GLOSSARY OF POPULATION TERMS 16. Gross National Income (GNI) – A measurement of a country’s income.

It
includes all income earned by a country’s residents and businesses, including
1. Ageing population – An increasing average age in the population of a region income earned abroad (e.g. property income).
due to declining fertility rates and/or rising life expectancy. 17. Immigration – The process of entering one country from another to take up
2. Birth rate – The number of births per 1,000 of population in a given year. This permanent or semi-permanent residence.
is different to fertility rate. 18. Infant mortality rate – The number of deaths under one year of age
3. Carrying capacity – The maximum sustainable size of a population residing in occurring among 1,000 live births in a given year.
a given ecosystem. 19. Least Developed Countries – A list of countries that, according to the United
4. Census – An official record of the population in a country, including details Nations, exhibit the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development.
such as population numbers, age, sex, and occupation. 20. Life expectancy – The average number of additional years a person could
5. Contraception – The use of artificial methods or other techniques to prevent expect to live if current mortality trends were to continue for the rest of that
pregnancy as a consequence of sexual intercourse. Methods of contraception person’s life.
or birth control include: condoms, diaphragms, contraceptive pills, 21. Mortality – Deaths as a component of population change.
intrauterine devices, contraceptive implants, spermicides, as well as male or
22. Net migration – The net effect of immigration and emigration on a population
female sterilisation.
in a given area and time period, expressed as an increase or decrease.
6. Demographic dividend – Refers to the accelerated economic growth that
23. Net Migration Rate – The difference between the number of immigrants and
may result from a decline in a country’s birth and death rates and the
the number of emigrants throughout the year. A positive net migration rate
subsequent change in the age structure of the population.
indicates that there are more people entering than leaving an area.
7. Demographic transition – The historical shift of birth and death rates from
24. Population density – Population per unit of land area (e.g. number of people
high to low levels in a population. The decline of mortality usually precedes
per square mile or people per square kilometre).
the decline in fertility, thereby resulting in rapid population growth during the
transition period. Demographic transition does not hold true in all
25. Population explosion– A rapid and dramatic increase in the size of a
circumstances, however.
population. Can be caused by factors such as a sudden decline in infant
8. Demography – The statistical study of human populations, including factors mortality or an increase in life expectancy.
such as births, deaths, size and distribution. This is used to help illustrate the
26. Population Growth Rate – The number of people added to (or subtracted
changing structure of human populations.
from) a population in a year due to natural increase and net migration,
9. Dependency ratio – Relates the number of children (0-14) and older persons expressed as a percentage of the population at the beginning of the time
(65 years or over) to the ‘working-age’ population (15-64 years old). It is used period.
to measure the pressure a productive population may face.
27. Population momentum – The tendency for changes in population growth
10. Earth Overshoot Day – The date on which humanity’s ecological resource rates to lag behind changes in birth rates or fertility levels. If a country has a
consumption for the year exceeds Earth’s capacity to regenerate in that year. high birth rate, the large number of babies born at that time will start having
11. Emigration – The process of leaving one country to take up permanent or children themselves a generation later.
semi-permanent residence in another. 28. Population projection – Estimates of the total size and age structure of
12. Extreme poverty – A condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic future populations. These projections may be used for resource allocation and
human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, planning.
shelter, education and information. 29. Population pyramid – A bar chart, arranged vertically, that shows the
13. Family planning – The conscious effort of couples to regulate the number and distribution of a population by age and sex. By convention, the younger ages
spacing of births through artificial and natural methods of contraception. are at the bottom, with males on the left and females on the right.
14. Fertility – The actual reproductive performance of an individual, a couple, a 30. Pull factor – A positive aspect or condition that attracts people to move to
group, or a population. that particular area (e.g. higher employment, better services, political stability,
lower risk from natural hazards).
15. Global Gag Rule (also known as the Mexico City Policy) – A United States
government policy that blocks U.S. federal funding for non-governmental 31. Push factor – A negative aspect or condition that motivates people to leave an
organisations that provide abortion counselling or referrals, advocate to area (e.g. lack of opportunities, concerns for safety, drought, flooding, poverty,
decriminalise abortion, or expand abortion services. war).
32. Rate of natural Increase or decrease – The difference between the number
of live births and the number of deaths in a population over a given time
period, expressed as a percentage.
33. Refugee – A person who has been forced to leave their country in order to
escape war, persecution, or violence.
34. Replacement-level fertility – The total fertility rate at which a population
exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next. The rate is roughly 2.1
children per woman, although it may vary with mortality rates.
35. Reproductive health – Implies that people are able to have a satisfying and
safe sex life, including the freedom to decide if, when and how often to
reproduce. A condition of reproductive health is to have adequate information
as well as access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family
planning.
36. Total Fertility Rate – The average number of children that would be born to
each woman over her lifetime if she were to live to the end of her child-
bearing years. This is an approximate guide to family size and the measure
used by demographers and family planners too.
37. Women’s empowerment – The process of increasing the capacity of women
to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and
outcomes.
 MODULE 2: LINEAR PROGRAMMING Subject to Constraints:
X1 + X2 ≤ 10,000
Linear Programming X1 ≥ 1,000
X2 ≥ 2,000
 a mathematical technique for maximizing or minimizing a linear function
10X1 + 30X2 ≤ 180,000
of several variables, such as output or cost.
X1, X2 ≥ 0 Non-Negativity Constraint
 is a method of solving practical problems (allocation of resources) by means
of linear functions where the variables involved are subject to constraints. 2. A fertilizer company market bag of manure labeled “not less than 60 lbs dry
Components of a Linear Programming Model weight”. The package manure is a combination of compost and sewage wastes. To
a) Decision Variables provide good quality fertilizer, each bag should contain at least 30 lbs of compost but
 Related quantifiable decisions to be made whose respective values are to be no more than 40 lbs of sewage. Each pound of compost costs the company$0.05 and
determined. each pound of sewage cost the company $ 0.04. Determine the LP model that will give
 X1, X2, X3, X4, . . . . . . Xn you the least cost blend.
 Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, . . . . . . Yn Decision Variables:
b) Objective Function X1 = lbs. of compost
 The appropriate measure of performance that is expressed as a X2 = lbs. of sewage
mathematical function of the decision variables. Objective Function:
 Max P = X1 + X2 + X3 ………+Xn Min C = $0.05X1 + $0.04X2
 Max P = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ………+Yn
Subject to Constraints:
c) Constraints X1 ≥ 30
 Any restrictions on the values that can be assigned to the decision variables X2 ≤ 40
expressed mathematically, typically by means of inequalities or equations. X1 + X2 ≥ 60
 X1 + 3X2 + 2X3 ≤ 10 X1, X2 ≥ 0 Non-Negativity Constraint
d) Parameter
3. Giapetto’s wooden soldier and trains. Each soldier sells for $27, uses $10 of raw
 Constraints (coefficient or RHS) in the constraints and objective functions. materials and takes $14 of labor and overhead. Each train sells for $21, uses $9 of raw
 X1 + 3X2 + 2X3 ≤ 10 materials and takes $10 of overhead cost. Each soldier needs 2 hours finishing and 1
hour carpentry, each train needs 1 hour finishing and 1 hour carpentry. Raw
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
materials are unlimited but only 80 hours of carpentry and 100 hours of finishing are
1. An oil refinery produces two products: jet fuel and gasoline. The profit for the available each week. Demand for trains is unlimited but at most 40 soldiers can be
refinery is $0.10 per barrel for jet fuel and $0.20 per barrel for gasoline. The sold each week. How many of each toy should be made each week to maximize the
following conditions must be met. profit?
1. Only 10000 barrels of crude oil are available for processing. Decision Variables:
2. The refinery has a government contract to produce at least 1000 barrels of jet X1 = no. of soldiers produced per week
fuel. X2 = no. of trains produced per week
3. The refinery has a private contract to produce at least 2000 barrels of gasoline.
4. Both products are shipped in trucks, the delivery capacity of the truck fleet is Objective Function:
180000 barrel-miles. Max P = (27-10-14) X1 + (21-9-10) X2
5. The jet fuel is delivered to an airfield 10 miles from the refinery. Max P = 3 X1 + 2 X2
6. The gasoline is transported 30 miles to the distributor. Subject to Constraints:
How much of each product should be produced for maximum profit? 2 X1 + X2 ≤ 100 Finishing
X1 + X2 ≤ 80 Carpentry
Decision Variables: X1 ≤ 40 Demand for soldier
X1 = No. of barrels of Jet Fuel X1 , X2 ≥ 0 Non-Negativity Constraint
X2 = No. of barrels of Gasoline
Objective Function: 4. Ms. Fidan’s diet requires that all food she eats comes from one of the four basic
Max P = $0.10X1 + $0.20X2 food groups. At present, the following four food groups are available for
consumption: brownies, ice cream, cola, and cheesecake. Each brownie costs $0.50
per week, each scoop of ice cream costs $0.20, each bottle of cola costs $0.30, and Subject to Constraints:
each cheesecake costs $0.80. Each day she must ingest at least 500 calories, 6oz of 40X1 + 25 X2 ≤ 50,000
chocolate, 10oz of sugar, and 8oz of fat. Fomulate LP model that can be used to satisfy 40X1 ≥ 15,000
her daily nutritional requirement at minimum cost. 25X2 ≥ 10,000
25X2 ≤ 25,000
Calories Chocolate Sugar Fat X1, X2 ≥ 0 Non-Negativity Constraint
Brownie 400 3 2 2
Ice Cream 200 2 2 4 GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Cola 150 0 4 1 Sample Problem 6
Cheesecake 500 0 4 5

Decision Variables:
X1 = amount of intake on brownies
X2 = amount of intake on ice cream
X3 = amount of intake on cola
X4 = amount of intake on cheesecake
Objective Function:
Min W = 50X1 +20X2 +30X3 + 80X4
Subject to Constraints: Sample Problem 7
400X1 + 200X2 + 150 X3 + 500X4 ≥ 500 Calorie Matt wants to decide how many small and large desks to make to maximize
3X1 + 2X2 ≥ 6 Chocolate profit. He has 12m of wooden board and needs 1.5m for each small desk and 3m for
2 X1 + 2X2 + 4X3 + 4X4 ≥ 10 Sugar each large desk. Profit is $50 per small desk and $90 per large desk. Matt already
2X1 + 4X2 + X3 +5X4 ≥ 8 Fat promised to make desks for some customers so he needs to make at least 5 desks and
X1, X2, X3, X4 ≥ 0 Non-Negativity Constraint 3 large desks.

5. A financial advisor at Diehl Investments identified two companies that are likely
candidates for a takeover in the near future. Eastern Cable is a leading manufacturer
of flexible cable systems used in the construction industry, and ComSwitch is a new
firm specializing in digital switching systems. Eastern Cable is currently trading for
$40 per share, and ComSwitch is currently trading for $25 per share. If the takeovers
occur, the financial advisor estimates that the price of Eastern Cable will go to $55
per share and ComSwitch will go to $43 per share. At this point in time, the financial
advisor has identified ComSwitch as the higher risk alternative. Assume that a client Sample Problem 8
indicated a willingness to invest a maximum of $50,000 in the two companies. The A farmer would like to decide how many acres of his field to plant with
client wants to invest at least $15,000 in Eastern Cable and at least $10,000 in watermelons and how many cantaloupes to maximize the total profit. The profit is
ComSwitch, Because of the higher risk associated with ComSwitch, the financial $25 per acre of watermelons and $40 per acre of cantaloupes. The farmer is confident
advisor has recommended that at most $25,000 should be invested in ComSwitch. he can sell all watermelons and cantaloupes produced. However, he would like to
Formulate a linear programming model that can be used to determine the number of have at least as many acres of watermelons as cantaloupes.
shares of Eastern Cable and the number of shares of ComSwitch that will meet the
investiment constraints and maximize the total return for the investment.

Decision Variables:
X1 = Eastern Cable
X2 = ComSwitch
Objective Function:
Max P = ($55 - $40) X1 + ($43 - $25) X2
Max P = $15X1 + $18 X2 (Solutions next page)
 CHAPTER 5: DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
 Integrates a collection of files that are independent of application
Introduction to Databases programs and are available to satisfy a number of different processing
needs.
 The enterprise database is the heart of Accounting Information Systems
 Database contains data related to all the organization’s applications in
(AIS).
one place.
 Larger organizations store information in data warehouses in ways that let
 Supports normal data processing needs and enhances the organization’s
managers analyze it to gain important insights.
management activities by providing data useful to managers.
 Many companies combine their data resources with decision support systems,
 Data is independent of the application that created the data (i.e., can be
executive information systems, group decision systems, and other advanced
changed/used by other applications).
technology-based systems to improve decision making and operations.
 The term enterprise database is synonymously with database
management system or DBMS.
Two Approaches To Business Event Processing
Applications Approach Database Approach
Types of DBMS
 Concentrates on the process being  Facts about events are stored in
performed. relational database tables instead of 1. Hierarchical Databases
 Data support the role of the separate files. 2. Network Databases
programs that run in each application  Solves many of the problems caused 3. Relational Databases
system. by data redundancy. 4. Object-oriented Databases
 Each application collects and  Improves the efficiency of 5. Graph Databases
manages its own data in separate, processing data by eliminating data 6. ER model Databases
distinguishable files. redundancies and improving data 7. Document Databases
 Data redundancy can cause integrity.
1) Hierarchical Databases
inconsistencies among the same data  Enables the creation of integrated
in different files when information is business information systems that  Hierarchical Database System Structure was developed by IBM in the
updated in one file but not the others. include data about all of a early 1960s.
 Storage costs are increased because company’s operations in one  In this type of Database, data gets stored in parent-children relationship
the system must store and maintain massive collection of relational nodes. Also, the records not only contain the data of it but of their parent
multiple versions of the same data in tables. and children as well.
different files.  Multiple users from throughout the  As the name suggests, ‘Hierarchy’, it is a tree-like structure. There are
 Data residing in separate files are not organization can view and aggregate links attached between each record as a parent-children relationship.
shareable among applications. event data in a manner most  Data gets stored in the form of a collection of fields in which each field
conducive to their needs. contains only one value, i.e., every individual record has only one parent
and a parent can have one or more than one children.
Problems with Applications Approach  To retrieve the data, we need to traverse each tree until we get the desired
data.
 Data redundancy - files stored may include redundant information  It is simple but inflexible due to the parent-child one-to-many
increasing storage requirements and the risk of inconsistency. relationship. They are mostly used in Banking and Telecommunications
 Data in files is not shareable across applications because applications depend industries to build high performance and manage applications.
on a fixed record layout in data files.

Record Layout – Applications Approach

 Each application stores all the data required for analysis.
 Shows many redundancies across applications/files.
 Data lacks integrity when the data stored by one application is inconsistent
with data stored by another application.

Database Management Systems

 A set of integrated programs designed to simplify the tasks of creating,

accessing, and managing data.
2) Network Databases  Advance programming language objects are required in Object-Oriented
 The network database structure was invented by Charles Bachman. Databases.
Network database management systems (Network DBMSs) uses  It provides full-featured database programming capability while
network structure to create a relationship between entities. containing native language compatibility such that it alters the database
 Network databases are mainly used on a large network of computers. functionality to object programming languages.
 Network databases are similar to hierarchical databases differs with one  Applications in Object-Oriented databases require less code, use more
key point that in network databases one node can have a relationship with natural data modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain.
multiple entities.  Object developers can write complete database applications with a less
 In network databases, parents are termed as occupier and children are amount of effort and in less time.
termed as members. Data in the network database is organized as many-  Object-oriented databases use small software called objects. The objects
to-many relationships. themselves are stored in the object-oriented database.
 Every object in Object-Oriented databases contains two elements:
o Piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics)
o Instructions or software programs called methods

3) Relational Databases
 Relational Databases are the most popular among all databases.
 In this type of database, there is a relationship between data and that is
stored in the form of the table of rows and columns, such that row
represents record and column represents the attribute. 5) Graph Databases
 Every individual field represents the data value. In order to query the  Graph databases are NoSQL databases and it uses the graphical
Relational Databases, Structured Query Language (SQL) is used which structure for semantic queries.
includes insertion, deletion, manipulation and search the records.  Data is stored in the form of nodes, edges, and properties in which node is
 Relational database depicts the relation between two or more tables, but equivalent to a record, the edge is a link between two nodes and properties
how this relation is made? Through Key Fields. Every row has its unique key are additional information added into the nodes.
field and these key fields are used to connect one table to another one.

4) Object-Oriented Databases 6) ER Model Databases

 Object-oriented Databases were created in the early 1980s.  Entity-Relations Model Database was developed by Peter Chen 1976.
 Object-Oriented Databases deals with the functionality of the object-  Here, the ER model is applied as a database. Each row in the table
oriented programming and it increases the semantics of the C++ and Java. represents one instance of an object type, and each column in a table
represents an attribute type.
 4. When more than one user attempts to access data at the same time, the
database can face “contention” or “concurrency” problems.
 Record locking can help mitigate such problems.
5. Territorial disputes over who “owns” the data, such as who is responsible for
data maintenance (additions/deletions/changes) to customer data.
6. Most companies that have adopted this approach have found it necessary to
create a database administrator function to cope with these and other
problems.

7) Document Databases
 Document databases (DBs) are also a NoSQL database.
 It stores data in the form of documents which are key values. Each
document makes the relationship of the data with other data elements and
attributes.
 It became popular due to its storage of documents and NoSQL
properties. The specialty of NoSQL data storage is that it provides a faster
mechanism for storing and searching for documents.

Disadvantages of DBMS
1. Expensive to implement.
2. If the DBMS fails, all the organization’s information processing halts.
3. Database recovery and contingency planning are more important than in the
applications approach.