
digital form and the data is collected in discrete
we have three primary colours (blue, green and
wavelengths. The distinct range of wavelengths
red), at any one instance, we use just three bands
are called ‘bands’. The IRS satellites collect
to create colour composites. There are two types
data in multiple bands depending on the mission
of colour composites – true colour composite
requirements. e.g. the IRS P6 LISS 3 sensor
(TCC) and false colour composite (FCC)
collects data in four bands –
True Colour Composite (TCC) : A true colour
Band 2: 0.52-0.59 μm, (green)
composite is created by assigning the same
Band 3: 0.62-0.68 μm, (red) colour to a band as the colour of the wavelength
Band 4: 0.77-0.86 μm, (NIR) range of that band. This creates an image which
Band 5: 1.55-1.70 μm, (SWIR) appears identical to the colours of the Earth`s
Band 1 (blue) has been discontinued in surface that we can see when viewed from an
many of the IRS satellites because of its limited aircraft. The images we see in Google Earth or
use and the lack of clarity due to its sensitivity to Google Maps are examples of TCC. (fig. 8.7)

Resolution of Remotely Sensed Data -

LISS I- 72.5m

LISS II- 36.25m

LISS III- 23.5m

Fig. 8.6 : Sample imagery taken from our IRS satellites

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 Elements of Image Interpretation :
Visual Interpretation of Satellite Imagery is
accomplished using the following criteria (aided
by shadow and texture)
x Shape : It refers to the general form,
configuration or outline of individual objects
e.g. roads, airports etc. the shadow cast by
tall objects or Earth`s relief (hills, valleys
etc) also aids in understanding the shape,
thereby helping in interpretation (fig. 8.9.)
Fig. 8.7 : A True Colour Composite (TCC)
False Colour Composite (FCC) : A false colour
composite is created by assigning any of the three
primary colours to any of the selected bands in a
way where the assigned colour does not match
the colour of the wavelength range of that band.
A special type of FCC is a Standard FCC
where the green band, red band and near Infra-red
bands are assigned blue, green and red colours
Fig. 8.9 : Image interpretation - Shape
respectively. This results in all the areas with
x Size : The size of an object is one of the most
green vegetation is present, to appear in shades
useful clue to its identity, e.g. settlements,
of red. (fig. 8.8) Standard FCC is very useful
reservoirs. It is scale dependent. Fig 8.10
in demarcating forested areas, crop land, grass
is a FCC depicting a stream network with
land or high bio-mass cover areas on the Earth’s
vegetation (red). If the scale is unknown,
surface.
Band 1 : Blue Band 2 : Green Band 3 : Red Band 4 : Infra Red

Standard False
Colour Composite
(FCC)

Fig. 8.8 : Resolution of remotely sensed satellite data- sample images from our IRS

103
 the size of the objects in the image cannot x Association : Refers to the occurrence of
be judged and could be misinterpreted as a certain features in relation to others. eg.,
photo taken under the microscope depicting Sand dunes are associated with deserts,
blood vessels in the human body. mangroves with coastal regions and
buildings associated with urban areas etc
(fig. 8.13).

meters
100

q Star dunes

Fig. 8.10 : Image interpretation - Size

x Pattern : It relates to spatial arrangement Fig. 8.13 : Image interpretation - Association
of objects, e.g., uplands, lowlands, deltas, Aerial Photographs :
drainage pattern etc (fig. 8.11). Photographs of the Earth`s surface using
meters cameras (film or digital) are called as aerial
100
photographs. Today such photographs can be
obtained by drones (UAV: Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles) equipped with digital cameras. Such
photographs are generally acquired with low
flying drones and hence bring out details of the
Earth’s surface features in very high resolution
e.g. (fig. 8.14).

Fig. 8.11 : Image interpretation -

x Tone : It is the relative lightness of colour
of objects in imageries, e.g., various shades
of red for different types of vegetation in
FCC (fig. 8.12).

Fig. 8.14 : Aerial photo captured by drone

GIS – an Introduction :
A Geographic Information System (GIS)
is today, necessarily a computer based system
or environment, that can manage, analyse,
Fig. 8.12 : Image interpretation - Tone and display geographic data or spatial data.
104
Geographic or Geo-spatial data is represented
From the 1970s until his death, Dr.
by a series of geographic datasets that contain
Tomlinson worked in geographic consulting
information of spatial objects with respect to
and research for a variety of private sector,
their location and all other descriptive attributes.
government, and non-profit organisations,
The GIS has to necessarily be able to create and
largely through his Ottawa-based company,
link such datasets with visual interfaces in form
Tomlinson Associates Ltd., which has
of maps or various thematic layers.
branches of consulting geographers in
So a GIS has to be able to allow us to: Canada, the United States, and Australia.
x View He was Chairman of the International
x Query Geographical Union GIS Commission for
x Interpret 12 years. He pioneered the concepts of
x Visualize worldwide geographical data availability
as Chairman of the IGU Global Database
x Understand and
Planning Project in 1988. He was also a
 x Geographic/ geo-spatial data on a computer. president of the Canadian Association of
A GIS combines a set of intelligent maps Geographers.
and other views that show features and feature
relationships on the Earth's surface data and What can a GIS do?
apply analytic rules to create a model that helps Today, a GIS has to be able to answer six
to answer questions. wise questions – Where, When, Who, What,
The satellite imageries obtained from Why and How, and hence finds applications in
remote sensing satellites are very effectively all domains. It does so based on the ability of
used for creation and updating of the various any GIS to organize geographic / geo-spatial
thematic layers that are used in any GIS. data into a series of thematic layers with linked
Do you know? tables. Since geographic datasets in a GIS are
Dr Roger F. Tomlinson, georeferenced (have Latitude and Longitude
(17 November 1933 – 7 or some grid reference), they have real world
February 2014) was an locations and overlay one another (fig. 8.15).
English geographer and
the primary originator
of modern computerised
GIS, and has been
acknowledged as the ‘Father of GIS’.
It was during his tenure in the 1960s
with Ottawa-based aerial survey company
Spartan Air Services that Dr. Tomlinson
conceptualized combining land use mapping
with emerging computer technology. This
pioneering work led him to initiate, plan
and direct the development of the Canada
Geographic Information System, the first
computerised GIS in the world. Fig. 8.15 : The concept of thematic georeferenced
thematic layers in a GIS. (credit – Saylor Academy)

105
GIS generic question – Location :
GIS GENERIC QUESTION : LOCATION
Activity 1 :
EAST Assume that your school/college is the
10 11 12 polling centre for elections. Using a printout
of the satellite imagery of your school and
3
X its surroundings, on a transparency sheet –
SOUTH

4
1) Mark the 100m buffer distance from the
Z various gates of your school, on every
5 Y
road that leads to your school.
2) Prepare an overlay map that will show
Where is Feature X?
$16:(5; Û6287+Û($67 all the houses that will get effected due to
What exist at a specific location? this 100m rule, where no cars / vehicles
([:KDWLVDWÛ6RXWKÛ(DVW" would be allowed during the day of
ANSWER : Y
elections.
GIS generic question – Measurement :
A GIS has to be able to answer queries GIS generic query from Attributes database :
related to distance between features, length of In a GIS, every feature in a map is
perimeter, area of a feature etc. necessarily tagged or linked along with its
GIS GENERIC QUESTION : AERIAL RELATIONSHIP location to an attributes table or database. We
MEASUREMENT can query the details of specific properties of
5 KM
DISTANCE X Y the features seen in the map. e.g. for a specific
geological formation depicted with a specific
PERIMETER
colour on a GIS enabled geological map, we
should be able to query from the database – the
rock type, its age, its engineering properties, its
AREA/SIZE 10 KM2 mineralogy etc.
GIS GENERIC QUESTION:
ATTRIBUTES
PROPERTY AREA OWNER TAX SOIL
GIS generic question – Neighbourhood NUMBER (Ma) CODE QUALITY
analysis : 1 1000,000 THOMAS B HIGH
Queries based on the adjacency, connectivity
and proximity should necessarily be answered. 2 50,100 BHARATI A MEDIUM

NEIGHBOURHOOD ANALYSIS 3 90,900 BHARATI B MEDIUM

ADJACENCY
B IS ADJACENT TO A A B C 4 40,800 ABHIJIT A LOW
C IS ADJACENT TO B
C IS NOT ADJACENT TO A
5 30,200 ABHIJIT A LOW

6 120,200 SALMA B HIGH

CONNECTIVITY
B IS CONNECTED TO A A B C
C IS NOT CONNECTED WHO?
A) Attribute description
E.g. What are the attributes of property 2 ?
2 KM (Record)
PROXIMITY
B IS WITHIN 2 KM OF C A B C B) Where do certain conditions exist? (Field)
E.g. Who owns High Soil Quality properties?
Answer : Thomas and Salma
106
GIS generic questions - Patterns and GIS GENERIC QUESTION : TRENDS
Relationships :
A A B
As all features on a GIS enabled map would
have linked attribites that would quantify the B

shape, location, areas etc of various features, it C C

D
is necessary that a GIS be able to answer queries
related to spatial correlation. Such queries are 2010 2020
of immense use when geologists are working on 1) How did items A,B,C change from 2010
mineral exploration. As specific minerals occur to 2020?
in certain geological structures or at specific A : Increased size
B : Decreased size, moved
locations in geological structures, queries
C : Changed shape
related to patterns and mutual relationships help
2) What has changed since 2010?
a geologist in mineral occurrence targeting.
Change in size of A and B
GIS GENERIC QUESTION: Change in location of B
PATTERNS and RELATIONSHIPS Change in shape of C
Addition of D
X Z Z
Activity 2 :
Y Frame a query or question using – ‘where,
X Y when, who, what, why, will, which, can and
Y how’ as one or more of the words, and list
out the various data sets and maps you
X would need to answer your query. Prepare a
Z Z
brief note on how you will attempt to solve
your query using a GIS.
1) Does feature X occur in a pattern? e.g. of a query: ‘Will our storm evacuation
Yes. in a line from NW to SE.
plan be successful?’
2) Is there a relationship between X and Y?
Yes. Y is always close to X. Applications of remote sensing and GIS :
3) What other spatial or functional patterns 1) Disaster Management and Mitigation
exist?
Feature Z is always near a border and (DMM) :
increases size from West to East. As 'natural disasters' know no bounds -
more so the manmade boundaries, the need
GIS generic query – Trend analysis :
for global coordination of observing and
Apart from geological investigations, GIS geographic information systems to address
is very effectively used for a wide range of the entire cycle of DMM is necessary. Remote
analysis. Studying and predicting the growth or sensing conventionally supplied the post disaster
change in development of towns and cities is visuals, used very effectively for pre and post
one such area. A GIS can effectively answer assessment. Every state has a State Disaster
queries related to changes in shape, size and Management Authority, and at regional level
locations of features that have been assigned there is a very good understanding of Earth
attributes in the linked database. observation technology and a good policy

107
framework. As natural disasters do not confirm cloud cover and solar irradiance, along with
to manmade boundaries, all the states and also wind speeds and directions, combined with
global nations are committed and cooperate by environmental parameters such as land elevation
providing the information and analysis derived and land cover models are vital elements in
from the analysis of various Earth Observation planning for the location and operation of
Systems. Such real time data from the sky and renewable energy installations. An example of
space is supplemented by direct linkages with EOS data in this field is the Surface Meteorology
live data from global earthquake monitoring, and Solar Energy (SSE) dataset, funded by
ocean wave height monitoring, volcanic NASA, a compilation of temperature, wind,
eruption event prediction, precipitation, snow, and solar radiation data derived from satellite
and wind speed monitoring - leading to effective observations and model analysis. Such datasets
early warning system. When appended with estimate variability on timescales ranging from
geospatial databases which contain census seasonal, to several years.
and other social parameters, the rescue and 3) Water :
mitigation workers on the ground take effective
The slowly but sure depleting reserve of
decisions and appropriate rescue infrastructure
the worlds fresh water reserves has been proved
is optimally utilized.
by ground observations as well as EO satellite
2) Natural resources exploration : data for gravity measurements. The fact that the
The exploration of Oil and Gas, their Amazon river basin also contains the world's
extraction and production, electricity generation, largest single groundwater repository was also
transport and distribution, form merely a confirmed by such observations. On a regional
part of the activities of the energy sector. It and local scale, watershed and rainwater
encompasses not only non-renewable resources, conservation practices have been drawing
but also renewable resources such as solar, wind, heavily on observations from EO satellites for
biomass, and hydropower. The energy industry fine tuning the water conservation practices
is heavily dependent on EO data. e.g., weather which depend on terrain conditions apart from
data can form useful estimates for electricity the climatic zones.
supply and demand. Satellites are important in The Asian Water Cycle Initiative (AWCI)
the exploration, extraction, and transport the utilises apart from meteorological datasets, EO
world’s oil and gas reserves, several of which data also for watershed characterisation and
are located in remote and hostile territory. EOS prioritisation. At a micro-watershed level, EO
data can be used to build global resource maps data is being effectively used for monitoring
for planning renewable energy projects. and documenting change in groundwater
More recently, renewable energy systems conditions which manifest as a change in
have benefitted from the contribution of EO vegetation and soil moisture. In Maharashtra,
data in not only their optimization, but also in organisations like AQUADAM and Watershed
their integration with traditional energy supply Organisation Trust (WOTR), have incorporated
systems. While renewable energy sources such as remote sensing data in a GIS This is so because,
solar, wind, or wave power are environmentally water resources management is a people and
a safer option than fossil fuels, they are highly community centric activity where remote
susceptible to environmental changes. Their sensing data becomes just one data input. It
availability depends largely on the prevailing is an excellent tool for benchmarking. But it
weather conditions at their localities. Data on needs effective integration with GPS along with
108
inputs from local community. Any application
developed for 'water' management also needs Activity 4 :
to have a 'peoples component'. So apart from Discuss and Debate :
mapping and change detection, remote sensing Is Google Maps a GIS? List your reasons.
data, especially the visualisations generated Is Google Earth a GIS? List your reasons.
from such data are today being very effectively
used to bring about an awareness among the Summary :
participants about their prevalent environment. Remote sensing has evolved into a fine
The modeling done for forecasting water tuned data collection method over the last
demands and resources depletion, is similarly century – since the advent of the camera and the
communicated through the rich visualisation aircraft. Satellite remote sensing has effectively
modules available in GIS. Such visual medium added the advantage of repetitive coverage
for educating and opinion building among the which comes in handy when collecting data on
impacted communities around the world, plays dynamic and temporally varying themes such
an important role in water conservation, and as water, agricultural fields, and infrastructure
convincing impacted communities about the development and so on. Multi layered remote
importance of appropriate exploration and
sensing carried through drones, aircraft and
sustainable exploitation strategies.
satellites allows for easy collection of data
Activity 3 : over a variety of scales and resolutions. Today,
data collected through these Earth observation
Using a printout of the satellite imagery
systems, is being effectively used for near real
from Google Earth (at known scale) depicting
time update to spatial data within GIS.
your school/college, prepare individual maps
on a transparency sheet as listed below. The power of spatial analysis along
with excellent visual creations done through
a) The school campus.
GIS has become ubiquitous and is accepted
b) All roads leading to your school/college
if not expected in all walks and processes of
from the neighborhood.
day to day human functioning. The excellent
c) Location of the houses of all your monitoring of the global pandemic caused due to
classmates in the school/college vicinity. the Covid – 19, its fallout, spread, containment
Using these three layers, and the measured and control have been made possible through
distances along the roads, arrive at the best the perfect dovetailing of data from multiple -
location for meeting your friends after school/ agencies, countries, formats and scales made
college such that – all your friends can reach available on global data platforms. The study
their home from this spot in the same amount and understanding of how GIS systems work
of time. Discuss the method followed by you and their capabilities is today an essential part
with your classmates. of every Earth-science student’s curriculum.

109
 Plate 1 : Satellite imagery - geologically faulted area. (source - Google Earth)

110
 Plate 2 : Satellite imagery - geologically folded area. (source - Google Earth)

111
 Plate 3 : Satellite imagery - rock outcrops showing joints. (source - Google Earth)

112
 Plate 4 : Satellite imagery - Intrusive rocks - dykes. (source - Google Earth)

113
 EXERCISE

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with correct choice from c) thematic d) GPS

the list : 11) ……………….. is not an example of Remote
1) The term remote sensing was first used in sensing.
…………… year. a) Drone flying b) CT scan
a) 1949 b) 1959 c) 1988 d) 1996 c) Sonography d) Satellite imaging
2) The term remote sensing was coined by 12) Vegetation in a standard FCC appears
…………. Of the U.S. office of Naval Research a) Green b) Blue
a) Kalpana Chawla b)Valentina Tereshkova c) Infra-red d) red
c) Evelyn Pruitt d) Edelyn Bishop 13) ………….... is not an example of active remote
3) The first civilian Remote sensing satellite sensing
launched by the U.S.A was …………… a) MRI b) Seismic imaging
a) IRS-1A b) SPOT c) RADAR d) Drone photography
c) RAZAKSAT d) ERTS1 14) …………… is not an example of passive
remote sensing
4) The U.S. remote sensing satellite ERTS 1 was
a) LIDAR b) Drone photography
later renamed ……………
c) Satellite imaging
a) USRS-1 b) USA SAT-1
d) Digital camera without a flash
c) LANDSAT-1 d) LSAT-1
15) …………… is not a Indian remote sensing
5) The first Indian Remote sensing satellite was
satellite
called ……………….
a) In SAT-1A b) Resource Sat-2
a) Rohini-1 b) PSLV-1
c) Carto Sat-2F d) IRS-1C
c) Bhaskara d) IRS-1A
16) Today a remote sensing satellite cannot detect
6) The IRS 1A was launched in the year
……………… a) Oil spills on ocean surface
a) 1950 b) 1978 c) 1988 d) 1998 b) Open cast coal mines
7) The RISAT-1 is India’s first ……………. c) Underground oil reserves
Satellite. d) People sitting on a sandy beach
a) Remote Sensing b) Risk assessment 17) A remote sensing satellite is never in
c) Radar d)Resource mapping a) Sun synchronous equatorial orbit
8) Most remote sensing satellites cannot collect b) Geo stationary HEO
image data during ……………… c) Sun synchronous polar orbit
a) an earthquake b) a tsunami d) LEO obliged equatorial orbit
c) night d) winter
Q. 2. Choose the correct sequence :
9) The abbreviation GIS stands for ……………
1) i) Sensing system – Interpretation and Analysis
a) Geological Information System
– Users information products – Sensing
b) Geographical Information System
products.
c) Geomorphological Information System
ii) Users – Sensing products – Information products
d) Geophysical Information System
– Interpretation and analysis – Sensing systems
10) A GIS has the ability to organise geographic
iii) Sensing systems –Sensing products –
data into a series of …………… layers.
Interpretation and Analysis – Information
a) coloured b) imagery
products – User
114
 iv) Sensing systems – Information products – 2) What does a GIS allow us to do?
Sensing products – Interpretation and Analysis 3) List the five dements by which interpretation of
– Users satellite imagery is accomplished.
2) i) Sources of energy – Sensing systems – 4) Explain the term ‘resolution’ of a satellite
Propagation through the atmosphere – imagery.
Retransmission through the atmosphere – Earth 5) What is the official source of remote sensing
surface features. satellite data in India?
ii) Earth surface features – Sources of energy 6) What is the special type of orbit that remote
– Sensing systems – Propagation through sensing satellites are placed in? Why?
the atmosphere –Retransmission through the 7) Explain with an example how a GIS can query
atmosphere. from attributes database.
iii) Sources of energy – Propagation through
8) Explain the various elements of image
the atmosphere – Earth surface features –
interpretation.
Retransmission through the atmosphere –
9) Explain how colour composite satellite
Sensing systems.
imageries are prepared.
iv) Sources of energy – Earth surface features
propagation through the atmosphere – Q. 6. Long answer :
Retransmission through the atmosphere – 1) Explain with an example how a GIS can query
Sensing systems. and answer questions about ‘Patterns and
relationships’.
Q. 3. Very short answer :
2) Explain with an example how a GIS can answer
1) List the two types of Remote sensing.
questions an ‘trends’
2) The most commonly used data from Remote
3) With a neat diagram explain the entire sequence
sensing satellites is?
in the ‘process of remote sensing’.
3) Remote sensing satellites are usually placed in
4) Explain with a diagram the logic behind the
what kind of orbit?
creation of a ‘False colour composite’ satellite
4) In which form do remote sensing satellites
image. Why is vegetation depicted in ‘red’ tone
record data?
on a standard FCC ?
5) What are ‘bands in remote sensing satellite 5) Can Google Earth be considered a GIS? Explain
data? your reasons.
6) What is Pan chromatic imagery? 6) Explain how remote sensing and GIS can
7) List the types of colour composites available as be effectively used in any one of the listed
satellite imagery. applications.
Q. 4. Short answer : a) Disaster management and mitigation
1) What kind of questions should a GIS be able to b) Natural resources exploration
answer? c) Water
‹‹‹

115
 PRACTICALS

Practical No Name of the Exercise

Study of Physical Properties of Minerals.
1
(Colour, streak, lustre, form, fracture, cleavage, hardness, specific gravity)
2 Study of Ore Minerals
3 Study of Industrial Minerals
4 Study of Textures and Structures of Igneous Rocks
5 Study of Textures and Structures of Sedimentary Rocks
6 Study of Textures and Structures of Metamorphic Rocks
7 Study of Horizontal series of Geological Map
8 Study of Inclined series of Geological Map
9 Study of Seismic Zones of India
10 Identification of Geological Features from Satellite/Aerial photos
11 Calculation of the groundwater available for recharge
12 Calculation of Epicentre
13 Field work/ viva voce
14 Certified Journal

116
General Instructions for Teachers : (Coal, Gypsum, Kaolinite, Feldspar, Quartz,
1) Mineral specimens which show required Garnet, Corundum, Kyanite, Zircon, Diamond,
Physical properties should be used. Muscovite, Biotite, Sulphur and Cinnabar)
2) Rock specimens should clearly show (Refer to Chapter no. 5)
the textures, structures and engineering Practical No.4
properties clearly. Study of Texture and Structures of Igneous
3) For section drawing use Geological map Rocks.
no.1 to map no. 9 from this textbook. (Phaneric, Porphyritic, Vesicular, Amygdaloidal,
4) Use the outline map of India for marking Ropy and Pillow)
seismic zones of India. (Refer to Chapter no. 2)
5) Use Landsat image or Aerial photograph
Practical No.5
for identification of geological features.
Study of Textures and Structures of Sedimentary
6) Use given data for location of Epicentre.
Rocks.
7) Use given data for calculation of availability (Clastic, Lamination, Stratification, Cross
of water for groundwater recharge. bedding, Graded bedding, Ripple marks)
8) Teachers should strictly follow the rules (Refer to Chapter no. 2)
for educational visit, given by concerned
authorities. Practical No.6
Study of Structures of Metamorphic Rocks.
General instructions for Students :
(Schistose, Granulose, Gneissose)
1) Make the best use of time available for (Refer to Chapter no. 2)
performing experiments.
2) Bring geometrical instruments, colour Practical No.7 and 8
pencils and journals. Study of Geological Maps and section drawing.
3) Handle the specimen carefully. Do not (Use Map no. 1 to 9 from this textbook)
mark or write on specimens. Practical No.9
4) Draw neatly labelled diagrams wherever Study of Seismic Zones of India.
necessary in the journal. (Refer to Chapter no. 7)
5) Use Geological maps from this textbook for
Practical No.10
drawing sections.
Identification of Geological features from
Practical No.1 Satellite image/Aerial Photograph.
Study of Physical properties of Minerals. (Refer to Chapter no. 8 - Plates 1, 2, 3 and 4)
Practical No.2 Practical No.11
Study of Ore minerals. Calculate the water available for Groundwater
(Hematite, Magnetite, Pyrite, Pyrolusite, Recharge.
Psilomelane, Chalcopyrite,Malachite, Galena, (Refer to Chapter no. 6)
Sphalerite, Bauxite)
Practical No.12
(Refer to Chapter no.5)
Calculate Epicentre
Practical No.3 (Refer to Chapter no. 7)
Study of Industrial Minerals.

117
Practical Question paper pattern Q. 5. Name the sites/zones in given outline map
Marks = 30 Time = 3 Hrs. of India.
a) Seismic zones - 1 Mark
Q. 1. A) Identify and describe ore minerals from
table no. 1 to table no. 3. - 3 Marks Q. 6. Calculate the
B) Identify and describe industrial minerals a) Epicentre - 1 Mark
from table no. 4 to table no. 7. - 4 Marks b) Ground water availabile for recharge
Q. 2. Identify rock specimens from table no. 8 - 1 Mark
to table no. 11 and describe their colour, Q. 7. Identify and name features from given
texture, Structures and classification. satellite image. - 1 Mark
- 4 Marks Q. 8. Field work/project and Viva voce.
Q. 3. Draw the Geological section of given map - 4 Marks
and describe topography, history and order Q. 9. Certified journals.
of superposition. - 2 Marks
a) Inclined series - 1 map - 7 Marks
b) Horizontal series - 1 map
‹‹‹
(only description) - 2 Marks

118
 MAP NO. 1

Order of
superposition
and thickness
of beds

X
G

100

F E D C B A

Y
100

G N

119
600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 Scale:
1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 2

500 500 450 450

Order of
superposition

120
500 and thickness
of beds
500 T
550
S
600
550 650

700
750

X Q R S
R Q P Y

700

650 750
550 700 N
600
650
T Scale:
550 S 600 1 cm = 100 m
CI = 50 m
500

550 I. Describe the

topography
500 500 450 450 500 2. Draw topo-
graphy along
X-Y
 MAP NO. 3
260 240 220 X 200 200 220
Order of
superposition
E and thickness
240 of beds

E
D 260

280
D
C

C
300
A
B

A 220

240
N

121
260 Y Scale:
1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 4

Order of
N superposition

122
440 and thickness
of beds

M
420

A
400 Y

E
X
B

M N
D C

440
D

E 420

300 320 340 360 380 400 Scale:

1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 5
450 500 550 550 500 Y
Order of
superposition
S 450 and thickness
of beds

R
400

Q 450
Q
P Q

350 R 500
A
P S

E B 550
D
300 P
C
600

250

Q R
D
E
N

123
X
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 Scale:
1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 6
X
400 Order of
superposition

124
and thickness
550 of beds
E
N
350
500 D

300
450

400 250
M
L
K A B C

400
250
Y
450

300
500
D

N 350
550 E N

550 500 450 400 Scale:

1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 7
320
Order of
superposition
and thickness
of beds

P P

O O

X N

N Downthrown
direction is
Amount of
downthrow =
Y
M M

200

220

240 N

125
300 F 280 260 Scale:
1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 8

Order of
superposition

126
and thickness
of beds

200

Y
B
220

340 C
240
D
320

E
300

X
280

260 Scale:
1 cm = 100 m
 MAP NO. 9
460 440 420
Order of
superposition
A and thickness
X of beds
480
B
C
500 D
420

F
440
460

E
460
500
480
440
D E
480

C
F Y
420

B
500
480
N

A 480

127
420 440 460 Scale:
1 cm = 100 m
 GLOSSARY
 x Advection : The transfer of heat or matter by rocks by living organisms. Often the organism
the flow of a fluid, especially horizontally in the that produced these structures leave no skeletal
atmosphere or the sea. remains and hence the products of their activities
 x Albedo : Is a measure of how much light that hits are known as "trace" fossils.
a surface is reflected without being absorbed.  x Lahar : a destructive mudflow on the slopes of a
 x Andesitic lava : A high viscosity lava with high volcano.
silica content.  x Nebula : A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas
 x Apparent polar wandering : Is the perceived in space.
movement of the Earth's paleo-magnetic poles  x Phyllite : Is a type of foliated metamorphic rock
relative to a continent while regarding the created from slate that is further metamorphosed
continent being studied as fixed in position. ... so that very fine grained white mica achieves a
In reality, the relative polar movement can be preferred orientation.
either real polar wander or continental drift (or a  x Primordial : Existing in or persisting from the
combination of both). beginning
 x Arenites : clastic rock with sand grain size  x Pyroclastic : Is a fast-moving current of hot gas
between 0.0625 mm (0.00246 in) and 2 mm (0.08 and volcanic matter that moves away from a
in) and contain less than 15% matrix. volcano.
 x Argillite : is a fine-grained sedimentary rock  x Radiolarian ooze : A deep-sea ooze in which at
composed predominantly of hardened clay least 30 per cent of the sediment consists of the
particles. They contain variable amounts of silt- siliceous radiolarian tests.
sized particles.  x Rudites : is a general name used for a sedimentary
 x Diatomites : Naturally occurring fossilized rock that are composed of rounded or angular
remains of diatoms. Diatoms are single-celled detrital grains, i.e. granules, pebbles, cobbles, and
aquatic algae. boulders, which are coarser than sand in size.
 x Differentiation : Is a complex process whereby a  x Specific yield : is defined as the volume of water
single melt can produce a wide variety of different released from storage by an unconfined aquifer
igneous rocks. per unit surface area of aquifer per unit decline of
 x Directed pressure : Is non-uniform, i.e. it is not the water table.
equal in all directions. It is caused by tectonic  x Strategic deposits :
forces. Such forces cause the development of  x Structural traps : is a type of geological trap that
major structures such as folds and faults, as well forms as a result of changes in the structure of
as acting as metamorphic agent. the subsurface, due to tectonic, gravitational and
 x Emplaced : Inclusion of igneous rock in older compactional processes.
rocks, or the development of an ore body in older  x Tephra : rock fragments and particles ejected by
rocks. a volcanic eruption.
 x Geodetic : The scientific study of the size and  x Yield strength : the stress at which a specific
shape of the Earth, its field of ztides. amount of plastic deformation is produced.
 x Ichnofossils : are an expression of the alteration of
all textural and structural features in sedimentary ‹‹‹

BIBLIOGRAPHY
x https//spaceplace.nasa.govauroraen x http//ac2emsjcarmona
x http//thebritishgeographer.weebly.complate- x https//geology.comarticleseast-africa-rift.shtml
tectonic-theory.html x https//www.chegg.comhomework-helpuse-figure-1-
x h t t p / / S p u r c e h t t p p u b l i s h . i l l i n o i s . illustrates
edualfredwegenerevidence x https//www.britannica.comsciencetransform-fault
x https//www.geolsoc.org.ukPlate-Tectonics x https//www.nps.govsubjectsgeology
x https//earthref.orgdrupalcontentmagnetic-anomaly
x https//www.nps.govsubjectsgeologyplate-tectonics- ‹‹‹
evidence-of-plate-motions.htm

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