The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.

43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
20.6.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-20.

AGRICULTURE SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
Standard XI

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2019
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research, Pune.
First Edition :
© Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004.
2019 The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Reprint : 2022 Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

Subject Committee: Coordinator :

Dr. Chandrashekhar V. Murumkar, Shri. Rajiv Arun Patole
(Chairman) Special Officer
Shri. Raut Sanjay Tukaram - Convener (Agriculture Science and Technology )
(Chairman - Authors Committee)
Dr. Naikare Shriram Maruti
Dr. Rawankar Haridas Namdeorao Illustrations and cover
Shri Vivekanand S. Patil
Dr. Patil Rajeev Anandrao
Shri. Beldar Dilip Raghunath
Shri. Paranjape Shriram Pandharinath Typesetting :
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Pune
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Paper :
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Publisher :
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 Preface
Dear students,
Welcome to std. XI. We have great pleasure in offering to you textbook of agriculture
science and technology based on the new syllabi. This textbook is designed to get you
prepared for higher studies. The information and skill from this textbook will also help to
develop entrepreneurship qualities.
The educational science understands a paradigm shift in our country. The student
community is waiting for exploring new vistas to meet the demands and challenges. It was
necessary to bring a change at +2 level of education. This stage deals with adolescents,
who are hungry for knowledge and are sensitive as well. Efforts are made to make this text
compatible and digestible for this age group.
The world as well as Indian population is ever increasing. Hence, it is imperative
to boost up production. This problem can be turned into opportunity by developing skilled
manpower to utilize the available resources for food security. Agriculture education can
meet this challenge. New technologies have to be evolved and taken from lab to land for
sustained yield. The present book on agriculture is to serve as a source of information
covering maximum aspects, which can help understand the topics with eagerness to study
further higher courses.
While studying this textbook the section ‘can you recall’ ‘recall a little’ and ‘can you
tell’ are used for revision. Many activities given under the titles ‘observe and discuss’ and
‘try this’ ‘use your brain power’ think about it’ etc. will stimulate power of thinking. Ask your
teachers, parents and classmates for help wherever you need it.
QR code is given by using you can get additional audio – visual information as
supporting articles. The students form rural area, enrolling for this subject will certainly
get advanced knowledge of agriculture, thereby they will educate their parents for the same
advanced techniques of farming.
While studying the book make proper use of devices of information communication
technology, which will make studies much easier. The efforts taken to prepare the textbook
will not only enrich the learning experiences of the students, but also benefit other stakeholders
such as teachers, parents as well as candidates appearing for the competitive examinations.
We look forward to a positive response from the teachers and students.
Our best wishes to all!

(Dr. Sunil Magar)

Pune Director
Date: 20 June 2019 Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Bharat Saur : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.
 Competency Statements
• Explain definition of rock, mineral and soil.
• Classify rocks according to mode of formation and on the basis of
chemical composition, classification of minerals
• Observe and explain the physical, chemical and biological properties
and functions of soil, explain soil health and distinguish soil fertility and
productivity.
Unit I • Explain and draw flow charts of weathering of rocks and formation of true
Elements of soil.
Agriculture • Explain weather and climate with their elements such as temperature,
rainfall, light, wind, humidity, dew, fog, frost and their effect on plant
growth. Understand weather forecasting.
• Use thermometer, thermograph, sunshine recorder, hygrometer, dew gauge,
wind vane, anemometer, rain gauge.
• Understand technologies, innovations and education regarding the modern
agricultural approaches.
• Define seed and explain its parts.
• Differentiate between seed and grain.
• Explain the characteristics of good quality seed.
• Elaborate stages of seed multiplication.
• Elaborate seed germination-definition, types, factors affecting germination,
Unit II
seed dormancy, methods of breaking dormancy.
Seed and
• Explain a procedure of germination tests, physical purity, seed heath,
Sowing
moisture and vigour and viability tests.
• Explain information regarding sowing time, depth, spacing and seed
treatment.
• Use methods of sowing such as broadcasting, drilling, dibbling, planting,
sowing in plough furrows and transplanting.

• Classify essential elements with examples.

• Prepare chart on Functions and deficiency symptoms of nutrients
• Explain about, manures, fertilizers and methods of application.
• Elaborate different advantages of irrigation and adverse effect of irrigation
with examples.
• Explain the systems of irrigation like surface, subsurface, sprinkler, drip.
Unit III
• Collect Information regarding when to, how and how much to irrigate.
Needs of
• Explain meaning, importance, causes of improper drainage and remedies.
Plants
• Explain watershed and watershed management.
• Identify the macro, micro, mini, mili watershed.
• Elaborate main components of watershed management.
• Learn various steps in watershed management.
• Explain the processes of rainwater, ground water and roof water
harvesting.
 • Explain and compare different types of cropping system viz.-
monoculture, multiple cropping, mixed cropping, inter cropping, strip
cropping, relay cropping, sequence cropping, multistoried cropping and
catch cropping.
• Explain tillage, tilth and objectives of tillage.
• Explain Preparatory tillage, seedbed preparation, inter-cultivation,
Unit IV meaning, examples and list of tillage implements.
Cultivation • Understand minimum tillage, zero tillage and mulching.
Management • Explain harvesting, threshing, winnowing, storage.
• Define weed with characteristics.
• Classify weed according to different aspects-life cycle, place of
occurrence, plant family, dependence on hosts, soil types, morphology,
origin, nature of stem and association.
• Explain beneficial and harmful effects of weed and understand weed dispersal.
• Explain preventive, curative and integrated weed management.
• Explain pest, disease and their types and controlling methods, integrated
pest management (IPM), integrated disease management (IDM).
• Explain pest of sugarcane, cotton, paddy, soybean, mango, pomegranate,
citrus, coconut, onion, potato.
• Identify the diseases of sugarcane, cotton, paddy, soybean, mango,
pomegranate, citrus, coconut, onion, potato.
• Explain the nature of damage by dears, elephants, rabbits, wild boar,
Unit V monkeys, and nilgai.
Crop • Suggest measures to protect crops and field form wild animals.
Production • Compare world situation, Indian conditions, reasons of losses due to
Management waste.
• Classify the waste into solid waste, wet waste, dry waste, domestic hazard
waste, e-waste, domestic waste, commercial waste, animal waste, plant
waste.
• Explain processes of waste management like landfill, decomposition,
biogas, vermicomposting, microbial decomposition.
• Elaborate by-products of wastes with their nutritive value and
consequences.

• Explain improtance, scope and present status of horticulture in India.

• Make decisions for selection of site, layout of orchard, planting methods
Unit VI and explain objectives, methods, systems, advantages, procedure of
Fundamentals development of new orchard.
of • Explain the process of training and pruning, high-density planting, bahar
Horticulture treatment, girdling, bending, ringing, notching, hardening.
• Understand information about plantation crops, vegetable, medicinal,
spice, aromatic and exotic crops, ornamental and flower crops.
Dear Teachers,
- For Teachers -
We are happy to introduce the revised textbook to the students the importance of data collection
of Agriculture Science and Technology for Std XI. and data analysis.
This book is a sincere attempt to follow the maxims • Major concepts of Agriculture Science and
of learning as well as develop a ‘constructivist’ Technology have a scientific base and they
approach to enhance the quality of learning. The deal with abstractions. Encourage group work,
demand for more activity based, experiential and learning through each other’s help, etc. Facilitate
innovative learning opportunities is the need of the peer learning as much as possible by reorganizing
hour. The present curriculum has been restructured the class structure frequently.
so as to bridge the credibility gap that exists between • Teaching-learning interactions, processes and
what is taught and what students learn from direct participations of all students are very necessary
experience in the outside world. Guidelines provided and so is your active guidance.
below will help to enrich the teaching-learning • Do not use the boxes titled ‘Do you know?’ for
process and achieve the desired learning outcomes. evaluation. However, teachers must ensure that
• To begin with, get familiar with the textbook students read this extra information.
yourself. • Information provided in boxes with the various
• The present book has been prepared for titles should be considered for evaluation.
constructivist and activity-based teaching. • Exercises provided after each unit are prepared
• Teachers must skillfully plan and organize the using different parameters such as observation,
activities provided in each chapter to develop co-relation, critical thinking, analytical
interest as well as to stimulate the thought reasoning, etc. Evaluation pattern should be
process among the students. based on the given parameters. Equal weightage
• Always teach with proper planning. should be assigned to all the topics. Use different
• Use teaching aids as required for the proper combinations of questions. Stereotype questions
understanding of the subject. should be avoided.
• Do not finish the chapter in short. • Use QR Code given. Keep checking the QR
• Follow the order of the chapters strictly as listed Codes for updated information. Certain important
in the contents because the units are introduced links, websites have been given for references. In
in a graded manner to facilitate knowledge addition, a list of reference books is given. Teachers
building. as well as the students can use these references for
• Ask questions on information related to trends extra reading and in-depth understanding of the
and patterns. Efforts have been made to provide subject.
the latest data available. Teachers must explain Best wishes for a wonderful teaching
experience!
Contents
Sr. No. Name of the lesson Page No.
1. Rock and Soil 1-11
2. Weather and Climate 12 - 20
3. Agriculture - A Modern Approach 21 - 33
4. Seed 34 - 50
5. Sowing 51 - 59
6. Plant Nutrition 60 - 75
7. Irrigation Management 76 - 89
8. Cropping System 90 - 99
9. Tillage 100 - 112
10. Weed Management 113 - 126
11. Pest and Disease Control 127 - 145
12. Protection From Wild Animals 146 - 152
13. Waste Management 153 - 162
14. Horticultural Practices 163 - 179
15. Special Crops 180 - 195
DISCLAIMER Note : All attempts have been made to contact copy right/s (©) but we have not heard from
them. We will be pleased to acknowledge the copy right holder (s) in our next edition if we learn from them.
 1. Rock and Soil

Can you recall? The sediments are transported by water,

glaciers, etc. to new places, deposited in
The rocks are formed due to new arrangements and cemented to form a
solidification of molten magma, derived secondary rock.
from the volcano. Some rocks are formed 3. Metamorphic rocks - The igneous and
at the surface whereas some deep below the sedimentary rocks undergo considerable
earth surface. Some rocks are very massive change known as metamorphosis and
while some are loose. They are composed of the rock formed by metamorphism
minerals combined with different salts. is known as metamorphic rock. The
1.1 Definition of Rock metamorphosis is brought about by the
A rock may be defined as a hard mass action of water (hydrometamorphic rock),
of mineral matter comprising of two or heat (thermometamorphic rock), pressure
more minerals. Each rock possesses certain (dynamometamopphic rock) or by the
characteristics like colour, structure, specific combined action of all. eg : marble, slate,
gravity and minerological make up. etc.
Volcanic Rocks Volcano
Observe the stones and rocks
(Basalt)
Collect the pieces of marble, granite,
shahbadi, chalk, etc. Study their colour, Veins
hardness, granulation, etc. Match the above
with different types of rock.
Dykes
Plutonic
1.2 Classification of rocks rock
(Granite) Granite
(A) According to mode of formation
Molten Magma
1. Igneous rocks - These rocks were the first
to be formed with the molten mass cooled Fig. 1.1 : Formation of Rocks
and consolidated in to solid rock. They are
also called as primary rocks. Do you know ?
These are classified as follows : Igneous rocks can be transformed to
(a) The rock formed by the slow cooling of others. They have different properties.
molten magma beneath (deep) the surface is
intrusive or plutonic rock e.g. Granite.
s- Sedimentary
Sandstone
, Pre l
(b) The rock formed when the magma t
ea ca Rock limestone
y h mi
poured out on the surface of the earth and Gneiss
e d b Che
g
an and
Ch sure sion
consolidated on cooling is extrusive or nd Ero
e a th ering a Basalt
volcanic rock e.g. Basalt. Metamorphic W ressure
by heat, P
Rock Changed al Action Igneous Rock
Pressure m ic
Plutonic and volcanic both rocks are and C he
Pressure
known as igneous or primary rocks. Mel
ting
Heating n
2. Sedimentary rocks - The sedimentary M atio
elt ific
in
g Magma Solid
rocks are formed from sediments, derived Marble Granite
from the breaking down of pre-existing
rocks. Fig. 1.2 : The Rock Cycle
1
Table 1.1 : Characteristics and dominant mineral in different types of rocks with examples.
Dominant
Rocks Characteristics Availability
minerals
(1) Igneous rocks
Khanapur,
Acid rocks – SiO2 65 % and above light Southern part of
Granite Feldspar, Mica
coloured, having big crystals of feldspar Belgaon dist.
Vadodara
Plagioclase,
Feldspar, Sub-basic rock containing 55 to 60 %
Diorite Dharwad, Junagad
Augite, SiO2
Magnetite
Plagioclase, Basic rocks containing 55% or less
Feldspar, SiO2, less compact, dark coloured rocks. Pune, Peninsular
Basalt
Augite, Micro crystalline texture. Smooth India
Magnetite surface
(2) Sedimentary rocks
Porbandar,
Quick effervescence (evolution of CO2) Kathiawad,
Limestone Calcite (CaCO3)
when treated with dil. HCl Bagalkot,
Shahabad
Dolomite Quick effervescence (evolution of CO2)
Dolomite As above
CaMg (CO3)2 when treated with dil. HCl
Gokak, Badami,
Sandstone Quartz (SiO2) Excellent building material
Gadag
Compact clay rocks. They are porous Dharwad, Hubali,
Shale Clays
and soft Gadag
(3) Metamorphic rocks
Various quartz,
Orthoclase, Khanapur, Gokak,
Gneiss Foliated light coloured hard rocks
Hornblende, Vadodara
Biotite
Quartzite Quartz (SiO2) Hard, compact, crystalline rock Gadag, Bagalkot
Clays, mainly Kaladigi,
Slate Medium, hard, fine grained rocks
compacted clay Vadodara
Shining, thoroughly crystalline, hard
Marble Calcite (CaCO3) Jabalpur
rocks

(B) Classification on the basis of chemical Do you know ?

composition (Silica content)
 Different rocks have different dominant
The different rocks contain silica in mineral.
different proportion. On the basis of silica  They have specific character.
content they are of different types.  They are available in different regions.

2
  On the basis of specific gravity they are
Igneous Rock
Heavy minerals : e.g. Haematite, Pyrite, etc
Light minerals: e.g. Quartz, Muscovite, etc.

Acid rock Intermediate rock Basic rock 1.4 Definition of soil

(SiO2, (SiO2, below According to Jenny (1941) soil is a
above 65%) 55 %) naturally occuring body that has evolved
eg. Granite, eg. Basalt,
Rhyolite
owing to the combined influence of climate
Sub-acid Sub-basic Gabbro
(SiO2, 60 - (SiO2, 55 and organisms acting on a parent material
65%) -60%) conditioned by relief over a period of time.
eg. Syerite eg. Diosite
Andesite According to the glossary of soil science
(Soil science society of America 1970) the
1.3 Definition of mineral term soil is defined as
It is a naturally occurring inorganic
substance having a definite chemical (i) The consolidated mineral material on the
composition and distinct physical properties. immediate surface of the earth that serve
1.3.1 Classification of minerals as a natural medium for the growth of
The minerals are classified on the basis plants.
of formation, component and specific gravity. (ii) The unconsolidated mineral matter
 On the basis of formation :- on the surface of earth that has been
Primary – Principal constituent of Quartz, subjected to an influence by genetic
Feldsppar, Calcite, etc. and environmental factor of parent
Secondary – Deposited as a result of material, climate (including moisture and
subsequent changes in rocks like Gypsum, temperature), macro and micro organisms
Dolomite, etc. and topography, all acting over a period
 On the basis of characteristic component :- of time and producing a product, that is
Essential minerals : e.g. Feldspar, Mica, soil. It differs from the material from
etc.
which it is derived in many physical,
Accessory minerals : Magnetite, chemical, biological and morphological
Tourmaline, etc. chacteristics and properties.

Igneous Rocks

Granite Diorite Felsite Basalt Obsidian

Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate Sandstone Limestone Dolomite

Shale
Metamorphic Rocks

Slate Schist Gneiss Quartzite Marble

Fig 1.3 : Rock Specimens
3
 Know the Sceientist
Use your brain power
The approximate proportion of Hans Jenny was
essential minerals in the earth crust. born in Basel, Switzerland.
Earth crust contains (approximately) He earned a diploma
Feldspar 58.7 %, Quarz 13%, Amphiboles in agriculture from the
and pyroxenes 10 % , Mica 4%. Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology (ETH Zurich)
in 1922, and a D. Sc.
Do you know ? degree in 1927 for a thesis

That soil is a non renewable resource on ion exchange reactions.

and it takes few hundred years for building Following an appointment at
1 cm layer of soil. But it can be lost within the University of Missouri, he joined the
a year beacause of negligence of man. faculty at Berkeley in 1936. International
recognition came to Jenny after the 1941
publication of Factors of Soil Formation:
Observe and Discuss
A System of Quantitative Pedology. His
Observe the soil in the fields. Find synthesis of field studies with the abstract
whether it is coarse or fine, its colour, nature, formalism of physical chemistry set down
etc. Do you know that it is necessary for the generic mathematical relationship that
growing any plant. It is the most important connects the observed properties of soil with
natural resource for every country, because the independent factors that determine the
it not only grows variety of food, fodder and process of soil formation.
fibre crops which are required for mankind 1.5 Soil formation
and animals, but also provide raw materials
for various agro-industries viz., sugar, jute,
Do you know ?

starch, textile, canning and processing units.
That weathering of rocks is necessary
for soil formation. Material undergoes
Mind and understand
physical, chemical and biological processes.
It became evident that all soils share It converts complicated mass into simpler
a number of characteristics. All have three one.
phase open system to which substances may Weathering means physical
be added and lost. All have profile, some disintegration and chemical decomposition
with more distinct horizons or layers than of rocks and minerals which takes place
others. naturally at or near the surface of earth crust.
Thus, soil is three dimensional, dynamic Means the process of transformation of solid
unconsolidated, natural body consisting into soil is known as weathering.
of phases (solid, liquid and gaseous) and
composed of mineral material and organic Visit different sites and observe the
matter formed on the surface of earth crust weathering process
under the set of soil forming factors such How the weathering is going on?
as climate, vegetation, topography, parent You will find that physical, chemical
material and it acts as a medium for plant and biological processes are going on
growth and processes. simultaneously ?
4
 In physical process due to temperature the
rocks expand and during cooling it produces Use your brain power

cracks. Ultimately the rocks are broken into
big pieces, then to small and smaller particles. Mere weathering does not produce
Water also apply tremendous pressure, hence, the soil. It is the result of the action of
rock splits and disintegrates. The running various agencies. It is a long time process.
water also acts mechanically and chemically Weathering is a destructive process whereas
on rocks. The waves, winds and glaciers also soil formation is constructive process
help in the process of disintegration of rocks. resulting into soil profile.
Chemically, decomposition of rocks and The natural agencies which are
minerals is brought about by water and due to responsible for soil formation are called
the gases (CO2) and salts which are dissolved as soil forming factors. Soil formation is
in water. The chemical reactions involved are diversified and complex process which is
hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, carbonation, considerably affected by five factors which
hydration, solution, etc. The hydrolysis forms are interacting with each other.
hydroxides, the oxidation oxides, the reduction
The soil forming factors are expressed
reduces the salts, carbonation forms the
by the Jenny’s equation…
carbonates and bicarbonates. In hydration and
solution the complex compounds are changed S = Σ f (Cl, b, r, p, t)
to simpler ones. Where, S = Soil
Σ f = sum of functions
In biological weathering man, animals,
Cl = Climate
higher plants, macro and micro organisms
b = biosphere or vegetation &
due to their action and secretions hastens the
micro organisms,
process of decomposition.
r = relief / topography
Vegetation,
p = parent material
Action of
Temperature, micro- flora t = time / age
water, air and fauna

Physically Can you think

rocks are
fragmented
Root
Soil forming factors are grouped
and as passive and active. Parent material,
surface Chemically penetration,
area is different Root topography and time do not have a
increased reactions exudates, dominating role in soil formation. They are
forms microflora,
etc. adds
only the source and conditions. Therefore,
hydroxides,
organic they are called as passive factors.
oxides and
other salts- acids
and other Whereas climate and biosphere i.e.
accelerates
organic Vegetation and microorganisms play a
weathering
compounds most dominating role hence called as active
which helps factors. They can change the nature of soil
the process
further. formed. In climate rainfall and temperature
Lastly true are important. The vegetation and micro
soil is organisms affects the amount of organic
formed
matter addition to soil. These helps in
Fig. 1.4 : Process of weathering various decomposition processes.

5
Soil forming processes : The accumulation of soluble salts of
A set of soil reactions leading to the Na, Ca and Mg as chlorides, sulphates and
formation of soil are known as soil forming bicarbonates is termed as salinization. After
processes.The book references will reveal rainfall or irrigation these are removed from
that calcification, podzolization, laterization, upper layer is known as desalination.
salination / alkalinization are the important 1.5.1 Soil profile :
soil forming processes.
Definition : It represents succession of
The percolation of rain water accumulates layers/horizons differentiated from one another
the carbonates of Ca and Mg in soil profile and but genetically related. Vertical section through
is known as calcification. the soil gives the clear picture of profile.

Biological Activity Try this

Dug a large pit
Many Years
(1×1×1.5 meter) and observe the sides of
Climate
this pit and find the difference. You will
observe different layers, some are distinct
Topography Time
Parent Material while some are mixed which are known as
horizons.

Fig 1.5 : Soil forming factors Observe and draw a diagram : This will
look like -

Undecomposed 'O' (Organic

Additions loose leaves, organic horizons)
residues (original forms A1
recognised)
A2 'A' Horizons
Losses Partially decomposed
A3 A+B+C =
organic matter (original
B1 Regolith
forms not recognised)
Translocations
Solum (A+B) Horizon B2 'B' Horizons
(Movements within the soil)
B3
Transformations 'C' Horizons
(one component Partially whethered (Presence of some
parent material fragipans, duripans)
changes to another)

Fig 1.6 : Basic soil forming processes Bed Rock

In humid region large amount of organic

matter is accumulated at the surface. The Fig 1.7 : Theoretical soil profile consisting
decomposition of the oraganic matter releases of all horizons
organic acids which removes Fe from
upper layers and is fractionated at different 1.5.2 Properties of soil :
horizons and this is known as podzolization. Every soil has some important properties
Laterization means the hydrolysis of i.e. physical, chemical and biological.
minerals and in this there is loss of aluminium I. Physical properties :- It indicates the
oxides, silicates and soluble nutrients due coarseness or fineness of soil as determined by
to leaching. This process is prominent in relative proportion of the various soil separates
tropical condition. i.e., sand, silt and clay particles.
6
 (a) Texture : Soils have different amount When the arrangement is plate like i.e. one
of sand, silt and clay particles which above the other then it is called as platey,
imparts coarse or fineness. Depending on when it has angles it is angular or when
the amount of a particular particle the soil it is grain like then it is granular and like
is said to be sandy, loamy or clayey. In a wise.
clay soil, the percentage of clay particles i. Plate-Like
is more, whereas in sandy, sand particles
are in higher percentage. The soil textural
class can be determined from the following a. Platey b. Laminar
triangle. ii. Prism-Like

a. Prismatic
b. Columnar
iii. Block-Like

a. Angular Blocky b. Sub-Angular Blocky

iv. Sphere-Like

a. Granular b. Crumby

Fig. 1.9 : Different soil structures

Fig. 1.8 : Determination of (c) Density of soil : It represents weight
textural class (Textural Triangle) (mass) per unit volume of substance. Soil
Depending upon percentage of sand, density is expressed as particle density
silt and clay there can be intermediate classes and bulk density.
of soil e.g. Sandy loam, clay loam, silty clay, (d) Soil colour : Different soil have different
loamy sand, etc. colours. The colour of soil is mostly due to
Classification of soil separates as per iron, manganese compounds and also the
International Soil Science Society System is organic matter present in the soil.
as follows (e) Soil temperature : Soil temperature is
Diameter limit measured with the help of soil thermometer.
Name of soil separate The favourable limit of soil temperature
(mm)
Sand particle for biologocal activites and growth is from
(a) Coarse sand 2.00 to 0.20 27 to 32°C.
(b) Fine sand 0.20 to 0.02 (f) Plasticity : Plasticity is the property of
Silt particle 0.02 to 0.002 a material which when subjected to an
external force allows it to be deformed
Clay particle Less than 0.002
rapidly without rupture of a plastic rebond
(b) Structure : The arrangement and and without volume change. Plasticity
organization of primary and secondary of soil is depend on the amount of clay
particles in a soil mass is known as soil particles and the moisture percentage
structure. present in it.

7
(g) Soil consistency : It refers to the resistance useful to solubilize the plant nutrients.
of soil with various moisture contents to Thus the association between different
mechanical stresses. It is the best guide for organisms influences the activities of
tillage operations. the soil population and there by the soil
properties.
(i) Soil Porosity : It is the percentage pore
space to total volume of the soil or porosity 1.5.3 Functions of soil
refers to percentage of soil volume Each soil have to perform specific
occupied by pore spaces. functions. It has three fold functions to perform
II. Chemical properties :- Soil pH, cation such as physical, chemical and biological.
exchange capacity (CEC), organic carbon Physical functions
content are the chemical properties of
It gives mechanical support for growth of
soil.
plants. The plant is able to stand erect because
(a) Soil pH : soil pH is defined as negative of the hold exerted by the soil on plant roots.
logarithm of hydrogen ion activity. The roots are remified and they thus, anchored
Depending upon the concentration of in the soil mass. The soil acts as reservoir of
hydrogen (H+) or hydroxyl (OH-) ions soil water and air. The plant absorb water through
pH is determined. When the pH value is their roots. The roots breath oxygen from the
less than 7 the soil is said to be acidic and air around soil mass. Soil also stores sun heat
above 7 it is said to be alkaline. and applies it to the growing plant.
(b) Cation exchange capacity : The capacity Chemical functions
of soil to exchange the cations present in
the surrounding medium is known as its Chemically the soil may be looked
CEC. Sandy soil have less CEC than silty upon as a store house of plant nutrients. It
and clayey soil. contains organic and inorganic compounds.
The weathering material of rocks and minerals
(C) Organic carbon: The carbon present in the
constitutes inorganic compounds, while the
form of organic matter in soil is known as
decaying plant and animal remains furnish
organic carbon. The organic matter may
the organic compounds. The plant obtains
be present in different forms i.e. leaf litter,
its nutrients from these compounds. The
plant roots, crop residuals, microflora and
different reactions going on in the soil causes
fauna.
decomposition of organic matter thereby
III. Biological properties :- In addition to brings the nutrients in soil solution and make
physical and chemical properties the soil them available for the plant nutrition.
have also biological properties too. This
Biological functions
is dependent on the amount of micro flora
and fauna present in the soil. e.g. amount of Soil is the habitat of a very large
bacteria, algae and fungi. This population number of organisms of both plant and animal
is again dependent on the amount of organic origin. Some of the organisms like rodents,
matter because organic matter is the food worms, insects, etc. are big while others like
of these micro organisms. The activities fungi, bacteria, etc are microscopic in size.
of some micro organisms are beneficial Among the worms, nematodes and earthworms
to each other. Some of the products of are important organisms. They aerate the soil
metabolism may serve as nutrients for and at the same time, disintegrate and mix its
plants / organisms. The organic acids constituents by passing large quantities of soils
liberated during boichemical changes are through their bodies and ejecting the same on

8
the surface as “worm casts”. The quantity of Therefore, soil organic carbon is
soil passed through their bodies is enormous. supposed to be the key nutrient for maintaining
About 25 tonnes of earth per hectare per year good soil health. Hence, the most logical
is turned over by the earth worms. way to manage soil health is the use of the
The ejected material is in a more Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply (IPNS).
pulverized condition and possess better fertility Organic recycling also helps to improve
than the original soil. soil health. It broadly includes-
This activity of earthworms leads to
1. Recycling in-situ i.e. green manuring,
the transfer (invertion) of soil from lower layer
growing green manure crop
to the surface.
These functions impart a dynamic 2. Recycling through external inputs
character to the soil, which makes the soil fit (addition of green leaf manures, foliage,
for plant growth. organic mulching etc.)
3. Recycling through composting.
1.6 Soil health
1.6.1 Soil fertility :
Similar to human beings soil also have a
health. Soil health is depend on the amount It is considered as the capacity of soil
of plant nutrient content (soil fertility), to provide essential nutrients, in adequate
soil productivity and the population of amounts and in a proper proportion for the
microorganisms. growth of plants, when other factors such
Meaning as light, water, temperature and the physical
condition of the soil are favourable. Soil
Remember this fertility is an effect of soil-plant relationship
viz., plant growth with reference to nutrients
Supply of nutrients depends upon available in soil. In short, it is the inherent
soil fertility. Sustainability depends on capacity of soil to supply nutrients for plant
productivity. growth in adequate amounts and in a suitable
Doses of fertilizers are decided on the proportions. Soil test indicate soil fertility.
basis of fertility and the package of practices.
1.6.2 Soil productivity :
The presence of optimum population Basically it is an economic concept
of microflora and fauna particularly the and signifies the capability of soil to produce
beneficial microflora is supposed to be yield under specified system of management
responsible for good soil health. The soil rich inputs and environmental conditions. This is
in organic matter particularly the humified not essentially a property alone, but a function
one possesses good soil health. The factors of several factors. It is measured in terms of
which affects the organic matter content of soil output i.e. production including management.
It is the capacity of soil to produce per unit area
ultimately influence the soil health.
under the given set of management practices.
The results of long term fertilizer More simply it is the response to management
experiments indicated that, intensive cropping in terms of yield per unit area.
has declined the organic carbon content in soil, All productive soils are fertile, but every
which resulted in reduced productivity. Some fertile soil need not to be a productive. It
phosphatic fertilizers contain varying amounts may be due to some problems like water
of heavy metals which may accumulate and logging, salinity, alkalinity, adverse climatic
cause adverse long term effects on soil health. conditions, etc. Soil test does not indicate soil
productivity as a whole.

9
1.6.3 Difference between soil fertility and productivity
Soil fertility Soil productivity
It is considered as an index of available It is the term used to indicate the yield of
1.
nutrients in the soil crops per hectare of land
It is the inter relation of all these factors
It is the property of soil to supply nutrients
including soil fertility and the managerial
2. required by plants for their growth i.e. one
techniques which determine the magnitude of
of the factor of crop production
yield.
It can be determined by analyzing the It can be assessed by conducting an
3. soil in the laboratory for the content of experiment on field itself under a given set of
nutrients in it management
It is the potential / inherent status of the It is the resultant of various factors
4. soil to produce crop which may or may influencing the production including the
not reflect in production. management skills.
5. All fertile soils may not be productive All productive soils are generally fertile.

Remember this Mind and Understand

How to improve productivity How soil fertility is affected ? There
Fertility is the inherent property are many factors which if not handled
but productivity can be improved in properly, can adversely affect the soil
various ways particularly with the fertility.
sequestration of organic carbon. The Tillage : If soil is not worked at the
maintenance of it should be considered optimum moisture level, it may disturb
both on a temporary and long term basis. soil structure, ill-drainage, etc. which will
The temporary measures include suitable affect the soil fertility.
cultural practices such as addition of Fertilizers : The imbalanced use of
organic manures, green manures, bio fertilizers may hamper soil fertility.
fertilizers, fertilizers, etc. Whereas Soil salinity/sodicity can affect the soil
longterm measures are the correction of fertility.
problems such as reclamation, addition Erosion : the runoff can form gullies and
of amendments, adoption of suitable the fertile soil can be lost.
soil conservation practices, improved Water stagnation also affects the soil
agricultural techniques, etc. All these will fertility.
be helpful in improving fertility and there Weed infestation can reduce the yield of
by the productivity. crop.

10
 Exercise

Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. Q. 2 Answer in brief.

1. Hard mass of mineral matter comprising 1. Give the examples of heavy and light
of two or more minerals is called as minerals.
-------- . 2. What is meant by soil texture?
2. Naturally occurring inorganic substance 3. List out the types of soil structure.
having a definite chemical composition
and physical properties is known as 4. Name the factors affecting soil fertility.
---------. 5. Classify the soil separates as per
3. Acid igneous rocks contain --------- international soil science society
percent silica. system.

4. Earth crust contains ---------- percent Q. 3 Answer the following questions.

feldspar. 1. Explain chemical properties of soil.
5. Basalt is an example of --------- type of 2. Draw and label soil profile.
rock.
3. Complete the following chart
B. Make the pairs.
Sr.
Mineral Any two examples
‘A’ Group ‘B’ Group no.
1. Igneous rock a. Primary mineral 1 Essential
2 Accessory
2. Gabbro b. Secondary mineral
3 Secondary
3. Feldspar c. Basic rock
4 Primary
d. Granite
4. Describe with diagram the types of soil
e. Dolomite structure.
C. State true or false. 5. Explain biological functions of soil.
1. The rock formed by metamorphism is Q. 4 Answer in detail.
known as metamorphic rock. 1. Define rock and give its classification.
2. Magnetite is an example of accessory 2. What is meant by mineral and give its
mineral. classification on the basis of different
3. Earth crust contain 13 % Quartz. aspects.
4. Soil texture indicates its coarseness or 3. What do you mean by soil ? Describe
fineness. its physical properties.
5. Arrangement of soil separates in the 4. Define soil and give its functions.
form of aggregates is called as soil 5. What is meant by soil fertility?
structure. Differentiate it from soil productivity.
Activity :
Collect soil samples from the field and
label them with brief discription.
11
 2. Weather and Climate

duration of time i.e part of a day e.g.

Do you know ? rainy day, hot day or cloudy weather,
• Which are the different cropping etc. It always differs from time to time.
seasons in Maharashtra? How they are 2.1.2 Climate : Climate may be defined as
identified ? follows.
• What is the difference between weather • Climate pertains to average weather
and climate? condition over a period of time or
• What is the role of meterological season.
department in farming? • Climate is the weather conditions related
• What do you mean by meterology, to longer periods like month, season
agrometrology and atmosphere ? or year and is described by normal
and average e.g. cold season, tropical,
substropical climate. It is more or less
Remember this stable and differes from 'region to region'.

The success or failure of crops is Always remember
intimately related to weather condition
during the crop growth period. People often Atmosphere : The earth has a thick layer
confuse weather with climate, but both are of air called as the atmosphere.
not the same. Between these two, climate is It is colourless, tasteless and odourless
of prime importance. It is often rightly said mixture of gases that surrounds the earth.
that 50% of the variation in crop yields are The atmosphere is present within a height
due to climatic condition alone. Weather of 32km from the earth surface.
has significant influence on every phase of Composition of Air
agricultural activity from preparatory tillage According to NASA the major
to harvesting. Climate is a factor which is gases found in earth’s atmosphere include.
beyond the control of farmer. Therefore, a 1. 78% Nitrogen
sound knowledge of weather and climate
2. 21% Oxygen
with their elements is essential for successful
3. 0.03% Carbon di-oxide
agriculture.
4. 0.93% Argon
2.1 Definition : Weather and climate
2.1.1 Weather : Can you imagine?
Weather may be defined as follows. Why particular crop is grown in
• Weather is the condition of the specific region and season ?
atmosphere at a perticular place over a 2.2 Weather elements and their effect on
short period of time. crop growth.
• Weather refers to every day changes 2.2.1 Temperature: Temprature is the degree
in the behaviour of atmosphere at the of hotness or coldness of a substance. Solar
given place and a given time. radiation is the main source of heat energy
• Weather pertains to smaller area like through which the atmosphere is indirectly
village, city or even district and smaller heated up.
12
 The rotation of earth cause the Effect of rainfall : Rainfall has beneficial
change in temprature during day and night. as well as harmful effects on crop growth.
Temprature is measured by thermometer It is the main sources of water for
calibrated in the scale of celsius (°C), plant growth. Water performs number of
fahrenheit (°F) and kelvin (°K). vital functions in crop growth. Quantity of
Light rainfall is not only important but its even
(Radiation) distribution increases crop yield. Rainfall
pattern determines cropping system. It
Frost Temperature
reduces salt, maintains pH and nutrient
Weather availability.
Rainfall Humidity
Elements Heavy and excess rain results in flood
and waterlogged condition in the field. Flood
Wind Fog causes soil erosion and damage to the crops
Dew on river banks. Water logging affects soil
aeration and root function. Heavy rain affect
Try this pollination and fertilization. Long dry spell

affect growth and yield of the crop. Heavy
Formulae to convert the reading from
and continuous rains during harvesting
9 0
Celsius into Fahrenheit 0
F = C + 32 period result in prolonged harvesting time.
5
5 0 There may be mouldy grain formation on
Fahrenheit into Celsius 0
C = ( F - 32)
9 earhead, which reduce quality of entire
Celsius into Kelvin 0
K = 0C + 273 produce.
2.2.3 Sunlight (Solar radiation) : Sun is
the prime source of energy injected into the
Effect of temperature: Temperature has atmosphere. Solar radiation is received in
great influence on the existence of plants. the form of electromagnetic waves. It
Each plant species has maximum and consist of stream or flow of particles. These
minimum limits of temperature for growth. particles are called quanta or photon.
Optimum temperature is essential for
better growth and development of plants. Effect of sunlight : Growth of crop is
Most of the crop plants make their best favoured by sufficient sunlight and retarded
growth and development between 70C to by lack of sunlight. Quantity, duration and
320C. Optimum temperature is necessary intensity of solar radiation influences plant
for seed germination, vegetative growth, development and plant processes. It is
flowering, fruiting, maturity and higher necessary for photosynthesis, the process in
yields. Photosynthesis and respiration rate which green plant prepare their own food
increases in high temperature. It also reduce material. The life process of many plants
sugar content, increase water requirements. is influenced by the length of day which
Low temperature causes chilling/ freezing is called photoperiodism. On the basis of
injuries. photoperiod required for flowering plants
are classified as short day and long day
2.2.2 Rainfall : Rainfall is precipitation in plants and day neutral plants. Red and
the form of liquid drops larger than 0.5 mm blue colour light stimulate plant growth,
in diameter falling on earth. Ordinary rain flowering, while green light has minimum
drop varies from 0.5 to 4 mm in diameter. effect. Insufficient light produces weak
plants which are susceptible to diseases.
13
 Leaf enlargement is more in humid
Practice this condition. High humidity increases the
attack of pest and diseases.
Conversion of figures from
• mm into cm. 2.2.5 Wind : Wind is the horizontal flow
of gases from high pressure area to a low
• cm into inch.
pressure area. The natural movement of air,
• inch into mm. especially in the form of current air blowing
2.2.4 Humidity: Humidity refers to the from particular direction. Lee ward - from
water vapour content of the atmosphere. which it blows and wind ward - where it
Liquid water is converted into water vapour blows.
by evaporation. The amount of water vapour Effect of wind : Wind increases crop water
in the atmosphere depends upon wind and requirements by increasing evaporation. It
temperature. is useful for pollination in cross pollinated
Humidity are of two types (a) Specific crops. It helps to increase supply of
humidity (relative). It means weight of water carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Wind
vapour per unit weight of air (including water alters balance of hormones. Wind helps
vapour).(b) Absolute humidity - It is actual in winnowing operation. Tall crops during
quantity of water vapour by weight present high wind velocity lodge which adversely
in a given volume of air. affect quality as well as quantity of yield.
It also causes shedding of flowers and
Do this fruits, damages shoot, increases rate of
evaporation and transpiration, reduces soil
Distribute different agronomic moisture, causes soil erosion.
crops as short day and long day crop
2.2.6 Dew : Dew is water in the form of
on the basis of photoperiod. Also
droplets that appears on thin object in the
distribute crops which are grown as
morning or evening due to condensation.
irrigated and rainfed.
The temperature at which condensation
occurs is called the dew point. It is the
Try this form of direct condensation of water vapour

to liquid drops. It occurs on grass cover,
Calculate absolute humidity (g/m3)
leaves, metallic surface, paper, window
when 2 cubic metres of air contains 10
glasses, etc.
g of water vapour.
Use formula - Absolute humidity (g/m3) Effect of dew : It occurs in winter season
during morning hours and useful for dry
Weight of water vapour
= rabi crops like wheat, gram, etc. Foliar
Volume of air absorption of dew is an important factor in
Effect of humidity : Relative humidity survial of natural vegetation in arid region.
directly influences water relations of plants Dew reduces transpiration losses of water
and affects crop growth. High humidity and minimizes crop water requirements.
reduce transpiration and evaporation losses Dew formation increases humidity which
of soil water. Low humidity increases the increase incidence of pest and diseases.
water requirements of the crop and affect 2.2.7 Fog : Fog is a visible aerosol
the growth and yield of crop. Atmospheric consisting tiny water droplets or ice crystals
humidity affects pollination, photosynthesis, suspended in the air at or near the earth
flowering, fruiting, etc. surface.
14
 It can be considered as a type of
low-laying cloud. Fog commonly occurs
in the early morning hours during winter
season. It is formed when air temperature
near ground falls below dew point
temperature, wind is calm and relative
humidity is more than 75%.
Effect of fog : Prolonged foggy weather
has adverse effect on vegetables and cause
discolouration of leaves. It increases soil
water availability and reduces physiological
activities. Fig. 2.1 : Stevenson screen
2.2.8 Frost : When the dew point is below 2.3.2 Thermometer : The thermometer is
0o C, moisture passes directly from gaseous a device used for measuring atmospheric
to solid state resulting in the formation temperature.
of ice crystals called as ‘Frost’. It mostly The thermometer have two important
occur in the valleys of the mountains. parts i.e. sensor or bulb and a tube having
visible scale. The unit used to record
Effect of frost : It affects the pollination
the readings are degree Celsius, degree
and seed setting in most crops. It may
Fahrenheit and degree Kelvin.
cause cracking of fruits and bad effect on
quality of fruits. It causes freezing injury to The thermometers are widely used
plants by extra cellular ice formation and in industry, meteorology, medicine and in
cellular dehydration. scientific research. In meteorology it is used
to record minimum - maximum, atmospheric
i.e. air and soil temperature. Thermograph
Try this is a mechanical device which records air

temperature and graphs continuously.
Visit to a meteorological observatory
and observe how different weather
parameters are measured.

2.3 Instruments of measuring weather

elements :
The different instruments and the units
used for measuring of weather parameters
are as follows
2.3.1 Stevenson Screen : It is a wooden box,
that made up of a double layer screens and
is used to shield meteorological instruments. Fig 2.2 : Minimum and maximum
It shelters meteorological instrument against thermometer
rainfall and direct heat radiation. However, 2.3.3 Rain guage : The instrument used for
it allows air to circulate free around them. measuring the amount of rainfall is called
It is painted with white colour to reflect as rain gauge. The rainfall is measured in
sun radiations. terms of depths of rain water in millimetre,
centimetre and inch.
15
 The 'anemometer' is a device that
is used to measure wind speed or wind
velocity. Where as ‘wind vane’ is used to
detect the direction of wind. The wind vane
points the direction of wind.

(i) Non record- (ii) Self recording

ing rain gauge rain gauge
Fig. 2.3 : Rain gauge
There are two types of rain gauge.
(i) Non-recording or ordinary rain gauge.
(ii) Self recording or automatic siphon rain Fig 2.5 : Anemometer Fig 2.6 : Wind vane
gauge. 2.3.7 Psychrometer / Hygrometer :
Relative humidity is the amount of water
2.3.4 Pyranometer : The instrument used
vapours present in the air. It is expressed
to record total incoming radiation is called
in percentage of the amount needed for
as ‘Pyranometer’.
saturation at the same temperature.
Solar radiations are expressed in terms The instrument used for measuring
of watts per square meter. relative humidity is called as ‘hygrometer’
2.3.5 Sunshine recorder (Heliograph) : It or psychrometer. Psychrometer consist of
is the instrument used to record the duration two bulbs with thermometer i.e. wet bulb
of bright sunshine during the day time. and dry bulb and reads humidity based on
the differences between two.

Fig 2.7 : Psychrometer Fig 2.8 : Hygrometer

Fig 2.4 : Sunshine recorder
2.3.8 Dew gauge : Dew is recorded by
2.3.6 Anemometer and wind vane : The
using the instrument called as dew gauge.
speed at which wind is flowing is called
The unit of measurement is mm.
as wind velocity. The wind velocity i.e.
wind speed is recorded in knots (nautical
miles per hour), meter per second (mps),
kilometre per hour (kmph) and miles per
hour (mph).
16
 Table 2.1 : Weather elements, instruments and their units.
Sr.No. Weather element Instrument for Unit
measurement
1. Temperature Thermometer Degree Fahrenheit, Celsius and
Thermograph Kelvin
2. Rainfall Ordinary rain gauge Millimeter, centimeter, inch
Automatic siphon rain
gauge
3. (a) Solar radiation Pyranometer Watts per square meter
(b) Light Sunshine recorder Duration of bright sunshine
(Heliograph)
4. (a) Wind velocity Anemometer Knots, meter/sec, km/hr., miles/hr.
(b) Wind direction Wind vane East-west, North - south
5. Relative humidity Psychrometer or Per cent (%)
Hygrometer
6. Dew Dew gauge mm

2.4 Weather forecasting Generally people have attempted to

2.4.1 Meaning predict the weather from thousands of year
ago, but scientifically it is done since 19th
Weather forecasting is defined as
century. In the agriculture based country
prediction of state of the atmosphere for
like India where, about 70% of farming
a given location. Weather forecasts are
is depending on rainfall, accurate weather
important as they are issued to protect
forecast should have to be made available
life and property, to save crops and to
for farmers well in advance to minimize
tell us what to expect in our atmospheric
crop losses.
environment.
As crop growth and its yield is highly Accurate weather forecasting that is
influenced by weather elements or adverse made well in advance can help the farmers in
climatic condition, the producer have to planning of timely land preparation, selection
face huge losses of their crop. of crop, time of sowing, method and time
of fertilizer application, other interculture
Agriculture including forestry operations and finally harvesting of his crop.
and animal husbandry
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)
General Public Shipping mercantile is established in 1875 with headquarter at
and naval
Pune. Agricultural Meteorological Division
Fishing Weather Off shore is started in 1932 to conduct research on
forecasting drilling crop and weather relationships.
Mountaineering services Defence services For this purpose a major step was
taken to set up specialized meteorological
Cyclones, floods Aviation, civil
and drought and military observatories in a crop environment to
Government and
inculcate weather consciousness among
post officials farmers. This has resulted in steady growth
of observatories all over India, which at
Weather forecasting services for different present numbers about 125.
purposes normally practiced in India
17
 However, the weather reports are
prepared by five regional forecasting centres Internet my friend
which are situated at Chennai, Nagpur,
Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata. 1. Collect information about agro climatic
zones of Maharashtara.
2.4.2 Importance of forecast
Accurate weather forecasting helps the 2.4.4 Methods of forecasting : There are
farmers in realising economic yields by three methods of weather forecasting.
minimising the crop losses by - 1. Conventional or synoptic method :
(1) Planning for necessary inputs during the Synoptic method involve detailed analysis of
season. current weather reports, from a large area.
(2) Timely land preparation to take The current patterns are related with the
advantage of earliest rain. past analogous situations and forecast are
prepared on the assumption that a current
(3) Selection of crops and cultivation. situation will match the past analogous
(4) Efficient use of fertilizers. situations. This method is useful for short
range forecast.
(5) Predicting pest and disease incidence.
2. Statistical method : Regression equation
(6) Timing of weeds, pests and diseases
or other sophisticated relationships are
control.
established between weather elements and
(7) Reducing adverse effects of weather resulting climate. Normally selection of
hazards. predictors or weather parameters is based on
(8) Timely crop harvesting. a possible relationship with the predictant.
These techniques are useful for short as
2.4.3 Types of weather forecasting well as long range forecasting.
Based on time or duration of forecasting 3. Numerical weather prediction technique
period, the weather forecasting can be : In this technique, the behaviour of
divided into three types : (1) short range atmosphere is represented by a set of
forecasting (2) medium range forecasting equations based on physical laws governing
(3) long range forecasting air movement, air pressure and there
(1) Short range forecasting : information. This technique is found suitable
These forecasts are for a day for medium forecasts.
or two. These daily forecasts
are useful to irrigation engineers
mariners, aviation engineers and farmers.
(2) Medium range forecasting : These
forecasts are for a period of three to
ten days.
(3) Long range forecasting : These
forecasts are for periods of more than
four weeks. The long range forecasts
are useful for choosing cropping pattern.
These forecasts are issued thrice in a
year. Fig 2.9 : Meteorological field laboratory

18
 Exercise
Q. 1 A. Fill in the blanks.
3. Stevenson screen is used to shield
1. Wind velocity is measured by using
meterological instruments.
instrument.
4. Thermograph is used to record
2. Weather refers to
duration of sunshine.
changes in the atmosphere at given
place. 5. High humidity reduces transpiration
rate in plants.
3. Ordinary rain drop varies from
mm in diameter. Q. 2 Answer in brief.
4. The prediction of weather situation 1. Write a note on temperature.
that is likely to develop is called
. 2. What is weather forecasting?

5. The mechanical device used to 3. Complete the following chart.

record air temperature continuously Weather elements and instruments
is .
B. Make the pairs.
Temperature Wind
‘A’ Group ‘B’ Group
1. Light a. Anemometer Hygrometer Rain gauge
2. Wind b. Hygrometer
3. Humidity c. Thermometer 4. What are the types of weather
forecasting?
d. Pyranometer
5. Complete the charts.
e. Rain gauge
Meteriological instruments and units
OR. B. Find the odd out.
1. wind/ temperature / humidity /
atmosphere / light Hygrometer Anemometer
2. dew / climate / fog / rainfall / frost
3. thermometer / hygrometer / Celsius watts/m2
tensiometer / anemometer /rain
gauge Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
4. thermometer / anemometer 1. Explain effect of rainfall on crop
/ hygrometer / lactometer / growth.
pyranometer
2. Explain effect of humidity and
C. State true or false. sunlight on crop growth.
1. Hygrometer is used for measuring 3. Differentiate weather from climate.
rainfall.
2. Short range forecasting is predicted
for more than four weeks period.
19
 4. Convert the following from celsius 2. Explain the importance of weather
into Fahrenheit. forecasting for farmers ?
(a) 350C (b) 100C 3. Write in detail about the services
where forecasting is important.
(c) 250C (d) 370C
4. Explain effects of rainfall, wind
5. Describe the methods of weather and fog on the growth of crop.
forecasting.
5. Give information about different
Q.4 Answer in detail. instruments used for measuring
weather elements with their unit?
1. Complete the chart.
Activity :
Weather Instrument of Unit
No. Record different weather elements by
elements measurement
(a) using respecitve meteorogical instruments.
1. Temperature
(b)
(a)
2. Rain gauge
(b)
3. Wind
4. Hygrometer

Courtesy : Indian Meteorological Department, Pune

20
 3. Agriculture - A Modern Approach

Recall a little Decisions and actual practices may

be the responsibility of the group or of some
 Agriculture is the back bone of Indian authorised persons. Generally, the purpose
economy. of community farming is to reduce cost of
 Lack of technology adoption is the cause cultivation, increase productivity and to
for low productivity in agriculture. harness the benefit of large scale farming.
Farmers having small land holding also tend
 Government is promoting organized
to unite for community farming.
farming in the form of Farmer Producer
Organization / Company. Currently, people having interest in
farming but do not have cultivable land also
 Modern agricultural technologies have
use to participate in community farming.
the potential to change this scenario.
Agencies providing such facility are active on
Organised farming websites. Here, the participants from different
Though India has agriculture as a major occupations can register their names, hire a
occupation, productivity and profitability is piece of land and select the crops to be grown.
far below the expectations. Charges are applied according to crop selected.
Organised farming is a group of producers All operations are carried out by the agency,
coming together to pursue specific common regular updates are provided on website and
interest of their members and developing through messages. The participant can also
technical/economical activities that benefit visit the farm and enjoy actual working in the
them. field. Produce from the hired land is delivered
Decrease in total land holding per capita to the owner in the form of goods or money.
is also a restricting factor for developments in
agriculture. Need is to organise the farm and 3.2 Farmers producer organization / company
farmers for efficient farming. There are some 3.2.1 Meaning
patterns of organised farming which can be Farmers from a locality come together
discussed. to form a Farmers Producer Organization
(FPO). Through FPO, farmers adopt
Can you tell?
commercial practices like tie up with market,
primary processing, branding, marketing,
 Why farmers should be motivated to start
etc. For convenience of banking and to give
organized farming ?
professional framework, the FPO may be
 Any example of organized farming in registered under company act as Farmer
your region ? Producer Company (FPC).

3.1 Community farming 3.2.2 Advantages

Meaning and Description Following advantages can be obtained
by formation of FPO / FPC
When number of individuals come
together for collective farming on a certain (1) Limitations of decreased land holding are
piece of land, it is called as community farming. eliminated.
Here the land may be owned or leased by the (2) Minimizes cost of production by collective
participants. purchasing of inputs.
21
(3) Production of uniform quality crop as (9) While formation of FPC, digital signature
per demand and market linkage gives of director having signing authority and
premium rates to the produce. Director Identification Number (DIN) are
(4) Working together in the organization essential.
facilitate communication and exchange of
ideas. This favours transfer of information Try this
and adoption of advanced technologies.
 Visit nearby office of the agriculture
(5) Funding agencies and government department
departments give support on priority.  Collect information regarding
(6) Role and responsibilities can be devided government schemes & projects
among members. supporting farmers for organized
(7) Resources and machinery can be utilized farming
more efficiently e.g. lift irrigation, combine
harvester, etc. 3.3 Corporate farming
3.3.1 Meaning
Key points for formation of FPO / FPC
When farming is done by a company
Agency for Technology Management
on its own farm or leased farm, it is referred
in Agriculture(ATMA) is a division of as corporate farming. Main objective is
government agriculture department having production of agricultural goods as per market
authority to register such organization and demand. Because of corporate farming, there
support for further activities. is fast dissemination of advanced technology.
(1) As per current guidelines, group of The corporate sector may also have some
minimum 20 farmers is eligible to form research activities from such farming.
FPO. 3.3.2 Advantages of corporate farming
(2) Application in format should be submitted
to ATMA, Taluka Agriculture Office (1) Waste lands, uneconomic lands, fallow
(TAO). lands owned by farmers or government
may be leased to a company and made
(3) Project Director, ATMA / District
productive.
Superintendent Agriculture Officer
(DSAO) issues letter of registration. (2) New patterns of cultivation are popularized
(4) Bank account can be opened in the name in the region.
of registered FPO. Authorised signatories (3) Farmers may be demonstrated the
of the group can operate the account. advanced technologies applied at such
(5) FPO can purchase inputs or sale the farms.
produce and have transactions through (4) Corporate farming may also help in
this account. agricultural education, extension and
(6) Registered FPO can apply for various research activities.
schemes of government and avail the (5) There is overall increase in employment
support. generation, productivity and economy of
(7) Different activities like field day, the region.
farmers rally, visit to research stations
(6) Some infrastructure facilities like
and successful entrepreneurs, training
marketing, transport, processing can be
programs, etc. can be conducted.
developed by corporate farming.
(8) FPO can be registered as FPC under
ministry of corporate affairs. (7) Availability of funds is not the limitation.

22
3.4 Contract farming Special characteristics of Intermediary
3.4.1 Meaning Model are
In contract farming, an agreement (1) The intermediary provides selected
is executed between the producer and the services (usually through services
consumer / buyer. Certain parameters are provided by buyers against service
fixed to define quality of the produce to be charges) and purchases the crop.
purchased. Stipulated time and quantity are (2) This model can work, if well designed
also important aspects to be followed by and if incentive structures are adequate
both parties. Specific product or products are and control mechanisms are in place.
mentioned in the contract as per desire of the (3) This model can bear disadvantages for
buyer and willingness of the producer to supply vertical coordination and for providing
accordingly. In this way producer commits to incentives to farmers (buyers may lose
supply agricultural goods and buyer commits control of production processes, quality
to purchase it. assurance and regularity of supplies;
3.4.2 Contract farming business models farmers may not benefit from technology
(i) Informal model - This model is short term transfer; there is also a risk of price drop and
and risky of all contract farming models, reduced incomes to farmers).
with a risk of default by both the promoter (iii) Multipartite model - This model
and the farmer. However, this depends on is development of the centralised or
the situation - interdependance of contract nucleus estate models. It involves various
parties or long-term trustful relationships organisations such as governmental
may reduce the risk of opportunistic statutory bodies, alongside private
behaviour. companies and sometimes financial
Special features of Informal Model are institutions.
(1) Small firms execute simple, informal Special characteristics of Multipartite
seasonal production contracts with small Model are
holders. (1) This model may feature as joint ventures of
(2) The success often depends on the organizations/ community companies with
availability and quality of external domestic/ foreign investors for processing.
extension services.
(2) The vertical coordination depends on the
(3) Some services may be provided and are
policy of the firm. Precaution is to be
limited to the delivery of basic inputs,
taken to avoid political interference.
occasionally on credit; advice is usually
limited to grading and quality control. (3) This model may also have additional
(4) Typical products: requiring minimal agreements with third party service
processing / packaging, vertical providers (e.g. extension, training, credits,
coordination; e.g. fresh fruits / vegetables inputs, logistics, etc.).
for local markets, sometimes also staple (4) Separate organisations (e.g. cooperatives)
crops. may organise farmers and provide
embedded services (e.g. credits, extension,
(ii) Intermediary model - In this model,
marketing, sometimes also processing).
the buyer subcontracts an intermediary
(collector, aggregator or farmer (5) This model may involve equity share
organisation) who formally or informally schemes for producers.
contracts farmers (combination of the
centralised/ informal models).
23
(iv) Centralized model - In this model, the (3) The farmers are at times called ‘satellite
buyers’ involvement may vary from farmers’ illustrating their link to the
minimal input provision (e.g. specific nucleus farm. This model was in the past
varieties) to control of most production often used for state owned farms that re-
aspects (e.g. from land preparation to allocated land to former workers. It is
harvesting). This is the most common now a days also used by the private sector
contract farming model. as one type of CF. This model is often
Special characteristics of centralized referred to as “outgrower model”.
Model are (4) Typical products: perennials
(1) The buyer sources products from and 3.4.3 Advantages of contract farming
provides services to large numbers of Contract farming is looking towards
small, medium or large farmers. the benefits both for the farm-producers as
(2) The relation / coordination between well as to the agro-processing firms.
farmers and contractor is strictly vertically (1) Makes small scale farming competitive
organised. - small farmers can access technology,
(3) The quantities (quota), qualities and credit, marketing channels and information
delivery conditions are determined at the while lowering transaction costs.
beginning of the season. (2) Assured market for their produce at
(4) The production and harvesting processes their doorsteps, reducing marketing and
and qualities are strictly controlled, transaction costs.
sometimes directly implemented by the (3) It reduces the risk of production, price and
buyer’s staff. marketing costs.
(5) Typical products: large volumes of (4) Contract farming can open up new markets
uniform quality usually for processing; which would otherwise be unavailable to
e.g. sugarcane, tobacco, tea, coffee, small farmers.
cotton, tree crops, vegetables, dairy,
(5) It also ensures higher production of better
poultry, etc.
quality.
(v) Nucleus estate model - In this model, (6) Financial support is available in cash and
the buyer sources both from own estates/ /or kind and technical guidance to the
plantations and from contracted farmers. farmers.
The estate system involves significant
(7) In case of agri-processing, it ensures
investments by the buyer into land,
consistent supply of agricultural produce
machines, staff and management.
with quality at right time and lesser cost.
Special characteristics of nucleus estate
3.4.4 Limitations in contract farming
model are
(1) The nucleus estate usually guarantees (1) Contract farming arrangements are often
supplies to assure cost efficient utilisation criticized for being biased in favour of
of installed processing capacities and to firms or large farmers, while exploiting the
satisfy firm sales obligations respectively. poor bargaining power of small farmers.
(2) In some cases, the nucleus estate is (2) Problems faced by growers like undue
used for research, breeding or piloting quality cut on produce by firms, delayed
and demonstration purposes and/ or as deliveries at the factory, delayed payments,
collection point. low price and pest attack on the contract
crop which raised the cost of production.

24
(3) Contracting agreements are often verbal (4) It gives higher crop productivity and
or informal in nature, and even written ultimately profitability.
contracts often do not provide the legal (5) Judicious use of water, fertilizers, and
protection in India that may be observed pesticides keeps product prices down.
in other countries . Lack of enforceability
(6) Reduced impact on natural ecosystems.
of contractual provisions can result in
breach of contracts by either party. (7) Less runoff of chemicals into rivers and
groundwater.
(4) Single Buyer – Multiple Sellers
(Monopsony) . (8) Increased worker safety due to
mechanization and automization.
Try this (9) Robotic technologies enable more
reliable monitoring and management of
• Visit a nursery, polyhouse, etc. and natural resources.
observe the modern technology.
(10) Logistic management in handling,
(5) Adverse gender effects - Women have less transport, storage and marketing
access to contract farming than men. minimizes losses of the produce.
3.5 Commercial agriculture (11) Advanced processing and preservation
technology allows value addition and
3.5.1 Agriculture technology increases profitability.
Fast revolutions in technology are seen in
3.5.2 Innovations in agriculture
the field of agriculture from last three decades.
Though some technologies have contradictions Innovative agricultural practices
regarding environment and sustainability, it Innovations in agriculture has opened new
is the need of time to feed the ever growing horizons for software industry and on the other
population of the world. hand, software has increased potential of
modern agriculture in many folds. It involves
Advancements in technology include use of data management, mechanization,
sensors, devices, machines, and information automation, sensors, genetic engineering,
technology. Modern agriculture uses drones, processing and packaging technology,
sophisticated technologies such as robots, logistics management, etc.
temperature and moisture sensors, aerial Declining natural resources and
images, and Global Positioning System (GPS) increasing population are alarming conditions
technology. These advanced devices, precision to use advanced technologies for survival of
agriculture and robotic systems allow human race.
agriculture businesses to be more profitable,
Some of the innovative agricultural
efficient, safer, and more environment friendly.
practices and technologies are :
Importance of agriculture technology
1. Artificial intelligence and automation
(1) Instead of traditional farming,
The revolution of mechanization in
commercial agriculture is oriented to
agriculture helped farmer to get rid of tedious,
give maximum profit per unit area.
labour consuming operations and also to curtail
(2) All inputs are targeted for specific cost of cultivation. But still handling of the
increase in returns. machines is main hurdle. Artificial intelligence
(3) It helps to exploit capacity of the soil, (AI) is now used to command many farm
crop variety and other resources and operations. GPS based programmed tractors
fulfill increasing needs of the population. now make most of the heavy operations easy.

25
 Sensor based equipments for irrigation, 3. Urban agriculture
sowing, weeding, harvesting, etc. empowered Because of crowding, pollution and hectic
with artificial intelligence eliminate human lifestyle, urban people are always in search
interference in agriculture. AI imparts accuracy of a hobby which can give scope for their
and punctuality in operations resulting in the creativeness and feel pleasure. Most of them
maximum utilization of inputs and increasing have affection towards agriculture. But they
productivity. have no agricultural land or other facilities.
Novel concept of vertical gardening allows
2. Use of drones in agriculture
such people to grow flowers, vegetables and
Foliar application of inputs like pesticides, fruits also in their balconies, terrace, common
fertilizers, growth regulators, weedicides, etc. places, etc. Use of cocopeat, hydroponics and
is not only expensive but also full of risk for the aeroponic technologies are also adopted in
operators. Restrictions in spraying due to wet urban agriculture. Municipal corporations,
soil, densely populated crops like sugarcane, railway, corporate buildings, apartments,
can be overcome by the use of drones. Drones etc. are now covering their walls, pillars and
may be operated by remote control or by terrace by vegetation. Here cocopeat is used as
programming with GPS parameters. It is going media for growing, as it is light in weight and
to be a new opportunity of employment to having higher water holding capacity. Vertical
provide drones on rent or contractual system. gardens are expensive as compared with
ground-level gardens. It requires panels and
framework, specially designed pots, irrigation
system and maintenance.

Fig 3.1 : Use of drone for spraying

operation Fig 3.2 : Terrace garden
Drones are also used to get quick look of
the field to observe attack of diseases and pest,
nutrient deficiencies, water trace, etc. Very
soon drones may be used for harvesting and
delivery up to consumer.
Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides
has drastically decreased population of
honeybees. Number of honeybee species are
already became extinct and many are on the
way. They are most important pollinating
agents and in the absence of which human
race can’t get food for survival. In some crops
drones are now used to pollinate the flowers by
moving drones nearby the trees.
Fig 3.3 : Vertical garden
26
Advantages of urban agriculture
(1) It improves aesthetic value of the place to
spread pleasure.
(2) Vegetation also helps to control
temperature, absorb pollution, trap carbon
dioxide and dust.
(3) It also absorb sound waves, avoids
reflections ultimately decreasing sound
pollution. Fig 3.4 : Static solution culture
(4) Indirectly helps to maintain biodiversity Containers like used drums, plastic buckets,
packing materials, pvc pipes, etc. are used at
in the urban region where it is under high
home. It is simple and low cost method.
risk. Green fodder production by sowing seed
(5) It gives scope for creativity to the urban of Maize is commonly used hydroponic by
people. dairy farmers in India. Fodders including
(6) It gives higher productivity per unit area maize, barley, oats, sorghum, rye, alfalfa
and triticale (hybrid of wheat and rye) can be
which can inspire the traditional farming.
produced by hydroponics. By this method, on
4. Hydroponics an average, 1 kg of seed can be converted in
Hydroponics is a technique to grow plants to 6 to 8 kg green fodder within 8 to 10 days.
on a base of water i.e. hydro. As no soil is used It has been reported that about 1.5-2 liters
in this case, essential plant nutrients are added water needed to produce 1 kg of green fodder
in the water to nourish the plants. Nutrients hydroponically in comparison with 73, 85, and
can be sourced from organic substances or 160 liters to produce 1 kg of green fodder of
chemical fertilizers. Roots are exposed in
barley, alfalfa, and Rhodes grass under field
this solution or may be supported by an inert
conditions, respectively. Under hydroponic
medium such as perlite or gravel. Sub irrigation
systems this equates to only 2-5% of water
or top irrigation is provided for continuous
used in traditional fodder production.
circulation of media solution. Containers other
than metal i.e. made from plastic or glass are (ii) Continuous-flow solution culture
commonly used. Whole root zone is excluded
In this type continuous flow of solution is
from light to avoid algae and fungal growth in
maintained to ensure supply of nutrients, water
the solution.
and oxygen for roots of all plants. . It is much
Hydroponic can be classified as per easier to automate than the static solution
maintenance of the media solution as below culture because, sampling and adjustments to
(i) Static solution culture the temperature and nutrient concentrations
In static solution culture, media solution can be made in a large storage tank that
is stable in the container. Particular level is has potential to serve thousands of plants. A
maintained to keep some of the roots exposed popularly used container is the ‘Nutrient film
in air for availability of oxygen or the solution Technique’ (NFT). It is arranged with fix slope
may be aerated by using aquarium aeration so as to maintain flow of solution at the rate
pump system. When concentration of nutrients
in the solution is decreased, new solution is of 1 to 2 liters per minute. Large tanks or trays
added or previous one is replaced periodically. made from cement concrete or plastic are also
Static solution hydroponic method is generally used. It has more efficiency to produce as
followed for home scale or small units. compared with static solution method.
27
 Another distinct advantage of aeroponics
over hydroponics is that any species of plants
can be grown in a true aeroponic system
because the microenvironment of an aeroponic
can be finely controlled. Suspended aeroponic
plants receive 100% of the available oxygen
and carbon dioxide to the roots zone, stems, and
leaves, thus accelerating biomass growth and
reducing rooting times. Aeroponics uses 65%
Fig. 3.5 : The nutrient film technique less water than hydroponics. Aeroponically
being used to grow various salad greens grown plants require ¼th the nutrient input
compared to hydroponics.
(iii) Aeroponics
(iv) Fogponics
Aeroponics is a system wherein roots
are continuously or periodically kept in Fogponics is a derivation of aeroponics
an environment saturated with fine drops wherein the nutrient solution is aerosolized
(a mist or aerosol) of nutrient solution. The by a diaphragm vibrating at ultrasonic
method requires no substrate and entails frequencies. Solution droplets produced by
growing plants with their roots suspended this method tend to be 5–10 µm in diameter,
in a deep air or growth chamber with the smaller than those produced by forcing a
roots periodically wetted with a fine mist nutrient solution through pressurized nozzles,
of atomized nutrients. Excellent aeration is the as in aeroponics. The smaller size of the
main advantage of aeroponics. droplets allows them to diffuse through the air
Aeroponic techniques have proven to be more easily, and deliver nutrients to the roots
commercially successful for propagation, seed without limiting their access to oxygen.
germination, seed potato production, tomato v) Genetic modification
production, leaf crops, and micro-greens. Since
Genetically modified crops (GM
inventor Richard Stoner commercialized
crops or biotech crops) are plants used
aeroponic technology in 1983, aeroponics has
in agriculture, the DNA of which has been
been implemented as an alternative to water
modified using genetic engineering methods.
intensive hydroponic systems worldwide.
In most cases, the aim is to introduce a
The limitation of hydroponics is the fact that
new trait to the plant which does not occur
1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of water can only hold 8
naturally in the species. Examples in food
milligrams (0.12 gr) of air, no matter whether
crops include resistance to certain pests,
aerators are utilized or not.
diseases, environmental conditions, reduction
of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments
(e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving
Spray the nutrient profile of the crop. Scientists have
Gravity drain jet also begun engineering crops that require less
water and that grow more food. Currently
Nutrient reservoir

available food derived from GM crops possess no

greater risk to human health than conventional
food but that each GM food needs to be tested
on a case-by-case basis before introduction.
Pump
Fig 3.6 : Aeroponic technique
28
 Though GM technology for food 3.5.3 Agricultural education
production is not yet allowed in India, GM For survival of human race on earth,
cotton varieties are introduced from year 2002. agriculture has prime importance. To feed
Now it is commonly accepted all over India. growing population on our planet earth,
Aim is to reduce use of pesticides for bollworm continuous innovation and dissemination
control and to increase production. of agricultural knowledge and technology
Examples in non-food crops include is necessary. In ancient period of India,
production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, agriculture was included in the curricula of
and other industrially useful goods as well as Nalanda and Taxila Universities as one of the
for bioremediation. Of course, there could 18 arts.
be unforeseen consequences when it comes The Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) is an autonomous body.
It is under the Division of Agricultural
Research and Education (DARE). Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India. The ICAR
has its headquarters at Pusa, New Delhi.
The Council is the apex body for co-
ordinating, guiding and managing research and
education in agriculture including horticulture,
fisheries and animal sciences in the entire
country. With 101 ICAR institutes and 71
agricultural universities spread across the
country, this is one of the largest national
agricultural systems in the world. The ICAR
Fig 3.7 : Imaginary view of genetic
has played a pioneering role in ushering Green
engineering
Revolution and subsequent developments in
to messing with genetics in any environment agriculture in India through its research and
or ecosystem — we’ll have to be extremely technology development that has enabled
cautious that we don’t create more problems the country to increase the production
in an attempt to solve a few. of foodgrains by 5.4 times, horticultural
These are just a couple of ways that crops by 10.1 times, fish by 15.2 times, milk
innovative agricultural practices are changing by 9.7 times and eggs by 48.1 times since
our future, and making the world a more 1951 to 2017, thus making a visible impact
liveable place. Innovation in agriculture isn’t on the national food and nutritional security.
just interesting — it’s essential to our survival! It has played a major role in promoting
excellence in higher education in agriculture. It
Internet my friend is engaged in cutting edge areas of science and
technology development and its scientists are
• By knowing about advances in
internationally acknowledged in their fields.
agricultural technologies, do you wish
to get further education in this field ? Maharashtra government has established
four agricultural universities. These universities
• Open the websites of different
are coordinated by ‘Maharashtra Council
institutes related to agricultural
of Agricultural Education and Research’
education and acquire information of
(MCAER) established on 10th of September
your interest.
1984.
29
 Table 3.1 : Institutes and their websites

ICAR, New Delhi http://www.icar.org.in/

MCAER, Pune http://www.mcaer.org.in/

Government Of Maharashtra, Dept. http://www.mahaagri.gov.in/

Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri http://mpkv.ac.in/

Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural

http://www.pdkv.ac.in/
University, Akola

Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Agricultural

http://www.vnmkv.ac.in
University, Parbhani

Dr. Balasaheb Savant Konkan Agricultural

http://www.dbskkv.org
University, Dapoli

National Skill Development Corporation https://nsdcindia.org

Maharashtra State Skill Development Society https://kaushalya.mahaswayam.in/

Details regarding different courses, department of agriculture, research stations,

eligibility criterion, admission process, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), etc. National
etc. are available on the websites of these Skill Development Corporation (NSDC),
organizations. Maharashtra State Skill Development Society
Most of the population in agriculture (MSSDS), etc. provides training to the farmers
has lower educational level and don’t have for entrepreneurship development. Details of
exposure to formal agricultural education. agricultural extension education are delt in
For this purpose different extension activities separate chapter.
are conducted by agricultural universities,

Courtesy : Sahyadri Farmers Producer Co. Ltd.

30
 Do yourself

Prepare a chart of Agricultural Universities in Maharashtra with respect to Research work in

Agriculture (Crops and their varieties, Fruits, etc.)

Sr.
University details Research work details
No.

31
Do yourself

Prepare a concept map of organised farming with charatristic features.

32
 Exercise

Q. 1 A. Fill in the blanks. Q. 2 Answer in brief.

1. In vertical gardening, most commonly 1. Describe in brief Farmer Producer
used media is ……………………... Organization.
2. Containers used for hydroponics are 2. Why government is promoting for
excluded from light to avoid growth of processing of agricultural produce ?
………………….. 3. How hydrophonic fodder production
3. Apex institute governing saves water ?
agricultural education in India is 4. State your view regarding further
…………………… education in agriculture.
4.
In India……………… crop is 5. Write special features of informal
commonly used for production of model of conntract farming.
green fodder by hydroponics
5. When farming is done by a company Q. 3 Answer the following questions
on his own land or leased farm then it 1. Explain the scope of technology in
is called as ..................... agriculture.
B. Make the pairs. 2. Describe importance of green fodder
production by hydroponics.
‘A’ group ‘B’ group
3. Write advantages of contract farming.
a. Spraying of
1. MCAER 4. Classify the hydrophonics as per the
pesticides
maintanance of the media solution.
b. Agricultural
2. GM Technology 5.
Give the advantages of Urban
education
c. Cotton varieties agriculture.
3. Drones
in India Q. 4 Answer in detail
d. Hydrophonics
e. FPC 1.
Explain advantages and
disadvantages of contract farming.
C. State true or talse
2.
Describe the use of drones in
1. Limitations of decreased land holding agriculture.
are eliminated in farmer producer
3. Write the advantages and key points
organisation. for formation of farmer producer
2. All crops can be cultivated by organisation.
hydroponics technology.
4. Describe aerophonics and fogponics.
3. Drones are used for ploughing the soil.
5. Describe about agricultural education
4. Productivity in aeroponics is more
in India.
than hydroponics because of ample
Activity :
aeration in the root zone.
Obtain information on FPO, FPC,
5. In contract farming an agreement is Agricultural Universities in Maharashtra by
executed between the producer and using internet.
the consumer.
33
 4. Seed

Do you know ? hard. The inner thin seed coat layer is tegmen.
The spongy whitish outgrowth present at
1. What is meant by seed botanically? one end of seed is called caruncle. Caruncle
2. Material used for planting. absorbs water during germination. Hilum
3. Types of seed and parts of seed which is covered by caruncle and raphe which
4. Different methods of propogation. run from hilum on the seed coat.
4.1 Definition and type There is a whitish flattened body called
endosperm. It acts as food storage tissue. Seed
4.1.1 Definition
embryo consists of radical, axis and plumule.
A fruit is defined as matured or ripened
There are two cotyledons which have prominent
ovary which contains one or more ovules
veins. It acts as food absorbing organ.
that develops into seed. Botanically seed is
defined as matured (after fertilization) and Structure of monocot seed
ripened ovule which contains an embryo with Maize seed
food reserve and protective coat. As per seed Maize seed coat is membranous layer
technology science or agricultural point of adherent to the grain and is fused with the
view seed is any plant part which is used for wall of the fruit. Seed is somewhat flattened.
raising or propagation or multiplication of It is broader at one end and pointed at other
new commercial crop. e.g. True seed, tubers, end. The flattened portion of the seed may be
suckers, bulbs, cuttings, sets, grafts, etc. creamy white, yellow or dark red in colour with
distinct deloid area. Note that scar is present
Recall a little? at both ends of the seed. The scar present at
Major types of seed the broader end of the seed is the position of
a. Monocot seed : Seed having single attachment of style. The scar at the narrow
cotyledon i.e. wheat, jowar, maize, etc. end is hilum. Observe that ridge is present
b. Dicot seed : Seed having two cotyledons. in the centre of the seed which is axis of the
i.e. groundnut, redgram, castor, etc. embryo by cutting the seed through the centre
longitudinally and putting few drops of dilute
4.1.2 Parts of seed iodine on it. Two distinct regions separated
Structure of dicot seed from each other by a layer. Separating layer is
Castor seed: called epithelium which secrets enzymes.
Castor seed has two layers. The outer
layer of seed coat is testa which is blackish and Endosperm
Seed coat and fruit wall
Caruncle Embryo Caruncle Scutellum
Cotyledons Aleurone layer
Hilum
Tegmen Coleoptile
Testa Endosperm
Plumule

Embryo Radicle

Coleorhiza

Seed coat Endosperm

Fig 4.1 : Castor Seed Fig 4.2 : Maize Seed

34
 The bigger region which takes violet
black stain is called endosperm. It is rich in Try this
starch. The embryo consists of radical, plumule  Collect the seed of maize and soak in
and a single shield shaped cotyledon called water for 24 hrs.
scutellum. Scutellum absorbs food material  Take a longitudinal section of the seed
from endosperm during germination. by cutting the seed through the centre.
Note that radical is towards pointed Put few drops of dilute iodine on it.
end and is surrounded by a sheath called  Study the external and internal part of
coleorhiza. The plumule which is at the end maize seed.
of the embryo is surrounded by sheath called  Draw the diagram of maize seed and
coleoptile. label it properly.
4.2 Difference between seed and grain
Sr.
SEED GRAIN
No
It is the result of well-planned seed
1 It is the part of commercial produce.
programme.
It is the result of sound scientific knowledge,
2 organized effort, and investment on No such knowledge or effort is required.
processing, storage and marketing facilities.
The pedigree of the seed is ensured. It can be
3 Its varietal purity is unknown.
related to the initial breeders seed.
During production, effort is made to rogue
out off types designated plants, objectionable
No such effort is made, hence the purity
4 weeds and other crop plants at appropriate
and health status may be inferior.
stages of crop growth which ensures
satisfactory seed purity and health.
The seed is scientifically processed and
5 This is not labelled.
packed and labelled with proper lot identity.
The seed is tested for planting quality namely
germination, purity, admixture of weed seed
6 Routine seed testing is not done.
and other crop seed, seed health and seed
moisture content.
The seed quality is usually supervised by
7 There is no quality control.
seed certification agency.
The seed has to essentially meet the “quality
standards’. The quality is therefore well No such standards apply here. The quality
8
known. The labels, certification tags on the is non descript and not known.
seed containers serves as quality marks.
9 Genetic purity is important. Genetic purity is not important.
Endosperm or cotyledons are important in
10 Embryo is important in case of seed.
case of grain.
11 Seed is used for sowing purpose. Grain is used for consumption purpose.
Isolation distance required to maintain
12 Isolation distance is not required.
genetic purity.

35
 13 Seed treatment is required. Seed treatment is not required.
Field inspection is required to maintain Field inspection is not required to maintain
14
genetic purity. genetic purity.
15 Comes under preview of seed act. Comes under preview of food act.

There are certain weeds species, which

Can you tell?
are very harmful to the crop and once
The quality judging aspects of seed. established they are difficult to eradicate.
An absolute freedom from seed of such
4.3 Characteristics of seed species is highly desirable and is one of
Following are the characteristics of good the important criteria for determining the
quality seed planting quality of seeds.
(1) Improved variety : It should be superior (6) Seed health: The quality of a seed lot
to the existing variety i.e. the yield should depends on its health; hence the seed
be higher by 20-25% than the existing should be free from seed borne diseases,
variety or it should have some desirable insects and pest.
attributes like disease resistance, drought
(7) Seed moisture: The seed moisture is the
resistance, salt tolerance, etc. with good
most important factor in determining the
yield potential.
seed germination and viability during
(2) Genetic purity: The seed should be true storage . At high seed moisture content
to type. The seed should possess all the there is high incidence of pest attack and
genetic qualities / characters, which the at moisture content above 16% seed get
breeder has placed in the variety; genetic heated and the viability is lost. Hence the
purity has direct effect on the yields. If seed should be stored at safe moisture
there is deterioration, there would be levels of 11-13%.
proportionate decrease in the yield or
performance. (8) Seed size, weight and specific gravity:
Seed size, weight and specific gravity has
(3) Physical purity: Physical purity of a
been found to have positive correlation
seed lot refers to the physical composition
with seed germination and vigour in many
of the seed lots. A seed lot is composed
crops. Therefore the seed should be bold
of pure seed, inert matter, broken seed
with high specific gravity.
undersized seed, soil and dust particles,
weed seed, other crop seed, etc. Higher (9) Seed colour: The colour of the seed
the content of pure seed better would be often reflects the condition during seed
the seed quality. maturation. The colour and shine
(4) Seed germination and vigour: Higher deteriorate only when the weather
germination percentage and vigour give conditions are adverse during maturation
adequate plant population and uniform or when insects infest the crop or when it
growth which have profound effect on is handled badly.
yield and determine the planting value of The seed lot having high genetic purity,
the seed. high germination and with a minimum
(5) Freedom from weeds and other crop amount of inert matter, weed seed and
seed: This is an extension of physical other crop seed and free from diseases is
purity described earlier. said to be of high quality .

36
 (2) Breeder seed
Do you know ? It is the progeny of nucleus seed. Generally
breeder seed is produced in one stage. But
 Label and information on seed bag if there is greater demand for breeder seed
 Process of seed multiplication. and there is low seed multiplication ratio,
 Precautions to be taken while purchasing then breeder seed can be produced in two
the seed stages viz; Breeder stage I and II in such
cases breeder seed, stage I be becomes
4.4 Seed multiplication
source for breeder stage II.
Breeder seed can be produced by original
Remember this plant breeder and sponsored institute by
ICAR and rarely on government farm.
The process of development, release Breeder seed plots are inspected jointly by
and notification of high yielding variety / team.
hybrid is a continuous process. The spread Breeder seed produced should meet all
of any improved variety or hybrid depends prescribed standards viz. genetic purity
upon the quality of pure seed of that variety (99.9% or more), physical purity (98% or
produced and supplied to the farmers every more) Germination (as per crop) moisture
year. content (less than 12 %) . After passing
The area under any crop is greater, it is the seed lot, breeder seed tags in buff
not possible for the crop breeder or station to colour or Golden Yellow are signed by
produce and supply entire quantity of seed the concerned plant breeder and tagged to
required every year due to limited resources. the breeder seed bags and size of tag is
It is therefore necessary to organize 12 × 6 cm.
multiplication of the seed of varieties or (3) Foundation seed
hybrids through different stages by ensuring It is the progeny of breeder seed and can
that the seed multiplied at each stage meets be produced in two stages viz. Stage I and
all seed certification standards prescribed Stage II. Foundation seed is produced
for that crop variety or hybrid. on the farms of State Agril. Universities,
Taluka Seeds Farms, other Govt. farms,
4.4.1 Stages of seed multiplication State Seeds Corporations, National Seed
(1) Nucleus seed Corporation and private seed companies,
It is the initial amount of pure seed of Foundation seed plots are required to
improved variety or notified variety or be registered for certification with State
parental lines of a hybrid produced under Seed Certification Agency. Seed plot
supervision of the plant breeder who of foundation seed jointly inspected by
has evolved that variety or hybrid. The concerned crop breeder, District Seed
nucleus seed is genetically cent percent Certification Officer, NSC and MSSC. If
pure and does not contain other physical a foundation seed lot meets minimum seed
impurities. The nucleus seed is produced certification standards including field tests
strictly under isolation so as to avoid both It is certified as foundation seed and after
genetical and physical contamination. processing and testing of seed completed
Nucleus seed should retain vigour of bags are tagged with white coloured tag
the variety or parental line. There is no and opal green colour label together and
specific labelling for nucleus seed. sealed the bag by using lead seal and size
of foundation tag is 15 × 7.5 cm.
37
(4) Certified seed (portion of embryo above cotyledons) then it
It is the progeny of foundation seed. Plots of is termed as hypogeal germination. It occurs
certified seed are offered for certification with the majority of monocotyledons (e.g.
with seed certification agency which gramineae), some large seeded legumes (e.g.
inspects the plots during crop growth and Pea and gram) and some trees like mango,
at harvesting. After processing of seed lot jack fruit, coconut and arecanut.
seed sample is drawn by seed certification
officer and sent the seed sample to Seed
Testing Laboratory for seed testing. When
seed lot meets minimum certification Epicotyl
standards prescribed for that crop, then
it is bagged, tagged with blue colour tag Hypocotyl
and opal green colour labels together Cotyledon
and sealed by using lead seal and size of
certified tag is 15 x 7.5 cm.
(5) Truthful seed
It is the category of seed produced by
cultivators, private seed companies and Fig 4.3 : Hypogeal germination
is sold under truthful labels. But field
standards and seed standards should 2. Epigeal germination
maintain as per seed act and certified seed When cotyledons pushed above soil
stage. Under the seed act, the producer surface due to rapid elongation of hypocotyls
and seed seller are responsible for the (portion of embryo below cotyledons), then
seed. The bags of truthful seed tagged it is termed as epigeal germination. It is
with opel green and seeded with lead seal. mostly observed in horticultural and woody
Source of seed to be used for production plant species e.g. Cotton, cucumber, castor,
truthful seed different stages of seed (B/S, sunflower, groundnut, tamarind and french
F/S and C/S) and the size of opal green bean.
colour label is 15 x 10 cm.
Epigeal Epicotyl
4.5 Seed germination and seed dormancy
Cotyledon
4.5.1 Definition of seed germination
Germination is the awaking of the dormant Hypocotyl
embryo and to resume growth. In mature
angiospermic seeds, embryo lies in the dormant
stage. As soon as favorable conditions are
available dormancy is broken and germination
begins, thus it is resumption of active growth
of the embryo after a period of dormancy in
presence of favourable conditions viz. moisture,
Fig 4.4 : Epigeal germination
air, temperature, light, medium.
3. Viviparous germination
4.5.2 Types of germination
Germination of seed inside the fruit
1. Hypogeal germination attached to the mother plant (which also
When cotyledons remain below soil nourishes the seedling at initial stages just
surface due to rapid elongation of epicotyl after germination) is known as 'Vivipary' and
38
it is observed in many plants which grows Germination of seed does not take place
along sea coasts e.g. Mangrooves, Rhizophora. beyond certain minimum and maximum
temperature i.e. 0 °C and above 50°C.
Optimum temperature range for
Shoot satisfactory germination of seed is 25 to
Branch 30°C.

Try this

 Take a gram seed

Seedling
 Plant the seed on germination paper
Fruit
 Make three replications
 Put these bundles at different
Radical temperatures for germination in
Root
germinator
 Observe germination and decide
Fig 4.5 : Viviparous germination optimum temperature for germination

It may happen 3. Oxygen: It is essential during germination

for respiration and other physiological
Pre-harvest sprouting activities which are vigorous during the
Sprouting of seed due to high moisture processes.
on the matured plants standing in the field 4. Light: It is not considered as essential for
is known as pre harvest sprouting and it germination and it takes place without
is different than vivipary. e.g. Groundnut, light. The seedling grows more vigorously
Bajra, and Green gram during darkness rather in light. However,
Hypo - epigeal germination for survival of germinating seedling, light
A dicot species leaves one cotyledon is quite essential.
beneath the soil as hypogeal germination 5. Substratum: Substratum is the medium
while the other cotyledon comes out above used for germinating seeds in the
soil as epigeal germination, e.g. Paperomia laboratory. It may be absorbant paper
peruviana. (blotting paper, towel paper, tissue paper)
soil and sand. Substratum should be free
4.5.3 Factors affecting germination
from toxic substances. It should not act as
Following factors are essential for normal a medium for growth of micro organism.
germination of seed.
(B) Internal factors
(A) External factors
1. Food and auxin: Embryo feeds on the
1. Water (Moisture): It enables the stored food material until young seedling
resumption of physiological activities. prepare its own food. Auxins are the
Swelling of seed due to absorption of growth promoters hence quite essential
moisture causes bursting of seed coat, during the germination.
softening of the tissue due to which
embryo awakes and resumes its growth. 2. Viability: All seed remain viable for
certain definite period of time and
2. Temperature: A suitable temperature thereafter embryo becomes dead. It
is necessary for proper germination. depends on maturity of seed, storage
39
 conditions, vigour and type of species. The viable seed that does not germinate
Generally, it is for 3 to 5 years and they immediately after maturity under favourable
remain for more than 200 years also as in conditions it seems germination under
lotus. favourable condition after resting period is
3. Dormancy: It is failure of mature viable known as primary dormancy.
seed to germinate under favorable (2) Secondary dormancy
conditions of moisture. Many seeds do Some seeds are capable of germination
not germinate immediately after their immediately after they are shed. Such seeds,
harvest, they require rest period for certain however can become dormant if they are
physiological activities. placed in unfavorable conditions for some
(C) Agronomic and other factors time. This type of induced dormancy is termed
as Secondary dormancy. It can be induced by
1. Stresses during preharvest stage, very low temperature, high CO2 concentrate
harvesting and storage condition, and absence of light.
unfavourable environmental conditions
during seed setting, maturity and (3) Exogenous dormancy
harvesting stage may affect viability and This is due to seed factors which are
germination capacity. Mechanical injury located out side of the embryo. The causes of
to seed during pre harvesting and post this type of dormancy are
harvest processing also affect germination. (i) Physical : Seed coats are impermeable to
The structure made for storage, prevailing water and gases.
conditions during storage also cause loss (ii) Chemical : Certain types of inhibitors of
in germination. germination are present in seed coat.
2. Special Treatments : Soaking of seed in (iii) Mechanical : This may be due to
water and other chemicals, X-ray and mechanical resistance of seed coat to
gamma ray treatment, etc. also have germination.
influence on seed germination.
(4) Endogenous dormancy
3. Ecology : Special ecological conditions
This type of dormancy is due to factors
are essential for proper germinanation of
located in the embryo.
certain seed.
4. Soil salinity : Some seed needs high (i) Due to low or high temperature
salinity conditions of soil for germination. requirement.
(ii) Incomplete development of embryo in the
4.5.4 Definition of seed dormancy
seed.
Failure of fully developed and mature
(iii) Photoblastism : Light dependent dormancy
viable seed to germinate under favourable
conditions of moisture and temperature called (5) Combined dormancy
resting stage or dormancy and the seed is said This dormancy may be due to combination
to be dormant. of two or more factors.
4.5.5 Types of seed dormancy 4.5.6 Methods of breaking seed dormancy
There are several types of seed A. Scarification
dormancy suggested by different scientists 1. Pre-chilling : the seeds are placed in
(1) Primary dormancy contact with the moist substratum at
The seed gets dispersed from the mother a temperature of 5°C to 10°C for 7
plant, the dormancy may be induced before days for germination e.g. cabbage,
maturing, during maturity and after maturity. cauliflower, sunflower, broad bean.
40
 2. Pre-drying :The seeds should be dried 3. Thiourea
at a temperature not exceeding 40°C Treatment generally 0.5 % thiourea
with free air circulation for a period solution is used for soaking seeds for
of 7 days before they are placed for short time and then transferring them to
germination e.g. maize, lettuce. water e.g. gladiolous.
3. Pre-washing: In some seeds, 4.6 Seed testing
germination is affected by naturally
4.6.1 Germination tests
occurring substances which act as
Germination test in laboratory indicates
inhibitors these can be removed by
planting value of seed and its capacity of
soaking and washing the seeds in
emergence as good and normal seedling in the
water before placing for germination
field.
e.g.sugar beet.
4. Pre-soaking :Some seeds fail to Observe and Discuss
germinate due to hard seed coat such
seeds should be soaked in warm water Home cleaning of grains
for some period so as to enhance Working of Seed testing laboratory
the process of imbibition e.g. chilli, Routine tests in STL
subabhul and winged bean. 4.6.2 Methods of germination testing
5. Rubbing / puncturing seed coat: At least four hundred seeds should be
Some seeds are subjected to mechanical tested for germination. Seed selected for
scarification either by rubbing them germination should be from ‘pure seed’
against rough surface (sand paper) or component separated in purity analysis and
puncturing the seed coat with pointed should be counted without discrimination as to
needle e.g. coriander, castor or chilli. size or appearance, by hand, counting boards
B. Stratification - In some seeds, after or by vacuum seed counter.
ripening low temperature and moisture 1. Top paper (T.P.)
condition require in artificial stratification. In this method seeds are germinated on
Seed layer altered with layers of moist top of one or more layers of paper which
sand/ appropriate material to store at are placed either in enclosed transparent
low temperature e.g. Brassica juncea and petri dishes or boxes and are kept in an
Arachis hypogea. incubator or germinator.
C. Use of chemicals 2. Between paper method (B.P.)
1. Potassium nitrate treatment The seeds are germinated between two
The material used for placing the seeds layers of germination paper which are
for germination i.e. substratum may be placed directly on germination trays in
moistened with 0.2 per cent solution cabinet or room type germinator or in metal,
of KNO3 (2 g KNO3+ 100 ml water) plastic or glass boxes. In former method,
e.g. rice, tomato, chillies, etc. relative humidity in the cabinet, or room
2. Gibberellic acid treatment: should be maintained to the saturation.
The substratum used for germination The paper can be folded or rolled and
may be moistened with 500 ppm placed in an upright position. Metal, glass
solution of GA3 i.e. 500 mg in 1000 ml. or plastic frames can be inserted between
of water. If dormancy is stronger GA3 papers to ensure ventilation However,
solution upto 1000 ppm may be used paper should not be too wet to form water
e.g. wheat, oat, etc. film if pressed with finger.
41
3. Germination in sand 4. Cover petri-dish with lid and put it in
Seed are planted in uniform layer of moist germinator / incubator maintained at
sand 1 to 3 cm deep and then covered with appropriate constant temperature.
loose sand or seed are pressed into the of 5. Take the germination count and calculate
the sand, certain amount of water is added the germination percentage.
e.g. maize, groundnut and castor. III. Germination in sand or soil
4. Germination in soil 1. Take earthen or plastic pots filled with
Soil or an artificial compost is used instead sand or soil
of sand. This method is used to confirm the 2. Add water to obtain sufficient moisture in
evaluation of seedlings, in doubtful soil/sand
cases and testing samples which produce 3. Put the seed of variety to be tested at
seedlings, with phototoxic symptoms when appropriate depth with proper spacing.
germinated on paper or sand. Soil should
4. Cover the seed with soil or sand and
be kept wet.
give water if necessary and put them
4.6.3 Procedure for germination tests in germinator at appropriate constant
I. Germination on towel paper temperature.
1. Take rectangular germination paper (crape 4.6.4 Evaluation of seedling after
craft paper) and soak it in water, remove germination
excess water. Observe the following from the
2. Put it on polythene paper slightly bigger germinated seed and report the results.
than germination paper. 1. Normal seedling
3. Place seed of given sample on germination
Seedling which shows the capacity for
paper with the help of counting board in
continued development into normal plants
four replications of 100 seeds each.
when grown in good quality soil.
4. Cover the seed with another moist
germination paper and roll along with
polythene paper and tie both ends of roll
by rubber bands. Terminal bud
5. Keep the count of seedlings on the Epicotyl
prescribed day and report the percentage
Primary leaf
of normal, abnormal, dead, hard and fresh
ungerminated seeds. Cotyledons
II. Germination in petri-dish: Hypocotyl
Sand test Towel test
1. Take germination paper (blotting) and Secondary root
prepare round pieces as per inner diameter
of dishes.
2. Place cotton wool at the bottom of dish
and cover the piece of blotting paper, add
water till paper becomes wet and remove
excess water from the dish. Primary root
3. Put either 50 or 25 seed in each dish on
moist paper at proper distance.
Fig. 4.6 : Normal seedling
42
 Following seedlings may be treated as b. Fresh ungerminated seeds
normal seedlings. Seeds other than hard seeds which do not
(a) Seedlings with well developed system germinate even after appropriate treatment
of root with primary root intact for breaking dormancy are classified as
hypocotyl, epicotyl, and a normal fresh ungerminated seeds.
plumule and cotyledons. c. Dead seeds
(b) A well developed primary leaf within Seeds at the end of test period are neither hard
or emerging through the coleoptile in nor fresh and have not produced seedlings,
monocotyledons. classified as dead seeds.
4.6.5 Physical purity test
The purity test is done with following
objectives
1. To determine the composition of sample by
dividing each sample into 4 components
namely pure seeds, other crop seed, weed
and inert matter and to judge the quality
of seed sample on the basis of proportion
of pure seed and other components as per
Fig. 4.7 Seed germinator prescribed norms of SCA.
2. Abnormal seedlings 2. To identify objectionable weed seed and
Seedling which do not show the capacity other crop seed found in sample and to give
for continued development into normal them botanical names.
plants when grown in good quality soil 3. To determine eligibility of seed sample for
under favourable conditions of water seed certification.
supply, temperature and light.
4. To get the pure seed for further seed tests
Following seedlings may be treated as
like germination.
abnormal seedlings
(a) Seedlings without cotyledons, Material required for physical purity test
constrictions, splits cracks and Seed blower, purity work board,
lessions. forceps, magnifying lens, spatula, dishes,
(b) Seedlings without primary root sieves, needles and weighing balance etc.
(c) Seedlings having stunted root and
plumules, coleoptile without primary
leaves.
(d) Seedlings with decayed essential
structure and discoloration.
3. Ungerminated seed
It consists of following seeds.
a. Hard seed : The seeds belonging to
leguminoseae and malavaceae family
which remain hard at the end of prescribed
period of test Because they have not
absorbed water due to impermeable seed
coat are called hard seed. Fig. 4.8 Physical purity work board

43
Procedure
(ii) Inert matter (%) =
1. The working sample of desired weight is
Wt. of inert matter
prepared. × 100
2. Use seed blower, if seed sample is chaffy Total wt. of all seed components
or grass species after adjusting air flow.
(iii) Other crop seed (%) =
3. Place the working sample on a board or
glass plate and with the help of forceps, Wt. of other crop seed
× 100
needles and magnifiers, separate out the Total wt. of all seed components
seed sample into following components.
(i) Pure seed (ii) Other crop seed (iv) Weed seed (%) =
(iii) Inert matter (iv) Weed seed Wt. of weed seed
× 100
Remember this Total wt. of all seed components

Inert matter: It includes mainly pieces 4.6.6 Seed health test - (Seed pathology)
of broken or damage seed, achenes and Seed health refers to the presence or
caryopsis, empty glumes, other matter
absence of disease causing organisms such as
mainly soil, sand, stone, chaff, stems,
leaves, pieces of bark, flowers, fungi fungi, bacteria and viruses and animal pests.
bodies, etc. Hence, seed health testing is necessary to
obtain information regarding health of seed
4. After complete separation of components of lot.
sample, retain the pure seed on purity work
Methods of seed health testing
board for rechecking. After re-checking
the pure seed separate other seed and inert A. Examination without incubation
matter.
It reveals presence or absence of
5. Weigh the each of the three components. pathogens examined., however does not
Wt. of working sample (g) give any indication about the viability of
6. Calculate the percentage of each the pathogen.
component on the basis of the sum of 1. Direct examination - Seed are directly
weights of the components and not on the examined with or without stereoscopic
basis of the original working sample. The
microscope. The ergot and sclerotin
sum total of percent of all components
bodies, nematodes, galls, smut balls,
should be 100.
insects, mites damage to seed etc. as well
7. If percentage of seed of any other crop as discoloration of seed.
species or weeds together is more than 0.1
per cent or if the number of seed is more 2. Examination of imbibed seeds - Seed
than 20, separate out all seed of that species are immersed in water or other liquid in
from working sample as well as submitted order to liberate the spores and fruiting
sample. bodies more visible and after imbibition,
they are examined with microscope.
Try this 3. Examination of organisms removed
Calculate the percentage value of after washing - Seed are immersed in
each component on the basis of sum of water or other liquid or alcohol and
weights of all components and not on the shaken vigorously to remove fungal
basis of the original sample. spores, nematodes, etc. The excess liquid
(i) Pure seed (%) = is removed by filtration, evaporation
Wt. of pure seed and extracted material examined by
× 100
Total wt. of all seed components microscope.
44
B. Examination after incubation of seed. It is loss in weight when the seed is
In this method, the seed is incubated dried or the quantity of water collected when
for a specific period. it is distilled. It is expressed as a percentage of
The following media are commonly the weight of the original sample.
used for incubation. 4.6.7 Methods of moisture determination
(i) Blotters (ii) Sand The basic methods are-
(iii) Agar plate 1. Drying without heat
(i) Blotter method - In this method, seed are Samples are dried without heat or
placed of moistened blotting papers at 20 moderate heat in vaccum using phosphorus
mm apart. The blotters are rolled or placed pentoxide (P205) as desiccant.
in containers and incubated for specific 2. Lyophilization
number of days. Then it is examined
(Freeze dried)- Biological materials are
under magnification for the presence of
frozen and water removed by sublimation
pathogen.
in vaccum.
(ii) Sand method - Sand or similar media is
3. Reversibility method
used and seed without pre-treatment are
suitably placed so as to avoid secondary (a) Red drying - This method determines
spread of organism and incubated in drying time and temperature so that
conditions favourable for symptom loss of weight by de­composition is
development. accounted for.
(iii) Agar plate - Seed after treatment (b) Karl Fisher titration method - In this
are placed on the surface of 2% malt method water is extracted from finely
extract sterilized agar in petridishes and ground seed with methyl alcohol and
incubated. The colonies of fungi can be then determined by titration by a special
identified on agar directly or by lense. reagent. This is most accurate method.
However, these methods require much
C. Examination of growing plants
time, equipments and high skills of
The growing of plants from seed for operation and hence not practically
examination for disease symptoms is most used.
practicable procedure for determining 4. Hot air oven method
whether bacteria, fungi or viruses are
Method is most practical and commonly
present in the sample. Seed may be sown
used for moisture determination.
in the field or inoculums may be used for
infection test with healthy seedlings. Objective: To determine moisture content of a
given sample.
4.6.7 Seed moisture test
Material
Moisture content of seed is one of the Grinding mill, hot air oven, chemical balance,
important factor affecting viability and quality crucible with lid, desiccators, spoon, trays and
seed sample.
Do you know ?
Procedure
Seed entomology includes the study of pest 1. Take 4 to 5 g of duplicate working sample for
of seed, their nature of damage and control determination of moisture from submitted
measures in order to maintain viability and sample accurately.
germination of seed.

45
2. Crops of larger seed size (e.g. cotton, maize, 7. Remove the crucible with lid and cool in
sorghum, paddy, wheat, etc.) are ground dessicator
with grinding mill in such a way that at least 8. Weigh the crucible with lid and contents.
50 per cent of the ground material should
pass through a wire sieve of 0.5 mm mesh 9. Calculate the percentage of moisture
and not more than 10 per cent remain on a content in seed sample by using formula-
top of wire sieve. For leguminous crop seed M - M3
Moisture% = 2 × 100
(e.g. pea, soybean, chickpea, etc.) coarse M2 - M1
grinding is necessary i.e. 50 percent ground Where,
material should pass through sieve with M1 = Weight of empty crucible with lid
4 mm mesh.
3. If moisture content of seed is more than M2 = Weight of crucible with seed sample
17 percent (Rice-13% soybean-10%) pre- M3 = Weight of cructible with seed sample
drying is obligatory. Similarly, high moist and lid after drying
seed of maize (above 25%) and others,
samples should be dried at 70°C for 2 to 5 M2-M1 = Weight of sample
hours depending on initial water content. M2-M3 = Loss in weight after drying
4. Weigh the clean and dry crucible with lid 5. Use of moisture metre
accurately.
The moisture determination is based on the
5. Put the ground seed sample prepared earlier principle on that the moisture content in
(4-5 g) in a crucible with help of spoon and the seed is directly proportional electrical
again take the weight of crucible with lid
conductivity of seed. The various types of
very accurately.
moisture metre are
6. Place the crucible rapidly in hot air oven as
under (a) Universal electric moisture metre
(i) In low constant temperature oven (b) Steinlite moisture tester
method, keep the container at (c) Marconi moisture tester
temperature 103°C ± 2°C and dry for (d) Digital moisture metre
17±1 hrs. ( e.g. onion, chillies, soybean,
radish and brinjal, etc.). Laboratory work -
(ii) In high constant temperature oven
method, keep the material at 130°C ±2°C Determine the moisture percentage of
seed sample given to you.
for 2 ± 1 hrs.
Table : 4.1 Temperature for oven dry 4.6.8 Seed vigour test
method
Seed vigour is the sum of those properties
Oven dry method of seed which determine the potential level
Oven dry
recommended for of activity i.e. rapid and uniform production
method
different crops of healthy seedling and stand establishment
Rice, wheat, pearly under a wide range of field conditions.
High constant
millet, maize, sorghum,
temperature Objects -
chickpea, lathyrus, pea,
(130 ± 2°C)
pigeonpea
(1) Main object of this test is to differentiate
Groundnut, rape seed
Low constant range of quality levels i.e. high, medium,
and mustard, soybean,
temperature low vigour seeds.
sesame, linseed, castor
(103 ± 2°C)
and cotton (2) This test evaluate seed performance under
wide range of field conditions.

46
The test for determination of seed vigour Seedling growth rate is determined by
1. Direct tests dividing the mean increase in length from
each previous measure by the number of days
(a) Brick gravel test: A porous brick gravel
the seedling had been in the germinator. Sum
of 2 to 3 mm size is used. About 30 mm
of each count at the end of the test period is
layer of moist gravel is placed above the
expressed as seedling growth rate.
seed. This layer impedes the emergence
of weak, partially diseased seedlings 4. Seedling length
as well as coleoptile injured seedlings. Length of 10 normal seedling grown
Vigorous seedlings are these emerged in moist towel paper kept at optimum
from layer of brick gravel. temperature is measured in cm on the day
(b) Paper Piercing test: This test of final count. The lot showing maximum
involves the use of sand plus a special seedling length is considered as vigorous.
paper disk through which seedlings 5. Seedling dry weight
penetrate. It is used for cereal crops The weight of seedling excluding the
in which seeds are placed on top with cotyledon is taken on 10th day after oven
1.25 cm moist sand and covered with drying at 1000C for 24 hr in g. The lot
special paper and kept for eight days. exhibiting the maximum seedling dry
2. Indirect tests weight is considered as vigorous.
1. First count: 6. Vigour index length
The number of normal seedlings counted A combination of standard germination
at the first count (4/5th day) represents the test with seedling length provides broad
faster germinating seeds. Higher percentage evaluation of seedling vigour, seed lot with
of normal seedling during the first count high vigour index is considered as vigorous.
indicates the seed vigour. 7. Vigour index mass
2. Speed of germination Vigour index in terms of mass is
Number of germinated seeds are determined by the multiplication of
counted every day from the first day and the germination percentage with seedling dry
cumulative index is made by the formula. weight on the day of final count.
n1/1 + n2/2 ……. + nx/x = N 4.6.9 Seed viability test
Where,
Viable seed is a seed that is capable of
n1… nx are the number of seed germinated
germination under suitable conditions.
on day 1 to day x.
1 … x are the number of days. Object

3. Seedling growth rate Object of the biochemical test is to

determine quickly the viability of seeds of
Twenty seeds are placed in straight
certain species which germinates slowly by
line on a paper towel moistened with
regular germination process.
distilled water and kept at an angle of 75
in a germinator at optimum temperature. (1) Topographical Tetrazolium test or TZ
Only 10 competitive normal seedlings test
are selected for observation. The remaining Principle
seedling are removed. For the next 10 days
In a biochemical test the reduction process
the length of each seedling is measured
which takes place in living cells are made
daily in cm.
visible by the reduction of an indicator.
47
 The indicator used in the tetrazolium be dissolved in buffer solution. The buffer
test for seeds is a colourless solution of the solution is prepared as follows.
tetrazolium salt which is imbibed by the Procedure
seed. Within the seed tissues it interferes
with the reduction process of living cell and Each 4 replications of 100 seeds each
accepts hydrogen from the dehydrogenses. from the pure seed fraction of physical purity
By hydrogenation of the 2, 3, 5 triphenyl test. To facilitate penetration of Tetrazolium
tetrazolium chloride, a red stable and non- solution, the seed are fully immersed in distilled
diffusible substance, triphenyl formagane, is water or kept in paper towel for 18 hrs. The
produced in living cells. This makes possible testa of the dicot is removed and the monocot
to distinguish the red coloured living parts of is exposed by dissecting the seed longitudinally
seed from a colourless dead ones. In addition to or laterally. The seed are then completely
completely stained viable seed and completely immersed in 1% tetrazolium solution for 3 hrs.
unstained non-viable seed, partially stained During treatments two preparations are kept
seed may occur. Varying proportions of necrotic in darkness at 20°C. After termination of the
tissues occur in different parts of these partially tetrazolium test, the solutions are decanted and
strained seed. Localisation and spread of the preparation is mixed with water prior to
necrosis in the embryo and on endosperm and evaluation. For examination the preparations
the intensity of colour determine whether such are spread on a plate and kept wet throughout
seed are classified as viable or non-viable. the determinations. The seeds are evaluated
with the help of magnifying devices. Individual
General directions seed is evaluated as viable or dead on the basis
Reagents of staining pattern in embryo.
A 1% aqueous solution (pH 6.5 - 7.0) Calculation
of tetrazolium chloride or bromide is used. If The results are reported as percentage
the pH of the distilled water is not within the of viable seed in relation to total seed tested.
range of 6.5 - 7.0, the tetrazolium salt should

Do yourself Collect information about seed testing labaratory

48
 Exercise
Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks.
3. Give difference between
1. The matured and ripened ovule after
(i) Seed and grain
fertilization is known as -----------.
(ii) Nucleus seed and Breeder seed
2. Breeder seed is the progeny of -------
---- seed. (iii) Breeder seed and foundation seed
3. The awaking of the dormant embryo (iv) Foundation seed and certified seed
is called as -----------------. (v) Physical purity test and
4. The test used to determine the germination test
viability of true seeds is ----------- (vi) Seed vigour test and seed viability
test. test
5. The brick gravel test is used for (vii) Hypogeal germination and
determining ----------------. epigeal germination
B. Make the pairs 4. Give scientific reasons
A B (i) Why cotyledon remains below the
soil surface?
1. Seed dormancy a. Moisture test
(ii) Why cotyledon remains above
2. Crucible b. TZ Test
the soil surface?
3. Certified seed c. KNO3
(iii) Why foundation and certified
d. Brick gravel seed multiplication seed stages are
method called as quality stages?
e. Blue colour tag 5. Give examples of
C. State true or false (i) Endospermic seed
1. Castor seed is dicot and non (ii) Non endospermic seed
endospermic seed. (iii) Type of epigeal germination
2. Genetic purity of breeder seed is (iv) Hypogeal type of germination
99.8 percent. (v) Germination in sand
3. Gram is an example of epigeal type
Q.3 Answer the following questions
of germination.
1. Complete the following table
4. TZ test is used for testing seed
viability. (a) Seed multiplication stages.
5. Physical purity test used for testing Sr. Name of Source of Genetic
germination of seed. No. stage seed purity

Q.2 Answer in brief Breeder

(i)
seed
1. Write short notes on
Foundation
(i) Seed structure of castor (ii)
seed
(ii) Foundation seed Certified
(iii)
(iii) Seed viability test seed
(iv) Types of germination (iv)
Truthful
seed
2. List out seed multiplication stages.
49
 (b) Seed type and germination Q. 4 Answre in detail.
Sr. Name of Type of Type of 1. Explain the different stages of seed
No. seed seed germination multiplication.
(i) Bean
2. Describe the different types of seed
(ii) Maize germination.
(iii) Castor
3. Define seed dormancy and explain
(iv) Gram the methods of breaking seed
2. Describe the structure of dicot seed. dormancy with examples.
3. Draw and label structure of monocot 4. What is mean by seed health and
seed. give details regarding examination
without incubation.
4. Calculate pure seed percentage when
weight of pure seed is 180 gms and 5. Write the procedure of seed moisture
total weight of all component is 200 test by hot air oven method with
gms. formula.
5. Write the procedure of germination Activity :
test on towel paper. Classify seed from given seed sample
by using physical purity work board and
determine their percentage.

All these are called

as seed. Identify and
lable them.

Fig. 4.9 : Different seed material

50
 5. Sowing

The Kharif crop is usually sown after

Recall a little the regular onset of monsoon in the month
of June to July. Very early sowing may not
 You already know that soil and seed both be advantageous, as it may result in failure
go hand in hand of crop due to prolonged dry spell. However
 Soil provides medium for plant growth in certain situations early sowing may be
 A seed will develop into a healthy seedling advantageous, particularly for rabi crops.
only when it is placed in proper medium, Usual sowing time of rabi crop is October to
at proper depth, time and spacing. November. In certain cases advancing sowing
in September to October may be helpful for
 The prime objective of seed treatment is taking advantage of available soil moisture.
to protect seed from soil borne disease Time of sowing for summer crop varies from
and to promote the growth of plant. January to February. For most of the crops it
is preferably first fortnight of January.
5.1 Sowing
Sowing can be defined as the process Try this
of placing seed into the well prepared soil
at proper place (depth) for growth OR The  Prepare a schedule of sowing dates in
process of putting seed in the ground soil for different seasons as per your opinion.
growing crop plant is known as sowing.  Practice the sowing by any one method.
5.1.1 Sowing time, depth and spacing  Observe the changes in growth of plants
Proper and healthy stand of a crop at different dates of sowing.
is essential for getting its higher yield. It  Determine the proper time of sowing
depends on the time, depth and method of based on crop stand and difference in
sowing. growth performance.
There should be sufficient moisture in
Can you recall?
seeding zone, so that it would help in proper
germination of seed and emergence of crop
 Which are the common seasons of sowing
plants. Similarly, each crop needs definite range
in Maharashtra and their approximate of temperature for proper germination and also
time of sowing ? for further vegetative growth. The sowing time
 Which crops are prominently grown in should be such that moisture stress period (due
those seasons in your locality ? to long dry spell) may be avoided at critical
stages of crop growth. High soil moisture and
Time of sowing atmospheric temperature at the time of sowing
The exact or proper time of sowing not only affects the seed germination but also
depends upon different factors, such as sowing favours the effect of different insects – pest and
season, atmospheric as well as soil temperature diseases e.g. stem borer of sugarcane, shootfly
and moisture content in seeding zone of soil. of jowar, etc. In short optimum time of sowing
The common sowing seasons in Maharashtra is therefore, a time which provides suitable
are Kharif, rabi and summer. environment at all the stages of crop growth.

51
 The optimum time of sowing differs not Shallow sowing depth of 2 to 3 cm is
only from crop to crop but also within different needed for the crops like pearl millet and
varieties of the same crop. finger millet. For small sized seeds which are
Depth of sowing sown shallow needs to be irrigated frequently
to ensure good emergence of crop.
Sowing of seed at the appropriate depth is
an important factor affecting establishment of In the case of deep sowing, the seed
good stand of crop. reserves should be sufficient to put forth long
coleoptile for emergence. The coleoptile length
also differs from variety to variety of the same
Can you tell? crop. For example – tall traditional varieties

 Why seed depth is important?
of wheat having long coleoptile length can
be sown deep. On the other hand Mexican
 Which depth is safe for sowing?
varieties with short coleoptile length need to
 Do we need seed to be soaked in water
be sown shallow.
before they are sown?
 How does planting depth affect Try and think about it
germination?
 Take 5 containers (pots)
The optimum depth of sowing depends  Fill them with soil.
upon soil moisture, size of seed, seed reserve  Sow the seed in each pot at different
and coleoptile length. For getting good vigour, depth and water it.
it is necessary that the germination of seed  Observe the result regarding emergence
should be good and for proper germination, and discuss.
it is always important that the seed should be
placed in the moist zone of soil. Too shallow Soil
or too deep sowing results in large number of
gaps and less plant population. Due to shallow Seed
sowing the seed germinon is poor because of
inadequate moisture in the upper layer of soil.
Too deep sowing may also affects crop stand
because in many cases seedling may not be
able to push their shoots above the ground level
from greater depth. Besides affecting plant Observe and Discuss
population, the weed problem also becomes
serious under such conditions.
Soil
The size of seed also have great influence
on the depth at which seed should be sown.
Seed
The crops like groundnut, castor, etc having
bigger size of seed can be sown to a greater
depth up to 6 cm. On the other hand crops like Take few earthen pots of same size and
finger millet, pearl millet, tobacco, etc. having fill them with soil. Sow the seeds in each
small sized seed have to be sown as shallow container with increased number i.e. two
as possible. The thumb rule is to sow the seed seed in first, three in second, four in third
to a depth approximately 3 to 4 times their and so on. Observe the growth parameters
diameter. For most of the crops the optimum of plant in each pot. Discuss the result.
depth of sowing ranges between 3 to 5 cm.
52
Spacing 5.2 Seed treatment
The full yield potential of an individual 5.2.1 Definition
plant is achieved when sown at optimum Seed treatment is the procedure of treating
spacing. Too dense or wide planting may the seed with different insecticides, fungicides
result in reduction of yield per unit area. If or combination of both for protecting their
sown densely, the growth of individual plant health. It also includes treatments subjecting
will be affected due to competition among seed to solar energy exposure, immersion in
plants for space, food, water, etc. Similarly,
water, etc.
yield from individual plant cannot be increased
In short seed treatment is the treatment
beyond certain limits. As such the spacing
given to the seed to improve germination,
between two rows and two plants within a row
vigour potential and to maintain good health
should be optimum. It depends upon different
of seed.
factors such as growth habit of plant, soil type,
purpose for which crop is grown and also
the sowing season. The crop with branching
habit or with good tillering capacity will
require more space. Individual plant growth
may be vigorous in rainy season. Hence, in
rainy season the spacing may be wider than
in summer season. On the same line wider
spacing is required on heavy soil as compared
to light soil. The spacing also depends upon
the purpose for which crop is grown. Increase Fig. 5.1 : Seed treatment
in plant height with less diameter is preferable
for fodder crop and therefore, fodder crops are
generally sown dense than grain crop. In crops
grown on stored soil moisture under rainfed
conditions, the spacing should be such to avoid
overcrowding of plants that may deplete most
of the moisture before crop matures. In short
spacing should be so adjusted to have optimum
plant population under different conditions.

Do this
Fig. 5.2 : Seed treatment
How theoretically plant population is 5.2.2 Objectives of seed treatment
calculated by using figure of spacing for a
particular area. Use following formula The various objectives of seed treatment are
as follows
Area m2
Plant population = (1) Protection of seed from seed rot and
Spacing m2
seedling blight
Rotting of seed, seedling blight and
Try this other seed and soil borne diseases can
be prevented by giving appropriate seed
Calculate the plant population of 1 treatment prior to sowing. Coating seed
hectare Jowar crop when spacing is 30 cm × with certain chemical is done for this
25 cm. purpose.

53
(2) Prevention of the spread of disease dung or by delinting with concentrated
The infection from systemic diseases sulphuric acid.
during different growth stages of crop (9) Induction of earliness and variations:
and also during storage is prevented by The maturity period of crop can be
appropriate seed treatment. Treatment is minimized by giving vernalization
also helpful in preventing non systemic treatment to the seed. Similarly
diseases. variations in original morphological and
(3) Protection of seed from insects in soil general structure of seed can be achieved
and in storage by giving radiation treatment to the seed.
The seed treatment with various
(10) Protection of beneficial insects
insecticides alongwith fungicides is
The insects like honey bee are beneficial
effective against storage pest and certain
to plants for pollination, fertilization, etc.
insects in soil.
The chemicals used for plant protection
(4) Improvement in seed germination kill such insects. This can be avoided by
Germination of seed is improved by using properly treated seed for sowing.
controlling seed surface flora, by breaking
dormancy, removing inhibitors and
treating seed with germination promoters.
(5) Reduction in cost of production
The cost of plant protection can be
reduced by using treated seed for
cultivation.
This helps in minimizing the cost of crop
production to a greater extrent.
(6) Production of good quality seed
Good quality seed can be produced Fig. 5.3 : Slurry seed treater
when crop stand is uniform, vigorous and
healthy. This can be achieved by using
properly treated seed for sowing.
(7) Increase in nitrogen fixation:
Seed of leguminous crop is treated
with rhizobium culture (nodule bacteria)
for increase in nitrogen fixation through
increased nodulation on the root. The
seed of cereals or monocotyledons such
Fig. 5.4 : Seed treating drum
as jowar, wheat, bajri, paddy, cotton,
(11) Hardening of seed
vegetables, etc. is treated with azotobacter.
Drought and cold tolerance can be
For sugarcane sets acetobacter and
achieved by treating seed with chemicals
azospirillum species are useful for the
like calcium chloride (CaCl2), Potassium
same reason i.e. 'N' fixation.
chloride (KCl), monopotassium
(8) Convenience in sowing
phosphate (KH2PO4).
The seed of cotton crop is intermingled
into each other due to fuzz. This fuzz (12) Seed fortification
difficulty can be avoided by treating the This treatment is given for achieving
seed with paste of soil and fresh cow high vigour to overcome soil reactions.
54
 (b) Seed Disinfestation: Seed
Do you know ? disinfestation refers to the destruction
of surface borne organisms that have
Following equipments are used for contaminated seed surface but not
seed treatment infected the seed surface. Chemicals
 Seed treating drum (Home made are applied through soaks, dusts or
drum / mixers) dips.
 Slurry seed treater
(c) Seed Protection: This is done to
 Mist – o – matic treaters
protect the seed and young seedlings
 Grain auger
from the organisms present in the soil.
 Shovel

5.2.3 Types of Seed treatment Remember this

Different types of seed treatments are Following precautions should be taken
as follows – while treating the seed
(1) Treatments for improving seed (i) Treated seed should never be used as
germination and vigour food for human or cattle.
(a) Soaking of seed in water – Cotton seed (ii) For avoiding use of treated seed as a food,
is soaked in water for 4 to 6 hours in the seed bag should be clearly labelled as
case of deshi and 10 to 12 hours in case 'poisonous and dangerous, if consumed.'
of American varieties (iii) The proportion of seed and chemical
(b) Use of chemicals –Treatment of should be as per recommendation.
common salt NaCl or KH2PO4 (1%) (iv) Seed with high moisture content is
for 12 hours is given to jowar seed for susceptible to injury, when treated with
improving germination and vigour. concentrated products.
(c) Treatments such as pre chilling, pre (v) Treat only actual quantity of seed
drying seed and rubbing seed against required for sowing.
hard surface, low and high temperature (vi) Wear safety kit while treating seed and
treatments are done for breaking seed avoid contact of chemicals with skin
dormancy. and respiratory tract.
(2) Seed treatment with fungicides and Make a list and discuss the use of
insecticides following fungicides.
Advantages of such treatments are as
follows Seed treating products

 It protect seed from seed rot.

 It controls the attack of soil insects. Fungicides
 Protect seed from store grain pest
 It prevents the spread of plant diseases.
The three main types of fungicidal and Mercurials Non -
mercurials
insecticidal treatments are as follows
(a) Seed Disinfection: It means
eradication of fungal spores that have Organo Inorganic Organo Inorganic
Mercurials Mercurials Non
established within the seed coat or in e.g. volatile Mercurials
Non
e.g. HgCl. Mercurials
deep seated tissues. The chemicals compound H2O e.g. e.g.CuSO4,
used must penetrate in to the seed to Bupirimate Thirum, CuO
captan
kill the fungus.
55
(3) Special seed treatments:
(a) Seed hardening: - This treatment
given is for achieving drought and cold
tolerance. Chemicals like CaCl2, KCl,
and KH2PO4 are used for this treatment.
(b) Seed fortification: - This is done to
achieve high vigour to overcome soil
reactions. The chemicals useful for
this treatment are manganese sulphate, Fig. 5.5 : Broadcasting
copper sulphate, etc.
This method is cheapest, simplest
(C) Seed pelleting: This treatment consists
and fastest. However, it has some
of coating the seed with nutrients. This
disadvantages. The seed rate required by
is generally used for forest tree seed.
this method is relatively high. The crop
(d) Moist sand conditioning: This seed stand is not uniform, as the distribution of
treatment is given for minimizing loss of seed by this method is uneven. Some places
seed viability. remains gappy and on the other hand some
Soybean seed is mixed with moist sand @ places become crowded. In the case of fine
5 to 10% moisture content. This is seeded crops, the seed is usually mixed
done for cocoa seed also. with sand, ash, etc. Inter culturing is also
not possible be implements. The crops
Steps in seed hardening
sown by this method are jowar, bajra,
Soaking in water or chemicals wheat, paddy, red gram, sannhemp, etc.
with growth regulators (2) Drilling: Drilling means sowing of seed
to certain depth in lines by seed drills. The
seed drills may be two coultered (dufan),
Shade drying three tyned (Tifan) or four tyned (Chaufan).
As the seed is placed in lines at uniform
depth, the crop stand is more uniform.
Inter cultivation operations can be done
Sun drying by bullock drawn implements because
of definite space between two rows of
crop. This method needs less seed rate as
compared to broadcasting. The examples
Hardened seed
of crop grown by this methods are bajra,
jowar, wheat, green gram, pigeon pea, etc.
5.3 Methods of sowing
Crop can be sown by different methods as
described below:
(1) Broadcasting: The seed is spread or
scattered by hand on the soil surface and
later on mixed in to the soil by working
with wooden plough or harrow. This
method is usually followed for irrigated
crop. Majority of cereals and fodder crops Fig. 5.6 : drilling by tractor drawn
are sown by this method. implement

56
 The seed material is placed in soil and
covered with soil by manual labour. The
most common crops sown by this method
are sugarcane, turmeric, potato, ginger,
etc.
(5) Sowing in plough furrows: This method
of sowing is commonly followed in dry
land farming. This method is useful to take
the advantage of moisture in lower layer
Fig. 5.7 : Drilling by bullock drawn implement of soil. The seed is placed at the bottom
(3) Dibbling: In dibbling method of sowing of the plough furrow and is covered, when
seed is placed at specific depth and succeeding furrow is turned over. This
spacing by a dibbler, planter or mostly method is used for crops like gram, pea,
by hand. This method requires more time wheat, maize, red gram, etc. This is slow
and more labour for sowing. However and laborious method.
this method has certain advantages. (6) Transplanting: Transplanting method
The seed rate required is less and crop consists of raising seedling in the nursery
stand is more uniform. and then replanting them in main field.
The interculturing is also possible This method is usually followed for crops
in both directions by implements. The having small seed like paddy, chilli,
vigorously growing crops which need tomato, tobacco and most of the vegetables
wider spacing are usually sown by this as well as flower crops. The seed is sown in
method. This method is useful for cotton, the nursery beds with all extra care needed
sunflower, groundnut, etc. for tender seedlings. While the seedlings
are in the nursery, the farmer get sufficient
time to prepare his land thoroughly. When
the crop attains specific height or grown
to a specific stage, they are pulled out
from nursery bed and planted in the main
field. The nursery bed should be irrigated
properly prior to uprooting of seedlings
from nursery. This is necessary for their
Fig. 5.8 : Dibbling easy removal. Similarly, main field should
(4) Planting: When crop is sown by using be irrigated lightly after transplanting, so
vegetative plant parts such as tuber, that the seedlings get established faster.
rhizomes, cuttings, sets, etc, the sowing is
referred as planting.

Fig. 5.9 : Planting of Sugarcane Fig. 5.10 : Transplanting of paddy seedlings

57
 Exercise
Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks.
1. The process of putting seed in the 4. Moist sand conditioning is given for
ground soil for growing crop plant is minimizing loss of seed viability.
called as -------. 5. Good quality seed is produced, when
2. Kharif crop is usually sown in the crop stand is uniform, vigorous and
month of ----------. healthy.
3. The thumb rule is to sow the seed to a Q. 2 Answer in brief.
depth approximately ---------- times
their diameter. 1. Give the examples of crops sown by
planting method.
4. For increased nitrogen fixation,
leguminous crops are treated with --- 2. What is meant by seed treatment?
------- culture. 3. Why it is necessary that seed should
5. The maturity period of crop can be placed at optimum depth?
be minimized by giving ---------- 4. Give the disadvantages of
treatment to the seed. broadcasting.

B. Make the pairs 5. Write the advantages of dibbling.

‘A’ group ‘B’ group Q. 3 Answer the following questions

1.
Broadcasting a. Sowing by seed 1. Explain broadcasting with examples
drills of crops
2. Dibbling b. Sowing by hand 2. Complete following chart.
using planter
Sr. Name of the
3. Drilling c. Scattering seed Method sowing
No. Crop
on soil surface 1 Broadcasting
-----------------
d. Raising plant in
2 ----------------- Dibbling
the nursery
e. Sowing by using 3 ----------------- Planting
vegetative plant 4 ----------------- Transplanting
part Sowing in plough
5
----------------- furrows
C. State true or false
6 Drilling
1. Water soaking treatment to cotton -----------------
seed is given for improving seed 3. Calculate the plant population for 1
germination. hectare jowar crop when spacing is
30 cm × 15 cm
2. Seed disinfestations means
eradication of fungal spores that 4. Describe the depth of sowing.
have established within seed coat. 5. Explain with examples the different
4. Seed disinfection means destruction treatments given for improving seed
of surface borne organisms. germination and vigour.

58
Q. 4 Answer in detail a. In which forms the seed treatment
1. Define seed treatment and give its material is available?
objectives. b. What is the rate of application of
2. Read the following information and dust fungicides?
answer the questions. c. How slurry type of fungicides are
Seed treatment materials are applied?
available in the form of dusts, wettable d. Give the purpose of using dye in seed
powders and liquids. Dust fungicides are treatment.
applied at the rate of 2 to 2.5 gm per kilograms
of seed. They are mixed by mechanical e. List out any two causes of poor seed
mixer. Slurry fungicides applied in a water treatment.
suspension, which is mixed with seed in a 3. Explain the different methods of
slurry seed treater. Use of liquid solution is sowing and give examples.
known as the quick wet method. A solution
4. State the advantages of seed
of a volatile fungicide is applied to the seed
and is thoroughly mixed with them. Most seed treatment with fungicides and
treatments contain dyes which serves two insecticides and explain their
purposes. First as a warning that seeds have types.
been treated and second as a visible means 5. Describe the different factors useful
of evaluating the completeness of treatment in deciding proper time of sowing.
coverage. Some important causes of poor seed
Activity :
treatments are use of wrong or inappropriate
fungicide, use of inadequate dosages and Practice the different methods of sowing
carelessness in the treatment procedure. in the field.

Do yourself Write the precaution taken from you regarding the activity of sowing.

59
 6. Plant Nutrition

Recall a little 6.1.2 Criteria of essentiality

For an element to be regarded as an
1. Any living thing requires food (nutrition) essential nutrient the following three criteria
for their growth, development and have been suggested by the scientist Arnon
maintenance. (1954).
2. The food of plant is composed of 1. The plant may be unable to grow
certain chemical elements which are normally or complete its life cycle in
referred as essential nutrients. the absence of the element.
3. These elements are absorbed by
2. The element is specific and can not be
plant roots principally as inorganic
replaced by any other element.
ions derived mostly from mineral
constituents of the soil. 3. The element plays a direct role in the
4. Depending upon the availability of the process of metabolism.
nutrients in soil, the nutrient content in The following elements are recognized
a plant could be deficient, insufficient, as essential (major) for plant growth. They
sufficient, excess or toxic. are Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H),
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K),
6.1 Essential elements Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur
6.1.1 Definition (S), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn),
Copper (Cu), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo)
The elements needed by the plant for
and Chlorine (Cl).
their growth, development and completion
of life cycle, without which plant will not Now a days Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co),
be able to survive are called as essential Silicon (Si) and some other elements are
elements. also being added to this list as supporting
ones (minor).
Know the Scientist 6.1.3 Sources of elements
The deficiency symptoms of an element
can be corrected by the application of that
Dr. Daniel Israel Arnon element. (see table 6.1)
14 Nov 1910 to
20 Dec 1994
Can you tell?

1. Can we consume variety of food items
American plant physiologist whose in our daily diet i.e. vegetables, fruits,
research led to greater insights into the rice, milk, salt, etc. in equal quantity?
operation of photosynthesis in plants. He
2. What is the food of plants?
was awarded national medal of science in
1973. He suggested criteria of essentiality 3. Whether the plants require all nutrients
in 'plant nutrition', (1954). in equal quantity?

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 Table 6.1 : Sources of elements
Natural Nutrient Usable / available form by plant Specific source
Source
Air Carbon (C), Oxygen (O) CO2, O2 Air, Water
Oxygen (O) H2O, O2 Air, Water
Water
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N) NO3- (Nitrate - anion) Fertilizers, manures
Soil NH4+ (Ammonium - cation) and also atmospheric
N-Fixation
Phosphorus (P) H2PO-4 (Monophosphate - anion) Apatite
HPO4-2 (Diphosphate - anion) Rock Phosphate
Potassium (K) K+ (K-cation) Feldspar, Mica, Illite
Calcium (Ca) Ca (Ca-Cation)
+2
Calcite, Dolomite,
Gypsum
Magnesium (Mg) Mg+2 (Mg-cation) Dolomite, Sandstone
Sulphur (S) SO4-2 (Sulphate - anion) Iron pyrite, Gypsum
SO3-2 (Sulphite - anion)
Zinc (Zn) Zn+2 (Zn-cation) Sphalerite
Smithsonite
Copper (Cu) Cu+2 (Cu-cation) Chalcocite, Cuprite
Iron (Fe) Fe+2 (Ferous cation) Haematite, Pyrite,
Fe+3 (Ferric cation) Olivine
Manganese (Mn) Mn+2 (Mn-cation)) Magnetite, Pyrolusite
Boron (B) H3BO3- (Metaborate - anion) Borax, Tourmaline
H2BO3- (Borate - anion)
Molybdenum (Mo) HMoO4- (Molybdate - anion) Molybdenite,
Ferrimolybdate
Chlorine (Cl) Cl- (Cl-anion) Muriate of Potash,
Sodium Chloride

6.2 Classification of essential elements (b) Primary nutrients -

On the basis of quantity required by Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
plants, the elements are classified as follows. are termed as primary nutrients as they
1. Major or macronutients are required in large amount by the
Major or macronutrients, are required by plants. Their wide spread deficiencies
plants in large quantity. These include C, can be corrected by the application of
H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S. These are chemical fertilizers. Hence they are some
further subdivided as follows. times designated as 'fertilizer elements'.
(c) Secondary nutrients -
(a) Basic nutrients - C, O, H
Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen constitute Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur are
about 95% weight of plant. Field crops termed as secondary nutrients because
obtain most of their carbon and oxygen they are required in moderate amount
directly from the air. Hydrogen is derived by the plants. Secondary nutrients are as
either directly or indirectly from the soil significant as primary nutrients in plants
water. but they are needed in moderate quantity.

61
 Deficiency of secondary nutrients can be deficiency produces specific symptoms on
corrected through application of Calcium the plant. The deficiency symptoms are
nitrate, Magnesium sulphate, Sulphur, etc. characteristic to the specific nutrient.
and fertilizers containing primary nutrients
e.g. single super phosphate contains both Remember this
Ca and S, likewise ammonium sulphate,
a nitrogenous fertilizer also supply S.
1. Nutrient content is considered deficient
2. Minor or micronutrients when it is so low that it severely limits
(Trace elements) the growth and produces deficiency
symptoms on plants.
The nutrients that are required
relatively in smaller quantities are termed 2. Nutrient content when associated with
as ‘micronutrients’. These include Iron (Fe), only growth reduction and not by
Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), appearance of deficiency symptoms
Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo) and Chlorine are termed as insufficient.
(Cl). The micronutrients are subdivided into 3. Range of nutrient content in plant
micronutrients cations and anions depending associated with optimum crop yields
upon the form in which plants absorb them. is called as sufficient.
(a) Micronutrient cations - Fe, Mn, Zn and
4. When the concentration of a nutrient
Cu
element rises too high to cause
(b) Micronutrient anions - B, Mo and Cl
significant growth reductions, it is
The sources used to supply micro termed as toxic.
nutrients are called micronutrient fertilizers.
They are supplied through inorganic salts
e.g. Ferrous Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate, Borax,
etc.
Do you know ?
6.3 Functions and deficiency symptoms
1. How healthy plant is different from
The essential elements play an important
sick plant?
but different role/functions in plants. The
better known important functions of the 2.
Morphological difference between
essential elements are : normal plant and abnormal plant
in respect of appearance, height,
1. They act as structural constituents and
growth, modification, etc.
support the frame work of the plant
body.
2. They are components of cell constituents
The general functions of the specific
and metabolically active compounds of
elements carried out in the plant body as
the cell.
well as the specific symptoms exhibited on
3. They help in maintenance of cellular plant when that element is deficient in the
organisation. soil are given in short in the following table.
4. They help in energy transformation and
enzyme action.
When the quantity of nutrients is low/
deficient in the growing medium, such
nutrients limit the growth of plants. This
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 Table 6.2 : Functions and deficiency symptoms of nutrients.

Element Functions Deficiency Symptoms

Macronutrients

(i) Carbon forms backbone of most of

the plant biomolecules including
Carbon ptotein, starch and cellulose. --
(C)
(ii) Carbon forms the skeleton of the
plant
(i) It is necessary for building sugars in
plant.
Hydrogen
(ii) It maintains turgor rigidity --
(H)
(iii) It helps for electron transport chain
in photosynthesis and for respiration.
(i) It is component of many organic and
inorganic molecules within the plant.
Oxygen
(ii) It is required for aerobic cellular --
(O)
respiration and breakdown of
glucose to produce ATP
(i) It is a constituent of chlorophyll It’s deficiency causes
(ii) Nitrogen imparts dark green colour (i) Stunted growth
to plant.
(ii) Restricted foliage
Nitrogen (iii) It increases vegetative growth
(N) (iii) Pale yellow or light green
(iv) It is required for formation of amino colour to leaves
acids, proteins and nucleic acid.
(iv) Low yields of crops
(v) It increases acceleration, utilization
of the constituents. (v) Shedding of leaves and fruits

(i) It is constituent of nucleic acid,

co-enzymes, phospho proteins and (i) Restricts growth of plant
phospholipids shoots and roots
(ii) It increases root nodule formation on (ii) Imparts bluish green or dark
roots of pulses green colour to older leaves
Phosphorus
(iii) Increases tillers and ratio of grain to (iii) It suppresses growth of lateral
(P)
straw in crops buds
(iv) It induces early maturity (iv) Delays maturity of crops
(v) It makes plant tolerant to drought, (v) Potato tubers show rusty
cold, pests and diseases brown lesions in the flesh
(vi) It increases root growth

63
 (i) It increases leaf efficiency in (i) Deficiency causes stunted and
manufacturing sugar and starch bushy plant growth.
(ii) It controls the stomatal movement (ii) Leaf margins turn brown
(iii) It plays catalytic role in activating
number of enzymes (iii) It causes shortening of
Potassium internodes and drying of shoot
(iv) It is required for maintenance of
(K)
cellular organisation (iv) Deficiency causes blackening
(v) It increases resistance to diseases, of potato tubers and damage
heat and moisture stress in storage
(vi) It improves quality of fruits (colour,
flavour and size, etc.)
(i) It is a constituent of cell wall (i) It affects the meristematic
(ii) It is required for mitotic activities portions of root and terminal
(iii) It activates enzymes phospholipase buds of plant die.
and ATPase, etc. (ii) Root growth is stunted
Calcium (iv) It plays primary role as soil (iii) Marginal chlorosis occurs in
(Ca) amendment younger leaves
(v) It helps to translocate the sugar in the (iv) Premature falling of flowers
plants and fruits in leguminous crops
(vi) It neutralises organic acid which may
become poisonous to plants
(i) It is a part of chlorophyll molecules (i) It increases chlorosis between
(ii) It is required by enzymes involved in the veins of older leaves and
carbohydrate metabolism they may turn brown
Magnesium (iii) It is essential for activity of enzymes (ii) It may causes necrosis in
(Mg) (iv) It is usually needed by plants for severe deficiency.
synthesis of oils and fats
(v) Increases crop resistance to drought
and diseases
(i) It is a constituent of amino acid and (i) It causes chlorosis
vitamins involved in synthesis of (ii) It develops antho-cyanine
chlorophyll pigmentation (which is first in
Sulphur (ii) It is required for the activities of younger leaves)
(S) enzymes (iii) Fruit becomes abnormal-
(iii) Pungent odour of onion and garlic is shaped, thick skinned and less
due to sulphur compounds' juicy
(iv) It stimulates seed formation
(i) It takes part in chlorophyll synthesis (i) It causes interveinal chlorosis
(ii) It has a catalytic role in activities of which first appears in
many enzymes younger leaves
Iron (ii) Leaves become dry and papery
(Fe) (iii) It is active in biological oxidation
later turn brown and necrotic
(iii) Chlorosis and mottle leaf in
sugarcane

64
 (i) It is the activator of enzymes in (i) It causes interveinal chlorosis
respiration and metabolism of young leaves
Manganese (ii) It also activates many other enzymes (ii) The necrotic spots appear on
(Mn) (iii) It helps in synthesis of chlorophyll as leaves
it is a part of chlororophyll (iii) Causes marsh spots on peas
and blight on sugarcane leaves
(i) It is required in auxin and protein (i) It causes interveinal chlorosis
synthesis (ii) Chlorosis is followed by
(ii) It takes part in synthesis of necrosis in older leaves
Zinc
chlorophyll (iii) It results in short internodes,
(Zn)
(iii) It is essential for RNA synthesis and Khaira disease in rice, ‘White
seed production bud’ in maize.
(iv) Plants show rosette apperance
(i) It is required in carbohydrate and (i) The young leaves become
protein metabolism necrotic at tip point
(ii) It is activator of enzyme (ii) Dead tissue appears on tips of
Copper (iii) It is essential for synthesis of vit.-A in leaves
(Cu) plants (iii) Multiple bud formation in the
(iv) It is involved in the respiration of leaf axil
plants (iv) Gum formation and dieback in
citrus
(i) It is involved in transportation of (i) Its deficiency causes death of
carbohydrate in plants shoot tips
(ii) It helps in flower and pollen grain (ii) Causes stunted leaves
Boron formation (iii) Also causes cracking of fruits
(B) (iii) Essential for translocation of sugar in (iv) Associated with sterility and
plants malformation of reproductive
organs
(i) It is essential in symbiotic 'N' fixation (i) It causes chlorotic interveinal
and nitrate assimilation mottling of the basal leaves
(ii) It is the constituent of nitrate which is followed by necrosis.
Molybdenum
reductase enzyme (ii) Its deficiency causes ‘Whip
(Mo)
tail’ in cauliflower.
(iii) It reduces activities of nitrogen
fixing organisms.
(i) It is involved in primary (i) It gives wilted appearance to
Chlorine photosynthetic reaction. foliage
(Cl) (ii) It is also involved in cyclic photo (ii) It causes stuffy roots with
phosphorylation lateral branching

6.3.2 Integrated Nutrient Management green manures, biofertiliers and other

(INM) decomposable material for crop production.
It is the combined application of The basic concept of INM is the adjustment
chemical fertilizers along with organic of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level
resource materials like organic manure, for sustaining the desired crop productivity.

65
 Integrated nutrient management (INM) to be quite promising for increasing organic
is the consideration of all the factors matter in the soil.
responsible for increasing available nutrients
in the soil. To achieve the objectives of INM the
Those factors are as follows. strategies are-

(1) Physical condition of soil – The i. Use fertilizer recommendations based

on soil analysis. Use optimum and
availability of nutrient depends on the
balanced fertilizers for the cropping
physical condition of soil such as good
system as a whole.
structure, aeration, etc.
ii.
Integrated use of all sources of
(2) Soil moisture - Plants absorb nutrients
nutrients as per soil and crop need.
from the soil in the form of solution
and which require sufficient moisture iii. Use of crop rotations involving legumes
in the soil. iv. Remove deficiencies of nutrients as
(3) Soil pH – The nutrients remain and when first detected and ameliorate
generally available in the soil at problematic soils with appropriate
neutral pH (6.0-7.0). amendments.
v.
Encourage farmers to use bio-
(4) Manures and nutrient management–
inoculants, bio-fertilizers, organic
Manure provide organic nutrients
manures and promote farmer to
and moisture in the soil. It improves
evaluate soils for quality, fertility and
physical, chemical and biological
overall productivity.
properties of soil.
(5) Fertilizer and nutrient management-
The fertilizers are acidic or basic
in nature. Application of fertilizer B Ca
constantly makes the soil acidic or
alkaline according to nature of fertilizer S
used. Fertilizer should be applied on Fe
the basis of the soil analysis. Mn
(6) Bio - fertilizer and nutrient management
- Bio-fertilizer are the culture of
Cu
microorganism capable of fixing or
solubilizing the nutrients. Zn
Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
Mo
is actually the technical and managerial
component which is one of the policy of Mg
ICAR. Organic materials are the potential K
source of major nutrients besides containing
fair amounts of micro nutrients. The indirect P
effects include augmentation of beneficial N
microbial population, their activities and
improvement of soil health. Incorporation
of crop residues as well as other organic
Fig. 6.1 : Deficiency
material like press mud cake, biogas slurry,
symptoms of nutrients
green manuring, vermicompost, etc. seems
66
 of these manures, however, depends on the
Can you tell? amount of humus they add to the soil.)

2. Fertilizers
1. Different materials which supply
These are the inorganic substances
nutrients to plants
added to soil to supply certain elements
2. Naturally available source and artificial essential for crop growth. They contain large
compounds supplying nutrients amount of nutrients per unit weight and in
a definite composition e.g. urea, single super
6.4 Manures and fertilizers phosphate, muriate of potash, etc.
6.4.1 Meaning
3. Bio-fertilizers
1. Manures These are the substances which contain
These are the organic substances of living micro organisms which, when applied
plant or animal origin and capable of to seed, plant surfaces or soil colonize the
supplying plant nutrients in small quantity rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and
per unit weight as well as provide food for promotes growth by increasing the supply
soil micro organism. Examples are FYM, or availability of primary nutrients to the
compost, green manure, vermicompost, host plant. e.g. Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
organic waste, crop residues, etc. (The value Blue green algae (BGA) etc.

6.4.2 Classification of Manures and Fertilizers

Classification of Fertilizers

Organic manures Chemical fertilizers Bio-fertilizers

(Natural) (Synthetic)

Organic Manures

Bulky Concentrated

well decomposed under decomposed Plant origin

Animal origin
eg. F.Y.M., e.g. green manures, oil cakes
Compost, Sewage (dhaincha, gliricidia,
and Sludge other legumes)

Non edible edible

e.g. neem e.g. groundnut,
jatropha, sunflower,
karanj mustard

e.g. blood meal, bone meal, fish meat, manure meal

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 Chemical Fertilizers

Straight Complex Fertilizer Mixtures Soil Micro nutrient

Fertilizers Fertilizers e.g. mixtures of Amendments fertilizers e.g.
e.g. nitro different grades e.g. gypsum, borax, copper
phosphate (e.g. 10 : 26 : 26) lime sulphate, zinc
sulphate

Nitrogenous Phosphatic Potassic

fertilizers Fertilizers e.g. Fertilizers e.g.
e.g. urea, Single super muriate of
ammonium phosphate, double potash, sulphate
sulphate super phosphate of potash

Bio-fertilizers

Nitrogen fixing Phosphate Decomposers

Bio-fertilizers mobilising Bio- e.g.
(NBF) fertilizers (PMBF) Trichoderma

NBF for NBF for cereals Phosphate Phosphate

legumes e.g. Azospirillum solubilizer absorber e.g.
e.g. spp., Azotobacter bacteria (PSB). glomus, vascular
Rhizobium spp., Azolla BGA e.g. bacillus articular
spp. (Blue Green Algae), pseudomonas, mycorrhiza
Acetobacter spp. aspergillus (VAM)

Fig. : 6.2 : Classification of manures and fertilizers

6.4.3 Brief study of Manures and 2. Compost : This is the bulky organic
Fertilizers manure obtained from the decomposition
Bulky Organic Manures of organic wastes with the help of the
These manures contain plant nutrients action of microorganisms. e.g. rural
in small quantities and organic matter in compost (made from farm waste and
large quantities. house refuses), urban compost (made
1. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) : It is from town wastes).
decomposed mixture of the solid and 3. Vermicompost : The compost prepared
liquid excreta of farm animals along by using earthworms is called
with litter (e.g. materials used for vermicompost.
bedding purpose of cattle) and left over (i) Selection of earthworms - Eisenia
material from fodder fed to the cattle, e.g. fetida being a most active
cattle manures, sheep penning, poultry species hence, commonly used
manure, etc. for vermicompost production.
68
 Earthworms which are the native sewage by screening, sedimentation,
of the local soil can be used. chemical precipitation or bacterial
(ii) Size of pit : 3.0 m long, 1.5 m digestion is called sludge.
wide and 0.6 m deep pit may be 5. Green manuring : It is the practice of
prepared. The distance between two incorporation of green succulent plant
pits is 0.6 m. material into soil for improving physical
(iii) Preparation of vermibed - At the structure as well as the fertility of soil.
bottom of the pit 15 cm layer of It consists of raising quick growing crops
raw organic material from farm, upto flowering stage and incorporate
household refuse, etc. should be them into the soil by ploughing. There
placed. are two types of green manuring.
(iv) Organic layering - Compost pit (i) Green manuring in situ - Green
is then layered about 15 cm with manure crops are grown in situ either as
partially decomposed cow dung and a pure crop or as an intercrop with the
soil in 3:1 proportion. Moisture level main crop and then buried in the same
is maintained (without flooding) by field at flowering stage e.g. sannhemp,
spraying of water. dhaincha, cowpea, cluster bean, etc.
(ii) Green leaf manuring - This refers
(v) Wet organic layer - Cow dung slurry
to turning into the soil the green leaves
(or biogas slurry) is to be prepared
and tender green twigs collected from
and spread over it to a thickness
shrubs and trees grown on bunds,
of 10 cm and cover the pit with
waste land and near by forest area e.g.
15 cm organic material (dry
Glyricidia.
and green leaves). After 3-4 days
inoculation of earthworm is done. Concentrated organic manures
(vi) Inoculation of earthworm - 1. Plant origin : These are organic in nature
About 1000-1500 earthworms are and contain relatively higher percentage
introduced as an optimum density of plant nutrients as compared to bulky
into a compost pit. organic manure. These are generally
undecomposed material.
(vii) Harvesting - At maturation,
(i) Oil cakes : Richest source of plant
moisture content is brought down.
nutrients of all organic manures.
This ensures drying of compost and
These are of two type.
migration of worms towards base
of the vermibed. Mature compost is (a) Edible oil cakes - These types of
removed, sieved, dried and packed. oil cakes are generally used for
feeding the cattle as concentrates,
4. Sewage and sludge : (i) Sewage -
but low grade ones can be used
This is the liquid collected from the
as manure for crops e.g. groundnut
closed drains usually contains urine and
cake, mustard cake, sesame seed
washings in addition to night soil and
cake, linseed cake, etc.
other solid ingredients. Sewage has two
components. (b) Non edible oil cakes - These types
(a) Solid portion - sludge of oil cakes are not suitable for
(b) Liquid portion - sewage feeding cattle and mainly used for
(ii) Sludge - The settle sewage solid manuring e.g. neem cake, karanj
combined with varying amounts of water cake, mahua cake, castor cake, etc.
and dissolved materials removed from
69
 (ii) Animal origin - (a) Waste products (E) Micronutrient fertilizers : Micronutrient
of slaughter house : (a) Blood fertilizers are those which contain micro
meal Dried blood is a very quick nutrients. They are the salts like Zinc
acting manure and is effective for Sulphate, Ferrous sulphate, manganese
all type of crops and soil. sulphate, etc.
(b) Bone meal : It is the oldest Bio-fertilizers
phosphatic fertilizer as bones (1) Nitrogen fixing bio-fertilizers (NBF)
contain calcium phosphate. It is Atmosphere contains 78 percent nitrogen
more effective with PSB. and 0.03 percent Carbon dioxide. Plants
(c) Fish meal : This is available either are capable to assimilate carbon dioxide
as dried fish or as fish meal or through photosynthesis even when carbon
powder where in fish oil is extracted. dioxide content in air is less, but most
The residue contains nutrients hence of the plants cannot fix atmospheric
can be used as manure. nitrogen though it is abundant.
Chemical fertilizers NFB bacterias play a very significant
(A) Straight fertilizers : Chemical fertilizers role in improving soil fertility by fixing
which contain only one primary or macro atmospheric nitrogen both in association
nutrient are called as straight fertilizers with plant roots and also without it. e.g.
e.g. urea, single super phosphate, MOP, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillium.
etc. (2) Phosphate mobilising bio-fertilizers
(B) Compound or complex fertilizers: (PMBF)
Fertilizers which contain more than These micro-organisms are mainly
one primary or major nutrient elements bacteria and fungus. They possess the
and produced by the process of ability to bring insoluble soil phosphates
chemical reactions. These fertilizers are into a soluble forms by secreting
usually produced in granular form e.g. several organic acids, under favourable
diammonium phosphate (DAP), Suphala conditions and also by the biological
(15:15:15, 20:20:00), Monoammonium reactions.
phosphate, 10:26:26, 12:32:16, etc. (3) Decomposers
(C) Mixed fertilizers or fertilizer mixtures: Decomposing bio-fertilizers when
These are prepared by physical mixing added with organic matter increases
of two or more fertilizers. Such the rate of decomposition of the
mixtures can be prepared by mixing organic matter hence, they are used for
two or more straight fertilizers. Usually preperation of compost, FYM and in
fertilizer mixtures are prepared to meet situ decomposition of organic residues
specific needs of crop e.g. NPK 10:5:5, in field.
20:20:00, 20:10:10, etc. 6.4.4 Methods of fertilizer application
(D) Soil amendments : Any material which Fertilizers are costlier inputs in
is used to correct the soil acidity/ agriculture. They need to be applied at
alkalinity or any problematic property proper time and also by correct method
of soil is called as soil amendment to get maximum benefits from this input.
e.g. Gypsum, lime, iron pyrite etc. lime Otherwise, the objective of fertilizer
stone is used to correct acidic soil and application may not be fulfilled. Fertilizers
gypsum to correct alkaline soil. are generally applied in the following two
forms.
70
1. Application of fertilizers in solid form

Broadcasting Placement Pellet Application

e.g. (i) Basal application (i) Plough sole
(ii) Deep
(ii) Top dressing
(iii) Local placement
(iv) Band placement

Hill Row Ring

Types of fertilizer application in solid form
(a) Broadcasting : Even and uniform (ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over
spreading of manure or fertilizer by the field.
hand over the entire surface of field (iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they
while cultivation or after the sowing in come in contact with large mass of
standing crop is termed as broadcasting. soil.
Depending upon time of fertilizer
(b) Drilling : Granular fertilizers are
application there are two types of
applied through seed-cum-fertilizer drill
broadcasting.
at sowing time. The phosphatic and
(i) Broadcasting at planting or sowing potassic fertilizers are applied to cereal
e.g. concentrated organic manures, crops and cotton. But this method is not
potasic fertilizer, citric soluble suitable for pulse crops.
phosphatic fertilizers, etc.
(c) Placement or spot application : It is
(ii) Top dressing : Braodcasting
the method of placing fertilizer in the
fertilizers in standing crop is known
soil before or after sowing the crops.
as top dressing. Care must be taken
The roots of young plants can get
that do not apply when leaves
nutrients as per their requirement from
are wet e.g. Urea, ammonium
the fertilizer applied by this method.
nitrate.
(i) Ring/Circle method : Fertilizer
application can be done by making
circle or ring around the plant trunk
with sickle/khurapi and covering it
with soil by hand.
(ii) Band method : Fertilizer is placed
in bands or hills near the plant (3-5
cm away) and cover with soil.
(iii) Row placement : The fertilizers are
Fig 6.2 Broadcasting fertilizer placed on one or both sides of the
row by hand e.g. potato, sugarcane,
Disadvantages of broadcasting
etc.
(i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by (d) Pellet application : It refers to the
plant roots as they move laterally over placement of nitrogenous fertilizers in
long distances.
71
 the form of pellets 2.5 to 5 cm deep (b) Root inoculation method - Bio-
between the rows of the paddy crop. fertilizers mixed in water and roots of
The fertilizers mixed with the soil in clean seedling are dipped in solution for
the ratio of 1:10 and small pellets of 120 minutes before transplanting. Use
convenient size are made to deposit. 200 gm biofertilizer for 5-6 lit. water.
2. Application of fertilizers in liquid form (c) Soil application - Bio-fertilizer mixed
with compost and soil mixture and then
spread in field. Use 5 kg biofertilizer
Starter Foliar Direct Aerial Ferti for one hectare field and mix it with
solution application in soil application gation 25 kg compost and 50 kg soil before
spreading.
Types of fertilizer application in liquid form
Precautions adopted in using bio-
(a) Starter solution : Starter solution is fertilizers
prepared by mixing N, P and K fertilizers
in the ratio of 1:2:1 or 1:1:2. This is (i) No other fertilizer or insecticides/
applied to the vegetables seedlings at fungicides should be mixed with seed
the time of transplanting and it helps that are treated with bio-fertilizer.
rapid establishment and quick early
growth of seedlings. (ii) The seed treatment, if required should
be done at least 24 hours before
(b) Foliar application : This is method of
mixing the seeds with bio-fertilizers.
spraying leaves of growing plant with
suitable fertilizer solution having low (iii) Organic manures should not be kept
concentration. It is effective for micro in dump place and in bright sun.
nutrient fertilizers.
(c) Direct application to the soil : Liquid (v) The bio-fertilizers should be used
fertilizers are directly applied to the soil before expiry date.
with special injection equipment e.g. Benefits of bio-fertilizers
unhydrous ammonia, liquid manure such
There are various benefits in using
as urine, sewage water and cowshed
bio-fertilizers as follows -
washings are let into field.
(d) Application through irrigation water (i) It increases the yield of the crop by
(Fertigation) : It refers to the application supplying nitrogen in soil.
of water soluble fertilizers through (ii) It improves the soil condition and
irrigation water generally nitrogenous health through micro-organisms.
fertilizers are applied through irrigation. (iii) The environment cannot be polluted in
(e) Aerial application : In areas where any way due to the use of biofertilizers.
ground application is not practicable, the (iv) Bio-fertilizers are considered
fertilizer solutions are applied by aircraft ecofriendly. Bio-fertilizers save the
particularly in hilly areas, in forest land, crops primarily from seed, soil and
in grass land or in sugarcane field. water borne diseases.
3. Application of bio-fertilizers (v) It helps in turning the fixed phosphorus
(a) Seed inoculation method - Bio-fertilizer to soluble form and increases yield of
is mixed in wheat flour with suitable crops upto 10-30 percent.
amount of water and then seeds are
dipped. Treated seeds are kept in shed (vi) It increases the rate of decomposition
for 30 minutes and used for sowing. For in composting process.
20 kg seed use 200 gm bio-fertilizer
and 250 gm wheat flour.
72
 Exercise
Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. C. Find the odd out.
1. The essentiality criteria of element 1. Rhizobium / suphala / Azolla /
in plant is established by BGA / Trichoderma
2. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 2. Nitrogen / Calcium / Magnesium /
are the plant nutrients. Boron / Phosphorus
3. Deficiency of plant 3. Urea / gypsum / borax / neem
nutrients causes cracking of fruits. cake / suphala
4. Any material which is used to 4. Iron / Calcium / Boron / Zinc /
correct the soil acidity or alkalinity Chloride
is known as . 5. Compost / FYM / BGA / Green
5. BGA is fertilizer. manure / neem cake
B. Make the pairs. D. State true or false.
‘A’ Group ‘B’ Group 1. Straight fertilizer contains only one
primary nutrient.
1. Suphala a. organic manure
2. Biofertilizers are applied by seed
2. Azolla b. soil amendment
inoculation method.
3. Neem cake c. chemical fertilizer
3. Vermicompost is prepared by using
d. fungicide earthworms.
g. biofertilizer 4. Khaira disease in paddy is caused
due to deficiency of zinc.
Q.2 Answer in brief.
5. Compost is the concentrated organic
1. Give difference between manure manure.
and fertilizer.
2. Write note on biofertilizers.
3. Complete the following chart.
Bulky
Organic manure
Plant origin
Blood meal
4. Complete the following chart.
Primary P
Macro Nutrients
Ca S

5. Complete the following chart.

Sources of nutrients -------- Water --------

Carbon -------- Primary --------

73
Q.3 Answer the following questions.
1. Explain INM.
2. Explain vermicomposting.
3. Complete the following table.

Chemical fertilizers

Micronutrient
Straight --- --- ---
Fertilizers
e.g. Nitro N P K Gypsum ---
Phosphate 10 : 26 : 26

4. Explain classification of essential

nutrients with examples. is spread in a thin layer and sprinkled with
5. Complete the following table. a mixture of fresh cow dung. Compost
manure is reinforced with super phosphate
Methods of fertilizer application @ 25 kg per ton of manure. When the pit
is filled to a height of 1.5 to 2.0 feet (45-
Solid form Bio 60 cm) above ground level the surface is
fertilizers plastered with one inch layer of a mixture of
mud and cow dung. The compost becomes
Braodcasting Starter
solution ready in about three to four months without
any further attention.
-- -- Root
inoculation 1. Define compost.
Drilling -- -- 2. What is the size of compost pit?
-- Fertigation 3. Explain composting method.
Q.4 Answer in detail. 4. Which chemical fertilizer is mixed
in pit?
1. Read the given paragraph and
5. What is aerobic decomposition?
answer the following question.
Compost is an organic manure prepared 2. Complete the given table.
from plant residues and animal waste by Nutrient Usable form Mineral
decomposition. The process of making by plant source
compost is known as composting. It is largely 1. Boron -- --
a biological process in which aerobic (which 2. -- Ferrous - ion Haematite
requires air or oxygen) and anaerobic
3. Chlorine -- Sodium
(which function in absence of air or free
chloride
oxygen) microorganisms decompose organic
4. -- NO3 --
matter and lower the Carbon Nitrogen
ratio. In the aerobic process, the mixed 5. -- Ca++ --
farm residues are collected in the pits 6. -- H2PO4 Apatite
of convenient size, say 15’ × 5’ × 3’
(450 × 150 × 90 cm). Each days collection 7. Potassium -- Feldspar

74
 3. Complete the following table.
Functions of Functions of
Functions of Calcium Functions of Boron
Nitrogen Phosphorus
1.

2.

3.

4. Write in detail classification of Activity :

essential elements with explanation. Apply fertilizers to the crop in the field by
5. Explain the different methods of different methods.
fertilizer application.

Courtesy : Rastriya Chemicals and Fertilizers, Mumbai

75
 7. Irrigation Management

Can you recall?

3 % Tank

s
ce
(1) What are the basic needs of plant for

er %
ur
24 %

oth 11
so
their survival? Canal
(2) What is the difference between water 16 %
other wells
and irrigation?
(3) About Soil, water and plant relationship.
46 %
Tube Wells
For successful crop production water
must be supplied to plant as required by
them through irrigation. Plant receives water
required for their growth from soil moisture. Different sources of irrigation
The soil moisture can be replenished whenever
Remember this
it gets depleted. Irrigation helps to maintain
soil water balance during stress period. Largest Dams in Maharashtra
1. Koyana, Satara
Do you know ? 2. Jayakwadi, Aurangabad
3. Ujjani, Solapur
 What is the main source of irrigation 4. Isapur, Nanded
in India? 5. Totladoh, Nagpur
 What efforts are made to distribute
(2) Yield of crop is increased and it maintains
water uniformly ?
soil temperature.
7.1 Definition of irrigation (3) It maintains soil water balance completely
The artificial application of water for and plant water balance partly.
supplying moisture essential to plant growth is (4) Irrigation is necessary for raising winter
known as irrigation. and summer season crops.
It is the artificial provision of water to (5) It improves the ground water storage.
supplement rainfall for crop production. (6) Water supplies two essential elements,
Irrigation provides favourable environment hydrogen and oxygen to the crops.
for higher crop growth and yield. Effective (7) It is necessary for the absorption of mineral
irrigation is the controlled and uniform nutrients by the plants from the soil.
application of water to crop land in the required (8) It brings biological equilibrium and
amount at the required time, with minimum enrichment of soil.
cost to produce optimum yields without
(9) Irrigation ensures choice of efficient
wastage of water and any adverse effect. valuable crop and increases efficiency of
7.2 Advantages and adverse effects of inputs.
irrigation 7.2.2 Adverse effects of irrigation
7.2.1 Advantages of irrigation
• The indiscriminate use of water leads to the
(1) Irrigation provides insurance against short problem of waterlogging and salt imbalance
duration drought during crop season. making the agricultural land unproductive.
76
• The root growth is restricted in irrigated
soil and therefore nutrients that leach Do you know ?
downward are not extracted by the crops.
Why irrigation is indispensable in India?
• Irrigated soil becomes more compact on
• Uncertain monsoon rain.
drying and thus tillage requirements are
• Spatial variation in rainfall.
high. • Low winter rain.
• Erosion of soil and loss of plant nutrients • Low retaining capacity of soil.
and wastage of water in sloppy land. • Cultivation of high yielding variety.
• In deep clay soils a huge quantity of water • Multiple cropping
is lost in filling up cracks before it reaches These systems are as follows :
at saturation level.
7.3.1 Surface irrigation system :
• Preparation of boundary bunds, plot bunds, In this system water is applied and
channels for irrigation and drainage reduce distributed over the soil surface by gravity.
effective sowing area. It is often referred as flood irrigation in
• The requirements of costly inputs such as which applied water moves over the land
fertilizer and tillage are considerable in surface freely and also infiltrate into the
irrigated agriculture. soil.
• Irrigation water is often acidic or alkaline The various methods of surface irrigation
and contains injurious salts, impurities and systems are
weed seeds that affect crop production. Flooding : It includes (a) Wild flooding
• Incidence of insects, pest, pathogens, (b) Controlled flooding
parasite and weed are high in irrigated (a) Wild flooding : In this method water
areas. from channel is allowed to flood in
7.3 Systems of irrigation the entire field in an uncontrolled way.
This practice is followed where water is
Different systems are used to apply
abundant and inexpensive. It is followed
irrigation water to the crop depending upon
on smooth lands like wet land of rice and
(a) Topography (present condition of land) close growing crops like leafy vegetables
(b) Soil type and fodder crops.
(c) Crop water resources
(d) Climatic condition Advantages Disadvantages
(e) Cost 1. It is less 1. The main drawback
expensive and of this method is loss
Irrigation system does not require of huge quantity of
any skill water.
2. Except land 2. It is the most
Surface Subsurface Sprinkler Drip levelling and inefficient method
boundary bund in which high lying
Flooding preparation, no patches remain dry
other field layout and low lying once are
is necessary submerged in water
Wild Flooding Controlled Flooding
3. Supervision of 3. All types of field
water application management practice
Border Check Ring and Ridge and may not be are very poor i. e.
Strip Basin Basin Furrow required nutrient management

77
(b) Controlled flooding In this method field is divided into
(i) Border strip method small plots surrounded by bunds at all
In this method the field is divided into the four sides. The size of check basin
long, narrow strips with small parallel ranges from 4 × 3 m to 6 × 5 m. The shape
ridges on the sides. Length of the strip may be rectangular or square depending
ranges from 30 to 150 meters long and upon topography and soil texture. It is
6 to 8 meters wide, which depend upon suitable for crops like groundnut, wheat,
field condition and crop type. The borders finger millets, etc. In this method water
are laid out along the general slope. can be applied uniformly but more
labour is required to prepare layout. Land
Flow direction of field channel
is wasted under channels and bunds.
Intercultivation by implement is difficult.

nd
d

bund
bun

nent bu
bun
t
nen

rary
rary
ma

Perma
po

po
Per

Tem

Tem

Basin-A Basin-B Basin-C

Fig 7.1 (a) : Border strip method

Fig 7.2 : Check Basin method

(iii) Ring and Basin method
This method is suitable for orchard
and other high value crops. The basin
may be square, rectangular or circular in
shape.
Basin method - A small bund of 15 to
22 cm high is formed around the stump
of the tree at a distance of about 30 to 60
Fig 7.1 (b) : Border strip method cm depending upon water quantity to be
This method is suitable for close supplied. In this method water is applied
growing crops like wheat, legume, fodder in controlled way, to the restricted area
crops etc. in medium to heavy textured around the stem.
soil. Intercultivation is possible. Labour
requirement is less for field layout, large
irrigation streams can be efficiently
used, It is not suitable in coarse texture
soil. Repairing and supervision during
irrigation is needed.
(ii) Check basin method
It is the most common method among
surface methods of irrigation. Fig 7.3 : Basin method
78
 Ring method - These are circular beds. 7.3.2 Subsurface irrigation system
Heap of soil around plant trunk is made to In this system water is applied into
avoid direct contact of water to the plant a series of field ditches or through under
trunk. This helps in avoiding water borne ground perforated pipes deep down to
diseases. impervious layer. The depth of ditches
varies from 30 cm to 1m and 15 to 30 cm
apart. Water through ditches or perforated
pipes gradually saturates the root zone
through capillary movement. This system
is practiced in sandy soil for coconut
garden in Kerala and for vegetables in
Kashmir. In artificial sub irrigation water
Field channel
Main water channel passes through underground perforated
pipe in the root zone. This system avoids
Fig 7.3 : Ring method water loss through evaporation and reduce
(iv) Ridges and furrow method weed problem. It may causes heavy
Furrows are small parallel channels loss of water through deep percolation.
made to carry water in small streams Maintenance is required and it causes
between the rows of crops grown on ridges interference in cultivation.
or furrow sides. This method is suitable
for crops like sugarcane, cotton, tobacco,
sorghum, maize, vegetables, etc. The size
and shape of the furrow depends upon
spacing adopted for the crop, soil type and
slope. The length ranges from 30 m to 300 m.
In this method uniform application
of water is possible. Cost of furrow
preparation is more. Furrow can be open
using ridger or by manual operation.
Fig 7.5: Subsurface Irrigation system
7.3.3 Sprinkler irrigation system
This is a method of applying
irrigation water under controlled manner
as like natural rainfall. It is also called
as overhead irrigation. It acts as spray.

Fig 7.4 : Ridges and furrow method

 How do you reduce water loss by

evaporation?
 Do you know modern methods of
irrigation? Fig 7.5: Sprinkler Irrigation system

79
 The important components of a
sprinkler irrigation system are the pump,
pressure gauge, control valves, main
pipeline, lateral line, T-coupling, bend, end
plug, riser pipe and sprinkler head. The
height of riser pipe depends on the height
of the crop. Sprinkler heads of rotation
type are fixed on the riser pipe. Sprinkler
heads generally have two nozzles, one to
apply water at long distance and other for
short distance.
Fig 7.6 : Rain gun
Advantages 7.3.4 Drip irrigation system
(1) It is used for almost all crops and for all Drip irrigation is a method of
types of soil. controlled irrigation in which water is
(2) Water can be applied at a controlled slowly delivered drop by drop to the root
rate with uniform distribution and high system of multiple plants. The water is
efficiency. applied to the soil from the emitters. The
emitters which are attached to laterals
(3) Land levelling is not essential. distribute water for irrigation. The number
(4) Run off and soil erosion is less. of emitters on laterals depends on plant
spacing of the crop, soil characteristics,
(5) Soluble fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides
root development and discharge of
and fungicides can be applied through this
emitter. The main components of drip
method.
system are–pump set, pressure gauge,
(6) Saving of water about 30 - 40 per cent. control valve, pressure regulator, primary
(7) Accurate and easy measurement of filter, secondary filter, main line, lateral
distributed water. line, multi outlet distributor, end plug and
emitters. This method is most suitable for
Disadvantages
arid and semi-arid region with limited
(1) Sprinkler irrigation does not work well availability of water. It is best suited
under high wind velocity. for wide spaced fruit crops, vegetables,
(2) High initial equipment cost. sugarcane, cotton, etc.

(3) It is not suitable where water contains Advantages

large amount of salt, sand and debris. (1) Saves water upto 70% and labour also.
(2) Water losses due to percolation, runoff
Remember this and evaporation are quite minimum.
Rain gun – It is high pressure, high volume, (3) Weed population is less due to limited
large diameter sprinkler irrigation. It covers surface wetting.
more area for irrigation .There are semi – (4) No land levelling is necessary and can be
permanent and permanent rain guns. These followed in hilly terrain areas.
sprinklers have radius of discharge throw (5) Fertilizes can be applied along with water.
from 24 m to 36 m. This can be used for (6) Plant growth is better and higher yield
various agronomic crops, vegetables, flowers, can be obtained.
etc. It is available in portable and fixed form. (7) Less incidence of disease.
80
Disadvantages (4) Damage to lateral system by rodents,
(1) High initial cost. clogging of emitters and accumulation of
(2) It requires specific skill. salt near plant are the limitations.
(3) Need regular maintenance and high repair
cost

Lateral

e
n lin
Pump Filtes

Mai
Vaccum Pressure
breaker gauge

Fertilizer
injector Emitters
Fertilizer tank
pump

Fig 7.7 : Drip Irrigation system

7.4 Criteria for scheduling of irrigation

How much?
When?

Which crop ? Irrigation

Scheduling

How many times?

Which method?

Irrigation Scheduling Criteria

Soil Water Regime Climatological Approach Plant Indices Physiological

Stages
Feel and Appearance Cumulative Pan Evaporation
Critical Stages
Depletion of Available Soil Moisture

Soil Moisture Tension

Visual Plant Growth Canopy Indicator Critical

Symptoms Population Rate Temp. Ratio Plant Growth Stage

81
 There are several approaches of scheduling
irrigation based on soil, crops, climate and seedling, flag leaf,
Sorghum 3
plant – water relationship. flowering

(1) Soil water regime (depletion) - In Germination,

this method soil moisture content is pegging,
Groundnut 4
estimated to know the deficit in available flowering, pod
soil moisture at which it is proposed development
to irrigate at particular level. It can be
Flowering, pod
measured either by direct gravimetric Redgram 2
formation
method or indirect measurement such as
tensiometer and resistance block method. Basic unit of water measurement (motion)
(2) Climatological approach - Evapo (1) Cusec- cubic feet per second,
transpiration (ET) mainly depends upon 1 cubic feet =7.4805 gallons
climate. The amount of water lost by
evapo-transpiration is estimated from (2) Acre inch- Quantity of water that will
climatological data and when ET reaches cover one acre of surface and one inch
at particular level, irrigation is given. deep soil

(3) Plant indices - Any plant character, related (3) Duty- Denotes the number of acres covered
directly or indirectly to plant water deficit by 1 cusec of water flowing continuously
which responds readily to integrated throughout the growing season of crop.
influence of soil water, plant evaporative (4) Delta- It is total depth of water required
demand of the atmosphere, may serve as for a crop during entire period of the crop.
criteria for timing of irrigation. Visual sign
of plant wilting can be used to schedule Do you know ?
irrigation to crops. Farmer frequently use
dropping, curling and rolling of leaves as  Which irrigation method is mostly used
visual signs. in India?
(4) Physiological stages - The critical
7.5 Drainage
growth stages of some important field
crops at which irrigations are given after Can you recall?

considering the rainfall are used for
scheduling irrigation. Why water is stored in the field?
Critical stages of different crops: How will you remove stagnated water in the
field?
No. of 7.5.1 Meaning of drainage
Crop Critical stages
irrigation
Excess soil moisture or water logging
Early tillering, occurs due to heavy and continuous rains
Rice panicle initiation, 3 or due to faulty irrigation practices. Water
flowering logging causes several changes in the soil and
Crown root plant resulting in reduced growth and in some
initiation, tillering, cases, death of the plants.
Wheat flowering, grain 5 Drainage is the removal of excess
development, gravitational water from the soil by artificial
dough stage means to enhance crop production.
82
 (7) Desirable chemical reactions take place
and nutrients become available to the
plant easily.
(8) There is proper root development and
absorption of nutrients is increased.
(9) Seed germinates faster and a better stand
of the crop is obtained.
(10) Interculturing operations can be done at
proper time.
Fig 7.8 : Drainage channel (11) There is healthy growth of plants and plant
resists the attack of pest and diseases.
Drainage is the provision of suitable (12) Roots can draw moisture from greater
method for removal of excess irrigation or depth and withstand against drought
rainfall water from the field to facilitate condition.
favourable moisture condition for the growth 7.5.3 Causes of improper drainage
of plants.
If the soil is not well drained then there
The removal of excess water (free or
gravitational/standing or stagnant water) from is water logging or stagnation of water takes
the surface of soil or below the surface of the place which affects, growth and yield of crop.
soil so as to create favorable soil conditions The causes of such bad or improper drainage
for plant growth is known as drainage. are as follows.
Surface drainage means removal of (1) If soil is fine textured such as clay with
excess water from the surface of soil. poor permeability the water cannot move
Subsurface or internal drainage means
downward fast enough and accumulates
removal of excess water from-within the soil
surface (mainly from saturated soil pores). on the surface in a thin layer obstructing
7.5.2 Importance of drainage aeration.
For healthy growth of most of the crops (2) The water table may be high and additional
and for getting higher yield soil should not only gravitational water accumulates and
be fertile but it should be well drained also. chokes the airspaces and saturates the
The various advantages of good drainage are surface and sub- soil.
as follows.
(1) The field will not get waterlogged and the
crop can get sufficient water and air.
(2) The soil comes in proper tilth earlier after
rainfall and it is possible to carry out
agricultural operations properly and in
time.
(3) Good drainage helps to improve physical
structure of soil.
(4) Proper drainage prevents salt
accumulation and degradation of irrigated
lands.
Fig 7.9 : Water logging
(5) There should be good balance among
moisture, air and temperature at root zone. (3) There may be hard pan which affects
(6) Microbial activity is induced and seepage of water to lower strata.
resulted in accelerated organic matter
(4) There may be salts affecting water
decomposition.
absorption by roots.
83
(5) Due to low lying area excess rain water These furrows are known as dead furrows
cannot be carried away as surface runoff and land between these furrows is known
rapidly into the drain. as beds. Small ridges or bunds are made at
(6) Faulty use of irrigation water leads to the center of the bed with gradual slope to
creation of water logged condition and drain water into the dead furrows.
raising of ground water table.
(7) Humid regions with continuous and heavy Tell us
rainfall raises water table and saturates
the pore spaces. What is difference between surface and
subsurface drainage?
(8) The area under saline and alkali soils
with poor permeability.
(4) Parallel field ditches
7.5.4 The remedies for drainage It is similar to bedding system but the
improvement parallel ditches of greater capacity are
Surface drainage formed instead of dead furrows. This
Surface drainage is the simplest and the system is suitable for flat lands with
common method in India. In this method large number of small impressions.
outlet channels or field ditches are formed on
7.3.5 Sub surface drainage or underground
the surface to remove the excess water due to
drainage:
heavy rainfall or over irrigation. Irrigation
channels also serve as drainage channels. These A subsurface drainage will remove excess
drains cause hindrance to field preparation water as it percolates into themselves, just like
and intercultivation. They are subjected to open drain. It avoids wastage of land and do
silting and weeds growths which are to be not interfere with farm operation.
removed regularly. Open drains are damaged Sub surfaced systems are
by rodent and farm animals. Different methods (1) Tile drain: It consists of digging a narrow
of surface drainage are adopted depending on trench, placing short section of tiles at
topography of the land, soil characteristics bottom and covering the tiles with earth.
and crops grown.
(1) Random field ditches
Field ditches of shallow depth are formed
randomly over the field. The depressions are
connected by means of shallow channels
or ditches and these are led into an outlet.
(2) Land smoothing
In this method, the elevated area is cutoff
and the excess soil is spread over low Fig 7.10 : Subsurface drainage
areas so that the surface will be even
with uniform slope. Excess surface runoff
is collected and conveyed into the field
ditches provided at the lower end of the
field.
(3) Bedding
Small furrows are formed at known
interval parallel to the slope for draining
out water. Fig 7.11 : Tile drainage
84
(2) Rubble drains: It is made by cutting
narrow ‘V’ shaped drains or rectangular
section, as for box drains, filling them up
with rough stone (large and small) and
covering the whole up with soil level with
surface field soil. Depth may be 90 cm.
(3) Perforated pipe drains: In this a
perforated pipe is designed to allow water
to enter or exit through small holes along Fig 7.13 : Typical watershed
the pipe.
Watershed management is an adaptive,
comprehensive, integrated multi-resource
management planning process that seeks to
balance healthy, ecological, economic, and
social conditions within watershed.
Watershed management serves to integrate
Pipe planning for land and water. It takes into
account both ground and surface water flow
Fig 7.12 : Perforated pipe drainage recognizing and planning for the interaction
of water, plants, animals and human land
7.6 Watershed Management
use found, within the physical boundaries of
watershed.
Can you recall?
7.6.2 Types of watershed?
Watershed area is classified in to different
(1) What is flooding and reason for flooding? categories based on size, drainage, and shape
(2) What kind of damages take place in and land use pattern
flooding?
(3) Why Maharashtra always suffers from (1) On the basis of area.
drought condition? Sr. Types of
Area covered
(4) What kind of measure will you suggest No. watershed
to overcome the drought condition? 1. Mini watershed 1 to 100 ha
2. Micro watershed 100 to 1000 ha
7.6.1 Definition of watershed and 3. Mili watershed 1000 to 10000 ha
watershed management 4. Sub watershed 10000 to 50000 ha
Watershed is the area of land that drains of 5. Macro watershed More than 50000 ha
shed water into specific receiving water body
(2) On the basis of shape
such as lake or river. It is the drainage area on
the earth surface from which runoff resulting Sr No. Shape
from precipitation flows or passed through a A Square
single point to a large stream, a river, a lake B Triangular
or an ocean. C Rectangular
D Oval
It is the area of land that drains water,
E Fern leaf shaped
sediment and dissolved material through a
F Palm shaped
common outlet to a some point along the G Polygon shaped
stream. In another word watershed is natural H Circular Sector Shaped
hydrological unit.
85
7.6.3 Objectives of watershed management (c) Permanent method: This method
helps to stop soil erosion and
(1) To control damaging run off and
slow down speed at water flow by
degradation and thereby conservation of
constructing check dam, percolation
soil and water.
pond, etc.
(2) To promote sustainable farming and
(II) Water harvesting
stabilize crop yield by adopting suitable
It is nothing but accumulation and
cropping and crop management system.
storage of rainwater for reuse on site,
(3) To check soil erosion and increase water rather than allowing it to run off. Water is
infiltration rate. collected in farm pond , percolation tank,
(4) To cover non- aerable area effectively Nala bund and deep tank for domestic
through afforestation and pasture land and agricultural use.
(5) To restore ecological balance
Try this
(6) To enhance the income of the individuals
by adopting alternate enterprises Experiment - How much rain water
(7) To minimize the risk of flood, drought and quantity will be collected from 10 mm
land slide. rainfall that received on your roof ?
(8) Supply and securing of clean and sufficient
 Which cropping system is useful on
drinking water.
sloppy land?
7.6.4 Components of watershed mangement
(III) Crop management
(1) There are four important components of
This component is related with
watershed management.
increasing crop production and to give
(I) Soil and water conservation sustainability by using different cropping
(II) Water Harvesting patterns. It involves monocropping, inter
(III) Crop management cropping, strip cropping, mixed cropping,
crop rotation, cultivation practiced
(IV) Alternate land use system
against slope, etc.
(I) Soil and water conservation (IV) Alternate land use system
The main object of soil and water Land not useful for growing agronomic
conservation is to check soil erosion and crop can be brought under cultivation
to increase availability of ground water. by using advance techniques e.g. agro
This can be achieved by three ways, forestry, pasture land, fiber crop, furniture
(a) Temporary (b) Moderate method wood, agri - horticultural land use, etc.
(c) Permanent This can improve economical status of
(a) Temporary method: In this method farmer.
simple measures like cultivation 7.6.5 The steps in watershed management?
practices across the slope. It requires Watershed management involves
time to time renovation of measures. determination of alternative land treatment
(b) Moderate method: It includes measures for which information about
levelling of land having breadth of 4 problems of land, soil, water and vegetation in
to 5 m , growing grass on bunds to the watershed is essential.
slowdown the speed of water flow (1) Recognition phase
(for every 4-5 year). It involves following steps

86
 (a) Recognition of the problem  Simply water harvesting is defined as
(b) Analysis of the cause of the problem collection of runoff for its productive use.
and its effect Types of water harvesting
(c) Development of alternative solution of (1) Rainwater harvesting : It is one of the most
problem effective method of water management
(2) Restoration phase and water conservation.
It includes two main steps It is the term used to indicate the collection
and storage of rainwater used for human,
(a) Selection of best solution to identified
animals and plant needs. It involves
problem.
collection and storage of rainwater on
(b) Application of the solution to the surface or in subsurface before it is lost as
problem of the land. surface runoff.
(2) Ground water harvesting : Artificial
Can you tell?
recharge to groundwater is a process
(1) What do you do when low rainfall is by which the groundwater reservoir is
received in your area?
(2) Do you store water received from
rainfall?
(3) What kinds of containers are used to
store rain water?

(3) Protection phase

This phase takes care of the general
health of the watershed and ensures normal Fig 7.14 : Water harvesting
functioning.
augmented at a rate exceeding that under
(4) Improvement phase
natural conditions of replenishment.
This phase deals with overall improvement Ground water is recharged and eventually
in the watershed and all land is covered. flows to the surface naturally.
7.6.6 Water harvesting (3) Roof water harvesting: It is the technique
Concept : It is based on the concept of depriving through which rainwater is captured from
part of the land of its share of precipitation, the roof catchment and stored in reservoir.
giving it to another part to increase the amount It can be stored in sub-surface ground
of water available to the gutter part and bring water by adopting artificial recharge
this amount closer to crop water requirement techniques. It helps in self sufficiency of
so that an economical agricultural production water supply and reduces cost of pumping,
can be achieved. Such concentration of provides high quality water. i.e. soft and
precipitation in a smaller area is called water low in minerals, less expensive.
harvesting (WH).
Definition
 The process of collecting natural
precipitation from prepared watershed for
beneficial use.
 Collecting and concentrating various
forms of runoff from precipitation for
various purposes.
Fig 7.15 : Roof water harvesting
87
 Exercise
Q1. A. Fill in the blanks
1. Ring method of irrigation is suitable 3. Write difference between surface and
for ------------- crops. sub surface irrigation methods.
2. Tensiometer instrument is used to 4. Complete the chart.
measure soil -------------.
Surface Check
3. Water harvesting is a component of Method basin
------------. Irrigation Soil
Plant
4. Sprinkler irrigation method saves scheduling water
indices
---------- % water. criteria regime
Random
5. Emitters are the main components of Surface
field Bedding
----------- irrigation system. drainage
ditches
B. Make the pairs Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
A B
1. Describe drip irrigation method.
1. Riser pipe a. Drainage
2. Explain the adverse effects of
2. Perforated pipe b. Rain gun irrigation.
3. Tensiometer c. Sprinkler irrigation 3. Give the advantages of irrigation.

d. Surface drainage 4. Suggest remedies for poor drainage.

5. Read the following paragraph and
e. Soil moisture
answer the questions given below.
C. State true or false Farm pond is a dug out structure with
1. Water supplies only oxygen to the definite shape and size having proper inlet
plant. and outlet structures for collecting the surface
runoff flowing from the farm area. It is one
2. Drip irrigation method saves more of the most important rain water harvesting
than 50 % water. structures constructed at lowest portion of the
3. Furrow method of irrigation is suitable farm area. The stored water must be used for
for crops like jowar, wheat and paddy. irrigation only.
4. Removal of excess water from the There are three types of excavated farm
field is known as irrigation. ponds – Square, Rectangular and Circular.
Circular ponds have high water storage
5. Micro watershed covers the area from
capacity. The problem associated with farm
1 to 100 hectares.
pond in red soils is high seepage losses. This
Q. 2 Answer in brief can be reduced by lining walls. Some of the
traditional methods for seepage control are
1. Write note on a ridge and furrow the use of bentonite, soil dispersants and
method. soil- cement mixture. Bentonite has excellent
2. Give components of watershed. sealing properties if kept continuously wet,

88
but crack develops when dried. Soil cement Q. 4 Answer in detail.
mixture can be used. A soil – cement lining of (1) Write in detail about sprinkler method
100 mm thickness reduces seepage losses up with its advantages and disadvantages.
to 100 per cent. The other alternative sealant.
Alfisols is a mixture of red soil and black soil (2) Write in detail about objectives of
in the ratio of 1:2. watershed management.

(a) What is farm pond? (3) Write importance of water harvesting.

(b) What are the types of farm pond? (4) Write importance of drainage.
(c) ------- type farm pond have high water (5) Describe controlled flooding method.
storage capacity.
Activity :
(d) How seepage water losses are 1. Practice different surface irrigation
controlled in farm pond? methods in the field.
(e) What is the thickness of soil – cement 2. Collect information about WALMI
lining in farm pond? and write the work details in table
given below.

Photograph and information Information (work details)

89
 8. Cropping System

Do you know ? Let us do it

Farming system represents an
Management practices are developed
appropriate combination of farm enterprises
for individual crops and recommendations
viz. cropping system, livestock, poultry,
are made accordingly. The residual effects of
fisheries, forestry and the means available
individual crops are not considered in crop
to the farmer to raise them for increasing
based recommendations. In this approach,
profitability. They interact adequately
resources are not utilized efficiently. System
with environment without dislocating the
approach is applied to agriculture for efficient
ecological and socio- economic balance on
utilization of all resources, maintaining
one hand and attempt to meet the national
stability in production and obtaining higher
goals on the other.
net returns.
Enlist the different crops cultivated in the
near by fields.
A system consists of several List the ways adopted by farmers to manage
components which depend on each other. the needs of their soil, crop, animal, poultry,
A system is defined as a set of elements etc.
or components that are inter related and 8.1 Meaning
interacting among themselves. Farming Cropping system may be defined as the
system consists of several enterprises with order in which the crops are cultivated on a
appropriate combination like cropping system, piece of land over fixed period. The cropping
dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee keeping system is the crop production activity of the
etc. These enterprises are interrelated. The end farm or holding. It comprises all cropping
products and wastes of one enterprise are used patterns adopted on the farm or holding and
as inputs in others. The wastes of dairy farm their interactions with farm resources, other
like dung, urine, refuse, etc. are used for the household enterprises and the physical,
preparation of farmyard manure which is an biological, technological and socio-economic
input in cropping systems. The straw obtained factors on environment.
from the crops is used as fodder for cattle.
Cattle are used for different field operations
Remember this
for growing crops. Thus different enterprises
of farming systems are highly interrelated. Cropping system should at least satisfy
the food requirements of the farmer for his
family and fodder for his cattle.
Think and answer
Remember this
 Why is it necessary to select cropping
system in agriculture business? Cropping system is a land use unit
comprising soils, crop, weed, pathogen and
insect subsystems that transform solar energy,
water, nutrients, labour and other inputs into
food, feed, fuel and fibre.
90
 Cropping system is an important
component of a farming system. It represents Internet my friend
cropping patterns used on a farm and their
interaction with farm resources. Collect the pictures and information
on various cropping system.
Can you recall?
8.2 Study of different cropping systems
The way in which the cropping system
Depending on the resources and
in a particular field or farm or operational
technology available, different types of
holding or locality is practiced in an agricultural
cropping systems are adopted on farms.
crop year (July-June) is said to be the cropping
1. Monoculture
pattern at that site. Cropping pattern means
2. Multiple cropping
the proportion of area under various crops at
3. Intercopping
the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement
4. Mixed cropping
of crops on a given land area. The system of
5. Strip cropping
utilizing the land resources by the cropping
6. Sequence cropping
pattern is said to be the system cropping.
7. Relay cropping
Do you think 8. Multistoried cropping
9. Catch cropping
Efficient cropping system for a
particular farm depends on farm resources, • Why some fields have single crops while
farm enterprises and farm technology. The other have mixture of crops.
farm resources include land, labour, water, 8.2.1 Monoculture
capital and infrastructure. When land is
Monoculture or mono cropping refers
limited, intensive cropping is adopted
to growing of only one crop on the same piece
so as to fully utilize available water and
of land year after year.
labour. When sufficient and cheap labour is
available, vegetable crops are also included. It may be due to climatological
Crops like sugarcane, banana, etc. should and socioeconomic conditions or due to
be included in the cropping system when specialization of a farmer. Under rainfed
capital is not a constraint. conditions, crops like paddy, groundnut or
cotton or sorghum are grown year after year
due to limitations of rainfall. Monoculture
Do you observe
of bajra is practiced in certain district of
In low rainfall regions monocropping Rajasthan because the rainfall is uncertain
is followed and when rainfall is more than and no irrigation water is available.
750 mm, intercropping is practiced. Farm In southern states and Konkan region
enterprises like dairying, poultry, etc. also of Maharashtra, rice is widely cultivated under
influence the type of cropping system. If the monoculture system because
the enterprise is dairying then fodder crops
1. Rice forms the main commodity of their
should be included in cropping system.
daily diet.
Change in cropping system takes place
with the development of technology. The 2. Most of the area is low lying and high
cropping system should provide enough food rainfall with some amount of waterlogging,
for the family, fodder for cattle and generate which makes the land unfit for other crops.
sufficient cash income, for domestic and 3. The land holdings are smaller and scattered
cultivation expenses. which do not allow to grow more crops.
91
 It is noticed that under rice Disadvantages
monoculture system, there is a rapid
• Little time is available for land preparation.
deterioration of organic matter and soil
• It requires more intercultivation to
structure. Flooding and draining increases the
compensate inadequate prepatory tillage.
decomposition process in the soil.
• Cleaning of field from stubbles and stumps
8.2.2 Multiple cropping is a great problem.
It is the practice of growing two or more • Previous crops with residual toxicity
crops on the same piece of land one after (Alleopathic effect) may affect next crops
another in one calendar year. in quick succession.
e.g. Udid (K)-Wheat (R), Rice-Potato-Green • It increases weeds, pest and disease hazard
Gram, Jute-Rice-Potato, Rice-Mustard-Maize. if not managed properly.
Requirements for multiple cropping • Long durational crops can not be taken.
• Fields should be levelled with high • Weather and physical conditions may hinder
productive soil with suitable climate. quick succession.
• Adequate and assured irrigation facilities Assessment of land use
should be avaible.
The main object of cropping system is
• Availability of inputs such as seed, to use available resources efficiently. There
implement, fertilizer, etc. are several indices to compare the efficiency
• Facility to remove crop residue from the of different cropping systems in terms of land
field immediately after harvest. use.
Advantages Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) or Cropping
Intensity Index (CII): MCI is the sum of area
• More assurance of food and feed supply planted under different crops and harvested in
throughout the year. a single year divided by the total cultivated
• Increase in productivity per unit area, time, area expressed as percentage.
input, etc.
gross cropped area
• Better distribution of income throughout MCI = × 100
Net area
the year.
• Increase in total employment and Where n is 1th total number of crops,
distribution of labour and capital use a.i. area under 1th crop planted and harvested
throughout the year. within one year, and
A is total land area available for cultivation. It
• Minimum scope for soil erosion and
is also referred as cropping intensity.
degradation.
• Maximum utilization of land, residual Example - A cultivar has 10 ha of land. He has
effects, manures, fertilizers, moisture and grown okra over 6 ha of land and bottle gourd
management practices. over 3 ha of land during kharif, chilli over
5 ha of land and cauliflower over 5 ha of land
during rabbi and cucumber over 4 ha of land
and muskmelon over 5 ha of land in summer.
Calculate CII for the given farm.

92
 Cropping intensity index calculated • Component crops should be complimentary
based on the gross cropped area and the net to each other.
area of the farm. In this context, gross cropped • The differences in maturity of component
area is : crops should be at least one month.
During kharif = 6 ha + 3 ha = 9 ha • Cereals should be selected as main crop e.g.
Rabi = 5 ha + 5 ha = 10 ha Jowar, wheat maize, etc. and among cash
Summer = 4 ha + 5 ha = 9 ha crops sugarcane, cotton, tobacco etc.
Total = 28 • The pulses and oil seeds should be selected as
28 intercrops. The pulse crop fixes atmospheric
= × 100
10 ‘N’ and makes it available to main crop,
= 280 % improves fertility of soil, utilizes available
Here, cropping intensity index 280% , implies soil moisture properly even under adverse
that land is put in use, almost three times conditions because of different root system.
(100% = 1 time) to its original extent.
• Time required for growth of main crop and
8.2.3 Intercropping intercrop should be different and sufficient.
Intercropping is growing two or more • The water requirement of component crops
crops simultaneously on the same piece of should be different.
land with a definite row pattern. For example,
growing soybean + redgram in 5:1 or 6:2 • Component crops should have different root
proportion or cotton + tur. Intercropping was systems i.e. shallow and deep root systems.
originally practiced as an insurance against Objectives of intercropping
total crop failure under rainfed conditions. At
• Insurance against total crop failure under
present, the main objective of intercropping is
aberrant weather conditions or pest
higher productivity per unit area in addition
epidemics.
to stability in production. Intercropping
system utilizes resources efficiently there • Increase in total productivity per unit land
by productivity is increased. Either of the area.
individual crop in intercropping is known as • Utilization of resources such as land, labour
component crop. and inputs.
Practices of intercropping
Paired row system : In this system the
distance between two crop lines of main crop
is reduced and space for intercrop is created
e.g. Jowar+Mung/Udid/Tur or Bajra + Tur
Skipped row system : In this system the
Fig 8.1 Intercropping system distance between two crop lines is kept as
it is but after two rows, one row is kept for
What do you think about successful intercrop. The plant population of main crop
intercropping ? can be kept constant as in normal sowing by
• The time of peak nutrient demands of reducing plant to plant distance in the row. e.g.
component crops should not overlap. in jowar, plant to plant distance is kept 10 cm
instead of 15 cm.
• Competition for light should be minimum
among the component crops.
93
 Crop equivalent yields
Advantages
The yield of different intercrops
• It provides yield advantages as compared to are converted into equivalent yield of any
sole cropping. one crop based on price of the produce. The
• It gives profitable use of space and time by crop equivalent yield (CEY) is calculated as
cultivating two or more crops. follows.
• Greater assurance and stability of higher CEY =
yield.
Where Yi is yield of ith component and ei
• It reduces the cost of cultivation of main equivalent factor of ith component or price of
crop. ith crop.
• Improves soil fertility by use of legumes as Example : Let the yields of groundnut and
intercrop. redgram in a hectare of intercropping be
• Efficient use of soil, nutrients, moisture, air, 1000 and 600 kg, respectively. The total yield
etc. of intercropping system can be expressed
as groundnut equivalent yields by knowing
• It helps to control weeds upto some extent.
the price of each produce. If the prices of
• It covers the more ground area continuously groundnut and redgram are Rs. 20 and Rs. 25
and helps to control soil erosion. per Kg, respectively.
• It provides more employment and better Equivalent yield (EY) of groundnut
distribution of labour. 1000 × 20
= = 1000 Kg
• It provides income in installments and 20
reduces marketing risks. 600 × 25
EY of redgram = = 750 Kg
20
Disadvantages
EY of system = 1000 + 750 = 1750 Kg of
• Difficulties may arise in the practical groundnut
management of intercrops under high
Land equivalent ratio
degree of mechanization and different
requirements of component crops. Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) is the relative
land area under sole crops that is required to
• Harvesting is difficult as each intercrop has
produce the yields achieved in intercropping.
its own harvesting time.
LER can be mathematically represented as
• It may reduces qualitative and quantative follows
yield of crops LER = ∑ Yi Yij
• It requires sowing skills. Where Yi is the yield of ithcomponent
from a unit area grown as intercrop and
Assessing yield advantages Yij is the yield of ith component grown as sole
crop over the same area. In brief, LER is the
Since several crops are involved in inter summation of ratio of yields of intercrop to the
cropping system, it is not logical to compare yield of sole crop.
total yield of different crops in one system
Example : Let the yields of groundnut and
with the other. Several indices are developed
redgram grown as pure crops be 1200 and 1000
to evaluate cropping systems.
Kg /ha, respectively. Let the yields of these
crops when grown as intercrops be 1000 and
600 kg / ha, respectively.
94
The land equivalent ratio of groundnut + Principles of mixed cropping
redgram intercropping system is a follows:
yield of intercrop • Cereals should be sown mixed with legumes
LER of groundnut = e.g. Jowar + Tur, Wheat+Gram.
yield of sole crop
1000 • Tall growing crops should be sown with
= dwarf growing crops. e.g. Maize + Mung/
1200
1000 600 Udid.
LER of system = + = 1.43
1200 1000 • Tap rooted crops should be sown mixed
LER of 1.43 indicates that 43% with adventitious rooted crops. e.g. Kidney
yield advantage is obtained when grown as bean + Bajra
intercrops compared to growing as sole crops. • Bushy crops should be sown with erect
In other words, the sole crops have to be grown growing crops.
in 1.43 ha to get the same yield level that • The crops should not be grown together
obtained from 1.00 ha of intercropping. having similar insect pest and diseases.
8.2.4 Mixed cropping • Long and short durational crops should be
It is cultivation of two or more crops grown mixed together.
simultaneously in the same field without
Advantages of mixed cropping
keeping their identity with respect to field
area. e.g. Maize + Cowpea, Jowar + Tur, • Less risk of failure of crops and total loss
Wheat + Mustard. in income due to insect pest, diseases and
Mixed cropping is grown for two or more adverse climatic conditions. e.g. Wheat +
crops simultaneously intermingled without Gram cropping. If there is epidemic rust
any row pattern. disease, wheat crop may failure but farmer
will get returns from gram crop.
When two or more crops are sown
together on the same land, it is known as mixed • Mixed cropping helps for maintaining the
cropping. In mixed cropping, there is always fertility of soil by including legumes as a
one main crop and one or two subsidiary crops. mixture.
It is a common practice in most of dryland • The farmer gets assured food from his land,
tracts of India. Seeds of different crops are by taking cereals, pulses and oilseeds.
mixed in certain proportion and are sown. • Problem of cattle feed is solved and the
The proportion of the mixtures of different nutritious feed is obtained.
crops depend upon the local soil and climatic
• Gets quick and periodic cash returns
conditions. The object of mixed cropping is to
especially in irrigated crops.
meet the family requirement of cereals, pulses
and vegetables. It is subsistence farming. • Achieves better utilization of land and
labour throughout the year.
• Utilizes available space and nutrients to the
maximum extent.
• Better use of soil moisture by the crops due
to difference in root system.
• Helps to reduce the soil erosion and to
control the weeds to some extent.

Fig 8.2 Mixed cropping system

95
Disadvantages Strip cropping of bajra and groundnut, if
followed will save erosion and also give more
• Usually it spreads pest and diseases e.g. gross return than bajra grown alone.
Groundnut + Castor mixed cropping, castor
spreads the pest castor semilooper. 8.2.6 Sequence cropping
Sequence cropping is growing two or more
• Difficulties in management, if the crops crops in sequence on the same piece of land.
have different requirements. In general the sequence of crops is maintained
• Labour saving implements and machinery season after season for one or more years.
can not be used e.g. Harvesting. Sequential cropping depends on several
• Field can not be ploughed immediately after factors. The most important are the availability
harvest of crop. of water, the agro-climatic situation of
the locality, the farmer’s preference and
• Yield of main crop is always less compared requirements for the family and the price
to grown as sole crop. of the produce as well as the suitability of
• Reduces the acreage of main crop and also raising crops one after another even in turn
may reduces the quality of produce. around periods. Economic return per unit area,
utilization of land and other resources, should
Characteristics of good subsidiary crop in also be considered.
mixed cropping
Interactions in sequence cropping
• It should preferably be a legume crop.
Competition for light, water and nutrients
• It should mature earlier or later than the as in mixed crop communities does not occur
main crop. when sole crops are grown in sequence. It
• It should have different growth habit and occurs only in relay cropping. The important
nutrient requirement. purpose in sequential cropping is to increase
• It should not be very similar in climatic the use of solar radiation. It is achieved
requirement. by longer field duration and rapid ground
coverage. Crops are raised in sequence one
• It should have different rooting depths. another, to keep the land occupied by the crop
8.2.5 Strip Cropping for longer period. If the crop development is
slow, much of the solar radiation reaches the
Strip cropping consists of growing erosion ground, favouring weed growth and increasing
permitting crops and erosion resisting crops in evaporation losses from the soil surface, which
alternate strips across the slope of land. In this is checked in this cropping.
system, the crops like Jowar, Bajra etc. are In sequential cropping, the preceding crop
grown as erosion permitting crops which allow has considerable influence on the succeeding
the runoff water to flow freely within the rows. crop mainly due to changes in soil conditions,
The erosion resisting crops are mostly legumes presence of allelopathic effect, shift in weeds
like groundnut, kidney bean, soyabean, and carry over effects of fertilizers, pest and
horsegram, etc. spread and cover the soil and diseases. Field preparation is difficult after
do not allow runoff water to carry much soil. rice crop since soil structure is destroyed due to
The soil which flows from the strips of erosion puddling. Phosphorus applied to the previous
permitting crops is caught by the alternating crop is available for the succeeding crop.
strips of legume crops reduces transporting Weed number and species differ in the
and eroding power of water by obstructing
succeeding crop due to the effect of the previous
runoff, filter the soil and retain in the field.
crop. The pest and diseases in stubbles and
96
other residues of the previous crop may infect very small and value of land is very high e.g.
the subsequent crop. Arecanut + balck pepper + banana+ pineapple.
8.2.7 Relay Cropping It is also termed as multitier or multilevel
Relay cropping refers to planting of cropping.
the succeeding crop before harvesting the In this arecanut with high sunlight
preceding crop. Here the crop in succession demands makes first tier followed by black
is sown or planted either in the field of the pepper growing with the support of trunk
standing crop which is going to be harvested making second tier. In between two arecanut
soon or in nursery so that immediately after trees, papaya or banana is planted making
the harvest of the standing crop the subsequent third tier and pineapple or ginger makes the
crop can be transplanted in the same field fourth tier with high demand of shade and
without any allowance for keeping the field humidity, just like a multistoried building.
uncropped or fallow even for the turn around 8.2.9 Catch cropping
period. e.g. Jute-Rice, Mustard-Onion. When a subsidiary crop is sown in
The farm resources such as land, labour, between the gap of a widely spaced crop or
water, capital and infrastructure are efficiently when a subsidiary crop is sown in the gap
utilized. When land is limited, intensive between two major crops of different seasons
cropping is adopted to utilize the available or when contigent crop is sown to catch a
water and labour. When sufficient and cheap season under the circumstances of total failure
labour is available, vegetable crops are also can be termed as catch cropping e.g. Cotton +
included in the cropping system, as they green gram, Sugarcane + potato, Green gram,
require more labour. bajra, sesamum, sunflower as midseason
8.2.8 Multistoried cropping correction crops when main season crop fails.
When two or more crops are grown on
the same piece of land according to their Try this
height is termed as multistoried cropping. It
is mostly followed in Konkan region in high With the help of information collected
value plantation crops, where land holding is from internet, prepare the slides of various
cropping system for PPT presentation.

Fig 8.3 Multistoried cropping system

97
 Exercise
Q.1 A) Fill in the blanks. C. State true or false.
1. Growing two or more crops 1. When a subsidiary crop is sown in
simultaneously on the same piece between the gap of widely spaced crop
of land with a definite row pattern is is called catch cropping.
known as __________ 2. Cropping system will not achieve
2. The number of crops to be grown better utilization of land and labour
increases within a definite period of through out the year.
time, this cropping method is termed 3. Cropping systems should be
as ____________ framed as per farm budgeting and
management.
3. Growing two or more crops
4. In mixed cropping system labour
simultaneously on the same piece of
saving implements and machinery can
land with a definite row arrangement
be used for harvesting.
is called as ____________.
5. Cropping intensity index is the sum
4. Planting of succeeding crop before of area planted to different crops and
harvesting the previous crop is called harvested in single year divided by
as _________ the total cultivated area expressed as
5. Planting one crop year after year on the percentage.
same piece of land is called ________. Q. 2 Answer in brief.
B. Make the pairs. 1. Define intensive cropping.
2. What do you mean by multiple
'A' group 'B' Group
cropping?
1. Mixed a. Growing of 3. Define the term of sequence cropping.
Cropping single same crop
4. Write examples of intercropping.
year after year
5. Define catch crop.
2. Multiple b. Growing of two
or more crops Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
Cropping
together 1. Write short note on strip cropping.
3. Intercropping c. Growing of more 2. Explain the difference between relay
number of crops and intercropping system.
within a year 3. Complete following chart.
4. Monocropping d. Growing of two Sr. Multistoried Name of crop for
or more crops No. tier planting
with definite row
First tier
arrangement 1
crop
e. Use of two to Second tier
three floors in 2
crop
same area and Third tier
same time 3
crop
f. Crops at Fourth tier
different time 4
crop
98
 4. Calculate cropping intensity index inter related and interacted among themselves.
for the given conditions. A cultivator The available technology determines their
has seven hectares of land. He has makeup. Farming system consists of several
grown cotton over four hectare of land enterprises with appropriate combination like
and soybean over 2 ha of land during cropping system, dairying, poultry, fishery, bee
kharif, Jowar over 2 ha of land and keeping, etc. These enterprises are interrelated.
sunflower over 2 ha during rabi and The end products and wastes of one enterprise
ground nut over 1 ha of land and green are used as inputs in others. The wastes of
gram over 1 ha of land in summer. dairying like dung, urine, refuse, etc. are used
5. Calculate the equivalent yield of in preparation of farm yard manure which is an
soybean. Lets the yield of soybean and input in cropping systems. The straw obtained
red gram in a hectare of intercropping from the crops is used as fodder for cattle.
be 2000 kg and 800 kg respectively. Cattle are used in different field operations for
The total yield of intercropping growing crops. Thus, different enterprises in
system can be expressed as soybean farming system are highly interrelated.
equivalent yield by knowing the price a. Which are the important components
of each produce if the price of soybean of farming system?
and red gram are Rs. 30 and Rs. 25 per b. What are the enterprises of farming
kg respectively. system?
Q. 4 Answer in detail c. List out the various wastes products
1. What is intercropping and give its dairying used as input for farming.
advantages and disadvantages. d. What are the interrelations of straw
2 Read the following information and obtained from crop and cattle in
answer the questions. farming system.
Cropping system is an important component 3. What is mixed cropping and give its
of farming system. From the farm organization advantages and disadvantages.
point of view, a system consists of several 4. Describe the land equivalent ratio
components’. They are depending on each (LER) with suitable examples.
other, defined as a set of components’ which are

Cash crop Cereal crop

Standard Crop Rotation Legume crop

99
 9. Tillage
germination and subsequent growth of
Can you recall? plants.

• Tillage of the soil consists of breaking the
 Why the cultivable soil is banned for hard and compact surface to a certain depth
grazing animals? and other operations that are followed
 How does the soil look during sowing for bringing the soil in a good physical
time and after harvesting? condition i.e. fine tilth for plant growth.

 What is the difference between loose • It is manipulation of soil with different

tools and implements with an object to
porous soil and compact hard soil?
make the soil surface loose and brining
 Why the tractor is mostly used now a days it to favourable conditions for seed
instead of bullocks in farm operations? germination, seedling establishment and
growth of crops.
 Which operations farmer does before
sowing? 9.1.2 Definition of tilth
• The term soil tilth means the physical
Keep in mind condition of soil resulting from tillage
operations.
Soil serves as a natural medium for
the growth of plants; but in its natural • Soil tilth is the physical condition of soil in
state, it is not in an ideal condition for which soil becomes loose, friable, crum, soft,
growing the crops satisfactorily. The properly aerated but not very powdery.
beating action of rain drops, irrigation Know the Scientist
and subsequent drying, weeds, stubbles,
harvesting of crop, labour and subsequent
JethroTull
activities cause soil compaction. Soil
(1664-1741) was a
condition must be made favourable
British agronomist.
for crop growth and development from
He invented seed
sowing to harvesting. The seeds require
drill, hoe and
loose, friable soil with sufficient moisture
plough, which were
and air for better germination and easy
driven by horse.
penetration of younger roots into the soil
for absorption of nutrients, minerals, air He studied law and graduated
and water. These ideal conditions of soil from Oxford University in 1699. He began
are achieved by proper manipulation of farming in 1700 and took greater interest in
soil and bring it into good tilth condition. agricultural operations.
Tillage practices are as old as
9.1 Definition agriculture, Jethro Tull proposed that plants
9.1.1 Definition of Tillage : Tillage may be absorb minute soil particles hence suggested
defined as follows. thorough ploughing and other operations
• The physical manipulation of soil with were necessary for bringing soil in an ideal
different tools and implements to bring the condition. He is known as father of tillage.
soil in a good physical condition for better
100
 Advantages of tilth ?
Observe and Discuss
Good soil tilth provides adequate
aeration, maintain soil temperature, soil 1. How will you feel while walking on
moisture, soil aggregates, moisture content ploughed field and sown field?
also ensure good infiltration, easy and smooth 2. Why the water lodging conditions after
movement of sowing implements. The good heavy rains do not appear in ploughed
tilth condition maintains spaces, i.e. the land ?
macro and micro pores in equal proportion
3. Why the bullocks do walk easily during
for retention of soil moisture and soil air.
sowing?
9.2 Objectives of tillage
(5) To remove stubbles of previous crop
The various objectives of tillage are as follows.
Deep tillage helps in removing
(1) To make the soil loose and porous
stubbles of previous crop and other
This will enable rain or irrigation sprouting materials like bulbs, stolons,
water to enter the soil easily and less etc. and helps in making a clean seed bed.
losses of rain water and soil due to run-off
(6) To destroy insects
and erosion. Due to adequate proportion
of micro pores the sufficient amount of Many of the insect pest remain
water will be retained in soil for crop hidden in the top soil layer during off-
growth and less losses of water due to season and reappear on the crop in the next
percolation. season. Insects are either exposed to the
(2) To aerate the soil Sun heat or to birds, who would pick them
up. Some harmful grubs or cutworms
Tillage enables the metabolic processes
can be destroyed by proper tillage
of living plants and micro-organisms
operations. Collection and destruction of
to continue smoothly. Due to adequate
the crop residues and weeds are helpful to
air and moisture, desirable chemical
control pest like jowar stem borer, cotton
and biological activities would go on at
bollworm, etc.
greater speed. This would result in rapid
decomposition of organic matter and (7) To break hard pan
making plant nutrients available to crops. Tillage with specially designed
(3) To increase the soil temperature implements such as sub-soiler or plough
This can be achieved by maintaining is often useful to break hard pan if any,
proper amount of air and water in the soil formed just below the ploughing depth.
and also by exposing the soil to the sun. This is helpful for better penetration
The optimum soil temperature in active of roots in deeper layers and also for
root zone of the crop is necessary for maintaining proper drainage in the soil.
proper growth and functioning of plant It also increases soil depth for water
roots and useful organisms in the soil. absorption.
(4) To control weeds (8) To incorporate organic manures and
Weeds are enemies of crops as they fertilizers into the soil
compete with crops for plant nutrients, Organic manures such as F.Y.M. or
moisture, space and sunlight, that will compost and fertilizers should not only be
result in poor crop yields. Therefore, spread on surface of the soil but properly
management of weeds with suitable tools incorporated (mix thoroughly) into the
and implements is the definite advantage soil for minimizing the loss of plant
of tillage. nutrients.
101
 Sometimes, bacterial cultures or 9.3.1 Preparatory tillage
pesticides are also required to be drilled It means the tillage operations which are
into the soil for control of pest like white carried out before the sowing of any crop.
ants, termites, white grubs, cutworms, etc. These operations done after the harvesting
and this purpose can be served by using of the previous crop and upto seed bed
proper tillage implements. preparation for next crop. It consists of
(9) To invert the soil to improve fertility a number of costly and time consuming
By occasional deep tillage the lower operations, which are carried out by using
layer of the soil which is less fertile comes suitable implements at proper moisture content
to the top, while the upper layer rich in of the soil. These operations are necessary for
organic matter and plant nutrients goes proper germination, emergence and growth of
down, thus plant roots can get benefit of the crop. The various tillage operations which
the rich layer. come under preparatory tillage are:
(1) Ploughing (2) Clod crushing
(10)
To prepare proper seedbed for
(3) Levelling of land (4) Harrowing
germination of seeds and growth of the
(5) Manure mixing
crop
(1) Ploughing
Finally, it is necessary to prepare the
suitable seedbed as per requirement of the Ploughing means breaking of hard soil
crop and soil for good germination and with different ploughs. This is considered
emergence of seedling and also for proper to be the most essential operation for
growth and development of the crop for making the soil loose and porous to a
achieving higher yields. desired depth as per requirement of the
crop. Depth depends upon the effective
root zone of the crop.
Use your brain power

1. What will happen, if crop is grown

without any tillage practice?
2. Why ploughed soils are not water logged
easily?
3. Why the birds generally seen on the land
where tillage practice is going on?
Fig 9.1(a) : Bullock ploughing

9.3 Types of tillage

Tillage operations are grouped into three
types on the basis of their time at which they
are carried out.
These are
• Preparatory tillage
• Seed bed preparation
• Intertillage or intercultivation
Fig 9.1 (b) : Tractor ploughing
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(2) Clod crushing
This operation is necessary for
working soil to fine tilth. This operation is
not always necessary, if ploughing is done
at right time i.e. when soil moisture is
optimum then very few clods are formed.
However, when the ploughing is done
at less moisture content or after drying
the soil, then big clods may formed and Fig 9.4 : Harrowing
therefore it is necessary to crush the clods
with the help of implements known as clod (5) Manure mixing
crushers. The bulky organic manures such as
F.Y.M. or compost and fertilizers (Basal
dose of fertilizer) should mixed thoroughly
with the soil before sowing of the crop.
The bulky organic manures and fertilizers
should be spread evenly on surface of the
soil.

Fig 9.2 : Clod crushing

(3) Levelling the land
This is done occasionally and it is not
an operation, which requires to be done
every year. This operation is necessary
for sloppy lands in order to ensure even
distribution of rain and irrigation water.
This will avoid yellowing of plants due to
stagnation of water in low-lying areas. (a) (b)
Fig 9.5 :Manure mixing in soil
9.3.2 Seed bed preparation
These operations are carried out after
last preparatory tillage operation and upto
sowing. The land is to be laid out properly for
sowing seeds, irrigating crops if necessary and
for transplanting seedlings. These operations
are known as seed bed preparation and
Fig 9.3 : Levelling of land comprise of following operations.
(4) Harrowing (1) Harrowing
This is one of the most common (2) Layout of the field
operation which is done invariably for (3) Compacting the soil
preparing good seedbed. The objects of
(1) Harrowing
harrowing are breaking clods, levelling
If irrigation layouts are prepared
the land, collecting stubbles, destroying
immediately after completion of
newly germinating weeds, compacting the
preparatory tillage then this operation is
soil, mixing bulky organic manures and
not required. Some times there may be
fertilizers with the soil.
103
 long gap or period between the preparatory Gap filling, Thinning, Weeding, Hoeing,
tillage and preparation of irrigation layouts Top dressing of fertilizers, Earthing up,
and for destroying newly germinated Mulching, Detrashing.
or young weeds existing in the field this
operation is essential. Do you know ?

(2) Layout of the field
Irrigated crops like sugarcane, turmeric, Maharashtra government followed some
ginger, cotton, potato and vegetables policies to pick-up the sedimentary (mud) soil
require preparation of irrigation layouts from medium and small lake, nala, dam and
for sowing seeds, planting or transplanting use it for farm, which improves soil fertility
seedling and also for giving irrigation of the field. The water storage capacity of
water to the crop. such lake, nala, dam, etc. is improved.

Opening ridges and furrows in the field 1. Gap Filling

for crops like sugarcane, irrigated cotton, Some times, there may not be emergence
potato and vegetables. border strips or of crop seedlings at some of the places in
saras for cereals like jowar, wheat, etc. crops lines and these gaps (spots without
flat beds for leafy vegetables and forage crop) are filled either by dibbling seeds or
crops . broad bed furrows (BBF) or raised transplanting seedlings. This operation is
beds for turmeric and ginger are generally necessary for maintaining the optimum
prepared as per requirement of the crop by plant population of the crop. Gap filling
using suitable implement. is done about 8 to 10 days after sowing of
the crop.

Fig 9.6 : Layout of the field

Fig 9.7 : Gap filling
(3) Compacting the soil
(2) Thinning
Sometimes soil may be loosened more
than the requirement, which is not desirable It is process of removing excess plants
for small seeded crops like sesamum and from the field for maintaining optimum
mustard or adventitious rooted crops such
as jowar or bajara, which are liable to
lodge at maturity stage. Therefore, the soil
may need compacting .
9.3.3 Intertillage or interculture
Tillage operations which are carried out
in standing crop or in between the crop rows
are called intertillage. It includes the following
operations.
Fig 9.8 : Thinning
104
 plant population of the crop and for manual laboures is called weeding. One to
providing uniform space for normal three weedings are required in crop season
growth and development of the crop. This depending upon the weed intensity and
operation is carried out about 2 to 3 weeks type of crop.
after sowing of the crop. (5) Top dressing of fertilizers
(3) Hoeing The application of fertilizers in
This operation is necessary for standing crop is known as top dressing. It
removing weeds, conservation of soil is necessary for supplying plant nutrients
moisture, mixing fertilizers with the soil essential for normal growth, development
and improving aeration of the soil. 2 to 3 and yield of the crop.
hoeings are carried out from 2 weeks upto (6) Earthing up
5 or 6 weeks after sowing of the crop.
Supporting basal portion of the crop
plants with soil for proper development
of underground commercial plant parts is
known as earthing up. This operation is
done in case of crops like turmeric, ginger,
potato and erect type of groundnut.

(a) Earthing up using bullock drawn

implement
Fig 9.9 : Hoeing
(4) Weeding
Removal of weeds in the crops with
the help of weeding hook (khurapi) by

(b) Manual Earthing up

Fig 9.11 : Earthing up
Fig 9.10 : Weeding

105
(7) Mulching (b) Shallow ploughing (12 to 15 cm
Covering surface of the soil in deep): Small mould board plough,
between the crop rows with the help of Deshi or wooden plough
organic mulch such as plant residues or (c) Sub-soil ploughing: Sub-soil plough
inorganic mulch like polythene sheet for or sub-soiler
conservation of soil moisture, management (2) Clod crushing
of weeds, maintaining soil temperature,
etc. is known as mulching. (i) Norwegian harrow
(ii) Disc harrow
(iii) Deccan blade harrow (blade harrow)

Disc harrow

Fig 9.12 : Mulching

(8) Detrashing
Detrashing refers to removal of Spring tooth harrow
unwanted bottom dry and green leaves at
regular interval. Crop like sugarcane bears
large number of leaves (30 to 35) equal
to the number of internodes. Detrashing
helps in maintaining clean field, enhances
air movement and enriches CO2 with the
crop canopy. It also reduces the infestation
problem by pest and diseases, reduces Spick tooth harrow
bud sprouting, facilitates easy entry and
movement in the field, etc.
9.3.4 List of tillage implements
(A) Implements for preparatory tillage
(1) Ploughing: Various types of wooden and
iron ploughs are used.
(a) Deep ploughing (20 to 30 cm deep):
Bullock drawn iron plough, Bullock Blade harrow
drawn mould board plough, Tractor
drawn mould board plough, two furrow Fig 9.13 : Harrow
bar point plough, Disc plough, etc.
106
(3) Cultivators (B) Seed bed preparation
This implement can used for seedbed (1) Ridges and furrows: Different type of
preparation and also for inter cultivation ridgers are used. e.g. Jeevan, Jagat and
operation. The implement having tines Jamboo ridger.
which are having provision of vertical (2) Preparation of border strips and saras:
adjustments also. These are- (1) Disc Sara former is used for preparation of
cultivator, (2) Rotary cultivator, (3) Tine saras in the field. Bund former is used for
cultivator preparing bunds at required distance. For
(4) Levelling of land making irrigation layouts hand tool like
spade is used.
Iron keni, wooden levelling boar,
American Petari, blade harrow (when soil
is loose and slope is less than 3 %)
Bulldozer: It is used when the soil is hard
and slope of the field is more than 3%
(5) Harrowing
Deccan blade harrow or different type
of harrows according to the type of soil.
Fig 9.14 : Ridger
This is the implement which cuts the soil
to a shallow depth for smoothening and (3) Sowing seeds: Indigenous seed drill –
pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the dufan, tifan or chaofan (two, three or four
weeds and to mix material with soil. Also tined seed drill)
used to break the clods after ploughing to Two bowl seed drill (ferti- seed drill) for
collect trash from the ploughed land and sowing seeds and fertilizer application,
to level the seed bed. Mechanical seed drill.
Types of harrow (4) Planting sugarcane: Sugarcane planter.
(1) Disc harrow (5) Covering seeds: Blade harrow and
wooden plank.
(2) Spring tooth harrow
(C) Implements for interculture or
(3) Spike tooth harrow Intertillage:
(4) Blade harrow (Bakkar) (1) Weeding: Hand tool like weeding hook
(5) Guntaka (Khurapi) is used.
(6) Triangular harrow (2) Hoeing: Different type of hoes used are as
(6) Manure mixing: Disc harrow, blade follows :
harrow, Disc plough, and deshi wooden (i) Entire blade hoe
plough. (ii) Slit blade hoe
(7) Compacting of soil: Maind, wooden log, (iii) Akola hoe
and inverted harrow and rollers like iron (iv) Japanese hand hoe and Karjat hoe
roller, stone or wooden roller.
(v) Peg tooth cultivator and shovel tooth
(8) Puddling: Rice puddler. (bullock or tractor cultivator
drawn) , Deshi wooden plough. (vi) Paddy weeder

107
 (vii) Hand hoes is used.
(viii) Tyne tooth hoe Hand tools like wooden thresher is used
for threshing cereals, pulses and some of
(3) Earthing up the oil seeds.
Sugarcane- Sabul plough and ridger is (F) Winnowing: Winnowing fan, box
used. winnower.
Erect type groundnut- Entire blade hoe 9.4 Modern concepts of tillage
is used. Modern tillage method such as minimum
Hand tool like hand kudali, trenching hoe tillage, zero tillage and stubble mulch
is also used for carrying out earthing up. tillage are practiced in U.S.A. and Europe.
Most of these practices are not suitable for
(D) Harvesting implements
Indian conditions due to several reasons. In
(1) Groundnut: Groundnut digger or developed countries straw and stubbles are left
groundnut harvester and blade harrow, in the field as such further decomposition. In
hand digger. India, use of heavy machinery is limited and
(2) Potato: Potato digger or deshi wooden therefore, problem of soil compaction is rare.
plough is used. Minimum tillage can be practiced under Indian
conditions by reducing number of ploughings
(3) Cereals, oil seeds and pulses: Combine to the minimum necessary requirement. The
harvesters are used in developed countries modern concepts of tillage can be followed in
for carrying out harvesting, threshing and fruit crops after proper establishment.
winnowing as well as bagging at a time.
9.4.1 Minimum tillage
(4) Wheat and rice: Wheat and rice harvester Minimum tillage means reducing
and improved vaibhav sickle is used. tillage operation to the minimum necessary
(5) Safflower: Safflower harvester or requirement for ensuring a good seed bed,
safflower combine harvester. rapid germination, satisfactory and favourable
growing conditions for the crop.
(6) Hand tools - like sickle is used for
Tillage operations can be reduced by
harvesting cereals, pulses, some of the
omitting the operations which do not give
oil seeds and fodder crops. Chopper is
much benefit when compared to the cost and
used for harvesting of sugarcane crop,
by combining operations like sowing and
tikav, hand kudali for harvesting turmeric,
fertilizer applications by using two bowl seed
ginger and potato, Vaibhav sickle is used
drill i.e. seed cum ferti-drill or mechanical
for harvesting rice crop.
seed drill and by using herbicides for weed
(E) Threshing implements management.
(1) Jowar, Bajra, Wheat and Rice: Vicon Advantages of minimum tillage
thresher or different type of power operated (1) It improves the soil conditions due to
threshers are used. decomposition of plant residues in situ.
(2) Wheat: Olpad wheat thresher
(2) Higher infiltration as the soil is covered
(3) Paddy: Paddy foot thresher
with vegetation.
(4) Shelling of maize cobs: Maize sheller-
(3) Less resistance to root growth due to
hand driven or power operated.
improved soil structure
(5) Shelling groundnut pods: Groundnut
Sheller (4) Less soil compaction
(6) Sunflower: Sunflower thresher or sheller For getting the above mentioned

108
advantages about 2 to 3 years are required sequent stages of crop growth the selective
after practicing the minimum tillage. herbicides are used for management of
weeds. The plant residues are also used
Think about it as mulch for conservation of soil moisture
and management of weeds in the crop.
(i) What will happen if number of
ploughings are increased in low rainfall Advantages of Zero tillage
region? (1) Zero tillage soils are homogenous in
(ii) When the cost of cultivation will lower structure with more number of earthworms.
down?
(2) It increases organic matter content of the
Disadvantages of minimum tillage soil.
(1) Some times it may affect seed germination
(3) Surface run-off is reduced and infiltration
and emergence of seedlings.
of water is increased due to mulching.
(2) More nitrogen application is required
as the rate of decomposition of organic (4) It saves cost on preparatory tillage and
matter is slow. intertillage.
(3) Nodulation is affected in some of the Disadvantages of Zero tillage
legume crops like peas and broad beans. (1) Some times the germination and condition
(4) Sowing operation is difficult with ordinary of the crop is affected.
implements. (2) Sowing operation is difficult with ordinary
(5) Continuous use of herbicides causes implements.
environmental pollution problems. (3) More nitrogen application is required as
9.4.2 Zero tillage the rate of mineralization is slow.
It is the extreme form of minimum (4) Continuous use of herbicides may cause
tillage in which preparatory tillage or environmental pollution and residual
ploughing is completely avoided and effects.
tillage operations for seed bed preparation
are restricted in adopted areas where soils (5) Some times perennial deep-rooted weeds
are subjected to wind and water erosion become serious problem.
and cost of tillage and labour is too high. In 9.4.3 Mulching
this method the machinery used performs Covering surface of the soil in between
four functions in one operation viz. clean the crop rows with the help of organic mulch
narrow strip over crop row, open the soil such as plant residues or inorganic mulch
for seed insertion, place the seed and cover like polythene sheet for conservation of soil
the seed properly. moisture, management of weeds, maintaining
In case of fruit crops only trenches are soil temperature, etc. is known as mulching.
opened at required distance for planting The organic mulch such as plant residues
trees and other operations are not carried i.e. wheat straw, sugarcane trash, stubbles of
out. In zero tillage herbicides are used the crop, grass clippings, crop stump, straw,
before sowing for destroying weeds or bark, chipads, compost saw dust, cotton burs,
vegetation. Generally, non-selective rice husk, bran, wooden pieces leaf litter, etc.
herbicides (parquat or Glyphosate) with are spread in between crop rows @ 5 tonnes
short residual effect are used before per hectare. The black polythene sheet spread
sowing of the crop and during sub- on surface of the soil in between crop rows

109
is more effective than white polythene sheet. 9.5 Post Harvest Farm operations
Mulching with polythene sheet is more costly 9.5.1 Harvesting
than plant residues and used in case of high Cutting or removal of plants after maturity
value crops only. from the field is called harvesting. Crop should
9.4.4 Stubble mulch tillage be harvested at proper stage to get higher
Covering the soil surface with crop yields (production) with good quality produce.
residues or stubbles during the fallow periods Hence, it is necessary to know signs of maturity
for protecting the soil from unfavourable in case of various field crops.
weather conditions (heavy rains and winds) (i) Moisture content of grains up to 12 to 14
is known as stubble mulch tillage or stubble percent
mulch farming. Generally, disc plough or disc (ii) Yellowing of leaves and plants
harrow is used to incorporate some of the
(iii) Change in colour of produce

Do you know ? (iv) Life cycle of annual crop ends

There are various methods of harvesting
In winter shedding of leaves occurs
such as cutting close to the ground level,
naturally. It is useful for summer, as it
cutting ear heads picking pods, pulling plants,
covers the soil and prevent evaporation
losses. It’s called natural mulch. digging produce from soil with the implements
like sickle, plough, kudali, etc.
plant residues into the soil after harvest of the
9.5.2 Threshing
crop. This hastens the decomposition but still
keep enough residues on surface of the soil as Process of separating grains from
mulch. Similar to zero tillage, heavy power earheads or cobs is known as threshing. This is
machinery performing different functions such done by various methods such as beating with
as cleaning strip, sowing seeds and fertilizer sticks, trampling under bullocks feet, using
application is used for sowing the crop in hand driven machinery, threshing machine
stubble mulch farming. (thresher), stone roller, etc.
Purpose of Mulching 9.5.3 Winnowing
(1) Conservation of soil moisture. Winnowing means separation of grains
(2) Regulation of soil temperature. from bhusa or dirt material. For this purpose
the threshed material is held against wind. This
(3) Suppression of weed growth.
is done naturally or artificially for cleaning of
(4) Prevention of soil erosion. grains or produce.
(5) Control of pest and disease. 9.5.4 Storage
Farm produce is stored either in bulk
when it is in large quantity or in containers
such as bins, pots, gunny bags, kangi, etc.
Before storing farm produce should be dried
well in sunlight for removing excess moisture
from grains.

110
 Exercise
Q.1 A. Fill in blanks. C State true or false.
1. A British scientist ---------- is known 1. Reducing the number of tillage
as father of tillage. operations is called as zero tillage.
2. Mulch is a material that is added at
2. The term ---------- means the physical
too deep in the soil.
condition of soil resulting from tillage
operations. 3. Harvester is the machine that used for
sowing.
3. Some harmful insect pest like
4. Tillage helps the irrigation water to
----------- can be destroyed by proper
infiltrate into soil easily.
tillage operations.
5. The ploughing operation turns over
4. The tillage operations, that are the upper layer of soil.
performed before sowing are referred
as ---------- Q. 2 Answer in brief.

5. The practice of covering the soil, 1. Write short note on preparatory

to conserve more moisture in soil is tillage.
called as ---------- 2.
Complete the flow chart of farm
B. Make the pairs. operations.
Ploughing --------  levelling --
Group ‘A’ Group ‘B’ ------  preparation of irrigation
1. Clod crushing (i) Seed drill system --------  covering seeds
2. Sowing (ii) Khurapi ---------  fertilizer applications.
(Clod crushing, harrowing, sowing,
3. Weeding (iii) Plough
irrigation)
(iv) Disc harrow
3. Give reasons.
(v) Ridger
(a) Deep ploughing should be
(OR) performed for tap rooted crops.
B. Find the odd out.
(b) Thinning and gap filling operation
1. Black polyethylene sheet, sugarcane should be carried out within 10-
trash, stubbles, wheat straw, dry 15 days of sowing.
leaves. (c) Mulching practice should be
2. Cutting, picking up, uprooting, followed in drought prone zone.
sowing, digging. (d) The crop should be harvested at
3. Bins, pots, gunny bags, metal kangi, proper maturity stage.
plough. 4. Write purpose of mulching.
4. Ploughing, clod crushing, harvesting, 5. Enlist the names of operations that
levelling, harrowing. are carried out in inter tillage.
5. Seed drill, puneri seed drill, harrow,
two bowl seed drill, sugarcane planter.

111
Q. 3 Answer the following questions. Q. 4 Answer in detail
1. Explain tillage operation with 1. Define tilth. Give characteristics of
implements, used for it good tilth.
(a) Ploughing, (b)Harrowing, 2. Explain objectives of tillage in detail.
(c) Sowing, (d) Weeding. 3. Explain in detail the types of tillage.
2. Describe farm operations. 4. Complete the following table on
tillage operations.
3. Give advantages of minimum tillage.
4. Give advantages and disadvantages
of zero tillage.

SEED BED
SR. NO. INTER CULTURE
---------- PREPARATION
1. Ploughing Harrowing ----------
2. ---------- ---------- ----------
3. Levelling ---------- Weeding / hoeing
4. ---------- Compacting soil ----------
5. ---------- ---------- Mulching
Activity :
Practice tieing and handling of bullock and tractor drawn implements.

112
 10. Weed Management

Weeds are unwanted, useless, prolific,

Can you recall? competitive and often harmful to the human
beings. Weeds are undesirable as they not only
 Tell the weed plants observed in your compete with crop for nutrients, moisture, space
area. and sunlight but also interfere with agricultural
 Why are the weeds considered as operations (labour, tillage). It also affects the
enemies of crop plants ? yield and quality of farm produce. Weed seed
 List out the harmful plants to the crop ?
may get mixed with main crop seed. These
weed plants are required to be uprooted before
 Can you differentiate weed from crop
flowering stage. Therefore, management of
plant ?
weeds at right time is necessary.

Farmers sow the seed in field and take Use your brain power
care to obtain produce from that. The plant
grown in the field (cultivated plants) by
Complete following table with the
farmer are called as crop. Some plants grow
information from your surroundings.
without putting any seed and competing to the
main crops for nutrient, water and space that Sr.
makes heavy loss of crop yield, such plants Crop Plants Weeds
No.
are considered enemy of crop which causes
huge loss of yield and favour other enemies as 1.
pest, diseases, wild animals, etc. These plant
enemies are called weeds. 2.

3.

4.

5.

10.1 Definition of weed

The most common definitions of weeds are :
Fig. 10.1 : Weed free plot  Weed is a plant growing where it is not
desired.
 Any plant not sown in the field by the
farmer and which is out of place is known
as weed.
 Weed is a noxious, unwanted, undesirable
plant in the field.
Fig. 10.2 : Weed infested plot
113
Annual loss in agriculture produce (%). 6. They can thrive even under adverse
conditions of soil, climate and biotic
stress.
20% 7. Viability of weed seed remain intact, even
30% Disease they are buried deep into the soil and passes
5% other
Insect through digestive track of the animals.
8. Weeds are prolific with abundant seed
45% production capacity.
Weed
e.g. Striga, Hazardana, Piwla Dhotra
9. Weed seed have special structure like
wings, spines, sticky, hairy, light weight,
Always remember free flowing and hooks, etc. on account of
which they can be easily spread.
 Jethro Tull was the first person to use
10. Some weeds are propagated vegetatively
word Weed.
e.g. : Doob, Kans, Lavala, etc.
 In India 45% of agricultural loss is
due to weeds. 11. Some weed seed are very similar to crop
seed and therefore their separation become
 Clean field always pays higher.
very difficult. e.g. : Mustard seed with seed
of Piwla Dhotra
12. They are persistent and resistant to control
Understand and remember and eradication.
13. Some weeds have deep roots they store
 Weeds are considered as enemy of
food in their rhizomes and reappear every
Crops.
year.
 Weeds are very difficult to eradicate
14. Some weeds have similar morphological
completely.
characters like crops therefore escaped
 Weeding is carried out in every crop. from weed control. e.g. wild rice, wild
oat.
10.2 Characteristics of weeds 15. Some weed seed have long dormancy
1. They are unwanted and undesirable. period and have a hard seed coat and
hence not loose viability.
2. Weeds are harmful to crop, cattle and
human beings. Beware that the weeds have varied
3. The weed seed germinate early and grow characters and structures.
very fast.
4. They flower earlier, produce more quantity Try this
of seed and mature earlier or late than crop
and their separation become difficult. Activity - Survey residential area, waste
land, cropped land and collect weeds,
5. They being hardy, compete with crop
prepare an album and label.
plants for nutrients, moisture, space,
sunlight and reduce the crop yield.

114
 (c) Perennial weeds : They require more
Use your brain power than two years to complete their life cycle.
e.g. nutgrass, hariyali, johnson grass, wild
 Classify the plants or crops on various ber, ghaneri, kans, motha or lavala.
aspect.
 Classify the weeds on different aspects. 10.3.2 According to place of occurrence
 Give special identifying characters of (i) Weeds of cropped lands : e.g. dudhi,
weed. chandvel, vasantvel, cocks comb, bathua,
etc.
Do you know ? (ii) Weeds of pastures and grazing lands :
e.g. parthenium, hulhul, hariyali, etc.
- Weeds are specific for a particular
(iii) Weeds along water channel :
location.
e.g. jalkumbhi, pandhari phuli, maka,
- Weeds are seasonal as well as periodic. ekdandi (Jakhamjodi), etc.
10.3 Classification of weeds (iv) Weeds along rail and roadside :
10.3.1 According to life cycle e.g. : tarota, gokhru, parthenium, chubh
kata, etc.
(a) Annual weeds : These weeds grow and
mature within a season. (v) Weeds of waste land : e.g. wild ber, rui,
babhul, parthenium, etc.
1. Kharif season weeds : They appear with
the onset of monsoon (June / July) and (vi) Weeds of lawns and orchards :
complete their life cycle when rainy season e.g. : Cannabis sativa, ambooshi, ghol,
is over (Oct. / Nov.) e.g. Cocks comb, etc.
math, dudhi, hazardana, parthenium, (vii) Weeds of forest lands : e.g. Lantana
chimanchara, etc. camara (ghaneri) tantani, chillari.
2. Rabi season weeds : Weeds grow during
winter season and finish their seed 10.3.3 According to plant family
production before summer starts. e.g. 1. Gramineae : e.g. hariyali, kans or kunda,
bathua, ghol, vasantvel, etc. chiman chara, etc.
3. Summer season weeds : Summer season 2. Leguminosae : e.g. lajalu, shewara, senji,
weeds complete their life cycle during tarota, takala, etc.
summer season (Feb / May) e.g. Solanum
nigrum (kamuni), Argemone mexicana. 3. Solanaceae : e.g. wild brinjal, kateli or
kateringani, etc.
4. Multiseason weeds : They occur almost
at any time of the year. e.g. Eleusine 4. Euphorbiaceae : e.g. All types of dudhi
indica (Goose grass) Phylanthus niruri (Euphorbia spp.)
(Bhuiawala). 5. Liliaceae : e.g. wild onion
(b) Biennial weeds : These weeds live for 6. Convolvulaceae : e.g. chandvel, hirankuri,
two seasons. They complete vegetative undirkani, etc.
growth in first season and produce flowers
7. Compositeae or asteraceae : eg :
and seeds in the next season. These are
parthenium, maka, osadi, pandhari phuli,
mostly found in temperate climate. e.g.
pohli.
Jangli gobhi, wild carrot, wild onion, wild
brinjal.
115
10.3.4 According to dependence on other [iv] Algae : This is a large and diverse group
host of simple photosynthetic plants. eg.
1. Stem Parasites : e.g. amarvel, loranthus chlorella, spirogyra cladophora, etc.
on mango. [v] Ferns : These are seedless vascular plants
2. Root Parasites : e.g. gudiya, stringa, which produce spores. e.g. Ceratopteris
bambakhu on tobacco, etc. Siliquosa, Marsilea crenata, Salvinia
3. Independent : e.g. chandvel, vasantvel, molesta etc.
hirankuri, etc. 10.3.8 According to association
10.3.5 According to soil type Association of weeds with crops and
1. Weeds found in black soil : e.g. hariyali or seasons they are classified as :
doob, kans, kunda, etc. [i] Season - bound weeds : They grow in
2. Weeds found in sandy loam or light soils specific season of the year irrespective of
: e.g. aghada, chhoti dudhi, cockscombs, the crop species cultivated. e.g. Johnson
chirchiri, etc. grass and Canada thistle.
3. Weeds found in ill drained soils : e.g. maka, [ii] Crop - bound weeds : These are usually
nutgrass or lavala. parasite on the host crop. eg. cuscuta,
4. Weeds in tanks, ponds, rivers or aquatic orobanche, etc.
weeds : e.g. jalkumbhi, typha, hydrilla,
salvinia spp, lotus, algae, etc. [iii] Crop - associate weeds : Weeds associate
with certain crops. They grow with crop
10.3.6 According to mode of cultivation due to their requirement, habitat and
1. Weeds of dry land : e.g. chimanchara, survive along with the crop in the form
kombada, etc. of mimicry. eg. Wild oat, canara grass,
2. Weeds of irrigated land : e.g. lavala, barnyard grass, etc.
hariyali, ghol, etc. 10.3.9 According to origin of weeds
10.3.7 According to morphology [i] Foreign origin (Alien Weeds) : piwala
[i] Broad leaf weeds : These are mostly dicots dhotara, wild carrot, water hyacinth, etc.
having broad leaves with netted venation [ii] Indigenous origin (Apophytes) : bermuda
alternately arranged on stem e. g. bathua, grass, purple nut, jungle rice, kans, etc
common purslane, spiny, amaranth, etc. [iii] Introduced by Man (Anthrophytes) :
[ii] Grasses : Cylindrical and hollow stem Avenahido viciana (wild oats), phalaris
having node and internodes, leaf minor (canara grass), corchorus
emerges from node that are long, narrow acutanqulus, etc.
upright with parallel veins, fibrous 10.3.10 According to nature of stem
roots, gramineae family e.g. bermuda
[a] Aerial Stem :
grass, barnyard grass, etc.
[i] Herbs : lambs quarter, bhringraj, etc.
[iii] Sedges : These are monocots like grasses
[ii] Shrubs : pethari, jelly leaf, etc.
but leaves occurring two rows. Triangular
stem, no nodes, very large internode and [iii] Bushes : wild ber, wild jujube (Toran)
leaf at top, no branch usually three leaves [iv] Trees : pimpal, banyan
at top. e.g. motha, purple nut, etc. [v] Filamentous : chiman chara, water horse
tail
116
[b] Sub aerial stem : 2. Water : Some weed seed have special
[i] With storage organs : structures to float on water. Surface run
eg. 1. Nuts - purple nut off from the fields carry weed seeds during
2. Rhizomes - sonkadi rainy season. Irrigation and drainage
[ii] Without storage organs : channels are also important in spread of
eg. 1. Runners - oxalis weeds. Streams and flood water carry weed
2. Stolons - aaloo seeds to long distance. e.g. lavala, motha,
3. Offsets - pankobi gajar gawat, chubkata, etc.
3. Animals and birds : Many weed seed are
Use your brain power eaten by animals, birds and spread from
one place to another through excreta. Many
 Why some weed seed float on water ? weed seed do not lose their viability even
 Whether the structure of weed seed that after passing through digestive track of
helps in dispersal ? birds and animals.
Weed seed having spines, awns, hooks
or sticky hairs may get attached to the body
Try this
of animals and spread from one place to
Collect different samples of Weed and Weed another. e.g gokhru, hooks, lantha, aghada,
seeds from surrounding area. kusal, etc.
4. Man : Man himself is also responsible for
10.4 Dispersal of weeds the spread of weeds. Farmer use partially
Weeds are hardy and vigorous than crop decomposed F.Y.M., compost or silage
plants, grow faster and spread so rapidly, containing weed seed, feeding cattle with
therefore difficult to eradicate completely. fodder having weed plants. Movement
Weed seed and fruits are dispersed very fast in of uncleaned farm machinery, import
various ways. Wind, water, animal, man and food grains, vegetables, seedlings, etc.
farm machinery are the principal agencies of contaminated with weed seed.
weed seed dissemination. 5. Farm machinery : Farm implements carry
1. Wind : Many weed seeds are light in weight weed seed from field to field and from one
with special structural modifications like area to another.
parachute, wings, chaffy, silky hairs, 6. Crop seed : Many times weeds are also
balloons, etc. due to which they disperse harvested and threshed along with the main
to a long distance e.g. rui, Jakham jodi, crop. If seed from such source is used for
argemone mexicana, milk weed, ground sowing in the next year. It get dispersed.
cherry, etc.
7. Others : Weeds are also commonly spread
through transport vehicles, manures,
compost pits, soil mass and weeds used for
mulching, etc.

Collect Information : Collect information

about weeds from your parents, books and
internet.

Fig. 10.3 : Dispersal of weeds by wind

117
 may occur. The annual agriculture loss in
Let’s discuss India due to weeds is estimated to 45 %.

 Discuss between two groups in your [2] Increase in the cost of cultivation :
class about advantages and When the land is infested with weeds,
disadvantages of weeds. the cost of tillage increases, i. e. repeated
tillage operation and more labour is also
 What will be the overall effect of weeds required for weeding. Finally results in
on field crops ? increasing the overall cost of cultivation
 What will be the effect of weeds on and reducing the margin of the net
animals and human beings ? profit.
Tillage operations are done to control
weeds and generally 30 % of the total
Try this expenditure for crop production is
incurred on tillage operations.
Prepare a list of beneficial and
[3] Incidence of the pest and diseases :
harmful weeds.
Weeds act as alternate hosts to pest and
pathogens during off season, which infect
the crop later and cause severe damage.
Always remember e.g. Wheat - (Black Rust) Agropyron
repens (Quak grass).
 Along with Insect-Pest, Plant diseases, Tomato - (Wilt) Amaranthus spp.
animals and weeds also cause
[4] The quality of produce is reduced :
considerable damage to agriculture crops.
weed seeds get mixed with the main crop
 The estimated losses in crop yields alone seeds, when crop is harvested and reduce
range from 5 % in clean field to over 70 the quality.
% in neglected fields. [5] The quality of livestock produce is
 The losses of nitrogen through weeds as reduced : Certain weeds e.g. wild
high as 150 kg / ha. onion, wild garlic, parthenium, piwali
tilwan when eaten by cattle, it imparts
 There are over 30,000 species of the weeds an undesirable flavor and bitter taste to
around the world, out of these about milk. Weeds like gokharu get attached to
18,000 species are known to cause serious the body of sheep and affect the quality
losses. of wool.
[6] Problems of human health : Some
10.4.1 Effects of Weed
of the weeds cause health problems,
[A] Harmful effects of weed allergic reactions. e.g. parhtenium causes
irritation of skin and allergy. Mixture of
[1] Yield losses : Weeds germinate earlier,
Mexicana in mustard seeds cause dropsy,
seedlings grow very fast, produce large
string needle causes severe itching and
amount of seeds, weeds are hardy and
inflammation, fever and asthma may
vigorous in growth habit. It competes with
caused by franseria spp.
crops for plant nutrients, moisture, space
and sunlight. It consumes large amount of [7] Problems of animal health : Many
water, nutrients and causes heavy losses weeds are poisonous to animals when
in crop yields. Sometimes complete loss ingested. Lantana camara induces
118
 hypersensitivity Johnson grass at tillering [10] Weeds cause quicker wear and tear
stage is poisonous. Sweet clover act as of farm implements : Weeds are hardy
antiblood coagulant. Kala dhotra may and having deep root system, the tillage
cause death of cattle. Weeds with thorns implement get worn out early and cannot
or spines may cause injury to animals work efficiently unless they are properly
while grazing. sharpened or repaired.
[11] Weeds reduce the value of land :
Agricultural lands which are heavily
infested with perennial weeds like kans
always fetch less price, because such
lands cannot be brought under cultivation
without incurring heavy expenditure on
labour and machinery.
[12] Many weeds lower the beauty of Public
Places
Fig. 10.4 : Dhatura spp.
[8] Problems of water contamination : Do you know the weeds : Pathri, ghol,
Weeds block drainage and check the flow jakham jodi, gumma, maka, bramhi, rui,
of water in irrigation channels and field argemone spp. etc.
channels. It increases seepage losses as How these weeds are benificial ?
well as losses through over flooding. [B] Beneficial effects of weeds
Aquatic weeds render water unfit for
[1] Add nutrients to the soil
drinking. After its decomposition, it
Several species of weeds having
emits offensive odor and pollutes the
vigorous and leafy growth are used for
atmosphere. Aquatic weeds create
green manuring. Some wild leguminous
difficulty in fishing and navigation.
weeds fix atmospheric nitrogen. Aquatic
[9] Weed secretions are harmful : Heavy weeds are used for making compost. It
growth of certain weeds like nut grass, adds considerable amount of organic
johnson grass vasantvel, amaranthus matter and plant nutrients into the soil.
lower the germination and reduce
[2] Fodder value of weeds
the growth and yield of many crop
Several weeds of grasslands used as
plants. This is due to certain allopathic
fodder for animals. Some weeds have
compounds or phytotoxics released by
succulent leafy growth good for milch
the weeds in the soil.
animals. e.g. Hariyali, chimanchara,
shewari, etc.
[3] Vegetable value of Weeds
Some weeds like math, kanjru, tandulja,
amaranthus, pathri, ghol, etc. are used as
green leafy vegetables at many places.

Fig. 10.5 : Chaulai Fig. 10.6 : Pathri Fig. 10.7 : Ghol

119
[4] Medicinal value of Weeds areas, sloppy fields, lowers wind and
Some weeds are used in the preparation water erosion and helps in protection of
of certain drugs or medicines. environment.
e.g. Gumma - used in the snake bite. [8] Reclamation of alkali soils
Maka - cough disorders and as hair oil.
The application of powder of piwala
Argemone spp. - oil is used against skin
dhotra @ 2.5 tonnes / ha is useful for
diseases. rui - Good medicine for gastric
reclamation of alkali soils and there by
troubles.
increasing the yield.
Striga, Orobanche - for treatment of
diabetes. Bramhi used for preparation [9] Source of resistance to pests and
of brain tonic and ayurvedic oil, etc. diseases
Weeds have been a constant source of
new genes for resistance to pests and
diseases. e.g. wild grass has conferred cold
tolerance to bread wheat, resistance of
potato to nematode. Some weeds useful
Fig. 10.8 : Maka for controlling nematodes when mixed
into soil. e.g. Rui, parthenium, etc.
[10] Weeds can be used for preparation of
paper pulp, biogas and the manufacture
of edible proteins.
[11] Weeds serve as ornamental and hedge
Fig. 10.9 : Rui Fig. 10.10 : Bramhi plants
[5] Religious value of weeds e.g. ghaneri, ghol, cactus, jalkumbhi, etc.
e.g hariyali, aghada, maka, lavala etc. produces beautiful attractive flowers and
are used in religious ceremonies. are used as ornamental plants or hedges.

[6] Economic importance of weeds

Kans, are used for thatching of huts, lavala
for making essence sticks (Udbattis) and
lemon grass for aromatic oils. Some
weeds protect different types of farm bunds,
especially in soil and water conservation.
[7] Reduce Erosion
Weeds growing on desert lands, waste
lands and sloppy lands in the heavy rainfall Fig. 10.12 : Ghaneri

Fig. 10.11 : Kans Fig. 10.13 : Jalkumbhi

120
 No weed program can be
Think about it successful if proper preventive measures
are not taken to minimize the weed
 What are your suggestions for infestation. Different measures adopted to
minimizing weed growth ? prevent spread of weeds to minimize weed
 Which chemicals are used to control population are as follows.
weeds ?
 Which method is safe and effective ? Use your brain power
 How do you kill weeds naturally ? Why it is necessary to
a. Use clean seed for sowing.
b. Use well decomposed F.Y.M. / Compost.
Internet my friend
1. Use weed free crop seeds and seedlings.
1. Collect information about different 2. Do not use fresh or partly decomposed
methods of weeds control. F.Y.M. or compost.
2. Collect information about different trade
3. Remove weeds before flowering and
names of weedicides.
seeding.
10.5 Weed control 4. Remove weeds before raising crops.
The process of minimizing weed 5. Restrict livestock to move from weed
infestation in cropped field for remunerative infested area to clean area.
crop production is called weed control. 6. Use clean farm implements and tools
before handlings.
Different methods of weed control are as
follows 7. Avoid shifting of soil from infested area to
clean area.
I. Preventive measures
8. Keep the threshing yard, compost pits free
II. Curative Measures from weeds.
a. Mechanical methods
9. Follow legal and quarantine measures
b. Cropping or cultural methods
while importing crop seed, grains,
c. Biological methods
seedlings, etc.
d. Chemical methods
10. Use vigilance - Inspect your farm
III. Integrated weed management
frequently for any strange looking weeds
and destroy it immediately.
Always remember 11. Keep the nursery stock free from weeds.
12. Keep river banks, hill slopes, field bunds
1. The golden rule in agriculture is
and fence lines free from weeds.
“Prevention is better than cure”.
13. Keep the irrigation and drainage channels
2. Weed prevention is cheaper than free from weeds.
weed control.
10.5.2 Curative measures or remedial
10.5.1 Preventive measures measures
The aim of this method is to prevent They are employed after the occurrence of
introduction and spread of specific weed weed . They are classified into four groups :
species in areas that are not currently [A] Mechanical method or physical
infested. method
121
 This is the common method of weed control for perennial weeds. The weeds
control, it started when man began to grow are submerged under water and are
crops. Choice of each method depends on smothered.
the location, extent and habitat of weeds. It [8] Mulching
includes - It has smothering effect on weeds by
[1] Hand weeding or hand pulling restricting the photosynthesis. It is
It is a physical removal or pulling out effective against annual weeds. Generally
weeds by hand. Weeds do not regenerate organic mulches or polythene expensive
from pieces of root left in the ground. sheet are used.
Weeds can be easily uprooted after good [9] Dragging
soaking irrigation or rain. Weeding should With the help of mechanical force, weeds
be done before flowering of weeds. This is are removed along with their roots and
costly and time consuming method. rhizome.
[2] Hand Hoeing [10] Soil solarisation
Hand hoeing is a simplest weeding tool. It During solarisation soil temperature
is effective on annuals and biennials so that is increased around 500 C. High soil
weeds can be completely destroyed. It is temperature can suppress weed seed
effective on shallow root system weeds. germination and kill weed seedlings.
[3] Tillage [B] Cropping and Cultural method
Tillage operation such as ploughing, This method is relatively less expensive.
disking, harrowing and levelling for seed It may not control weed completely.
bed preparation.
[4] Digging However weed intensity can be reduced to
some extent to improve crop yield. The main
This method weed control is useful
objective of cultural practices is to provide a
where other methods are not effective.
short term relief to crop during initial growth
It is very useful to remove underground
period. So that the crop may taken lead in its
propagating parts of perennial weeds
growth and development.
from deeper layers of soil. It is costly and
time consuming method.
[5] Sickling
It is used to remove top weed growth to
prevent weed seed production.
[6] Burning
It is not a good method, since useful
vegetation and organic matter is also Fig. 10.14 Croping and cultural method
destroyed along weeds. Fire is used to
Cropping and Cultural methods includes
burn crop residues and weeds after the
harvest of crops like sugarcane, cotton, 1. Proper crop rotation
maize, potato etc. 2. Clean cultivation
3. Suitable time and methods of planting
[7] Flooding
crops
Weed infested field is ploughed deep and
flooded with 20 - 30 cm standing water. 4. Use clean seeds and higher seed rate
Flooding is an efficient method of weed 5. Inclusion smoother crops such as legume
in intercropping
122
6. Summer ploughing
7. Water and nutrient management Try to understand
8. Mulching and crop residue management Characteristics of bio agents
9. Reduction in area under bunds and water
1. The bio agents must feed or affect or kill
channels
only host plant. (weed)
10. Line sowing for using inter cultivation
2. They do not feed or harm the crop.
implements
3. It should be free from predators and
[C] Biological Weed control parasites.
Let’s recall 4. It must be able to kill the host or atleast
prevent seed production or reproduction
1. What is meant by parasites and predators? of host plant.
2. Are predators can be used for controlling
weeds ? The example of biological weed
control are given below
Biological weed control involves the use
of living organism (Bioagents) such as Insect, [1] Insects : Cactus or Prickly pear weed
pathogens, herbivorous fish, other animal (opuntie spp) by- Cochineal insects.
and competitive plants to limit the weed Ghaneri (Lantana camara) by lantana
infestation. In this method natural enemies of bug.
weeds (Parasites, predators and pathogens) aquatic weeds like water hyacinth by
are employed to control weeds. snails or sea cow.
parthenium by Zygogramma bicolorata
The objectives of biological control are
not to eradicate but to reduce and regulate the [2] Fish : aquatic weeds - common carp and
weed population. A bio agent may be either chinese carp.
specific or non specific. [3] Fungi : water hyacinth - Eichhornia
crissipes fungus. (Rhizoctina blight)
[4] Mites : prickly pear - spider mite.
[D] Chemical Method
Chemical method is very effective in
certain cases and have great scope in weed
control. The chemicals are cheap, efficient and
easily available. The chemicals which is used
to kill or control weeds and their growth are
Fig. 10.15 : Bio weed control called herbicides.
Advantages of chemical control method :
1. Most effective as compared to other
methods.
2. It controls the weeds before crop
emergence.
3. Highly suitable for close spaced crops.
4. Suitable for adverse soil and climatic
conditions.
Fig. 10.16 : Bio weed control
123
5. Control many perennial weeds which 10.5.3 Integrated Weed Management (IWM)
cannot be controlled by other methods. Integrated weed management is the
Collect Information about different suitable combination of all methods including
weedicides / Herbicides available in the preventive measures, mechanical, biological,
market from nearest ‘Krishi Seva Kendra’. cultural and chemical methods of weed control.
Importance of Integrated Weed
Management
Think about it Weeds can be controlled by adopting
different methods. However, each method has
Select the best method of weed control
advantages and disadvantages or limitations.
from your point of view, which is good to
The continuous use of same method leads
the farmer by considering its costs, time,
to built up of tolerant species. Therefore, the
technique, skill, soil properties etc
suitable combination of different methods
of weed control or integrated use of weed
management should be practiced for
minimizing the losses caused by weeds.

Classification of Herbicides

Selective herbicides Non - Selective herbicides

Foliage Application Root Application Foliage Application Soil Application

e.g. Atrazine, e. g. MCPA, TCA
Butachlor, Metribucin Simazines

Contact Herbicides Translocated

e.g. Ammate, Sulphuric Herbicides e.g. Acid
acid, Sodium arsenide, arsenical, sodium
Paraquat chlorate, Glyphosate

Contact herbicide Translocated herbicides Soil Sterilant e.g. Soil Fumigant

e.g. Potassium e.g. 2, 4 - D, 2, 4, 5 - T TCA, Simazine e.g. Methyl
cynate DNBP MCPA, MCPB Atrazine bromide

124
 Exercise
Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. 4. Write benificial effects of weed.
1. Weeds can be controlled by preventive
5. Complete the following chart.
and -------- measures.
[a]
2. Any plant not sown by the farmer
and is out of place called as -------
3. The chemical which is used to kill or
control weeds is called as ------- Curatitive methods

4. The bio agent must feed or affect or

kill only -------- plant.
5. The weeds which require more than
[b]
two years to complete its life cycle is
called as ----------
B. Make the pairs.
Group A Group B
Aspects of weed
1. Mango a. Dudhi classification
2. Jowar b. Loranthus
3. Tobacco c. Gokharu
d. Bambakhu
e. Striga
C. State true or false. Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
1. Biological method is most effective 1. Classify the weeds according to life
method than other methods of cycle.
weed control.
2. Describe in short-dispersal of
2. Jethro Tull was the first person to use weeds.
word weed.
3. Write in short preventive method of
3. Lavala is a weeds of ill drained weed control.
soil.
4. Write about harmful effect of weeds.
4. Summer season weed appear with
5. Complete the following chart.
the onset of monsoon.
5. Weed also act as alternative hosts [a]
during the off season.
Q. 2 Answer in brief.
1. Write short note on Integrated weed
Mechanical weed
management Control
2. How weeds are controlled by
biological method ?
3. Classify the weeds according to
dependence on other host.
125
 [b] Q. 4 Answer in detail.
1. Define weed and give its
characteristics.
2. Give detail classification of weed
with suitable examples.
Dispersal of weeds
3. Describe curative methods of weed
control.
4. List out methods of weed control and
describe any two of them.
5. Explain harmful and useful effects of
weed .
Activity :
Practice different methods of weed control and prepare a concept map of weed control methods.

Concept Map

126
 11. Pest and Disease Control

Can you tell?

Try this
1. Names of the some insects familiar to
you. Take some disease affected seed and
2. The body parts of insects. observe.
3. The examples of harmful and useful
insects. Always remember
11.1 Meaning and types of pest and diseases The economic threshold level is the pest
11.1.1 Meaning of pest density at which control measures should be
determined to prevent an increasing pest
Pest means any living organism that population from reaching economic damage
multiplies in large number and cause damage level.
or disease to human, animals, plants or
property. Pest indicates the harmful insect or 11.1.2 Meaning of diseases
this includes insects, mites, fungi, bacteria,
Disease is defined as physiological or
viruses, rats, birds, animals, nematodes,
structural deformity that is harmful to plant
weeds, etc. The term pest is derived from Latin
or any of its parts or produce that reduces
word pestis which means damage.
their economic value. Diseases of plant are
The insects are dominant in ecosystem responsible for damage to plant and their
as insects have external skeleton, small size, produce. Damage due to diseases in India is
prolific reproduction, efficient body system, estimated approximately 500 crores per year.
adoptability to new environment, remain Disease may be caused by living organism
dormant in adverse condition. which are affected by factors as temperature,
moisture, aeration, deficiency or excess of
Can you recall? plant nutrients, soil pH (acidity or alkalinity),
etc.
1. Names of human diseases
2. Name the organisms responsible for
diseases. Always remember

Plant diseases make changes in plant.

Do you know ?
Destroy plant cells or tissue due to toxic
or growth retarding substances secreted by
When plant is said healthy?
causal organism.
Plant growth and development is good
Due to continous feeding of organism on
and it is capable of reproduction.
plant food material, plants become weaker
When plant physiological processes
as well as absorption of minerals and water
[Cell division and growth, absorption
is disturbed.
of water and minerals from soil,
Reduction in the yield of plant.
photosynthesis, respiration, food storage,
etc.] are performing smoothly.

127
11.1.3 Types of pest and disease insects pests are larvae, nymphs and adults.
[A] Types of pest on basis of incidence 2. Mites: These are creatures similar to
1. Regular pest: The regular pest occur insect having four pairs of legs. They suck
most frequently on the crop and such the sap from the plant and attack the crops
pest have close association with a in huge number.
particular crop. These pest are expected 3. Rodents: The rats eat away large amount
to occur on the crop sometime before of human food and also damage the crops
harvest e.g. Thrips on chilli, Jassids on large scale. They are also responsible
on paddy, Aphids on mustard, Fruit for heavy loss to stored grains on farms,
borers on brinjal . in warehouses and houses.
2. Sporadic pest: The sporadic pest occur 4. Animals: Large animals like boar,
in a few isolated localities occasionally in deer, elephants, wild buffalo, monkeys,
certain years e.g. stink bug on rice, slug squirrels cause direct damage to crop
caterpillar on castor. plants. They eat away the plants and
3. Occasional pest: Many pest occur rather waste huge amount of crops.
infrequently and close association with 5. Birds: Birds attack the crop plants and
particular crop is absent e.g. case worm of eat grains. Crow, parrots and sparrows are
rice, the mango stem borer. major birds that attack the crops.
4. Seasonal pest: Those pest which occur [C] On the basis of feeding habits the insect
mostly during a particular part of the year. pest
The incidence of these pests are governed 1. Chewers: Chewing is the most common
by environmental factors in a locality. way by which insects feed plant materials
e.g. red hairy caterpillar on groundnut ( leaves, stems, flowers, pollens, seeds,
during April-May in certain localities of roots) larvae and adult have chewing
the south India, rice grass hopper during mouth parts e.g. beetles
August – September in U.P.
2. Sap suckers: Some insects with the help
5. Persistent pest: Pest that occur on a of their highly modified mouth parts pierce
crop throughout the year are known as the plant epidermis and suck the cell sap.
persistent pest e.g. mealy bugs on They do not physically damage the plant
sugarcane. e.g. aphids, thrips.
6. Potential pest: These pest normally
cause little loss but may become
Seed
highly destructive resulting from some
feeders
disturbance in the environment and the
consequent increase in their number e.g.
brown plant hopper on paddy.
Pest
[B] Types of pest on the basis of damaging Gall Feeding Chewers
organism makers Habbits
1. Insect: These are important and major
pests. Insect have three pairs of legs,
two pairs of wings, segmented body
Sap
and characteristic compound eyes and
suckers
antennae. The damaging stages of different

128
3. Miners and borers: Leaf miners are 2. Minor pest: The pest causing only 5-10%
chewing insect feed within plant tissues damage (loss) to crop is called as minor
layers between the intact upper and lower pest. e.g. mealy bug of sugarcane.
epidermis of leaves. Due to feeding a 3. Negligible pest: The pest causing loss of
tunnel is made that is often characteristics crop production less than 5% is called as
of the species. Boring insects live in the negligible pest e.g. gray cotton bug.
woody tissue of plants or fruits. Larvae
of sugarcane top borer and stem borer [E] Classes of pest on the basis of feeding on
feed the content of the stem. Most of the crop.
fruit borers (brinjal, okra) and stem borers 1. Monophagous pest: Pest in this class
(jowar, paddy) are injurious to crop. gets food from specific single crop hence
4. Gall makers: Some insects induce the called monophagous pest, e.g. hoppers of
galls (the production of abnormal growth) mango.
in the tissues of their host plants, flowers 2. Polyphagous pest: Pest feed on many
or roots. The gall is entirely product of crops is known as polyphagous pest. e.g.
plant developed in response to a chemical gram pod borer.
stimulus from the secretions of the insect
3. Oligophagous pest: Pest feeds only on
e.g. Paddy gall
special crops is called oligophagous e.g.
5. Seed feeders: Seed feeders and seedling spotted bollworm of cotton.
feeders are the only true predators
[F] On the basis of outbreak of the pest
among insects because they kill plants by
consuming them e.g. seed beetles 1. Epidemic pest: Irregular large scale
infestation of insect at specific time in
6. Soil insects: Insects that are found in the a particular area e.g. grass hoppers on
soil live by feeding on the roots of plants jowar.
by chewing or boring or sucking the sap
or forming galls. Many soil insect are host 2. Endemic pest: When insect infestation
specific as in cutworms, flea beetles. is regular in large scale but at particular
place then that pest is called endemic pest.
7. Store grain pest: The stored products are e.g. white grub on sugarcane at riverside
attacked by insects in three ways, of kumbhi.
(i) It may be a continuation of field attack 3. Economically important pest: The insect
as in potato tuber moth. population is always above economic
(ii) The eggs may be laid in the field itself threshold level and require repeated
and damage occur in storage as in red control management for that pest. In
gram infested by bruchid beetle. spite of regular control measures insect
population crosses economic threshold
(iii) The attack may from the material
level. e.g. gram pod borer.
stored earlier and be carried over to fresh
material stored in the same storage house Types of diseases: On the basis of various
as in the grain weevil. criteria disease are classified as below.
[D] Classification on the basis of economic (A) On the basis of symptoms of disease.
damage 1. Mosaic: Due to uneven development of
1. Major pest: The pest causing 10% or chlorophyll when colour variation and
more damage to crop is called as major alternate light green patches develop on
pest .e.g. sucking insect of cotton. plant that disease is called as mosaic.
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2. Blast : When the entire leaf blade, bud or 4. Pandemic: Disease occurring throughout
other plant parts are involved resulting in the continent or sub -continent resulting in
quick death of the parts or whole plant that mass mortality. e.g. late blight of potato.
disease is called blast. e.g. blast in rice. (D) On the basis of cause (pathogen).
3. Rot: In such disease affected tissues get 1. Infectious : Causal organisms may be
disintegrate. e.g. root rot, stem rot, collar fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, higher
rot, etc. parasitic plants.
4. Smut: In this disease there is development 2. Non infectious : Disease caused by
of sori which are filled with masses of nutritional deficiencies e.g. Khaira
spore that gives them deep brown or black disease of rice due to Zn deficiency.
colour. The malformation affects floral
structures, buds and leaves. e.g. jowar (E) On the basis of host plants
smut. 1. Disease of Cereals
5. Cankers: Corky growth often develop in 2. Disease of Vegetables
affected parts. It causes localized death 3. Disease of Legume crops
of the tissue but in several infection they 4. Disease of Flower crops
may girdle the stem and kill the plant. e.g.
citrus canker. Use your brain power
6. Rust: Infection begin when a spore lands
on plant surface. Infection is limited to Infectious microbes
plant parts as leaves, petioles and tender 1. Fungal 2. Bacteria
shoots. It may display signs of infection 3. Viral 4. Nematode
such as rust fruiting bodies e.g. Wheat 5. Parasitic
rust.
(B) On the basis of affected plant parts. Try this
1. Root disease : e.g. Root rot
 Prepare a glass slide from disease plant
2. Stem disease: e.g. Tumours
part and observe under microscope.
3. Flower disease : e.g. Smuts
4. Fruits disease : e.g. Scab  Visit the field and record following
5. Leaf disease : e.g. Leaf spot observations
(C) On the basis of spread and intensity (a)
Difference between healthy and
1. Endemic: When a disease occur more infected plant
or less constantly prevalent from year (b) Symptoms of disease
to year in moderate to severe form in a (c) Changes in next few days
particular area. e.g. Wart disease of potato
is endemic to Darjeeling. 11.2 Principles and methods of pest and
2. Epidemic or epiphytotic: A disease disease control
occurring periodically but in a server or Principles of pest control may have two
involving major area of the crop. It may approaches viz. control planning against a
be constantly present in locality but occur pest or disease and control planning for crop.
severe occasionally. e.g. Rust.
Control planning against a pest and
3. Sporadic: Disease that occur at very disease is directed against a specific pest
irregular interval and location in a without taking in to account of other pest of
moderate to severe form e.g. Wilt. the same crop.
130
 Control planning for crop involves a plan Clean cultivation: Disposal or destruction of
in which all insect pest, diseases are taken crop residues removes residual pest population
in consideration. The second approach is of e.g. pink bollworm larvae.
more practical value for farmers because they 2. Mechanical control
are interested in increasing productivity of (i) Hand picking of infested plants and
the crop hence prefer a plan that can provide destruction
safeguard against all possible pest occurring
(ii) Netting, Bagging and dislodging of
on the crop. This control planning is based on
insect pest
the following principles.
1. Prevention of pest and pathogen. (iii) Trenching
2. Avoid entry of pest and pathogen. (iv) Burnings
3. Removal and destruction of pest or (v) Hitting and crushing
diseases. (vi) Insect barriers or mechanical excluders
4. Chemical control of pest and diseases.
(vii) Insect traps
5. Development or production of pest or
disease resistant plants. (viii) Provisions of bird perching objects
In accordance with the above stated Handpicking of infested plant parts along
approaches to the pest and disease control the with pests is effective in controlling the pests
methods of the pest control are as follows. e.g. the easily detectable egg masses of rice
11.2.1 Methods pest control stem borer can be handpicked and killed.
Trenching is very good method for controlling
1. Cultural control methods locusts at nymphal stages.
2. Mechanical methods 3. Physical method :
3. Physical methods Use of certain physical forces for
4. Legal methods eradication of insects e.g. kaolinite clay
5. Biological methods mixed with stored grains. It also includes
6. Chemical methods use of heat, moisture, light, etc.

1. Cultural control methods : 4. Legal methods :

These tactics may include Legislation to prevent introduction of
new pest, prevention of already established
(a) Selection of seeds
pest, regulate the activities of men engaged
(b) Clean cultivation in pest control operation.
(c) Provision of alternate hosts
5. Biological methods :
(d) Crop rotation
Control of a pest by means of another
(e) Tillage operation
living organism that is encouraged and
(f) Timing of planting and harvesting
spread by man is called as biological
(g) Cultivation of trap crops control. The natural enemies of insects,
(h) Nutrient management parasites and predators, diseases
(i) Plant density causing viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasitic
Selection of seeds and cultivars: Seed nematodes, etc. are used to control pest.
damaged by insects or other pest, if sown
may cause poor germination or poor health
of seedling. Seed of resistant crop varieties
should be used for crop production.
131
6. Chemical methods : Where
Various common pesticides are used N1 – Strength of the chemical
for controlling the insects. The natural or
V1 – Quantity of insecticide
synthetic chemicals that directly cause the
death, repulsion or attraction of the insects N2 – Strength of spray solution
are used in this method. desired in percentage
The pesticide is chemical or a mixture V2 – Total quantity of spray solution
of chemicals employed to a kill pest. The required
term pesticide encompasses insecticide,
Quantity of Chlorpyrifos required
herbicide, rodenticide, fungicide and other
substance. N 2 × V2
V1 =
N1
Always remember
×
V1 =
Protection: Preventing infection by
creating a chemi-toxic barriers between = 1 litre
the plant surface and pathogen Precautions and care to be taken during
 Chemical treatment
application of pesticides
 Chemical control of insect vector
 Modification of environment (1) Select only proper insecticide / fungicide.
Resistant varieties : (2) Keep pesticides in their original
Preventing infection or reducing effect of containers with label.
infection by managing the host through (3) Read carefully information about
improvement of resistance in it by genetic precautions and first aid.
manipulation or by chemotherapy (4) Store the pesticides beyond the reach
 Selection and hybridization of children, away from food and food
 Mutation materials.
The following formula is used for (5) Wear protective appliances while
preparation of spray solution to find out the application.
quantity of insecticide required for treating an (6) Do not drink, eat or smoke while
area at a required. handling pesticides.
N1V1 = N2V2 (7) Do not use defective equipment.
Or (8) Spray along with wind direction.
Qunatity of insecticide required = (9) Wash all equipments after handling
Total quantity of spray solution ×
Strength in percentage of spray solution pesticide.
desired (10) Take care for avoiding contamination
Strength of the chemical available of tanks, ponds, wells and other sources
of water
Example : Find out the quantity of Chlorpyrifos (11)
Use pesticide in appropriate
20 % EC required for treating an area which concentration against particular pest.
required 1000 liters of spray fluid at 0.02 %
strength. Storage and handling of pesticides
Solution : Formula Pesticides are toxic to human being and
animals. They should be handled with utmost
N1V1 = N2V2
132
care. The following precautions should be disease is against a specific disease that causes
taken while storing and handling of pesticides. heavy loss without taking in to consideration
(1) The pesticides should always be stored in other diseases of the same crop. Management of
their original containers. crop health involves plan in which all diseases
(2) They should be stored away from food, of crop are taken in to consideration, although
fodder and medicines. They should be major stress may be against the severe disease.
kept out of reach of children and domestic The second approach is difficult for farmer but
animals. have more practical value.
(3) Containers of pesticides should be cut General principles
open with separate knife and the empty 1. Avoidance : It involves avoiding disease
containers should be destroyed properly. by planting at time when, or in areas where
(4) The instructions found on the labels inoculums are absent or ineffective due to
should be strictly followed. environmental conditions.
(5) Avoid contact of pesticides with skin or Main practice:
clothing.
(1) Selection of planting material
(6) Avoid smoking , chewing, eating or
drinking while mixing or applying the (2) Modification of cultural practices.
chemicals. (3) Escaping varieties
(7) Make the spraying or dusting in cool and (4) Choice of geographical area
calm weather and in the wind directions. (5) Selection of the field
(8) Sprayer nozzles should not be blown by (6) Sowings / planting time
mouth if gets blocked while spraying.
2. Exclusion: It restricts the movement of
(9) Washing of equipments in or near wells
diseased plant materials to the area free
or street should be avoided.
from the disease concerned.
(10) Contaminated parts should be buried.
3. Eradication: It involves eliminating the
11.2.2 Disease control / management pathogen from infested areas.
4. Protection: These are measures used to
Can you tell? prevent the onset of a disease on a crop
to protect the host from attack by the
Approaches regarding plant disease pathogen.
control.
5. Host resistance: It utilizes in build
Measures taken to prevent incidence of a mechanism to resist various activities of
disease, spread of diseases and minimize the pathogen. The infection or subsequent
loss caused by the disease is called as control damage by pathogen can be rendered
measure. The aim of disease control is to check ineffective through genetic manipulation
the loss of economic gain from the crop. If the or by chemotherapy.
control measure fails to increase economic 6. Therapy : It is the treatment of infected
gain even if disease incidence is reduced, host plant
farmer will not accepts the recommendations The first five principles are mainly
for plant disease management. preventive (prophylactic) and these are applied
The principle of plant disease management to the population of plants before infection
have two approaches viz. management of a takes place. Therapy is curative procedure
single disease of crop and planning for overall and is applied to individual after infection has
health of crop. Management planning for taken place.
133
Method of disease control Most of diseases are caused by soil
1. Exclusion of the pathogen born pathogens and can be significantly
(i) Quarantine (Legal method) reduced by crop rotation. The success of
crop rotation for disease control depends
(ii) Inspection and certification
on proper selection of crops in the
(iii) Seed treatment sequence.
(iv) Eradication of insect vectors.
(ii) Mixed cropping: Mixed cropping is
2. Avoidance of the pathogen intended for getting some return from
(i) Choice of geographical area an area if one crop is attacked the other
(ii) Selection of field escapes. Mixed cropping of pigeon pea
(iii) Choice of time of planting and sorghum give significant reduction in
the incidence of wilt of the pigen pea.
(iv) Disease escaping varieties
(v) Selection of seed and planting material (iii) Sanitation – Destruction of crop debris
by burning the field decreases parasites.
3. Eradication of pathogen Sanitation is very important when diseased
(i) Heat treatment : Seed/stock crop residue is left on the field.
Tools and implement
Soil Always remember
4. Biological : Antagonists
Basic requirement for plant disease control
Hyper parasite
1. Clean and healthy seeds
Mycorrhizae
2. Clean field, pathogen free soil.
Cross protection
Control of weeds and pests 3. Prevent entry of pathogen in standing
crop.
5. Cultural practices : 4. Precautions during harvesting and
Crop rotation storage.
Fertilizer application
Storage disinfection Chemical control
Sanitation In this method protective toxic layer on
Removal and destruction of diseased plant. host surface is formed so that when pathogen
6. Chemical control : comes in contact it is killed or prevented form
growth.
Information on Important methods
Spraying and dusting with fungicides
Cultural methods protect plant from infection of disease. The
In this methods pest or pathogen chemical act externally to destroy the organism
population is either eliminated or reduced by on the plant surface or act from within a
farm practices systemic manner to eliminate a pathogen
(i) Crop rotation: Growing of crops which already established in the host.
are hosts of pest in a successive manner Fungicide is a chemical which is capable
results in increase of population of that of killing fungi.
pest. When crop rotation with non- host Fungicide based on their mode of action can
crop is done, population of pest is reduced be grouped as follows.
because the insect is excluded from its 1. Protectant : Fungicides which is effective
food supply. Lady’s finger followed by only if applied prior to fungal infection is
cotton crop suffers from increased pest called Protectant e.g. Sulphur
infection. 2. Therapeutant: Fungicides having capacity
134
 to eradicate fungi after it has caused Objective of IPM
infection e.g. carboxin. 1. To reduce pest status below economic
3. Eradicant: Eradicant are those chemicals damage level.
which remove pathogenic fungi from 2. To manage insects by not only killing them
infection court e.g. organic mercurial. but by preventing feeding, multiplication and
4. Systemic fungicides: Any compound spread.
capable of being freely translocated 3. To use ecofriendly methods.
after penetrating plant is called systemic. 4. To make maximum use of natural mortality
This type of fungicides could eradicate factors and apply control measures only when
established infection and protect the new needed.
parts of the plant. e.g. Carboxin, Benlate. 5. To use components in suitable crop
production
5. Antibiotics: Antibiotic is defined as
a chemical substance produced by Requirements for successful pest
microorganism which in low concentration management
can inhibit or kill other microorganism. 1. Correct identification of insect pest
Biological control 2. Life history and behavior of the pest
Biological control is nothing but control 3. Natural enemies and weather parameters
of plant disease using living micro organism affecting pest population
The bio control agent parasitizes the 4. Pest forecasting and predicting pest
pathogen by coiling around the hype e.g. outbreak
Ttrichoderma viride. Various bacteria and
fungi secret enzymes which degrade the cell 5. Need and timing of control measure
wall of pathogen e.g. Bacillus sp. 6. Selection of suitable method of control.
11.2.3 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Integrated pest management
Integrated pest management is a
system that utilizes all suitable techniques in Physical
compatible manner to reduced and maintain
pest populations at levels below those causing
economic damage.
Principles of integrated pest management Cultural IPM Biological

1. Identify pests, their hosts and beneficial

organisms before taking action.
2. Establish monitoring guidelines for each Chemical
pest species.
3. Establish an action threshold for the pest.
4. Evaluate and implement control tactics.
IPM comprises strategies aimed
at minimizing pest damage through the
careful integration of available pest control
technologies.

135
11.2.4 Integrated Disease Management Advantages
(IDM) 1. It does not allow the development of
Definition disease resistance in the plant.
Integrated plant disease management can 2. It is ecofriendly and does not harm the
be defined as a process involving co- ordinated nature.
use of multiple methods of optimizing the 3. It is economical and efficient method for
control of pathogen or it is a disease control disease control.
methods that uses all types of management
techniques to keep disease pressure below the 4. Plant disease of crop are managed by
economic threshold level. minimum number of operations and
repetition for each separate disease.
Use your brain power
Introduction to scientist
1. Can single control methods is effective Tarakad Vaidyanatha
for pest or disease control? Ramakishana Ayyar
2. Is it possible to use control methods was an Indian
simultaneously? entomologist who
3. What is your opinion regarding biological was born at Tarakad
control methods? in Palghat. In 1908,
he took charge of
Technique use in IDM entomology education
1. Maintaining plant population at college of Agriculture,
Coimbatore. He was a founder of the
2. Balanced fertilizers application
entomological society of India. Hand book
3. Avoid alternative host during off season of economic entomology for south India was
4. Avoid coincidence of susceptible stages written by him.
with disease favorable conditions,

136
11.3 Important pests
S r . Name of
Nature of Damages Control Measures
no pests
Sugarcane
Remove and destroy infected
Top shoot Larva feeds on the leaves and later bore
1 shoots, spray the crop with
borer in to the shoot
Quinalphos.
Larva bores hole into the stem and feeds
Sugarcane Remove dry plant parts, spray
2 on inner matter. The affected plant dries
stem borer the crop with Monochrotophos
up.
Nymph suck the cell sap. In severe Sets treatment with 1% fish
3 Mealy bugs infestation canes shrivelled and remain oil, rasin soap solution before
stunted. planting
Infestation starts beneath the leaves Clip and destroy affected leaves
Wooly along the midrib and later on spread of initial stage, spray the crop
4
aphids to entire lower surface. Huge insect with mixture of Malathion and
population suck cell sap. Dimethoate.
The fleshy grubs are highly destructive
Collection and destruction of
to the roots and underground stalks
adults and grubs. Application
5 White grub of cane . The damage to sugarcane
of Phorate granules @ 25 kg /
by grubs is noticeable during July to
ha
September
Cotton Pest affecting before flowering
Aphids,
Pest of this group suck the sap from Spray insecticide belonging to
Jassids,
1 leaves and tender parts causing their Organo Phosphorus group (e.g.
Thrips
yellowing and curling. Chlorphyriphos)
Whiteflies
Pest affecting after flowering
Spotted boll
worm,
Larva bores hole on bolls and feeds on All boll worms can be controlled
Pink boll
2 it, boll rotting takes place that result in by spraying of insecticides like
worm,
shedding of bolls Acephate, Chlorpyriphos
American
boll worm
Paddy
Larva enters the leaf sheath feeds on it
Collection and destruction of
1 Stem borer and bore in to stem near to the nodal
egg masses, spray Phosphomidon
region.
Maggot infestation is seen on growing
points of the plants and produces long Remove and destroy affected
2 Gall fly
tubular structure which is covered by plant parts
silvery shoots.

137
 Soybean
Larva causes damage by tunneling the
Spraying of Chloropyriphos on
1 Stem borer stem and side branches plants dry and
crop controls the pest.
affect yield.

Larva bores hole in pod and feed on Pod borer can be controlled by
2 Pod borer
developing seeds. spraying Monocrotophos

Spray Monocrotophos
Hairy Pest cause damage by feeding on young
3 insecticide, plough land
caterpillar leaves.
immediately after harvesting
Onion
Nymph and adult suck the sap from the Spray Dimethoate at 15 days
1 Thrips
leaves. Bulb yield is affected interval.

Jassids also suck the sap from leaves

2 Jassids Spray Monocrotophos.
and make spot on it
Potato
The caterpillar feed on the leaves and
attack the exposed tubers. It makes a Earthing up to plants and
1 Tuber moth
tunnel in the tubers and feed on inner spraying of Carbaryl
matter.
The larva remains hidden in soil, larva
Collect and destroy the larva.
2 Cut worm cut the young potato plant at the ground
Application of Carbaryl
level and feed on tender leaves.
Mango
Adult and nymphs suck sap from tender
Spraying of Malathion or
shoots and flower panicles, secretion
Mango – Monocrotophos at panicle
1 of honey dew like substance on leaves
hopper emergence and peak fruit
results in the sooty mold growth on
setting stage.
affected portion .
The maggots feed on flesh and affected
fruits become unfit for consumption. Collection and destruction of
The fruit fly lays eggs in the clusters damaged fruits
2 Fruit fly
under the skin of fruit just before Spraying of Malathion.
ripening. The affected fruits begin to rot Use fruit fly trap
and drop.
Pomegranate
The fruit screened with
The caterpillar bores into the fruit and
polythene paper bags may
1 Fruit borer feeds on the internal contents. The
escape infestation, spray the
affected fruits fall and rot.
crop with Carbaryl
138
 The caterpillar bores into the bark and
Bark eating Clean the hole and put the
2 feeds inside. Tree becomes weak and
caterpillar cotton dipped in petrol in it.
collapse in severe cases.
Adult moth suck the juice from ripened
Fruit Keep poison bait Malathion +
fruits with the help of spines by making
3 sucking molasses+ water ) spray tree
puncture after sunset during the rainy
moth with Carbaryl
season. Pin hole spot appears on fruits
Citrus
The adult feed on the leaves from Hand picking of larva spraying
Citrus
1 the margin towards the mid-rib and of malathion is effective against
butterfly
defoliate branches pest.

Adult and maggots suck the cell sap

2 White fly from tender shoot and leaves, yellow Spray tree with Monocrotophos
patches are formed on surface of leaf
Coconut
Caterpillar burrows and cut across the Hook out beetles from affected
Rhinoceros
1 leaf in its folded conditions. Death of palms. Fill the leaf axils with
beetle
growing points. Chlordane dust.

Red palm Inject Carbaryl in the trunk of

2 Adult feeds on soft tissue inside trunk
weevil infested tree.

Mites feeding on young and developing

nuts causes superficial bands with Root feeding with Carbosulfan,
3 Mites
necrotic tissue about the circumference spray Fenpyroximate.
of the nuts

11.4 Major diseases of crop

Sr. Name of
Symptoms Control Measure
no Disease
Sugarcane
This is fungal disease, long whip like
Use healthy sets for planting,
Whip tail structure comes out from the growing
1 treat sets with fungicide like
(smut) point. This is covered with black
Ceresan.
powder.
In this fungal disease on splitting red
Treat the sets with fungicide
2 Red rot strips are observed. In severe cases
like Agalol.
rotting and alcoholic smell come out.
In affected plots to many lateral tillers
Grassy Treat the sets with hot water at
3 arises with light green to dark green in
shoot 500 C for two hours.
colour.

139
 Numerous small but long yellow
coloured spots appear on both the
4 Rust Grow resistant variety.
surfaces of leaves. These spot later on
turn dark brown to black.
Paddy
The fungus attack all aerial parts at
Use of disease free seeds, spray
all stages of growth. Spindle shaped
Copper fungicides, systemic
1 Blast spots whitish gray with brown margin
fungicides are very effective in
are originated on leaf, neck of panicle,
controlling blast.
nodes, glumes, etc.
Initially dull greenish water soaked or Hot water treatment for 10
yellowish spots on leaf margins are minutes at 52-540 C.
Bacterial
2 observed, these spots extend into lesions Soak seed in Agrimycin for
blight
to form blighted portions. On drying eight hours.
these form minute crusts. Spraying of Streptocycline.
Avoid extra standing water in
Affected plants remain stunted, they
the field.
3 Stem rot produce tillers, root become reddish
Apply fungicides like Ceresan
stem, root rot, grain get shriveled
at the ease of plants.
Cotton
It is fungal disease. Gradual drying and
Grow resistant varieties, seed
dropping of the plant is observed. The
1 Wilt treatment with fungicides like
wiltings and dropping starts from top to
Ceresan.
bottom.

Fungal infection starts in seedling stage.

In seedling stage red circular spots are
found on leaves. Affected bolls show Seed treatment with fungicides,
2 Anthracnose
brown circular spots. These do not open spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.
properly to form kawadi. Shedding of
bolls takes place.

Dahiya The affected leaves show whitish

Grow American cotton
3 (powdery growth on underside of older leaves,
varieties, spraying of Sulphur
mildew) defoliation of leaves takes place.
Rotting of roots and sudden wilting of Seed treatment with
4 Root rot
plants. Carbandazim

This is a bacterial disease. Bacteria

attack on aerial plant parts. Angular Seed treatment with
5 Black arm
water soaked spots appear on leaves. It Streptomycin.
also causes rotting of bolls.

140
 Soybean
Grow resistant varieties, seed
Bacterial Reddish – brown spots having yellow
1 treatment with fungicides like
blight margin appear on the leaves and pod .
Ceresan
Seed treatment with Thirum
Brown spots appear on upper surface
2 leaf spot spray the crop with Thirum or
of the leaves and other plant parts.
with Dithane M-45
On leaves upper surface small yellow
Downy spots appear which turn to brown in Seed treatment with Thirum.
3
mildew later stages, under side of leaves show Grow resistant varieties.
whitish downy growth.
Onion
Disease infection starts in early stage on
Seedling Spraying of 1% Bordeaux
1 leaves, yellowish or brownish patches
blight mixture.
are developed.
It is a fungal disease. The fungus attack
Treat the seed with Thirum,
on young seedling, dark thickened
2 Smut grow disease resistant variety,
areas on small leaves occur, leaves are
apply fungicides in furrow.
swollen and dry to bent.
Potato
Disease infection starts in early stage,
1 Early blight with brown spots on leaves. In severe Spraying of Bordeaux mixture
cases leaves shrivelled and fall down
In later stage of crop growth it is serious Use of disease free sets for
2 Late blight disease, brown spots develop on leaves planting.
and rapidly spread on stem and tubers. Spray Dithane Z-78
Ring rot It is bacterial disease, leaves turn yellow
Use disease free tubers. Follow
3 (bacterial plants get dry, brown spot are observed
proper crop rotation.
wilt) when tubers are cut.
Mango
It is fungal disease, grey white powdery
Powdery patches appears on the blossom and Application of Wettable Sulphur
1.
mildew fruit, affected panicles gets dry and turn Spray Benlate 0.1 %
back.
Pomegranate
Disease is characterized by the
Bacterial appearance of many dark coloured,
leaf Spot irregular spots on the leaves, they drop
1 Spray Dithane M 45
(Telya) off prematurely. The bacterial infection
on fruits causes dark brown spots with
an oily appearance.
141
 The small irregular spots surrounded by
Spray tree with Dithane M-45
greyish yellow border are observed on
2 Fruit rot at the time of fruit development
the fruit rind. Arils become brownish in
at interval of 15 days.
colour.

Citrus

It is a bacterial disease of citrus. The

lesion appears first as minute water
Citrus soaked roundish spot which turns Periodically spray Streptomycin
1
canker brown. Due to severe infection of leaves sulphate or Bordeaux
there may be defoliation. The lesion on
fruit reduces market value of fruits.
Fungal infection starts with forming
Scrapping off the infected
water soaked large patches on stem.
portion
2 Gummosis These patches soon turn brown and
Apply Bordeaux paste on the
bark may spilt, through which a gum
stem up to 60 cm from bottom.
like liquid ooze exeudes.

Drying and die back of small branches

and twigs begins with infection of this
Citrus disease. In severe cases chlorosis and Good drainage is beneficial for
3 decline mottling is observed. Reduction in leaf checking of disease, periodical
(die – back ) size and wilting is observed. Roots spray against insect vector.
become dead, the bark of larger roots is
distorted and brittle.
Coconut
Fungal infection starts with yellowing
of young leaves surrounding the spindle.
1 Bud rot Application of Bordeaux paste.
The tender leaf base and soft tissues of
crown rot into slimy mass.
Application of fertilizer along
Yellowing and marginal necrosis of the
2 Root wilt with MgSO4
leaflets. Nuts are smaller, kernel is thin.
Grow hybrid varieties

142
 Pest of crop plants

Red cotton bug Pink boll worm in cotton Lemon butterfly larva Lemon butterfly

Paddy hopper Mealy bug Wooly Aphid Fruit sucking moth of

pomegranate

Whitefly Aphids Mango stone weevil Damage by Mango stone

weevil

Citrus black fly Mango Fruit fly Sugarcane stem borer

Citrus fruit sucking moth Jassid Damage by Sugarcane stemborer

143
 Diseasess of crop plants

Leafspot of Cotton Citrus scab Whip smut of sugarcane Citrus canker

Yellow vein mosaic of papaya Black rust of wheat Loose smut of wheat

Red rot of sugarcane Downy mildew of jowar Tikka or leaf spot of

groundnut

Bacterial blight in Anthracnose of Cotton Wilt of cotton

soybean

144
 Exercise
Q. 1 A. Fill in the blanks.
1. Physiological or structural deformity Q. 3 Answer the following questions
that is harmful to plant or reduce 1. Describe the biological method for
its economic value is called as insect pest control.
……………………
2. Classify plant diseases on the basis
2. Pyrilla is serious pest of ………… of symptoms.
crop.
3. State advantage of integrated disease
3. Use of insecticide to control pest is management.
………….. method of pest control.
4. Write the nature of damage and
4. Root rot disease infection normally control measure for citrus pest.
observed in ……………………..
growth stage of plant growth. Q. 4 Answer in detail.
5. Infestation of …………… bollworm 1. Describe integrated disease
in cotton is difficult to identify. management
B. Make the pairs. 2. List out the control methods for pest
and diseases and explain cultural
'A' Group 'B' Group methods.
1. Soil insect a. Aphid
3. State principles of disease control.
2. Sap suckers b. Grain weevil
4. Explain sugarcane pest management
3. Store grain pest c. White grub in detail.
4. Chewing insect d. Housefly 5. Complete the following table
e. Boll worms Nature of
Name of Control
f. Cutworm No. damage/
pest measure
C. State true or false. symptom
1. Paddy gall fly is important disease of Citrus
1 - -
paddy crop. butterfly
2. Citrus dieback is serious disease of Mango
2 - -
sweet orange crop. hopper
3. Biological control method is Bore holes
hazardous due to residual effect on in to bolls
human health. 3 - and after -
4. Sugarcane red rot disease can be entry block
control by hot water treatment. it
5. Plants protection focus only on
mineral management. Red strip
4 Red rot and rotting -
Q. 2 Answer in brief. observed
1. Write note on pest control Hot water
5 - - treatment
2. Give examples of regular pest. of sets.
3. Write down nature of damage by
Activity :
white grub to sugarcane crop.
Practice different methods of pest and disease
4. Give types of pest on the basis of
control whichever possible at your locality
damage.
145
 12. Protection From Wild Animals

Do you know ? 12.1 Protection from wild animals

12.1.1 Wild boars
1. Can you differentiate domestic and wild
animals? Wild boars are unpredictable and have
violent nature. Most noticeable feature of
2. Which wild animals are harmful for
wild boar is long curved tusks. Fully grown
agriculture crops?
wild boar weighs about 50 to 90 kgs. The
In India, wildlife protection act 1972 is in razor sharp tusks itself is a primary weapon
enforcement. Now a days abundant population of wild boar. When agitated, they charge with
of wild animal is found on farms and near these tusks. Sharpness of tusks and heaviness
forests. Wild animals are special challenge for of his body could result in injuries to crop and
farmers throughout India. Many wild animals farmer.
make heavy losses to farm and farm crops.
They can damage the plant parts or crop simply
by running in the field or trampling the crops.
Farmers suffer heavy financial losses due to
wild animals. These wild animals such as
wild boars, monkeys, elephants, deers, nilgai,
rabbits, moles, squirrels, parrots, peacock, etc.
damage the crops.
Fig. 12.1 : Wild boar
Maharashtra is a home to a large number
of animals including tiger, leopard, wild boars,
monkey, rabbit, crocodile, bison, gawa, nilgai
etc. Always remember

Use your brain power 1. Wild boars are highly adaptable to

wide range of climate.
 What type of damage to crops and crop 2. They are opportunistic, omnivorous.
fields done by wild animals? They eat mostly plant material and
 Up to which extent damage done by wild invertebrate animals such as worms,
animals? insects, insect larvae, etc.
 Collect information about wild life
3. They have high reproductive potential.
protection act.
They reach sexual maturity as early as
six month of age and produce average
For security of agricultural crops and crop
about six piglets at each calving.
fields every farmer should be aware and take
into consideration the fact that animals are 4. Female boar may undergo farrowing
living beings and need to be protected from twice per year.
any potential suffering.
5. They have low natural mortality.

146
Nature of damage
Wild boars consume and trample crops. Always remember
Uprooting of crops and wallowing in the field 1. Most monkeys live on trees, but some
may creates holes (pits) that can damage farm live in mountain areas.
equipments and disturb farm operation.
2. Monkey tribes always move to find food.
Control Measure They do not have stable home.
1. Trapping wild boars by box traps, cage 3. Monkeys are very social animals.
traps, corral traps, using prebaits and baits. 4. Group of monkey is called tribe or troop.
2. More than 40 transferable diseases (Zonatic A troop will work together to take care of
diseases) affects on wild boar and some young monkeys in the group.
extent population may suppresses. 5. They also like to play, cuddle and protect
each other.
3. Use of fences like wire fences, plastic
fences, electric fences (Zatka Machine), 6. The strongest and largest male monkey
etc. is the leader of the troop.

4. Natural repellent, electronic repellent, etc

are used to keep wild boars away from
crops.
5. Fire crackers are also effective for keeping
away to these animals.

Fig. 12.3 Damage by monkey

Control
1. Mix 1/3 cup of floor, 2 table spoon chilli
powder and 2 table spoon mustard powder
Fig. 12.2 : Damage by boar and sprinkle the mixture in the garden to
12.1.2 Monkeys keep away monkeys. The mixture of 4
cups of water and some vinegar can be
Near about 13 species of monkeys are sprinkled with pepper on vegetables will
found in India. They are often seen living in deter monkeys from eating them.
group of 20-30 feeding on the ground or sitting
on trees. 2. Small pockets of boneless dry fish pieces
Nature of Damage are made and kept around the field. After
opening the pockets monkeys rub the fish
Monkeys are the notorious wild animals with both hands. After smelling they get
causing serious damages to agricultural crops. irritated and rub their hands on rocks and
The monkeys consume plants as food and also continue the operation till the blood come
change their food habits with change in season. out from the hand. Leader of gang face the
Attack of monkeys could result in severe crop bad experience. Thus they never enter the
damage. same field.
147
3. The practice of driving them away by
beating drums and using well trained dogs Always remember
has been used since long time.
1. They have characteristic long nose or
4. Catch one monkey and paint its whole truck, large, floppy ears, and wide thick
body except eyes with red paint and leave legs.
that monkey in the field. Due to fear other 2. Asian elephant and African elephant live
monkeys will not enter in the field. Repeat at separate continents and have many
the process when a new group enters in the unique features.
field. 3. The herd is led by a matriarch, which
5. Use fire crackers (which make large sound) is the oldest female. The matriarch will
like rassi bomb / sutali bomb. often teach young elephants in her herd.
4. Male elephants are called bulls and
12.1.3 Elephant females are called cows. A baby elephant
is called as a calf.
Recall a memory

1. Which is the largest land animal on the

earth?
2. Discuss type of food of an elephant.
Two types of elephants are found on
earth / world i.e. African elephant and Asian
elephant. Group of elephant is called a herd.
Fig. 12.5: Damage by elephant
Nature of damage
Control
Wild elephants feed on agriculture crops,
1. Buzzing of the bees - Studies showed that
seeds, barks, leaves, grasses and trees. They elephants are repelled by the sound of honey
use their tusks to pullout the bark from trees bees. Therefore start bee keeping around the
and dig roots out of the ground. They trample field, there by generate some source of extra
crops and damage crop fields. Also elephant income.
cause damage to crops both in pre harvest and 2. Noise – it is a common practice to use loud
post harvest condition. noise to scare away instructive elephants.
Noise makers include fire crackers, pipe
cannons, vehicle horns, and rifle shots.
3. Light – bright lights, oil lamps and fire
are sometimes used along the perimeter of
a farm area to scare elephant population
nearby farm.
4. Smoke fire – in some areas people burn
elephant dung that will smoulder and create
heavy acrid smoke.
5. Hot chilli – Capsaicin spray can repel
elephants. Simplest method consist of
Fig. 12.4 : Elephant
planting a row of chili around cultivated
fields and gardens.

148
6. Elephant geo fencing – It is a means
of detecting radio collared elephants 6. Length of pregnancy in deer varies
that cross a virtual fence line. When an according to size. Generally in large
elephant with a collar passes through species the longer gestation period is
a virtual barrier, a message is sent to observed.
the wildlife management center along with 7. Deer in tropical climate can breed all
GPS coordination. This will help them to year round.
take action against attack of elephant. 8. All species of deer have a four chamber
12.1.4 Deer stomach which allow then to chew the
cud. This process of partial chewing
food, regurgitating it, chewing it again
Recall a memory
to make easier to digest.
1. What are different types of deer in 9. A male deer is called a buck but the some
Maharashtra? larger males are called as stags. A female
2. What is the destructive role of deer in deer is called a doe or hind. A young deer
agriculture? is called a fawn.

Nature of damage
Deer frequently prefer agricultural crops
rather than wild foods.
There has been surge of damage among
farms and gardens. Just two deer can produce
a herd of up to 35 deer in just seven years.
In addition to flower beds and vegetable
gardens, corn, peas, cotton, watermelon,
peanuts and gram crops experienced the most
damage from deer.
Control
Wild deer can have impact on agricultural
Fig. 12.6 : Deer
production and environment.
Main methods of wild deer control include.
Always remember
1. Trapping
1. Deers are included in antelope family. 2. Ground and aerial shooting (it's ban now)
2. Antlers are fast growing living tissue in 3. Fencing - (a) Wire fencing
the world. (b) Plastic fencing
3. There are over 60 different species of (c) Electric fencing (Zatka Machine)
deer worldwide. 4. Fire Crackers
4. During the mating season, male deer will 5. Dogs
often use their antlers to fight and try to
attract the attention of female deer.
5. Deers are present on all continents except
Antarctica.

149
12.1.5 Blue bull / Nilgai 3. Pet Dogs can control blue bull.
Blue bull is the largest Asian antelope and 4. Beating drums
most commonly seen as wild animal in India. 12.1.6 Wild rabbits
Wild rabbits cause severe damage to
Always remember crops.The main predator of rabbits is fox,
while young rabbits also fall to bird attack as
1. Nilgai / blue bull is indigenous deer and
prey.
is currently protected under wildlife
protection act 1972.
2. Nilgai is the largest Asian antelope.
3. Mature male appears like ox and also is
known as blue bull.

Fig. 12.8 : Rabbit

Nature of Damage
Rabbits are herbivores who feed by
eating weeds, grasses, clover, wild flower and
vegetable plants and other crops in warmer
Fig. 12.7: Blue bull season.
Nature of damage
Nilgai is highly adaptive antelope naturally Always remember
diurnal. It goes for field crop grazing in the
evening and night. It is also found to damage The male is called a buck and the
most agricultural crops. Whereas in high density female a doe.
nilgai areas, damage to wheat, gram, mung, 1. Rabbits are generally 40 to 45 cm in
mustard crop is caused not only by grazing but length and have ears that measures 8.5
also through trampling, resting in the field and cms long. They have compact body with
daily movements of the animals. long powerful hind legs.
2. The smallest pygmy rabbit have only 20
A major constraint on control is that the cms of body length and 0.4 kg in weight
nilgai is an animal of considerable religious while the largest rabbits grow to 50 cms
reverence as most people in affected area and more than 2 kgs.
are religious.
3. Rabbits are abundant in grassland areas
Control where the soil allows them to make
extensive well drained burrows, where
1. Fencing - (a) Wire fencing
there are hedges or patches of woodland
(b) Plastic fencing to give shelter and cover.
(c)Electric fencing (Zatka Machine)
2. Fire Crackers
150
 Control of wild rabbits
4. Rabbits are herbivorous who feed by
grazing on grass, leafy weeds, however 1. Traps and snares – use of cage traps, drop
they also eat all vegetables. box traps or spring traps. Place them where
they will be exposed to severe weather.
5. Rabbit generally are able to breed at young
Place them near a fox earth or badger sett.
age and many regularly produce upto 7
Use self locking snares. Use only approved
young ones, at about so 4 or 5 times in a
traps.
year 28 to 31 days.
2. Fencing – use of cotton wire nets, strained
6. New born rabbits are nacked blind and
wire (similar to the kind user to manage
helpless at birth.
cattle and sheep) permanent wire mesh
7. Mothers are remarkably inattentive to their netting.
young and are almost absentee parents
3. Ferreting - a domesticated polecat used for
commonly nursing their young only once
catching rabbits.
per day and for just few minutes.
4. There are three types of fencing for
8. The milk of rabbit is highly nutritious and
controlling.
among the richest of all mammals. The
young grow rapidly and most are grown (a) Electric netting
up in about a month. (b) Electric strained wire (similar to the kind
used to manage cattle and sheep)
(c) Permanent wire mesh netting
Rabbits damage is almost always the result of
their appetite for plants. They eat flower and 5. Baiting is the most cost effective way to
vegetable plant during spring and summer reduce rabbit populations. e.g.1080 (Sodium
and the bark of fruit and ornamental trees and fluoroacetate) rabbit bait is available.
shrubs in fall of winter.

Electric Fencing

151
 Exercise
Q. 1 A) Fill in the blanks. Q. 2 Answer in brief.
1. Wildlife protection Act is in force 1. Write note on deer.
since __________. 2. Why monkeys are lived in troops?
2. ___________ are unpredictable and 3. Give difference between deer and
has violent nature. nilgai.
3. According to feeding habbit rabit is 4. Write short note on elephant herd.
________ animal.
5. Write the nature of damage of nilgai?
4. Group of monkey is called _________. Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
5. The herd is led by a __________
1. Which are the wild animals who
which is the oldest female
causes serious problem to agri. crops?
(B) Make the pairs. 2. Give control measures for wild boar.
A B 3. What are the characteristic of the
a. Razor sharp tusks 1. Monkey monkey ?
b. Antlers 2. Elephant 4. Explain nature of damage by elephant.
c. Big ears 3. Deers 5. How will you control farm and crops
4. Boars from blue bulls ?
5. Rabbits Q. 4. Answer in details.
(C) State true of false. 1. Explain wild animals control
1. Male rabbit is called a buck and the strategies in detail.
female a doe 2. Give nature of damage and control of
2. Boar has a long straight tusks. elephants.
3. Fire crackers are also effective for 3. Give information about wild deer and
keeping away the wild animals. their control.
4. Monkeys are not very social animals. 4. Give information about rabbits in
5. Monkeys consumed blants for food detail.
and change their food habbits with 5. Give information about nilgai in
change in season. detail.

Activity :
Collect the information about different wild
animals causing damage to field crops.

152
 13. Waste Management

Recall a little
Most waste in food manufacturing is
 Already you know the food and also the unavoidable, and almost 90% is already
waste that we generate recovered as animal feed, compost or bio-
 The prime object is to understand the energy. Presently, around 21,000 people die
waste and the volume generated every day due to hunger related causes and
globally one in nine people go to bed each
13.1 Scenario
night hungry. Nevertheless, approximately one
Waste management is the study of third of all the food produced goes to landfill
knowing waste generation, collection, as waste. The vast amount of food ending up
transport, processing, recycling or disposal as waste is not only a humanitarian problem
and monitoring waste material. Food supply but also serious economic, nutritional and
and waste management are the emerging environmental pollution problem.
challenges for the policy makers and industries
in the processing and food supply. The global 13.1.1 World situation
population is expected to grow upto 9 billion At global statistics, according to the British
and demand for food is about 77% by 2050. Institute of Mechanical Engineers (IME) half
Over the same period, food production will be of the food produced is wasted worldwide
under threat from climate change, competing at different stages. The global volume of the
land uses, and erosion and diminishing supplies food wastage has been reported to around 1.3
of clean water. The food which we consume billion tons. The total volume of water used
has to undergo a series of food processing each year to produce food that is lost or wasted
operations soon after harvesting at the farm i.e. equivalent to the annual flow of Russian’s
industry level. Volga river or three times the Lake Geneva.
The agro-food industry generate huge Similarly, 1.4 billion hectares of land 28% of
amount of waste material annually around the world’s agriculture area is used annually
the globe from a variety of sources. Food is a to produce food that is lost or wasted . About $
basic need of human beings, while food waste 165 billion worth of food waste enters landfills
has been identified a major crucial challenge each year.
faced by human community today. World environmental problems
Over 4.2 million tons of food waste is Population growth contributes to GHG
dispersed to landfill in Australia each year. (Green House Gas) emission through its
2.7 million tons of this is from households effect on deforestation as land is grabbed for
and around 1.5 million tons of this is from enhancing food production. As the world’s
commercial and industrial sector, costing population grows and becomes more affluent,
around $ 10.5 billion in waste disposal waste production rises and might double by
charges and waste product. The largest single 2025. According to the US Environmental
contributor in the commercial and industrial Protection Agency (EPA), food wastage
sector is food service activities.(e.g. - cafes, currently represents the single largest type of
restaurants, fast food outlets), which generate waste entering landfills. Wasted food leads to
661,000 tons of food waste per year, followed over utilization of water and fossil fuels and to
by manufacturing (312,000 tons) and food increase greenhouse gas emission i.e. methane
retail (179,000 tons).
153
and carbon di oxide arising from degradation of Meat accounts for just four percent of
food in landfills. the food wastage but contributes 20% of the
Therefore, the environmental impact of economic loss of the wastage. Wastage of fruits
food waste is two fold and vegetables is 70% of the total produce, but
1. It is associated with the depletion of natural translated into only 40% of the economic losses.
resources used for its production (e.g. soil Also, rice crop emits methane, a potent global
water). warming gas, because of the decomposition
2. It relates to the costs associated with waste of organic matter in submerged paddy fields.
disposal. Food loss and waste costs the world about $
There is a growing awareness needed 940 billion a year.
to minimize the amount of food waste
at the end of the food supply chain- an Can you recall?
issue particularly relevant in high-income
countries where more than 40% of the food  The volume, effect and consequences of
losses occur at retail and consumer level. waste.
3. Globally per capita food waste by  Which industry has the potential huge
consumers amounts to 95-115 kg/ year in generation of waste.
Europe and North America compared to
However, the utilization or disposal of food
6-11 kg/year in South or South East Asia
waste is difficult due to its inadequate biological
and Sub-Saharian Africa.
4. Food waste reduction at the consumption stability, potentially pathogenic nature, high
level represents indeed a large target for water content, potential for rapid autoxidation,
medium and high income countries, where microbial decomposition through high level of
evidence shows that the main source of the enzymatic activity.
problem is the domestic setting.
13.1.2 Indian condition Can you tell?
In India, according to UN Development
 What are the consequences and health
Program, 40% of the food produced is wasted
hazards of waste?
at pre and post-harvest stages. According
 What is the environmental impact of
to Government of India’s resources, about
waste?
Rs. 58,000 crore worth of food is wasted
every year. About 25% of fresh water used to 13.2 Types of waste
produce the food is ultimately wasted. On the
other hand millions of people still don’t have 13.2.1 Solid waste (Organic and inorganic)
Sources- domestic waste, factory waste,
access to drinking water. About 300 million
waste from oil industry, e-waste, agricultural
of barrels of oil are used to produce the food
waste, food processing waste, variety of plastic
that is ultimately wasted. As a result, a large
based waste, packaging material (industry
quantity of food is wasted and being thrown
and domestic waste), etc. Out of the total solid
away around the world, on the other hand, waste generated, 44% is wet organic.
a child dies every five seconds because of
hunger. In terms of food waste, agricultural 13.2.2 Wet waste
produce, meat, poultry and milk, India ranks (a) Kitchen waste (food waste, cooked and
seventh, with the Russian Federation at the uncooked food, egg shells, meat and
top in the list. India’s major land is under bones, fish, fruit and vegetable inedible
agriculture hence, there is highest wastage of portion, etc.
cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables.
154
(b) Flower, fruit and vegetable waste - advancement in technology.
(c) Garden, tree, leaves, branches, straw, trash - changes in fashion, style and status.
waste - nearing the end of their useful life.
(d) Sanitary waste (drainage waste)
(e) Food industry waste (raw materials and Food waste from different food groups
finished goods)  Cereals (grains), pulses, fruits and

(f) Food waste ( left over, stale, spoiled food) vegetables, meat, dairy products,
marine, sugarcane, winery, plantation
(g) Wet garbage and industry (sewage) waste by-products, slaughter house, canning
13.2.3 Dry waste industry, etc.
(a) Paper, plastic (all kinds), laminates, foils  Wastes are untreated and underutilized;
(b) Card boards, cartoons, packaging, therefore its disposal is widely adopted
glass bottles, metal tins and containers, through burning, dumping or land filling.
strappings, foils, rags, rubber, houses,  Juice industry produces a large amount
pipes, sweepings, ashes, wrappings, of waste as peels, pulp, seeds, fiber, etc.
discarded clothes, etc.
 Fruit and vegetable processing industry
13.2.4 Domestic Hazardous waste waste.
(a) Compact florescent lamps, tubes, glasses,
batteries, etc.
(b) Chemicals, detergents, etc. Can you recall?
Non-hazardous waste  Identify the reasons of food losses.
Glass bottles, iron containers/ wares,
 What do you mean by lost / waste food.
plastic bottles/ wares and materials
13.2.5 E –waste 13.3 Reasons for losses
E- wastes are the electronic equipment / Following are the main reasons for losses
products that connect with power plug, batteries in different areas, thereby generating different
which have been become absolute due to kinds of waste.

Table 3.1 : Major processed food and types of waste generated

Sr. no Food crop Food product Waste

Rice, wheat, Grain, flour, bread, biscuits, Straw, stem, leaves, husk, comb,
1 roti, cake, starch, flakes, bakery hulls, fibers, brans, germ, gluten,
corn products, etc. fodder , etc.
Juice, pulp, preserved products,
vegetable oil, potato products, Rotten fruits, vegetables and
Fruits and
2 fruits, roots, tubers, bulbs, sugar their parts, pomace, skin, seed,
vegetables
dehydrated, pickles, fermented stones, fibers, etc.
products , etc.
Canned, salted fish, smoked fish,
Fish and sea Scales, fins, shells, bones, guts,
3 processed form, dehydrated,
food fish oil, skeleton, etc.
frozen , etc.
Blood, hairs, head, skin, horn,
Meat and Processed meat (beef, pork,
4 bones, carcass, fat, feet, guts,
poultry poultry, eggs and their products)
large intestinal parts, etc.

155
 Milk, butter, cheese, milk
Whey, processed water, solids,
5 Dairy products powder, cream, ghee, paneer, ice
waste material, effluents, etc.
cream, etc.
Cocoa, coffee, tea, fruits, alcohol
Shells, seed coat, molasses,
6 Beverages (wine), molasses, grain based
sewage water, etc.
alcohol, etc.
Oil cakes, solid impurities, water
Oil, hydrogenated fat, fatty
7 Oils effluents, rancid spoiled seeds
acids, etc.
oil, etc.
Sugar, jaggery, confectionary, Solid wastage, sugar industry
8 Sugar
etc. effluents, waste, etc.

1. Agricultural production: Destruction from 4. Distribution and logistics (wholesale

insects, pests, diseases, inappropriate crop and retail): Damage or loss of food
cultivation practices, changing agro in transit/ storage due to packaging
climatic conditions, not meeting the quality failures, shelf life of processed / fresh
specifications, low yielding varieties, lack food commodities, poor road facilities,
of inputs, poor crop yield due to drought transit storage (warehouse/ cold storage)
and natural calamities, etc. at the port or metro cities hub. Packaging
2. Post-harvest handling and storage failures, product spoilage, fresh produce
practices: Not meeting the specifications (perishable), etc. may get damaged during
for quality and/ or poor or lack of post- handling, storage and distribution, short
harvest handling, packaging, storage shelf life hence low sales.
facilities may lead to damage due to insect, 5. Food service sector: Food wastage
pest, spoilage, germination and degradation generated in the hotels, restaurants,
(lack of pack houses, packaging materials, institutional kitchens, poor management of
pre-cooling facilities, storage and transport such wet food wastages, their packaging,
facilities (cold chain, cold storages, poor boxes, plastics, improper food handling,
supply chain management, etc.) left over or stale food items.
3. Lack of primary processing and 6. At home: Trimmings, cuttings, peels,
packaging facilities: Inadequate stones, seeds, and other food preparation
infrastructure such as godowns, ware waste, damaged or spoiled food items,
houses, cold storages for perishable preparing too much food, leftover food,
commodities, referred vans for high value improper stored food and food items.
commodities like grapes, strawberry, The overall food loss and wastage costs
broccoli, milk and milk products, poultry, the world about $ 940 billion a year. The
meat, fish, etc. These operations create food losses are reported to be higher in
trimmings and other food preparation developing countries than the developed
waste. Inedible portions, wet or dry nations. However to overcome and handle
material, their storage and transport or the food wastage problem is a huge
proper utilization at proper stage. Wet or challenge and task all over the globe.
dry garbage may create severe problems of In USA alone, annually people throw
their proper disposal, failure may create air away 30% of the food produced which
pollution and health hazards. corresponds to 40 billion liters of water .

156
 Whereas in UK, the household waste  On globe scale, just 43% of the fruits and
estimated to be 6.7 million MT from purchased vegetables produced are consumed and the
goods. This means that approximately 32 % remaining 57% are wasted.
of all food purchased every year is not eaten.  Food waste accounts for roughly US $680
Most of this (5.9 million MT or 88%) is billion in industrialized countries and US $
currently collected by local authorities. Most 310 billion in developing countries.
of the food waste (4.1 million MT or 61%) is  Roughly one-third of the food is lost or
avoidable and could have been eaten if had wasted that translates into 1.30 billion
been better managed. MT each year worth nearly one trillion US
 The annual food losses and waste are
dollars and equivalent of 6-10 % of human
estimated to be about 30% for cereals, 40- generated greenhouse gas emission.
50% for root crops, 30% for fish and 20%
for oilseeds and meat.
13.4 Sources of waste
The following are main categories of waste generated.

WASTE

Bio-degradable Non-biodegradable
(Paper, wood, fruit, (Plastics, bottles,
bio-medico, etc.) Food machines, cans, styrofoam
containers, medico, etc.)

Food Lost Food Waste

Agricultural Processing Distribution Restaurant Domestic Muncipal

Waste(during waste on transport & catering waste waste
harvesting (packaging, and retail (during (garbage,
operations) cleaning, preparation, sewage,
grading & cooking, effluent wet/
storage) serving left dry)
over food)

13.5 Measures of Waste Management

 Effective supply chain management  Quick and appropriate disposal of food
practices to fresh agro produce (fruits and industry wastage, garbage, effluents,
vegetables, dairy products). sewage, etc.
 Reduction in food wastage (at processing,  Food lost or wasted should be discarded to
storage, distribution) avoid environmental pollution (each year
 Improvement in post-harvest handling it accounts for 3.3 billion tons of Carbon di
practices, transport, storage and distribution oxide emission globally)
of food through appropriate technologies  Government and Community must work
(cold chain, improved packaging, etc.) collaboratively to achieve policy of zero
 Value addition of the by-products generated waste or policy “No to food waste”.
in the food industry
157
 The agro-industrial residue have high 3. Incineration / combustion : It is a type of
nutritional potential, therefore it can be waste disposal method in which municipal
utilized for production of a variety of solid wastes are burned at high temperatures
by-products, chemicals or any suitable of as to convert them into residue and
disposal. gaseous products. The biggest advantage of
 Conversion of waste into valuable product this method is that it can reduce the volume
through biodegradation/ decomposting. of solid waste to 20 - 30 % of the original
 Fermentation of the solids/ semi-solid volume, decreases the space to take up
waste. reduce the stress on land fills. The process
also known as the thermal treatment.
 Formation of ‘Food Banks’ and its timely
Where solid waste materials are converted
distribution to the needy/ hungry population
by incineration into heat, gas, steam and
 Bio gas (fuel gas) production ash. It is adopted in Japan as the landfill
 Composting through earthworms/ microbes space is no longer available.
into manure. 4. Recovery and recycling : Recovery is the
13.5.1 Methods of waste management process of taking useful from the discarded
The waste material generated at items for a specific next use. The discarded
different sources is disposed by various items are then processed to extract or
methods; however some of the important recover materials and resources or convert
methods are given below- them to energy in the form of useful heat
electricity or fuel (co-generating plant of
1. Landfills : Throwing daily waste/ garbage sugarcane factory).
in the landfills is the most popularly used Recycling is the process of converting
method of waste disposal used today. The waste products into new products.
waste is buried in the land; It is most easy Recycling is the third component of reduce,
and economical method. Landfills are reuse and recycle waste hierarchy. The
commonly found in developing countries, idea behind recycling is to reduce energy
Landfills give rise to air and water pollution usage, reduce volume at land fills, reduce
which severally affect the environment air and water pollution, reduce green
and can prove fetal to the lives of humans house gas emission and preserve natural
and animals. resources for future use.
2. Dumping : The city garbage and waste 5. Composting : Composting is the process
in many countries is practiced to collect of reducing vegetable and animal refuse
through garbage collecting vehicles and or farm waste. Composting is a easy and
dumped in open baren space, lying there natural bio-degradation process that takes
for many days. Some times it is covered organic wastes i.e. parts of plants, garden,
or caped firmly by sheet, so as to avoid kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich
the air pollution. It will promote anaerobic manure for plants, composting, normally
fermentation by bacteria and there by the used for organic farming, occurs by
decomposition and disposal is carried out. allowing organic materials to sit in place
After a year or so the decomposed mass for months until microbes decompose it.
is used as manure in the field crops. It Composting is one of the best methods
requires huge area and long time process, of waste disposal as it can turn organic
may lead to heavy environmental pollution products into sage compost. On the other
during rainy season. side, it is slow process and takes lot of
space.
158
6. Vermicomposting : It is ideal for
biodegradable waste from kitchens, Can you tell?
hotels, municipal, waste, etc. A barrel or
pit is provided in which the macerated How the waste is disposed off efficiently.
moist waste mass is dumped and mixed fuel for lightening and cooking purposes.
with earthworm culture. Then it is The slurry coming out of the plant is dried
moistened, covered, sprinkled with water and used as farm manure. Big size plants
intermittently and kept closed for about are seen in many municipal areas and at
30 days. The compost is taken out in dry rural areas at domestic level.
form, sieved and then used as manure.
The same mixture is used as earthworm 13.6 By - products of waste
culture which can be used for next lot. By-products resulting from processing of
Sometimes, microbes also added in the papaya, pineapple and mango represent approx.
pit or drum to hasten the decomposition 10 – 16% of fruit weight. In case of citrus fruits,
process. amount residues accounts for about 50% of
7. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) : It is the the original fruit weight. Seeds constitute
method of composing farm waste. FYM is considerable proportion of grape ranging from
the decomposed mixture of dung and urine 38 -52 % on dry mater bases.
of farm animals along with litter and left  Pineapple pomace has good nutritive value,
over material from roughages or fodder fed rich in dietary fibers, contains Calcium,
to the cattle. A rectangular pit is dugged Phosphorus and Iron. About 25% of fresh
and filled with the above trash material fruit is lost as pomace. Pomace contains
plastered with cow dung earth slurry. The about 1.8% ash, 21.5mg / 100gm ascorbic
manure becomes ready for use in about 4-5 acid and 0.41 % crude fiber .
months after plastering. FYM is the most  Pomegranate peels contain 249.4mg/gm.
commonly used organic manure in India. of phenolic compounds as compare to only
8. Sewage and sludge : The solid portion 24.4 mg/gm of phenolic compounds found
in the sewage is called sludge and liquid in the pulp of pomegranate.
portion is sewage water.  Banana peels constituting about 40% of
9. Mechanical composting : The process of total weight of fresh banana as a major
stabilization is expedited by mechanical waste. It is rich source of starch (3%), crude
devices of turning the compost which protein (6-9 %) total dietary fiber (43.2-
stabilizes in about 1 to 2 weeks. To enrich, 49.7%) and crude fat (3.8-11.0%). Banana
night soil and cow dung are added to the peels is a good source of micronutrients
refuge. Usually done in compost pit. which (K, P, Ca, Mg) PUFA (linolenic acid and
requires excess moisture. The process alpha linolenic acid) and essential amino
carried out by micro-organisms within 30 acids (leucin, valine, phenylalanine,
days. threonine). Moreover significant amount of
10. Biogas : The farm waste, food industry lignin (6-12%) pectin (10-11%), cellulose
waste municipal wet waste is disposed by (7.6-9.6 %).
decompositing the wet waste along with  During tomato processing, about 3-7%
cow dung in a close chamber known as bio- of the raw material is lost as waste.
gas plant. During the process the cellulose Tomato pomace generally consists of the
material is decomposed by the bacteria crushed dried skin and seeds of the fruit.
from cow dung slurry and anaerobically Appropriately, the seeds account for 10%
methane gas is released, which is used as of fruit and 60% of the total waste.
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 The seeds are reported to be good Apple pomace, a waste from the apple
source of protein (35%) and fat (25%). processing industry is also used as a substrate
Tomato seed oil is found to be rich in for pectinase production by aspergillus spp. in
unsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic solid state fermentation.
acid that has largely attracted the interest Pectin production
of researchers. As compared to seeds and
Pectin a heteropolysaccharide having
pulp, the tomato peel contains higher
properties like capacity to make gels, emulsify
levels of total flavonoids, total phenolic
and stabilize. The major waste during
compounds, lycopene and ascorbic acid
processing is peel (citrus) which is widely used
exhibiting higher antioxidant activity.
for the producing pectin powder; other sources
 Carrot pomace, generated during of pectin are mango peels, residue of sunflower
processing, contains 14.75% soluble fiber, and guava. Many researchers have given the
30% insoluble fiber, 6.50 proteins, 5.12% detail information about utilizing waste of
ash, 5456 µg total carotenes and 607 µg fruit and vegetables. Apple peel, pomace for
β-carotene. pectin, guava peels for preparation of guava
 Chemically, the agricultural wastes cheese, water melon rind for pickle making,
contain 31-60% cellulose, 11-38% jackfruit for pectin, pineapple for vinegar
pentosane and 12-28% lignin. This product production, limes for citric acid, seeds for oil,
has been reported to be used in the alcohol orange, lime peel can be used for extraction
production. Fruits are very rich in sugar of essential oil, Citrus oil/ orange oil. Banana
content which can be a very good source of pseudostem, leaves for preparation of paper
alcohol production. pulp and banana fiber (for clothes), green
papaya for latex and tutti fruiti preparation,
 Grape and wine making industry generate
other waste and garbage can be used in feed or
a number of waste and by products. These
decomposition of compost manuring.
material include wine pruning, grape stalks,
grape pomace, grape seed, yeasts, tartrate, 1. Salad dressing- orange peels and orange
carbon dioxide and waste matter, every waste pulp.
by- product will become fertilizers, animal 2. Yoghurt- added with grape pomace extract
feed or fuel. The grape seed extracts have for enrichment of bioactive compound.
gained ground as nutritional supplement in
3. Grape seed oil rich in polyphenols,
view of its antioxidant activity.
antioxidants and vitamins used in cooking
Enzyme production oil.
Grape pomace, main polluting waste from
4. Mango stone kernel oil/ fat to be used as
the wine industry, is a good natural medium
cocoa butter equivalent.
for solid state fermentation that is used for
production of hydrolytic enzymes such as 5. Pulpy waste in ethanol production by
cellulases, xylanses, and pectinases using fermentation.
Aspergillus awamori. Proteolytic enzymes 6. Tomato pomace can be used in extruded
such as bromelain is recovered from pineapple products.
pomace and papain from papaya latex.
Moreover, orange peel and orange finished 7. Others for recovery of fiber, vitamins,
pulp, sugarbeet pulping and peas waste β-carotene.
are good substrates for polygalacturonase 8. Natural colouring agents- beetroot (red),
production. leaves (green), paprika (chilli powder),

160
 turmeric (yellow), carrot (orange red), 5. Being wet/ perishable likely to undergo
kesar (pink-yellow), radish (anthocyanin). fermentation quickly; need to provide
9. Brewery and wine industry waste- the additional attention.
brewery industry waste are the spent 6. Emission of toxic as well as green house
grain, the trub, and the residual yeast. gases (CO2, CO, methane), microbes,
Brewer spent grain (BSG) is the main by- when wasted food is kept open as such or
product of brewing industry representing buried in landfills.
approximately 85% of the total. 7. Air, water, atmosphere get severely
13.7 Consequences of waste polluted due to improper disposal.
1. Wastage of valuable bulk. 8. Loss of energy, manpower, water, land,
etc. for growing of the food being lost.
2. Loss of bulk nutrients.
9. Heavy financial loss to the community/
3. Loss of functional nutraceuticals
government on disposal.
nutrients (natural ingredients/ nutrients).
10. Loss of soil fertility (that soil remain as
4. Severe problem of their disposal,
waste land).
transport, movement.
11. Food industry causes health hazards and
air pollution to human beings.

Garbage Collection Machine

161
 Exercise
Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. Q. 2 Answer in brief.
1. Disposal of food waste is difficult due to 1. Give various sources of food waste
its ---------. generated.
2. Give example of food waste generated.
2. Wasted food is generated because of
over utilization of ----------. 3. Discuss any two methods of waste
management
3. Major reason for food losses is ------.
4. Give a brief account of pectins.
4. The example of solid waste is --------. 5. What do you mean by waste
5. Cheapest method of waste management management ?
is ----------.
Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
B. Make the pairs. 1. Explain composting method of waste
‘A’ group ‘B’ group management.
1. Dry waste a. CD 2. Write in brief about wet waste.
2. Wet waste b. Food powders 3. Complete the following chart.
3. E- waste c. Plant Trash Food Food product
4. Agri-waste d. Fruit peels and
Rice
5. Muncipal waste pomace
Fruits
e. Machines
f. Water Fish
g. Garbage Q. 4 Answer in detail
C. State true or false. 1. Explain in detail production of various
enzymes from food waste.
1. Wet garbage is useful for environmental
pollution. 2. Give the various consequencec of waste
generation.
2. E- waste disposal is easy for landfill.
3. Complete the following chart
3. Fruit pomace are used for production of
chemicals. Food Waste
4. Burning of waste is the most benificial Meat and poultry
method. Dairy products
5. Domestic waste is disposed by land Beverages
filling method. Oils

162
 14. Horticultural Practices

Can you recall? (2) Spice crops - Study of crops grown for
their spicy taste and flavour. (used in food
1. Any garden plant that you have seen preparations)
before. (3) Medicinal and aromatic Plants - Study
2. Why the fruits are eaten by human being of plants having medicinal property.
since ancient time? (4) Post harvest technology - Deals with post
14.1 Definition and branches of horticulture harvest handling, grading, packaging,
storage, processing, value addition,
14.1.1 Definition : marketing, etc. of horticultural crops.
The word Horticulture is derived from
the Latin words hortus and colere meaning (5) Plant propagation - Deals with
garden and to cultivate, respectively. propagation of horticultural crops and
Horticulture is a part of plant agriculture their nursery.
which is concerned with cultivation of garden
Landscape gardening is an art of
crops.
beautifying a piece of land with garden
Garden crops traditionally include
design, methods and plant material
fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, spices,
plantation crops, flowering plants, medicinal
plants and aromatic plants. Remember this
Horticulture can be defined as
the branch of agriculture concerned with India is the second largest producer
intensively cultured plants directly used by of fruits after Brazil.
people for food, medicinal purpose or aesthetic
India ranks second in vegetable
gratification.
production after China.
14.1.2 Branches of horticulture
Horticulture is a wide field which 14.2 Importance of horticulture
includes numerous crops (groups) having great (1) Economic - Horticultural crops especially
diversity. fruits, vegetables and plantation crops
Following are the branches of Horticulture are more and prolific yielders. Spices,
medicinal, aromatic and floricultural crops
(1) Pomology - Study of fruits (Pomam
are high value crops. These crops fetch more
means fruit and logy means science)
price in the market. These crops yield more
(2) Olericulture - Study of vegetables per unit area and are grown with different
(Oleries means pot herb) objectives on different fields. Horticultural
(3) Floriculture - Study of flowers, crops are useful for improving economic,
ornamental plants and landscaping. health and nutritional status of the farmer.
In addition the following are the classes of (2) Employment - These crops are labour
horticulture - intensive. Horticultural crops are delicate
and tender in nature hence they require
(1) Plantation crops - Study of crops grown
utmost care at each stage of production
on large area for commercial uses.
which increases requirement of man days.
163
 (4) Religious and sacred value - Horticultural
Man
plants have religious value to their leaves,
days for Man days for fruit
Area flowers, fruits, roots, plants, etc. and are
cereals production per year
used in many religious functions.
per year
860 for fruits (5) Food and nutrition - As a source of
1 carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibre,
143 1000 to 2520 for grape
hectare vitamins and minerals, some horticultural
and banana
crops have high food value. These act
as alternative for the conventional food.
Always remember Further processed product of these crops
show high nutritional value. Consumption
Sr. Nutritional of adequate amount of fruits and
Rich source
no. item vegetables helps in maintaining health,
Mango, Papaya, vigour and resistance of human body.
1 Vitamin A Carrot, Drumstick 14.3 Scope for horticulture :
leaves
Areas in horticulture having scope for future
Cashew nut, prospects-
2 Vitamin B Walnut, Colocasia
1. Hi-tech Horticulture : Technology for
leaves
intensive production system, including
Aonla, Lime,
ethnic and exotic crops.
3 Vitamin C Guava, Corriander
leaves 2. Microirrigation : For saving water and
Banana, Dates, giving enough water there by bringing
4 Carbohydrates Sweet Potato, more area under cultivation.
Potato, 3. Use of plastic : For cultivation practices
Almond, Pea, (Poly house, mulching) and post harvest
5 Protein
Cowpea, Beans handling.
6 Fat Walnut, Avocado 4. Protected cultivation : For production
Amaranth, leafy of high value crops under controlled
7 Fibre
vegetables conditions.
Litchi, Curry 5. Precision farming : Emphasis on
8 Calcium leaves, Fenugreek, maximum precision in production,
Cucumber minimizing wastage of inputs and
Cashew nut, resources.
9 Phosphorus
Walnut 6. High density planting : High yield from
Karonda, Dates, same piece of land.
10 Iron
Spinach
7. Integrated nutrient management : Use
of organic and inorganic sources enabling
(3) Industrial - Horticultural plants supply
better availability of nutrients in the soil.
raw material to the industry directly or
indirectly. A vast industrial development 8. Integrated pest management : Use
is observed in area growing horticultural of different methods in of pest control
crops. Manufacturing of processed fruit combination so as to minimize use of
products, edibles, cosmetics, medicines hazardous chemicals.
has shown improvement in recent years in
India.
164
9. Mechanization : Reduce agriculture Area in 000
labour, fast field operations, easily handling 2005 3535
ha
huge area. Production
10. Organic farming : Increasing demand for 1900 7077
Spices in 000 MT
safe and natural food providing natural Productivity
inputs. 0.95 2.002
in MT/ ha
11. Contract farming : Economic Area in 000
12770 24925
liberalization process leads to efficient ha
changes in marketing strategies of Production
96562 295164
agriculture produce. Total in 000 MT
12. Export - Import trade : Showing Productivity
7.56 11.84
continuous growth in export of in MT/ ha
horticultural produce and import of certain Information from NHB data, (2018)
commodities better assured market for
agri-horti produces. 14.4 Planning and layout of orchard :

Table : 14.1 Comparison of Area, Production 14.4.1 Selection of site: Selection of site is of
and Productivity of horticultural crops paramount importance in horticultural crops.
Mistake committed at the initial stage is
1991- 2016- difficult to rectify at the latter stage.
Crops Particulars
92 17 Factors to be considered while selecting
Area in 000 suitable site for growing horticultural crops
2874 6480
ha are,
Production 1. The site should be in a favorable fruit
28632 92846
Fruits in 000 MT region.
Productivity 2. The site should be free from stagnation of
9.96 14.33 water during rainy season.
in MT/ ha
3. The climate should be suitable for the fruit
Area in 000 crop chosen.
5593 10290
ha
4. Sufficient supply of good quality irrigation
Vegetables Production water throughout the year.
58532 175008
in 000 MT 5. Suitability of soil, its fertility, the nature of
Productivity sub soil and depth.
10.47 17.01
in MT/ ha 6. Along with irrigation facilities proper
Area in 000 drainage arrangement should be made.
106 943 7. Supply of electricity.
ha
Flowers 8. Nearness to the city or market so that other
Production
and 535 3277 special problems can be solved. Otherwise
in 000 MT
Aromatic site should be connected with good road.
Productivity
5.05 3.48 9. Nearness to the horticultural industry
in MT/ ha
Area in 000 already established so that grower can get
2298 3677 technical guidance and co-operation
ha
Production 10. Availability of skilled labour at cheaper
Plantation 7498 16897
in 000 MT rate.
crops
Productivity 11. Nearness to the processing industries and
3.26 4.59
in MT/ ha cold storage facilities.

165
 After selecting a site, taking into
consideration, the above criteria, land is Remember this
levelled, brought to fine tilth. Different plots
are made as per the layout, sufficient space Orcharding refers to growing of fruit
given for roads and path, irrigation channels plants in an orderly manner and maintain
are prepared, provision of adequate drainage them for successive economic returns.
and wind breaks are made around the orchard. Garden refers to fruit farm where
sophisticated agro techniques are employed
Keep in mind for commercial cultivation e.g. Grape garden.

a. Careful plan of orchard is necessary 14.4.3 Development of new orchard

for utmost economic and efficient Fencing
management Fencing is essential to prevent destruction
b. Attractiveness of the trees from stray cattle and also to protect
c. Economic use of labour the orchard from stress passing. It is necessary
d. Location of roads, drainage, irrigation to provide some kind of fencing on all sides of
channels, path, hedges, and wind breaks. the garden and this should be done preferably
before planting the fruit trees. Fencing helps
14.4.2 Layout of orchard to mark the borders of the orchard. Fences
While preparing plan of a big orchard, may be live or can be made using thorny and
following points are highly essential. dead bushes, but these are not satisfactory and
1. Optimum spacing to grow optimum require frequent repair and replacement (e.g.
number of trees per unit area. chilar, sagargota) Barbed wire fencing is very
2. Farm buildings should be at entrance of good but its initial cost is rather high.
the orchard or centre or at high level for Types of fencing
thorough supervision. There are two types of fencing used for
3. Do not plant large trees with small trees. protection of orchard.
4. Planting fruit trees according to their soil 1. Live fencing 2. Non-living fencing
requirements. 1. Live fencing - The cheap and best protection
5. Irrigated trees should be near the source of is planting of live fence. Some of the plants
water. are very useful as live fence.
6. Evergreen trees should be at front and 1. Prosopis juliflora (vilayati Babhul) and
deciduous crops should be behind. Caesalpinia sepiaria (Chillar):- These
7. Trees having big canopy should be on can be established in May - June. The
the back side and trees with less canopy seed should be sown in a trench 30 cm
should be in front. wide and 22.8 cm deep all around the
8. Fruits attacked by birds and animals orchard boundary.
should be close to the watchman shed. 2. Carissa carandas (Karonda): This
9. Pollinator should be provided to self makes an effective dense hedge. In
incompatible fruit trees e.g. ber, mango, addition it bears fruits if not pruned too
etc. closely.
10. Those crops require equal spacing should Other plants used for live fence are Lantena
be grouped in one blocks. camera (Ghaneri), cacti, Coenel, Dedonia,
mendhi, casurina (Khadsarni, sher), Adulsa,
Shendri, sagargota, etc.
166
2. Non living fencing
(a) Barbed wire (b) Compound wall
(c) Grill. (d) Electrical fencing
(e) Solar wire fencing
In solar wire minute current is developed
from solar cells or battery rays. Due to this
current minimum shock will be created when
stray cattle and human touch it. Fig. 14.2 : Rectangular system
14.4.4 Planting Systems 3. Hexagonal system - In this method the
The layout of an orchard is a very saplings are planted at each vertex of
important operation. Laying out the orchard equilateral triangle. In this way six trees form
begins with the marking of a base line which hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre.
is usually taken parallel to fix structure. First It is also called as septuple. This plan can be
line should be at half the spacing to be given usually employed where land is expensive
between the trees. At both ends of the base and very fertile with good available water
line right angles are created by following the supply. The trees are equally spaced
simple carpenters meter system. After the from each other but difficult to layout.
formation of these three lines. It is easy to fix Intercultivation is difficult in this system.
the boundary of the orchard. In this layout 15% more plants are
Different methods of planting an orchard: accommodated than the square system.
1. Square system - The field is devided
into squares as per spacing. In this case a
sapling is planted on each vertex of a square
whatever may be the planting distance.
This plan is commonly followed. It is easy
to layout. Convenient for inter cropping and
cultivation is possible in two directions e.g.
mango (10 × 10 m), banana (1.25 × 1.25 m).
Each plant gets equal area for growth and
drip.

Fig. 14.3 : Hexagonal system

4. Triangular System - In this system the

saplings are planted as in the square
system but the plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th
Fig. 14.1 : Square system and such other alternate rows are planted
mid way between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and other
2. Rectangular System - In this system, alternate rows. This system has no special
the field is devided into rectangles as advantages over the square system except
per spacing. Saplings are planted at providing more open space for the trees
each vertex of the rectangle. E.g. Grape and for inter crops. It is difficult for labour
(3 × 2 m) Increased spacing in rows is useful and cultivation. This system is useful for
for mechanical cultivation between rows. plantation on hill slopes.
167
 Table : 14.2 No. of trees in various planting
systems
Planting No of trees / ha in system
distance Square Hexagonal Quincunx
3 × 3 mt 1085 1250 2170
5 × 5 mt 480 555 960
7 × 7 mt 225 255 450
12 × 12 mt 65 75 130
Formula for calculating number of plants
Fig. 14.4 : Triangular system No. of Plants =
Total area in Sq. M.
5. Quincunx system - It is differing from square
system by planting an additional sapling Plant to plant distance in m × Row to row distance in m

in the centre of each square of permanent
Calculation of number of plants in
trees. The central tree is usually the filler
tree which is kept only for a shorter period. hexagonal system (From fig. 14.3)
Plant to plant distance = 10m
Row to row distance to be calculated
ABC is an equilateral triangle
BC = AB = AC = 10m
Draw a perpendicular line AD to BC which
divides it in to two halves.
It means BD = DC = 5 m
Fig. 14.5 : Quincunx system
Now in triangle ABC
6. Contour system - It is only followed on hills AC2 = AD2 + DC2
with high slopes. Contour line is an
imaginary line drawn connecting points i.e. AD2 = AC2 - DC2
on same level on sloppy land. In this case = 102 – 52
the trees are planted along a uniform slope
= 100 – 25
and usually at right angle to the slope with
the idea of reducing loss of soil due to soil = 75
erosion. It is followed just as in case of AD =
square system. The marking should be done
from the lowest level to the top. = 8.66
Thus row to row distance is 8.66
No. of Plants =
Total area in Sq. M.
Plant to plant distance in M. × Row to row distance in M.

= 115 approximately
Fig. 14.6 : Contour system
168
Wind breaks : Table 14.2 : Planting distance for the fruit
Definition : trees.
The wind break means close planting Sr.
of tall growing trees all around the orchard Fruit trees Spacing (meter)
No.
preferably at south west direction of 1. Mango 10 × 10
plantations. 2. Apple 7.5 × 7.5
Importance 3. Orange 6×6
Fruit orchards usually cause heavy 4. Banana 2.4 × 2.4
losses when exposed to strong wind. Heavy 5. Guava 6.8 × 6.9
wind increases the losses of moisture both 6. Pomegranate 3.6 × 2.6
by increasing transpiration and surface 7. Pineapple 0.45 - 0.60 × 0.45 - 0.60
evaporation. The high winds also cause the 8. Awala 8×8
damage to fruit trees by breaking of branches, 9. Chikoo 8×8
destruction of blooms, dropping of immature
10. Papaya 2.25 × 2.25
fruits and erosion of surface soil. The fruit yield
11. Coconut 7.5 × 9
is also reduced on the exposed orchards firstly
due to drying of stigmatic fluid and secondly 12. Ber 6×6
due to reduced activities of pollinating insects. 13. Strawberry 0.6 × 0.3
The growth and yield in protected orchard is 14. Jamun 10 × 10
definitely better than the exposed orchard. 15 Tamarind 10 × 10
Hence, establishment of a tall growing wind
Planting material
break is necessary to protect the orchard.
Proper selection of planting material is
Selection of wind breaks
very important for successful fruit growing.
While selection of wind breaks more The planting material should be genuine,
importance should be given to the height true to type variety, healthy, free from pest
than the thickness. Wind break will give full and diseases, insects and virus. It is always
protection to distance of 4-5 times the height of advisable to procure the planting material
trees. The wind breaks should be erect and tall, from reliable source like government nurseries,
quick growing, hardy and drought resistant, agricultural university nurseries.
occupy less space as far as possible. They
While purchasing planting material following
should be mechanically strong and dense to
consideration should be taken -
resist maximum wind velocity.
(1) The planting material should be true to type
Planting distance and variety. The planting material should
Proper spacing of fruit trees is one of the have been prepared from healthy mother
most important considerations in successful plant with high productivity record.
fruit cultivation. Spacing depends upon the
(2) The graft and / or bud joint with stock
fertility of the soil and nature of growing of
should be strong and well developed.
the trees. Improper spacing of trees may result
in the poor quality of fruits and incidence of (3) The plant should be budded or grafted on
pest and diseases. Too much close spacing will recommended rootstock.
result in poor growth of fruit trees and inferior Preparation of pits and planting
quality of fruits because of lack of sunlight.
Preparation of land
Very wide spacing will result in waste of
valuable land. Since the fruit trees remained in the field
for a very long duration, the land and plots
169
should undergo repeated ploughing, harrowing on yield and quality of Fruits. Proper training
and levelling. Before digging pits green and pruning of the plants sustain heavy crop
manuring crops should be grown and buried load and produces good quality harvest. Plants
in the soil to enrich the orchard soil and to develop strong framework and they are free
improve the physical condition of soil. from drooping branches, narrow crotch angle,
Digging pits water sprout, root and crown suckers.

Having decided to give optimum spacing 14.5.1 Training : It refers to removal of part
the plot is laid out with measuring tape, stakes, of plant to develop a proper shape of plant
etc. The pits are taken in advance before capable of bearing heavy crop load. It is
planting. The size of pit is decided according related to shape and size of a plant.
to fruit tree and soil type. In poor soils larger Objectives of training
pits are taken for larger trees, smaller pits are (1) To develop strong framework.
dug for dwarf trees and in fertile soils smaller
pits are generally taken. The size of pit varies (2) To control and regulate shape.
from 0.5 cubic meter to one cubic meter. While (3) To maintain better crotch angle.
digging pit upper soil is kept aside. The pits are
dug out in advance and are exposed to sun for
a week or so. The pits are filled with top soil,
farmyard manure or compost, bone meal. Add
insecticide powder in soil to prevent attack by Water sprouts
pest. Rubbing
branches
Planting
Weak,
Having procured genuine and healthy narrow
planting material, it should be planted during crotch
monsoon where rainfall is not heavy. In region
like Konkan, where rainfall is very heavy,
Closely spaced
planting should be undertaken after rains are Branch
branches
over. The planting should be done on cloudy stub
day preferably in the afternoon.
Sucker
The plants should be carefully removed growth
from polythene bag or earthen pot without
disturbing root system and put in a small Fig. 14.7 : Training
hole in the pit and covered with soil. Before
planting damaged roots should be cut and then
plant the seedling. The planting board is used (4) To develop balance between vegetative
for planting at the right position. After planting and reproductive branches.
press the soil gently. Water the plant as soon as (5) To facilitate interception of sunlight.
possible if necessary. (6) To remove water sprouts.
14.5 Training and pruning Principles of training
Training and pruning are important orchard
(1) Started from very beginning of plant
operations
growth.
These processes form in indispensable
(2) Most are trained in single stem system.
operation having direct bearing on growth and
Pomegranate, fig and custard apple are
vigor of plants. These processes also have effect
170
 trained by multi-stem training system as
they are prone to insect attack.
(3) In some plants terminal bud is removed to
facilitate emergence of side shoots.
(4) Branches with narrower crotch angle are
discarded.
(5) Remove water sprouts and drooping
branches.
According to the height of the tree, the training
is grouped in two ways.
(1) High head
In this type the main branches are
encouraged about one meter or higher up Fig. 14.8 : Central Leader
from the ground level. In this case cultural Advantage
operations with animal or mechanically drawn 1. Development of strong crotches due to
implements can be carried out very easily. interlacing of fiber at the junction of the
In the tropical climate the practice is not limb and the trunk.
followed generally as the sunscald and wind 2. Strong frame work.
may damage the trees. The fruit bearing area
on the plants also develops late and it bears Disadvantages
fruits slowly. 1. Shading of the interior part of the tree.
(2) Low head 2. Weakening of central leader due to shading
reduces life of the tree.
In this case the main branches forming
the foundation frame work of the tree are 2. Open Centre
managed on the trunk at a low height. Low In this system the main stem is allowed to
headed trees come in bearing earlier and this grow only up to a certain height by heading it
type of practice is now more popular. In this within a year of planting. All the subsequent
method the plants can resist stormy winds more vegetative growth is promoted by lateral
effectively and the other cultural practices can branches. This results in low head. Bulk crop
be done very easily. is borne closer to the ground.
Systems of Training
1. Central Leader
2. Open Centre
3. Modified Leader
1. Central Leader
In this system the main trunk grows
undisturbed. As the growth of the branches is
vigorous and rapid on the main trunk, the tree
develops a close centre and grows to greater
height. The side branches remain more or less
stunted and as the result they would be low in
vigour and productivity. Fig. 14.9 : Open Centre
171
Advantages 4. Strong framework.
1. Better light penetration for the fruiting in 5. Easy cultural operations.
inner branches. 14.5.2 Pruning
2. Development of a low headed tree.
Cleaning the canopy
3. Trees are more fruitful and greatly facilitate
the operations like pruning, thinning, Included bark
spraying and harvesting.
Dead branch
Disadvantages
Dead Water sprouts
1. Tree becomes weak because of crowded
branch
crotches.
2. Heavy bearing causes breaking of the tree. Broken
3. In high light intensity area trees suffers branch
from severe sunscald and sunburn injuries.
Sucker
3. Modified leader system
It is the combination of the central leader
and open centre. First the central leader is Fig. 14.11 : Pruning
allowed to grow and then is cut back not Pruning is an important horticultural
allowing it to become dominant. Selected practice and its skill is very essential to the
laterals are allowed to grow and remaining grower since the mistake in pruning may result
laterals are removed to obtain proper more harm than good rewards.
orientation.
Prunning is removal of a part of a plant
like root, leaf, flower branch, vine or fruit to
obtain good and qualitative yield. It is related
to better harvesting with good quality fruits.
Definition
According to Gardener, pruning may
be defined as “An art and science of cutting
away a portion of plant to improve quality of
the produce, or to heal, repair the injury”. The
parts more commonly removed are branches
or leaves or both.
The extent and intensity of pruning of any
tree varies from year to year depending on the
growth of the tree, its bearing and season.
Objectives
Fig. 14.10 : Modified Leader (1) To control flowering and fruiting
Advantages (2) To augment production in plants which
bears on new shoots
Most desirable in many trees because.
1. Low and well spaced laterals (3) To obtain regular bearing
2. Well distributed fruiting area. (4) To remove diseased, damaged, insect
3. Better light penetration. infested and water shoots

172
(5) To thin out flowers and fruits
(6) To ensure access of sunlight to bearing
shoots
(7) To invigorate the plants
(8) To have a balance between vegetative
and reproductive growth
Principles of pruning
(1) Remove all water sprouts
(2) If the shoot is to be removed completely it
should be removed from the base Fig. 14.12 B: Heading back
(3) Avoid bark injury
Use your brain

(4) Pruning should be completed well advance
of flowering season Find out purpose behind Frame
(5) In deciduous plants pruning should be pruning, Maintenance pruning, Renewal
done in advance of winter to avoid low pruning.
temperature injury.
3. Disbudding - The young buds are nipped
(6) Apply Bordeaux paste immediately with giving them no chance to sprout.
(7) Crowded, diseased, damaged and insect The bud may be either vegetative or
infested shoots should be removed. reproductive. This is practiced regularly in
flowering plants to make the terminal bud
Methods of Pruning
to give a bigger flower.
1. Thinning out - This refers to the removal
4. Pinching and topping - This refers to the
of the branches entirely from the base
removal of the top of the shoot along with
leaving no stubs.
a view to stimulate the lateral growth.
2. Heading back - This refers to cutting of main Time and extent of pruning
stem or a few of the branches leaving a basal The time of the pruning in different
portion. This method is often followed for plant mainly depends upon their dormant and
hedges, ornamental shrubs, first dormant flowering seasons. The best time for pruning in
and October pruning in grapes. case of the deciduous trees is at the end of the
dormant season i.e. about a month before the
commencement of flowering.
The extent of pruning to be adopted for
a particular crop depends on its growing and
fruiting habit, as it directly affect the nutritive
condition within the tree and consequently
affects the fruit formation. It also increases
the size, shape and quality of fruit. Pruning is
to be carried out in the month of May. Excess
pruning reduces quality of fruits.
14.6 Special horticultural operations
14.6.1 High Density Planting (HDP)
Maximization of production should be the
Fig. 14.12 A : Thinning out ultimate objective in the fruit cultivation. This
173
can be achieved by many ways. Increasing 14.6.2 Bahar Treatment
number of plants per unit area by adjusting Bahar treatment is nothing but withholding
the planting distance and method of planting water for 4-6 weeks prior to flowering with
is one of the ways. a view to give rest to the tree. The principle
Definition involved is, by giving rest to the tree or
Planting of fruit trees, closer than checking its growth, more carbohydrates are
their normal spacing and making the plant accumulated in the plant body which led to a
population dense per unit area is known as profuse differentiation of buds and flowers.
high density planting. This practice is followed in trees like
Increased plant population may affect the mosambi, santra, guava, pomegranate, etc. in
growth and production due to over-crowding, Maharashtra and in south India. Most of the
shade effect and intermingling of branches of orchards of these crops are planted on medium
trees. to deep black cotton soils which have very
This can be avoided by good water retention capacity. The climatic
(1) Controlling the size of the plant. conditions in our state are such that there is
(2) By adjusting the planting distance and no much more distinction between winter
method. and summer season temperatures. As a result
Size of plant is controlled by regular of which plant remains in the active growth
pruning or by using dwarfing root stocks. E.g. throughout the year and refuses to produce
Vhallai - columban in mango, trifoliate orange flower abundantly, affecting the quality and
in citrus. total yield of crop. Therefore bahar treatment
In some plants, to avoid over shading is necessary in these crops.
the planting density is so arranged that it Method
should not affect the root and shoot balance
and should permit better light penetration. In Bahar treatment consists of withholding
banana, normal planting distance is 1.75 m × the irrigation water prior to flowering. In heavy
1.75 m. In high density planting, it is planted soils 55-60 days water stress is given where -
as in light soils it is of 40 to 45 days. Light
at a distance of 1.25 m × 1.25 m.
ploughing or digging in the orchard is done
In high density planting, there is
before treatment. During water stress period
competition for nutrients and water amongst
plant stops growth, leaves turn pale green or
the plants and hence yield of individual plant
slightly yellow. Over stress is dangerous.
is reduced, yield per unit area is also hampered
but it can be corrected by adopting proper agro When the stipulated period of water
horticultural practices. stress is over, basins are prepared, plants are
Advantages manured at recommended doses of manures
(a) More plants per unit area hence yield and irrigation is provided step by step. The
increases. first irrigation must be light one.
(b) Better utilization of land. There are three types of bahar treatment
(c) Production of marketable produce. 1. Mrig bahar 2. Hast bahar 3. Ambe bahar
Effect on Growth and Yield
1. Mrig bahar
(a) Due to less spacing the growth is erect.
(i) Withholding of water is done in April-
(b) Over crowding of branches causes fruit
May and flowering occurs in June-July.
drop and infection of pest and diseases.
(ii) Useful in our region because water
(c) The yield is more as compare to normal
withholding is done in summer season
spacing because plant population is
which is beneficial.
increased.
174
(iii) Fruit develops after rainy season thus
fruit fly attack is avoided.
(iv) Dry and bright sunshine during ripening
period enhances colour and the quality of
the fruit.
(v) In case of santra in North India mrig
bahar is not followed and hence fruits
from Maharashtra fetches good price.
2. Hast bahar
(i) Withholdings of water is done in August
Fig. 14.13: Bending
and flowering occurs in Sept - October. terminal buds synthesize auxins which controls
(ii) Not practiced in Maharashtra cell elongation and plant growth. The auxin
3. Ambe bahar thus produced moves downwards and inhibits
the growth of lateral buds on the shoot. Auxin
(i) Withholding of water is done in
gets accumulated on the lower side of branch
November-December. flowering is in
(side which is away from the sun) and cause
January - February. cell elongation on that side to turn to new shoot
(ii) Fruit development is during summer. Not growth towards the sun.
possible in Maharashtra as farmers face To break this apical dominance and to
water scarcity in summer. bring all the buds at the same level in order
(iii) Fruits are fairly attacked by the fruit to increase the fruit bearing area. The erect
files, sucking moth during rainy season in growing branches are bent down wards. i.e.
Maharashtra horizontal. More auxins get accumulated on
(iv) In our region, fruit ripen in rainy season the lower side causing cell elongation. The
which affect the colour and quality of the lateral buds are brought at the same level
fruit. which sprout and give more fruiting area
which ultimately increases the yield.
The choice of bahar depends upon Varieties like Lucknow-49 (Sardar)
1. Availability of water. because of their horizontal growing character
2. Quality of fruits. do not require bending.
3. Attack of insects pest and diseases.
4. Availability of market and market prices. 14.6.4 Ringing
Ringing is followed in mango to induce
14.6.3 Bending fruitfulness. It is nothing but removal of bark
Bending is generally followed in erect on the branches, in circular fashion of the width
growing varieties of guava to increase yield. of 1/4 inch to 1/2.inch. The object behind this
In such varieties branches and shoot grow operation is to interrupt the downward flow
erect and the buds situated on the top of the of carbohydrate and to accumulate it at above
branch sprout which bear flower and fruits. the portion of operation to induce fruitfulness.
The buds on the lower side of the branches Many times, tree produces only vegetative
remain dormant and fail to sprout. So the fruit growth and all the carbohydrates are utilized for
bearing area becomes less and naturally it vegetative growth without any accumulation.
decreases the yield. In alternate bearing trees, during
The reason behind this particular on year all the carbohydrate is utilized for
phenomenon is the apical dominance. The
175
development of fruit and hence very little 4. To obtain early fruit maturity and enhance
quantity is available for differentiation of buds the quality of bunch. Girdling is done one
resulting in off year next season. For sprouting week after the fruit set and on Cane, Main
of flower buds, accumulation of carbohydrates bark, Primary or Secondary arms.
is essential. To achieve this, ringing is done in
mango.
This operation is done in the month of
August i.e. 4 months, before the expected date
of flowering. It is done on main limbs of at
least 6 inch in diameter by removing a circular
bark ring of 1/4 inch to 1/2.inch thickness. The

Fig. 14.14: Ringing Fig. 14.15: Gridling

cut given to the stem or branch of the tree Cane girdling is normally followed
should not be too deep, and it should not injure because in case of trunk girdling, if the
the cambium otherwise the upward nutrient operation is not performed systematically,
supply will be checked. Bordeaux paste should there lays a danger of dying of the vine.
be applied on the ringed part to check the fungal
In cane girdling, a ring of bark of the
attack. It is not followed as a regular orchard
width 2.5 mm is removed carefully from the
practice. Normally, healing of the wound take
basal portion of cane. With a sharp knife,
place in about a month after the purpose of the
clear cut is given. Proper sanitation is followed
operation is over.
before and after the operation to avoid disease
14.6.5 Girdling incidence. The operated portion should unite in
Girdling is a special horticultural 3-4 weeks.
operation followed in grapes. Removing of
14.6.6 Notching
a circular piece of bark from the cane, main
Notching operation is followed in fig and
branch or primary or secondary arms for
involves giving a slanting cut little above or
maximizing the yield of good quality is done.
below the buds and removing the slice of the
Objectives bark of particular depth and width depending
1. Better development of berries. upon the size of the branch. The main object
behind notching is interruption of downward
2. To increases the size of berries and the TSS
flow of carbohydrate and induce flowering
(Total soluble solids) of berries. when done below the bud and also induce
3. To interrupt downward flow of laterals on vigorous shoots when done above
carbohydrates. the bud.
176
 It includes partial removal of slip of bark irrigation water or by spraying of 2000
of 2-6 mm breadth and 15-20 mm in length. ppm of cycocel.
Bud selected for notching should be large, Duration and degrees of hardening
plumpy, healthy and which is produced on
perfect mature wood. It is very necessary that plants should
be hardened according to their kind so that
Generally 3-4 buds in the middle portion there is an assurance of high percentage of
of shoot are best for operation. survival and slow growth under the condition
When it is done above the bud, to be expected at the time of transplanting.
carbohydrates will accumulate above bud Hardening should be gradual to prevent or
and there will be more nitrogen in bud which check the growth.Warm season crops like
will give vigorous vegetative shoots on which tomato, brinjal and chillies do not favour
flowers and fruits will be borne. In Maharashtra severe hardening. Under Indian conditions,
notching above the buds is generally followed allowing the soil to become dry, 5-6 days are
in August -September. enough for desired hardening.
When it is done below bud, there is more Effect of hardening
accumulation of carbohydrates than nitrogen, The following effects may be observed by
resulting in more fruit buds on the tree. It the hardening
is done in the month January - February. (1) Hardening improves the quality and
Bordeaux mixture paste needs to be applied on modifies the nature of colloids in the plant
the wound to avoid attack of pest and diseases. cell enabling them to resist the loss of
14.6.7 Hardening water.
(2) Hardening increases the presence of dry
The term hardening is defined as any matter and regards in the plants water and
treatment that makes the tissues firm to transpiration per unit area of leaf.
withstand unfavourable environment like low
(3) Decreases the rate of growth in the plants
temperature, high temperature and hot dry
wind. (4) Hardened plants can withstand better
Hardening is physiological process. Plants against unfavourable weather conditions
accumulate more carbohydrates reserves and like hot day winds or low temperature.
produce additional cuticle on the leaves. (5) Hardening of the plants increases the
In this process seedlings are given some waxy covering on the leaves.
treatments at least 7-10 days before removing (6) Development of pinkish colour on leaf
from the beds and transplanting. petioles and blades.
These treatments include
(1) Exposure to the full sunlight,
(2) Removal of all the shedding nets.
(3) Stopping irrigation slowly.
Techniques of hardening
The hardening is done by the following
ways.
(1) By withholding the watering to the plant by
4-5 days before transplanting. Lowering
the temperature also retards the growth
and adds to the hardening processes.
(2) By application of 4000 ppm NaCl with

177
 Exercise
Q 1 A. Fill in the blanks. C. State true or false.
1. Horticulture is a branch of agriculture 1. Wind breaks protect fruit orchard from
that deals with cultivation of -------- hot and dry winds.
plants. 2. One of the objectives of pruning is to
2. The branch of horticulture that include control flowering and fruiting.
study of vegetables is known as --------. 3. Flowering occurs in June – July in case
3. The central plant in quincunx system is of ambe bahar.
called as --------- tree. 4. In cane girdling a ring of bark of the
4. Training aims in development of strong width 2.5 cm is removed.
--------- of fruit tree. 5. In high density planting banana plants
5. Better light penetration is possible are planted at 3m × 3 m spacing.
in --------- method of training of fruit Q 2 Answer in brief.
crops. 1. Write short notes on
B. Make the pairs.
(i) Bahar treatment
A B (ii) High density planting in Mango
(1) Pomology (a) Hill slopes (iii) Open centre method of training
(2) Olericulture (b) Study of flowers (iv) Ringing
(3) High density (c) Study of (v) Bending
planting vegetables
2. Give difference between
(4) Rectangular (d) Study of fruit
system crops (i) Ringing and girdling
(5) Contour (e) Declining land to (ii) Training and pruning
system plant ratio (iii) Central leader and open centre
(f) Wind breaks (iv) High head and low head system of
(g) Mechanical training
cultivation
3. Give reasons
Q 1 B Find the odd out.
(i) It is necessary to plan carefully while
1. Square, Rectangular, Triangular, developing new orchard.
Hexagonal, Fencing
(ii) Open centre method is better method
2. High head, Low Head, Girdling, Open of training fruit crops.
centre, Central Leader (iii) In case of cane girdling, width of
3. Girdling, Bending, Ringing, Bahar removed bark should be 2.5mm only.
treatment, Bearing (iv) High head system of training is not
4. Road side site, Fertile soil, Cheap practiced in tropical region.
labour, High density planting, (v) Bahar treatment is necessary for
Availability of market, FYM. santra in Maharashtra .
5. Insecticide, Compost, Bone meal, Leaf 4. Give examples of
mould (i) Methods of crop maximization
(ii) Types of bahar.
178
 (iii) Methods of training. 5 . Read the given following paragraph
5. Answer in brief. and answer the questions.
Fencing is essential to prevent destruction
(i) What are the advantages of
of the trees from stray cattle and also to protect
planting wind breaks?
the orchard from stress passing. It is necessary
(ii) What are the objectives of training? to provide some kind of fencing on all sides of
(iii) What are the types and benefits of the garden and this should be done preferably
fencing? before planting the fruit trees. Fencing helps to
(iv) Which points are required to be mark the borders of the orchard. Fences may
kept in mind while planning a new be made using thorny and dead bushes but
fruit orchard? these are not satisfactory and require frequent
Q 3 Answer the following questions. repair and replacement. Barbed wire fencing
1. Complete the table. is very good but its initial cost is rather high.
Types of Fencing:-There are two types of
Method Crop Width Benefits fencing used for protection of orchard.
Girdling 1. Live fencing 2. Non-living fencing
Ringing (1) Live fencing - The best protection is
however, a construction of live fence.
2. Explain with the help of examples. Some of the plants are very useful as live
(i) Planting of wind breaks fence.
(ii) Live fencing 1. Prosopis juliflora (vilayati babul) and
3. Calculations. Caesalpinia sepiaria (Chillari):- These
can be established in May June the seed
(i) Calculate number of fruit plants
should be sown in a trench 30 cm wide and
required for planting one hectare
22.8 cm deep all around the orchard
area in hexagonal system at 6 × 6
boundary.
m distance.
2. Carissa carandas (Karonda):- This makes
(ii) Calculate number of fruit plants
an effective dense hedge. In addition it
required for planting three hectare
bears fruits if not pruned too closely.
area in quincunx system at 2.5 ×
2.5 m distance. Other live plant use as fence:-
Q 4 . Answer in detail. Lantena camara (ghaneri), cacti, Coenel,
dedonia, mendi, casurina (khadsarni, sher),
1. Write the importance of horticulture. adulsa, shendri etc.
2. Explain the scope of horticulture. Questions
3. Write in detail about selection of site a. Which are the two types of fencing?
for an orchard. b. Why fencing is necessary for fruit
4. Complete the table. orchard?
Sr.
Method
Main Followed
Time
c. Mention some plant species used for
no. Objective in Crops live fencing.
1 Training d. Can you suggest any alternative system
2 Pruning of fencing?
Bahar e. What is the signifince of live fencing?
3
treatment
Activity : Practice different special horticultural
4 Bending
operations
179
 15. Special Crops

Let’s recall
Remind
 What is meant by Horticulture?  Have you seen sugarcane plantation
 Which crops are covered under the and sugar factory?
Horticulture?  Have you visited jaggery production
 Importance and scope for horticultural unit?
crops in India.
 Recent developments in Horticulture
15.1.1 Plantation Crops
industry.
 Nutritional importance of fruits and Plantation crops are those which are
vegetables. cultivated on extensive scale.
 Which horticultural crops have export Plantation is a large scale unit usually of
potential? a single crop.
Plantation is a large scale estate meant
Remember this for farming that specializes in cash crop.

These crops are grown in huge plantations
Certain horticultural crops have special and need to undergo certain processing .Such
economic importance and these crops processing units are established in plantation
are grown by farmers with commercial areas, there by having great impact on socio
approach. Such crops are useful for changing economic development of that region.
farmers economic condition .The special
horticultural crops are the alternative for Different plantation crops are as follows
traditional agriculture, however they can be a. Tea - Camellia sinensis
grown along traditional crops. These crops Family - Theaceae
can be grown on commercial scale as well Tea plant is an evergreen shrub grown for
as an amature scale .These crops can be its leaves. Top shoots along with two youngest
cultivated in various combinations and with leaves are removed and cured to impart taste
different objectives and flavor. Leaf, broken and dust are the three
grades of tea.
15.1 Different horticultural crops having
Tea is important crop of Assam, Nilgiri,
special economic importance
Dargiling and hilly areas of India.
The special horticultural crops are categorized
in following way
(1) Plantation crops (2) Spice crops
(3) Aromatic crops (4) Medicinal plants
(5) Vegetable crops (6) Exotic crops
(7) Flower crops (8) Ornamental Plants
One or few crops from the each group
are known be special as they have distinctive
characters and uses Fig. 15.1 Tea
180
b. Coffee - Coffea robusta Coffea arabica
Family - Rubiaceae Do you know ?
All coffee plant species are woody
Cocoa beans were used as currency
evergreens, but the plants range in size from
during ancient period
small shrubs to trees more than 10 meters tall.
Leaves vary in colour from yellowish to dark d. Rubber- Hevea brasiliensis
green, with touches of bronze or purple. The Family- Euphorbiaceae
plant produces white flowers and red berries Natural rubber, also called Indian
or “cherries” that contain seeds. Most coffee rubber, as initially produced, consists
berries contain two seeds, which are known as of polymers of the organic compound isoprene,
“beans”. Beans are harvested from matured with minor impurities of other organic
fruit, dried and powdered and used to make compounds, plus water. Currently, rubber is
coffee beverage. Coffee is one of the important harvested mainly in the form of the white latex
crops of Karnataka. from rubber plant trunk. The latex is a sticky,
milky colloid drawn off by making incisions
in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels
in a process called "tapping". The latex then
is refined into rubber ready for commercial
processing. Latex is allowed to coagulate in
the collection cup and lumps are collected
and processed into dry forms for marketing.
Natural rubber is used extensively in many
Fig. 15.2 Coffee applications.

Use your brain power

You may have drunk coffee which is made

by conventional filtering method or an
instant coffee. Can you find how both the
type of coffee powders are made?
c. Cocoa - Theobroma cocoa
Family - Malvaceae
Cocoa fruit contain seeds with pulp. The
matured seeds are fermented, washed and Fig. 15.4 Rubber
powdered and then used for chocolate making. e. Coconut- Cocos nucifera
Forestero and Criello are the two famous Family - Arecaceae
varieties of cocoa. The coconut tree is a member of the palm
tree family  The term "coconut" can refer to
the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit,
which botanically is a drupe and not a nut.
Coconuts are known for their versatility of
uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. The inner
flesh of the mature seed forms a regular part of
the diets of many people known as khobara.
Coconuts are distinct from other fruits
Fig. 15.3 Cocoa
181
because their endosperm contains a large
quantity of clear liquid and when immature,
may be harvested for their coconut water
known as shahale. Mature, ripe coconuts can
be used as prasad or nariyal (edible seeds), or
processed for oil and coconut milk from the
flesh, charcoal (active carbon) from the hard
shell, cocopeat and coir from the fibrous husk.
Dried coconut flesh is called copra, and the oil
derived from it is commonly used in cooking
as well as in making soaps and cosmetics. The Fig. 15.6 Arecanut
hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate g. Cashew nut - Anacardium occidentale
leaves can be used as raw material to make (Kaju)
a variety of products for furnishing and Family - Anacardeacae
decorating, brooms, chatai, etc. The coconut The cashew nut, often simply called a
fruit also has cultural and religious significance cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on
in certain societies. its own, used in recipes, or processed into
cashew cheese or cashew butter. The shell
of the cashew seed yields derivatives that
can be used in many applications including
lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and arms
production. The cashew apple has a light
reddish to yellow colour. Its pulp can be
processed into a light sweet, astringent fruit
drink or distilled into liquor (called fenny in
Goa). Cashew nut is known as dollar earning
crop. India is the world’s leading producer and
exporter of cashew kernels.

Fig. 15.5 Coconut

f. Arecanut - Areca catchue (Supari)
Family- Arecaceae
It is a species of palm which grows in
much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts
of East Africa. The palm is believed to have
originated in the Philippines, but is widespread
in cultivation and is considered naturalized
in India, widely grown in Karnatka state. The
species has many common names including
the areca palm, areca nut palm, betel
palm, Indian nut, etc. This palm is called
the betel tree because its fruit, the areca nut, is
often chewed along with the betel leaf. Further
is has medicinal and industrial uses. Fig. 15.7 Cashew nut
182
15.1.2 Spice Crops
Spice is a substance that is used in cooking
to add flavour to food which comes from dried
plant part, powder or seed.
Spice is a seed, fruit, root or other plant
part primarily used for flavouring, colouring
Fig. 15.8 Cardamom
or preserving food.
b. Black Pepper (Kali Miri) – Piper nigrum
Remember this Family - Piperaceae
A vine crop cultivated for its small fruits
India produces 75 varieties of spices which are usually dried and used as spice.
Universally known as King of spices. Black
of the 109 listed by Internatinal Spice
pepper and white pepper are the types and
Organisation and is also the largest producer
have used for different purposes.
of spices

Spices are classified according to their share

in spice trade industry of the world.
(i) Major spices
Contribute about 75-90% of total spice
Fig. 15.9 Black pepper
trade .These are pepper, cumin, cardamom,
c. Ginger (Ale) - Zingiber officinale
ginger, turmeric and chilli.
Family Zingiberaceae
(ii) Minor spices
Ginger is a flowering plant whose
These have less contribution in trade and are rhizome, is widely used as a spice and
further classified as follows for medicinal purposes. It is a
herbaceous perennial, which grows annual
(a) Seed spices - Coriander, mustard, poppy,
pseudostem about a meter tall bearing narrow
caraway, celery, fenugreek, etc.
leaf blades. The inflorescences bear pale
(b) Bulbous spices - Garlic, onion, leek, yellow with purple flowers and arise directly
shallot, etc. from the rhizome on separate shoots.
Ginger originated in Island Southeast
(c) Aromatic spices - clove, cinnamon, all
Asia. Ginger produces a hot, pungent fragrant
spices, ani seed, nutmeg, etc.
taste. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and
(d) Leafy spices - Curry leaf, mint, rosemary, fleshy with a mild pungent taste due to gingrol.
parsley, bay leaf, etc. They are often pickled in vinegar . They can
(e) Acidulant tree spices -Tamrind, kokum, be steeped in boiling water to make ginger herb
tea. Ginger can be made into candy or ginger
anardana, etc.
wine. Ginger sets are dried into 'sunth', powder,
a. Cardamom (Veldoda) - ginger oil and oleo-resin. Ginger essence is
Elettaria cardamomum used in pharmaceutical produces.
Family-Zingiberaceae
Cardamom is grown for small black
seeded pods. Spindle shaped pods contain
black seeds. These are used for flavoring as
well as cooking spice. Cardamom is known as
Queen of spices. Fig. 15.9 Ginger
183
 Remind

Medicinal property of ginger is because of
gingrol.
Have you eaten alepak or sunth vadi? And
When?

d. Turmeric (Halad) - Curcuma longa Fig. 15.12 Cinnamon

Family - Zingiberaceae f. Clove (Lavang) - Eugenia caryophyllata
Family - Myrtaceae
The plant is native to the Indian Clove is native to India grown in South
subcontinent. After haresting the rhizomes are India. Clove flower buds are used as a
boiled in water for about 30–45 minutes and spice in India. It is an evergreen tree of
then dried in hot dryer, after which they are humid tropical climate and hilly tract of
ground into a deep orange-yellow powder. It the Western Ghats and the red soils are
is commonly used as a coloring and flavoring best suitable for clove cultivation. A major
agent in ayurvedic medicines. component of clove taste is imparted by
the chemical compound eugenol and it is
used in traditional medicins. The clove oil is
effective for toothache pains or other types of
pains related health problems. It is widely used
in all types of masala preparations.

Fig. 15.13 Clove

Fig. 15.11 Turmeric g. Chilli – Capsicum annum
Family Solanaceae
e. Cinnamon (Dalchini) - Cinnamomum
zealanicum Chilli fruit is used in green and red form
Family - Lauraceae (The dried ripe fruit). The chilli is an annual
shrub. The flowers converted in red peppers
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the
after maturity, Capsicum frutescence is a
inner bark of a perennial shrub. Cinnamon is
perennial chilly with small sized pods which
used mainly as an aromatic condiment and
are highly pungent. It is commonly known
flavouring spice additive .The aroma and
as ‘bird chilly’. Green chilli pods and dried
flavour of cinnamon is derived from its essential
chilli powder are commonly used in food
oil and principal component, cinnamaldehyde,
preparation to get desired pungent taste and
as well as numerous other chemical
red colour. The pungency in chilli is due to
constituents, including eugenol.
capsaicin compound.
184
 milky precious wood scent. Used in perfume,
acts as finative, cosmetic and soap industry
Sandalwood oil prices have risen to Rs 1.4
lakh per kg.

Fig. 15.14 Chilli

Find information on
Allspice-Plants Allspice, also called
pimenta, Jamaica pimenta, or myrtle pepper,
is the dried unripe fruit of Pimenta dioica,
a mid canopy tree, native to the Greater
Antilles, southern Mexico, and Central Fig. 15.15 Sandalwood
America, now cultivated in many warm b. Senna (Sonamukhi) - Senna alexandrina
parts of the world. Family - Fabaceae

15.1.3 Aromatic crops Senna is a large genus of flowering plants

in the legume family .This diverse genus is
These are plants that produce and native throughout the tropics, with a small
exude aromatic substances which are used in number of species in temperate regions. The
making perfumes, in cooking and in the food, leaves of senna plant are used in tea hot
pharmaceuticals and liquor industries. drink and may help to relieve constipation.
Odoriferous and volatile substances occur Some senna species are used as ornamental
as essential oils, gum extract, balsam and plants in landscaping. The plant is adapted to
oleoresin in one or more parts viz. root, wood, many climate types. Cassia gum, an extract
bark, foliage, flower and fruit of the aromatic of the seeds of Chinese senna is used as
plant. The aromatic substances are obtained a thickening agent.
by the methods like distillation, maceration,
expression and solvent extraction.
a. Sandalwood- Santalum album (Chandan)
Family - Santalaceae
Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees
in the genus Santalum. The wood is heavy,
yellow, and fine-grained, and unlike many other
aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance
for decades. Sandalwood is the second-most
expensive wood in the world. Both the wood
and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that Fig. 15.16 Senna
has been highly valued. Sandalwood trees are c. Geranium - Pelargonium graceolens
medium sized hemiparasitic. It is a threatened Family - Geraniaceae
species indigenous to South India. Oil has a The family includes both the
distinctive soft worm, smooth, creamy and genus Geranium (the cranesbills, or true
185
geraniums) and the garden plants are called material for the indeginious pharmaceuticals,
geraniums, which modern botany classifies as perfumery, flavour and cosmetic industry.
genus pelargonium, along with other related The curative property of drugs are due to
genera. The oil of geranium has a refreshingly the presence of complex chemical substance of
delicate rose like aroma. As such itself is a varied composition in one or more parts of the
perfume. plant.
India is known as rich wealth of medicinal
plants.One of th oldest book 'Charak samhita'
records the use of over 340 drugs of vegetable
origin.
During last few decades the
pharmaceutical industry has made massive
investment on pharmacological, clinical and
chemical researches all over the world.
a. Opium (Aphu)– Papaver somniferum
Family Papaveraceae
Fig. 15.17 Geranium
e. Khus (Wala) - Vetiveria incognito Latex of unripe fruit contains codeine,
Family - Poaceae morphine used for pain relief. Approximately
12 % of opium latex is made up of analgestic
Khus is a perennial bunch grass native
alkaloid morphine which is processed
to India. The plant helps to stabilize soil and
chemically to produce heroin and other
protects from erosion, but it can also
synthetic opioids for medical use and for
protect fields against pests and weeds. It is also
illegal drug trade.
used as animal feed. Its spongy branched fine
rootlets contain fragrant oil. Oil is extracted
and used for cosmetics, aromatherapy,
herbal skin care and ayurvedic soap. Due to
its fibrous properties, the plant can also be used
for handicrafts, ropes, food and flavourings,
perfumery, etc.

Fig. 15.19 Opium

b. Psyllium (Isabgol) Plantago ovata
Family – Plantaginaceae
Psyllium is mainly used as a dietary fibre
to relieve symptoms of both constipation and
mild diarrhea and occasionally as a food
Fig. 15.18 Khus thickener. Research has shown that lowering
15.1.4 Medicinal plants of blood cholesterol levels in people with high
The plants having medicinal property cholesterol, and lowering of blood glucose
in their any of the plant parts are known as levels in people with type 2 diabetes. The plants
medicinal plants.They provide basic raw from which the seeds are extracted tolerate dry

186
and cool climates and are mainly cultivated in
northern India. Fruit, husk and seed coat are
used against chronic constipation.

Fig. 15.22 Sarpgandha

e. Lemon grass (Gavati chaha) –
Cymbopogon schoenantus
Family - Poaceae
Fig. 15.20 Isabgol Lemon grass is widely used as a
c. Mints (Pudina) Mentha piperata culinary herb in Asian cuisines and also
Family – Lamiaceae as a medicinal herb in India. It has a
subtle citrus flavour and can be dried and
Mint is aromatic perennial herb. It has
powdered, or used fresh. It is commonly used
wide spreading underground and over ground
in teas, soups, and curries. Lemon grass oil
stolons and erect branched stems. Volatile oil
is used as a pesticide and a preservative.
of plant is used as antiseptic, carminative and
Research shows that lemon grass oil
stimulant.
has antifungal properties. Despite its ability to
repel some insects, such as mosquitoes, its oil
is commonly used as a "lure" to attract honey
bees.
Used in tea, soups and curries

Fig. 15.21 Mint

d. Rouwolfia (sarpagandha) -
Rouwolfia serpentina
Family - Apocynaceae
Roots contain alkaloids like reserpine,
Fig. 15.23 Lemon grass
serpentinine. Antidote for snake bite and
f. Vasaka (Adulsa) – Adhatoda vasaca
medicine for blood pressure. Reserpine is
Family Acanthaceae
an alkaloid first isolated from R. serpentina and
was widely used as an antihypertensive drug.It Adhatoda, commonly known adulsa, vasa
had drastic psychological side effects and has or vasaka is a medicinal plant native to Asia.
been replaced as a first-line antihypertensive The plant is native of Indian subcontinent.. This
drug by other compounds that lack such adverse shrub has a number of traditional medicinal
effects, although combination drugs that uses in Ayurvedic and Unani systems. Drug
include it are still available in some countries vasaka is obtained from dried leaves of the
as second-line antihypertensive drugs. plant. Vasaka is mainly used in treatment of
187
chronic bronchitis and asthma. Leaf juice 15.1.5 Vegetable Crops
is given in the treatment of dysentery and Vegetables are parts of plants that are
diarrhea. Leaves contain vaccine which is consumed by humans as food or as a part of
expectorant and antiplasmodic. a meal.
Vegetables collectively refer to all edible
plant matter including the flowers, fruits,
stems, leaves, roots and seeds.
Vegetables supply vital vitamins and
minerals and known as protective food. They
enhance palatability and intake of food.
According to plant part consumed vegetables
are classified as under,
Fig. 15.24 Adulsa (1) Leafy vegetables – Spinach, Amaranthus,
g. Amla – Emblica officinale
Cabbage, Fenugreek
Family - Euphorbiaceae
(2) Fruit vegetables – Bottle gourd, Bitter
The tree is small to medium in size, gourd, Brinjal, Tomato, Capsicum,
usually deciduous. The fruit is nearly spherical, Pumpkin, Cucumber, Okra, etc.
light greenish-yellow, quite smooth and hard
(3) Immature seeds and pods – Pea, Cowpea,
on appearance, with six vertical stripes or
French bean, Cluster bean, Indian bean,
furrows.
etc.
After ripening the berries are harvested
by hand. The taste is sour, bitter and (4) Root vegetables - Radish, Turnip, Carrot,
astringent and it is quite fibrous in nature. Beet root
Indian gooseberry is a common constituent, (5) Tuber and bulb vegetables – Onion, Garlic,
and most notably is the primary ingredient Potato, Sweet potato
in an ancient herbal Chyawanprash. The (6) Other vegetables – Cauliflower, knolkhol,
fruit is commonly pickled with salt, oil, and Yam, Colocasia, etc.
spices. Murambah, a sweet dish is made by
a. Tomato – Lycopersicon esculentum
soaking the berries in sugar syrup until they
Family – Solanaceae
are candied. It is traditionally consumed after
meals. Popularly used in inks, shampoos and It is grown for its mature or ripe fruit.
hair oils.Fruit contains large quantity of which has various culinary uses and used in
Vitamin C (600 mg/ 100 g) and is used against preparation of many preserved products. It
cough, cold and as a laxative in hyperacidity. is very much popular all over the world. The
Amla fruit is commonly used squash, juice, tomato red color is due to antioxidant lycopene.
syrup, and crush. Important varieties – Arka sourabh, Arka
vikas, Sl -120, Pusa early dwarf, Pusa rubi, etc.

Fig. 15.25 Amla Fig. 15.26 Tomato

188
b. Brinjal – Solanum melongena
Family – Solanaceae
It is one of the most common tropical
vegetables grown in India. Many delicious
dishes are prepared from fruits. Important
varieties – Pusa kranti, manjarigota, Pusa
purple long, etc.

Fig. 15.29 Okra

e. Potato - Solanum tuberosum
Family-Solanaceae
It is the top ranked vegetable grown in the
world. It has high food value. It is grown for
its stem tubers. It is a cool season crop. The
aerial part of the stem is hollow, except its
Fig. 15.27 Brinjal nodes. The tuber is shortened, thickened stem
c. Cauliflower – Brassica oleracea var. bearing buds. Potato tubers are used as a fresh
botrytis vegetables and can be processed into many
Family – Cruciferae products.
Important varieties-Kufri Badashaha,
Edible part of cauliflower is known as Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri chandramukhi, Kufri
curd which consists of a shoot system with Chamatkar, Kufri Jyoti, etc.
short internodes, branches apices and bracts.
Important varieties – Early kunwari, Pusa
synthetic, Pusa sharad, Pant shubhra, Pusa
shubhra, etc.

Fig. 15.30 Potato

f. Cucumber - Cucumis sativus
Family - Cucurbitaceae
Vine crop grown for its tender fruits
which are usually used as salad. The stems are
long and trailing. The fruits are elongated and
Fig. 15.27 Cauliflower
d. Okra (Bhendi) - Abelmoschns esulentus
Family - Malvaceae
The crop is cultivated for its young tender
fruits. It is major vegetable crop, available
round the year having high export potential.
Important varieties Arka anamika, Pusa
makhamali, Parbhani kranti, Pusa sawani, etc.
Fig. 15.31 Cucumber
189
cylindrical, vary in size and sometimes can be attachment of to underground part of stem
oval or short. which is small and rudimentary.
Important varieties - Japenese long green, Varieties – Arka kalyan, Arka Pragati,
Poona Khira, Sheetal, Pusa Sanyog, etc. Baswant-780, N-53, Agrifound dark red,
g. Carrot - Daucus carrota Agrifound light red.
Family - Umbeliferae
Grown for its delicious tap roots.Roots
are highly nutritive and useful as a salad
Important varieties - Nantes, Pusa
yamdagni, Pusa kesar, Chantaney, etc.

Fig. 15.34 Onion

15.1.6 Exotic Crops
The crops which are not indigenous to
country are known as exotic crops.
Certain exotic crops are becoming popular
Fig. 15.32 Carrot in India. Indian farmers have started growing
exotic crops as they are in great demand in
h. Amaranthas - Amaranthas species
Indian market and have scope for export.
Family - Amaranthaceae
Exotic fruit like dragon fruit is becoming
Entire young plant is used as a leafy popular and fetches higher price in domestic
vegetable market.
Important varieties - Chhoti Chaulai,
a. Broccoli - Brassica oleracea var.italica
Badi chaulai.
Family - cruciferae
Braccoli is a cruciferous vegetable. It
contains high amount of many nutrients, fibre,
Vitamin C, Vitamin K, etc. Braccoli also
contains more protein than other vegetables.
Varieties-Calabrease, Brouzino, etc.

Fig. 15.33 Amaranthus

i. Onion - Allium cepa
Family - Amarylidaceae/ liliaceous
It is biennial herb with a characteristics
smell. Bulb is formed by the attachment
of swollen leaf bases the is formed by the Fig. 15.35 Broccoli
190
b. Zucchini - cucurbita pepo as vegetable since antiquity. Celery has long
Family - cucurbitaceae fibrous stalk tapering into leaves. Its stalk,
It is known as type of summer squash leaves or hypocotyle are eaten and used in
which can reach nearly 1 m in length. It is cooking.
usually harvested when still immature. Some Varieties - standard bearer, weigh grove
cultivars have dark green or deep yellow giant, etc.
colour. Varieties - Raven, Bush baby, Black
beauty, faudbook, etc.

Fig. 15.38 Celery

f. Lettuce - Lactula sativa L.

Fig. 15.36 Zucchini Family - Asteraceae
c. Dragon fruit (Pitaya) - Hylocereus species It is an annual plant. It is often grown as
Family - Cactaceae a leafy vegetable but some times for stem and
Dragon fruit is very strange looking fruit. seeds. Lettuce is mostly used for salads. It can
The dragon fruit is also known as a pitahaya or also used in soups, sandwiches and wraps.
pitaya. Dragon fruit plant sowing is excellent Varieties - Great lakes, Chinese yellow,
in the less rainfall areas. Varieties - Pitaya slobalt, etc.
rosa,pitaya blanca, etc.

Fig. 15.39 Lettuce

Fig. 15.37 Dragon fruit
15.1.7 Flower crops

Remember this Flowers symbolize beauty, love and

tranquility. Besides there aesthetic value, they
Dragon Fruit is used in jams, ice are important for their economic uses such as
creams, jelly production, fruit juice, wine cut blooms and for extracting essential oils.
face packs. In India flowers are sanctified and use for
worshipping
d. Celery - Apium graveolens L.
Family - Apiaceae
It is marshland plant has been cultivated

191
The important flower crops. c. Chrysanthemum - Chrysanthemum
a. Rose - Rosa spp. species
Family - Rosaceae Family - Asteraceae

It is a beautiful flower and accepted all Annual and perennial types are found
over the world. It is grown on commercial It is grown for flowers, in pots and garden
scale and on amateur basis. for decorative purposes. It is propagated by
suckers.
Rose is propagated by shield budding Snowball, Potomal, M-24, Agnishikha,
method. Navneet yellow, Gauri, Pournima, etc.
Varieties-Gladiator, Superstar, Double
delight, Devine, Dekore, etc.

Fig. 15.42 Chrysanthemum

d. Marigold (Zendu) : Tagetes erecta-
(African marigold) Tagetes patula-
Fig. 15.40 Rose (French marigold)
b. Jasmine - Jasminum species Family - Asteraceae
Family - Oleaceae Grown for composite flowers which are in
About 200 species of jasminum have great demand during festive season.
climbing or shrub type growth habbit. Varieties - Giant double, Cracker jack,
Charm, Butter scotch, etc.
Mogra, Jai, Jui, Chameli are the Important
types they are particularly grown for their
scented loose flowers
Parimullai and Co-2 (Jui)
CO-1 (Chameli)
Gundumalli, Ramban, Madanban (Mogra)

Fig. 15.43 Marigold

e. Tuberose (Gulchadi / Nishigandha) -

Polyanthes tuberose
Family - Amaryllidaceae
White scented flowers are used for
garlands
Fig. 15.41 Jasmine
192
 Essential oil is extracted from flowers is 15.1.8 Ornamental plants
used in perfumery and cosmetic. Tuberose is Ornamental plants are those plants which
propagated by bulbs. are used for beautification of surrounding by
Varieties - Arka Nirantara, Shringar, virtue of the attractive form, flower, foliage,
Prajwal, Kalyani double, Vaibhav, Pearl, growth habit of the plant.
Svasini, etc.
Botanically ornamentals are widely
spread over entire plant kingdom. They are
used in garden, houses, pots, roads, etc.
There are different categories of
ornamental plants. They are classified
according to their growth habbit and use
(1) Herbaceous perennials-coleus, aglonema,
diffenbachia, etc.
(2) Flowering annual-Aster, marigold,
hollyhock, spider flower, etc.
Fig. 15.44 Tube Rose (3) Shrubs-Croton, duranta, hamelia, tecoma,
hibiscus, musanda, etc.
f. Gerbera - Gerbera jamesonii
Family - Asteraceae (4) Trees- Gulmohar, Pilmohar, Bahavra,
Kanchan, etc.
Gerbera is also known as Transval daisy.
Long stalked flowers also stay long in Vases (5) Climbers and creepers- sankrant vel,
.It is grown in open fields and under cover also Argannillea, etc.
.Flower have export potential. It is propagated (6) Grasses and bamboos- Ribbon grass, etc.
by suckers and tissue cultured seedlings.
(7) Bulbous plants- lilies, gladiolus, dahlia,
Varieties -Ruby red, Dusty, Shania,
Tulip, etc.
Superniva, Maria, Black jack, etc.
(8) Cacti and succulents –Sanpendro cactus,
oldman, old lady, etc.
(9) Palms –Areca palm, fishtail palm, bottle
palm, etc.
(10) Hydroplants-Lotus, Nehmbo, hyacinth,
etc.

Fig. 15.45 Gerbera

193
 Exercise
Q 1 A. Fill in the blanks. 5. Fruit of Curcuma longa plant has
1. Plantation is the term used for large commercial use.
scale unit usually of a --------- crop. Q 2 Answer in brief.
2. Cardamom is universally known as 1. Write short notes on
----------- of spices. (i) Write short note on importance
3. Amla contain Vitamin --------- in spice crops.
large scale. (ii) Ornamental plants
4. Potato is an example of --------- tuber. (iii) Indian medicinal plants
5. Lettuce leaves are used as ----------
2. Give difference between.
vegetable.
(i) Plantation crops and field crops.
B. Make the pairs. (ii) Vegetable crops and flower crops
A B (iii) Medicinal and aromatic plants
1. Tea a. Exotic crop 3. Give reasons for.
2. Coconut b. Kerala (i) Vegetables are called as
3. Sandalwood c. Assam protective food.
4. Brinjal d. Savoy (ii) Exotic crops are getting
5. Dragon fruit e. Edible oil popularity in India.
f. Valuable oil (iii) Sandalwood is a valuable
g. Manjarigota commercial tree.
B. Find the odd out. 4. Give examples of
1. Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Coconut, Clove. (i) Commercial beverage crops
2. Black pepper, Cinnamon, (ii) Aromatic plants
Cardamom, Chilli, Cabbage (iii) Medicinal plants
3. Rose, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, (iv) Vegetable crops
Marigold, Coriander (v) Ornamental plants
4. Aster, Marigold, Hollyhock, Croton, 5. Answer in brief.
Gaillardia (i) Write in brief about commercial
5. Sandalwood, Geranium, Khus, importance of rubber.
Senna, Cucumber (ii) Write in brief – Importance of
C. State true or False. coconut
1. Tea and coffee are prepared from Q 3 Answer the following questions.
same plant part.
1. Explain with the help of examples.
2. Coir is an important product made
from coconut husk. (i) Medicinal properties of vasaka
3. Edible part of cauliflower is known (ii) Uses of lemon grass.
as curd.
4. Tamrind is used as seed spice.

194
 2. Complete the table. 3. Read the given following paragraph
and answer the questions.
Useful
Botanical Commercial
Crop plant The tree of amla is small to medium in
name uses
part size, usually deciduous; the leaves are simple,
subsessile and closely set along branchlets,
Cocoa
light green, resembling pinnate leaves.. The
Coconut fruit is nearly spherical, light greenish-yellow,
quite smooth and hard on appearance, with
six vertical stripes or furrows. Ripening in
Q 4 Answer following questions in autumn, the berries are harvested by hand after
detail. climbing to upper branches bearing the fruits.
The taste is sour, bitter and astringent and it is
1. Explain in detail importance and
quite fibrous. Indian gooseberry is a common
classification of spices.
constituent, and most notably is the primary
2. Complete the following table ingredient in an ancient herbal Chyawanprash.
The fruit is commonly pickled with salt, oil,
Useful and spices, murabbah, a sweet dish made by
Sr. Growth Productive
Crop plant
No. Habit areas soaking the berries in sugar syrup until they
part
are candied. It is traditionally consumed after
Tall
1 Coconut monocot
meals. Popularly used in inks, shampoos and
tree hair oils. Fruit contains vitamin C and is
Black used against cough, cold and as a laxative in
2 Cardamom hyperacidity.
seeds
3 Rose Flower Questions
a. Which is an ancient herbal product
Stem
4 Kufri made from amla?
tuber
Evergreen b. Which Vitamin is obtained from
5 Assam
shrub Amla fruits on large scale?
c. How amla fruit looks in appearance?
d. Mention uses of amla fruit.
e. How amla fruit is in taste?
Activity :
Visit any farm growing horticultural crop and
collect information on package of practices of
that crop.

195
 Agriculture Science and Technology
Practical syllabus std - XI

Practicals Visits

1. Identification of rocks and minerals. At least four visits from the following
2. Study of soil profile. Collection and list should be conducted.
preparation of soil sample for analysis. Separate section of visit report should be
3. Study of meteorological equipments. kept in the journal.
4. Study of important measurement units 1. Visit to soil testing laboratory.
used in agriculture and their conversion. 2. Visit to meteorological observatory.
5. Identification of seed and plant parts. 3. Visit to seed farm / seed plot.
6. Calculation of seed rate, plant population, 4. Visit to fertilizer factory.
7. Study of seed treatments and practicing 5. Visit to bio-gas plant/vermicompost unit.
different methods of sowing 6. Visit to farmers producer company/multi
8. Calculation of pure living seed percentage purpose co-operative society.
and physical purity percentage of seed. 7. Visit to farm for observing drip and sprinkler
9. Identification of manures and fertilizers irrigation unit.
and calculation of their quantity as per the 8. Visit to fruit orchard to observe different
recommendations. horticultural operations.
10. Calculation of duty and delta of irrigation.
11. Erection and maintenance of drip and
sprinkler irrigation systems. Project work
12. Estimation of cost of fitting drip irrigation Complete any one of the following
system for unit area. projects.
13. Identifying and handling of different 1. Collection of weeds and preparation of
tillage implements and garden tools. weed album.
14. Practice of seed bed preparation. 2. Collection of insects and preparation of
15. Identification of different types of weeds insect box.
and study of their control methods. 3. Collection of organic and inorganic
16. Study of major pest and diseases and their fertilizers.
control measures. 4. Collection of seed samples and preparation
17. Layout preparation for fruit orchard and of herbarium.
preparation of pits for plantation.
18. Practicing training, pruning and other
horticultural operations.
19. Study of design and construction of farm
pond.

196
 Agriculture Science and Technology
Specimen question paper (Practical) std - XI

Marks

Q. 1) Identification 6
A) Identify
B) Subquestion
Note : In all 6 Specimens should be kept, each carrying 1 mark (1/2 mark for
identification and 1/2 mark for correct answer of subquestion)

Q. 2) Solve any two of the following. 6

A) Mathematical problem from practical syllabus (viz. seedrate /

plant population / physical purity / pure living seed).
B) Mathematical problem from practical syllabus (viz. quantity of
fertilizers / duty and delta of irrigation / conversion of measurement unit
from one system to another system).
C) Theoratical question from practical syllabus.
Q. 3) Practical exercise (any one) 6

A) Seed treatment
B) Seed bed preparation
C) Method of sowing
D) Practice of training or pruning or any other horticultural operations.
E) Collection and preparation of soil sample for analysis
F) Tying and handling of tillage implements

Q. 4) A) Viva-voce - 02 6
B) Journal - 04

Q. 5) Project or visit report 6

Any one report on project or the visit actually given by the student during the
academic year.

197
 List of Reference Books
1. Introduction to Agronomy and Soil and Water Management- Dr. V. G. Vidya, K. R.
Shasrabuddhe, Continental Prakashan, Pune - 411 030.
2. Crop Production and Field Experimentation - Dr. V. G. Vaidya, K. R. Sahasrabuddhe, Dr. V.
S. Khuspe. Continental Prakashan, Pune - 411 030.
3. Agronomy - S. C. Panda - 2008, Agrobios (India) Jodhpur - 342 002.
4. Principles of Agronomy - J. Yellamanda Reddy, G. H. Sankara Reddy - Kalyani Publishers,
Revised Edition 2002.
5. Principles of Crop Production - 2000 S. R. Reddy, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiyana.
6. Hand Book of Agriculture - Fifth edition (2006) I. C. A. R., New Delhi.
7. Principles of Agriculture - 2009, Ashok S. Jadhav, Sandip K. Raskar, Raj laxmi Prakashan.
8. Plant Breeding - Principles and Methods - 2005, B. D. Singh, Kalyani Publishers.
9. Agronomy of Field Crops - 2006. S. R. Reddy, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiyana.
10. Seed Technology, 2002, Ratan Lal Agrawal, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co-op. Pvt. Ltd.,
Kolkata.
11. Seed Technology - Dr. Harpal Singh, Tomar, Aman Publishing House, Meerut.
12. Plant Tissue Culture - M. K. Rajdan.
13. Plant Tissue Culture - M. K. Singh, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. 2004.
14. Seed Science and Technology - A. K. Joshi, B. D. Singh, Kalyani Publishers.
15. Principles of Agronomy, 2011, - S. R. Reddy, Kalyani Publishers.
16. Fundamentals of of Agronomy, 2008, - Dr. Gopal Chandra De, Oxford and IBH Publishing
Company Pvt. Ltd.
17. Seed Science and Technology, 2001 - Subir Sen, Nabinananda Ghosh, Kalyani Publishers.
18. Text Book of Soil Science - A Textbook - V. D. Patil, C. V. Mali, Phoneix Publications
Parbhani.
19. Fundamentals of Soil Science, 1996 - Dr. J. A. Daji, Revised by Dr. J. R. Kadam, N. D.
Patil, Media Promoters and Publisher Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai.
20. Handbook of Horticulture -, 2002, I. C. A. R., New Delhi.
21. Munures and Fertilizers - K. S. Yawalar, J. P. Agarwal, S. Bokde, Agri-Horticultural
Publishing House, Nagpur.
22. Commercial Production of Horticultural Crops - H. N. Samaddar, Naya Udyog, Kokata.
23. Basic Horticulture - Jitendra Singh, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiyana.
24. Vegetable Crops - T. K. Bose, K. Kabir et. al., Naya Prokash, Kolkata.
25. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture - J. S. Arora, Kalyani Publishers.
26. A Class Book of Botany - A. C. Datta, Oxford Publication.
27. Waste Management and Environment V. PDPO, H. Ltob, U. Mander.
28. Environment Waste Management, Ramchandra, Oxford Publication
29. Advances in Waste Management, - Ajay S. Kalasdhad, Jawan Singh,
KondusamyDhamodharan, Springer, WIF Press.
30. Handbook on Waste Management, Thomas C., Kinnaman and Kenji Takeychi.
31. Agriculture Science and Technology, Std XI and Std XII, 2018, Maharashtra State Board
Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, Pune.
32. Textbook of Crop Production Std-XI and Std-XII - Maharashtra State Board of Secondary
and Higher Secondary Education, Pune.

198
NOTES

199
NOTES

200