Fathom 7.0 Users Guide SI

AFT Fathom™
User’s Guide
AFT Fathom version 7.0

Incompressible Pipe Flow Modeling
Applied Flow Technology
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CAUTION!
AFT Fathom is a sophisticated pipe flow analysis program designed for
qualified engineers with experience in pipe flow analysis and should not
be used by untrained individuals. AFT Fathom is intended solely as an
aide for pipe flow analysis engineers and not as a replacement for other
design and analysis methods, including hand calculations and sound
engineering judgment. All data generated by AFT Fathom should be
independently verified with other engineering methods.
AFT Fathom is designed to be used only by persons who possess a level
of knowledge consistent with that obtained in an undergraduate
engineering course in the analysis of pipe system fluid mechanics and
are familiar with standard industry practice in pipe flow analysis.
AFT Fathom is intended to be used only within the boundaries of its
engineering assumptions. The user should consult the User’s Guide for a
discussion of all engineering assumptions made by AFT Fathom.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. No part of this User’s
Guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, for any purpose, without the express written permission of Applied Flow
Technology.
© 2008 Applied Flow Technology Corporation. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.
First printing.
“AFT Fathom”, “AFT Arrow” , “AFT Mercury”, “Applied Flow Technology”, and the
AFT logo are trademarks and IntelliFlow is a registered trademark of Applied Flow
Technology Corporation.
Intelliquip is a trademark of Intelliquip, LLC.
Chempak is a trademark of Madison Technical Software, Inc.
Microsoft, Visual Basic, Excel and Windows are trademarks or registered trademarks of
Microsoft Corporation.

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Contents
Summary
1. Introduction .................................................................... 1
2. A Walk Through AFT Fathom ...................................... 13
3. Fundamental Concepts................................................ 43
4. The Five Primary Windows.......................................... 47
5. Building and Running Models..................................... 97
6. Pipe and Junction Specifications Windows ............ 155
7. Customizing AFT Fathom .......................................... 235
8. Hydraulic Theory and Loss Models .......................... 273
9. Special Topics: Including Troubleshooting Models 331
Appendix A. Keyboard Modifiers and Shortcuts ......... 359
Appendix B. Limitations ................................................ 365
Appendix C. Installation Issues .................................... 367
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Appendix D. Chempak Technical Information ............. 373
Appendix E. Obtaining Technical Support................... 375
References ...................................................................... 377
Glossary .......................................................................... 379
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Table of Contents v
Detailed Contents
Summary..................................................................................................iii
Detailed Contents ..................................................................................... v
Nomenclature ................................................................ xxiii
1. Introduction .................................................................... 1
Modeling capabilities ............................................................................... 2
Standard version capabilities ............................................................. 2
Add-on module capabilities (optional) .............................................. 2
What this user’s guide covers................................................................... 3
Interface features ...................................................................................... 3
Thermophysical property data .................................................................. 4
Who can use AFT Fathom........................................................................ 4
Engineering assumptions in AFT Fathom ................................................ 4
Installing AFT Fathom ............................................................................. 5
Check hardware and system requirements......................................... 5
Read the README.TXT file............................................................. 5
Run the setup program ....................................................................... 6
Getting started with AFT Fathom............................................................. 6
Example models ................................................................................. 7
Using online help...................................................................................... 7
Verification models .................................................................................. 7
AFT Fathom overview.............................................................................. 7
Input windows.................................................................................... 8
Output windows ................................................................................. 8
Converting models and databases from earlier versions of AFT Fathom 9
What’s new in version 7.0 ........................................................................ 9
AFT Fathom Standard........................................................................ 9
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Pipes ................................................................................................... 9
Junctions............................................................................................. 9
Workspace........................................................................................ 10
Model Data....................................................................................... 10
Output............................................................................................... 10
Graph Results................................................................................... 11
General ............................................................................................. 11
CST Module..................................................................................... 11
Automatic pipe and pump selection using AFT Mercury ...................... 11
2. A Walk Through AFT Fathom ...................................... 13

Step 1. Start AFT Fathom....................................................................... 13
The Workspace window ............................................................ 14
Step 2. Lay out the model ....................................................................... 14
A. Place the first reservoir ............................................................... 15
Objects and ID numbers ............................................................ 15
Editing on the Workspace.......................................................... 16
B. Place the second and third reservoirs .......................................... 16
C. Add a branch junction ................................................................. 19
D. Draw a pipe between J1 and J4 ................................................... 19
Reference positive flow direction.............................................. 21
E. Add the remaining pipes.............................................................. 21
Step 3. Complete the first four checklist requirements .......................... 23
A. Specify solution control .............................................................. 23
B. Specify output control ................................................................. 24
C. Specify system properties............................................................ 25
D. Specify cost settings.................................................................... 27
Step 4. Define the model components (checklist item #5) ..................... 28
Object status .............................................................................. 28
Undefined Objects window ....................................................... 28
A. Define Reservoir J1..................................................................... 28
The Inspection feature ............................................................... 31
B. Define junctions J2, J3, and J4.................................................... 31
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Table of Contents vii
C. Define Pipe P1............................................................................. 32

The Pipe Specifications window ............................................... 32
D. Define Pipes P2 and P3 ............................................................... 34
E. Review input in the Model Data window.................................... 34
Step 5. Run the solver............................................................................. 35
Step 6. Review the output....................................................................... 36
A. Modify the output format ............................................................ 36
B. View the Visual Report ............................................................... 40
C. Graph the results.......................................................................... 41
Conclusion .............................................................................................. 42
3. Fundamental Concepts................................................ 43
Pipes and junctions ................................................................................. 43
Convention for flow entering and exiting............................................... 44
Features for modeling irrecoverable losses ............................................ 45
Modeling equivalent length data ............................................... 45
Special capabilities for junctions ..................................................... 45
Convention for specifying junction base area.................................. 45
Specifying losses.............................................................................. 46
Specifying frictional losses in pipes ................................................ 46
4. The Five Primary Windows.......................................... 47

Overview................................................................................................. 47
The Workspace window ......................................................................... 48
Shortcut Button ................................................................................ 49
The Selection Drawing Tool ............................................................ 49
The Pipe Drawing Tool.................................................................... 50
Pipe handles and segmenting a pipe .......................................... 51
Orthogonal drawing ......................................................................... 53
Tips for using orthogonal drawing features............................... 54
The Zoom Select Tool...................................................................... 54
The Annotation Tool........................................................................ 54
Junction icons................................................................................... 56
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Editing features ................................................................................ 56

Selecting groups of objects........................................................ 57
Selecting objects in a flow path................................................. 57
Selecting last selection .............................................................. 58
Aligning objects......................................................................... 58
Creating and Managing Saved Groups ............................................ 58
Special group usage ................................................................... 59
Bookmarks on the Workspace.......................................................... 59
Last View ......................................................................................... 59
Customizing features........................................................................ 60
Workspace Preferences ............................................................. 60
Adjusting the Workspace size ................................................... 60
Selective display of pipes and junctions.................................... 61
Scale/flip workspace.................................................................. 61
Renumbering the Workspace objects ........................................ 62
Background Graphic ........................................................................ 63
Specifications windows.................................................................... 64
Printing and exporting the Workspace............................................. 65
The Model Data window ........................................................................ 65
Display and printing features ........................................................... 66
The Model Data Control window .................................................... 67
Pipe data display........................................................................ 68
Junction data display ................................................................. 68
Show selected pipes and junctions ............................................ 68
Scenario Format......................................................................... 68
Other data .................................................................................. 68
Database connections ................................................................ 69
The Output window ................................................................................ 70
The Output Control window ............................................................ 71
Pipe, Junction and Summary parameters................................... 72
General output ........................................................................... 73
Format and action ...................................................................... 74
Show selected pipes/junctions................................................... 75
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Table of Contents ix
Deltas between junctions........................................................... 76

Multiple scenarios in Output ..................................................... 76
Database connections....................................................................... 76
Command buttons ............................................................................ 77
Output parameter descriptions ......................................................... 79
Output window updates ................................................................... 79
Cost Report ...................................................................................... 79
The Graph Results window .................................................................... 80
The Select Graph Data window ....................................................... 82
System Curve and Pump Curve vs. System Curve .................... 82
Profile Along a Flow Path and EGL, HGL and Elevation ........ 83
Selected Solutions ..................................................................... 84
Graph sets .................................................................................. 84
Other graph controls .................................................................. 85
The Customize Graph window......................................................... 85
The Auxiliary Graph Formatting Window....................................... 85
Printing and exporting the Graph Results image and data............... 85
The Visual Report window..................................................................... 86
The Visual Report Control window................................................. 87
Display parameters .................................................................... 88
General display.......................................................................... 88
Show selected pipes and junctions ............................................ 90
Color map .................................................................................. 90
Command buttons...................................................................... 93
Visual Report annotations................................................................ 93
Annotations for the Workspace ................................................. 93
Creating Visual Report annotations .......................................... 93
The Toolbars........................................................................................... 94
5. Building and Running Models..................................... 97

Creating objects ...................................................................................... 97
Pipes ................................................................................................. 97
Junctions......................................................................................... 100
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Morphing junctions ................................................................. 100

Splitting pipes.......................................................................... 100
Annotations .................................................................................... 101
Moving objects ..................................................................................... 101
Editing objects ...................................................................................... 102
Connecting objects ............................................................................... 102
Defining objects.................................................................................... 104
Specifying required property data.................................................. 104
Highlighting required information ................................................. 105
Use status feature ........................................................................... 105
Undefined objects window............................................................. 105
Satisfying connectivity requirements............................................. 106
Inspecting objects ................................................................................. 106
Using the Checklist............................................................................... 108
Specify Solution Control................................................................ 109
Specify Output Control .................................................................. 110
Specify System Properties.............................................................. 110
Specify Cost Settings ..................................................................... 110
Define All Pipes and Junctions ...................................................... 110
Solution control .................................................................................... 111
Output control....................................................................................... 112
System properties ................................................................................. 113
System fluid property variation...................................................... 113
Density and dynamic viscosity....................................................... 115
Vapor pressure and cavitation........................................................ 115
The fluid databases ........................................................................ 115
The AFT Standard Database ................................................... 116
The ASME Steam Tables Database ........................................ 116
The Chempak database............................................................ 116
Accuracy option....................................................................... 117
Viscosity models ............................................................................ 118
Non-Newtonian flow in non-pipe elements............................. 119
Atmospheric pressure..................................................................... 120
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Gravitational acceleration .............................................................. 120

Transition Reynolds Numbers ....................................................... 120
Editing the AFT Standard fluid database....................................... 120
Cost settings.......................................................................................... 121
Energy cost..................................................................................... 122
Cost Time Period ........................................................................... 122
Use with CST Module ............................................................. 123
Finding object definition status ............................................................ 123
Show Object Status ........................................................................ 123
List Undefined Objects .................................................................. 124
Defining pressures for the system ........................................................ 124
Fluid groups and multi-loop heat transfer ............................................ 125
Use with Heat Exchangers....................................................... 125
Using scenario manager........................................................................ 126
The Scenario Manager window ..................................................... 126
Creating, organizing and editing scenarios .................................... 126
Viewing scenario differences......................................................... 128
Modifying individual scenarios ..................................................... 129
Passing changes to child scenarios................................................. 130
Scenario logic examples .......................................................... 131
Re-establishing broken links ................................................... 135
Fast scenario changes..................................................................... 135
Importing Excel Data............................................................................ 135
Overview ........................................................................................ 135
Setting up Excel ............................................................................. 135
Reading changes into AFT Fathom................................................ 136
Change Parameters......................................................................... 137
Special modeling features..................................................................... 142
Workspace Find ............................................................................. 142
Reverse Direction........................................................................... 143
Select Special ................................................................................. 143
Special Conditions ......................................................................... 144
Merging models ............................................................................. 145
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Merging models with multiple scenarios................................. 146

Print Preview/Special..................................................................... 146
Transfer Results to Initial Guesses ................................................ 148
Batch runs ...................................................................................... 148
Bill of Materials ............................................................................. 149
Print Content .................................................................................. 149
Suggest Pump................................................................................. 151
Flow Total ...................................................................................... 152
Extended Model Check.................................................................. 153
Math calculator .............................................................................. 153
6. Pipe and Junction Specifications Windows ............ 155

Highlight feature ............................................................................ 156
Jump feature................................................................................... 156
Pipe Specifications window ................................................................. 156
Common input parameters ............................................................. 160
Pipe number ............................................................................. 160
Pipe name ................................................................................ 160
Copy Data From Pipe .............................................................. 161
Same as parent pipe ................................................................. 161
Connected junctions ................................................................ 161
Pipe Model ..................................................................................... 161
Pipe length ............................................................................... 162
Pipe material ............................................................................ 162
Pipe geometry .......................................................................... 163
Pipe diameter ........................................................................... 164
ID Reduction (Scaling) ............................................................ 164
Friction Model ......................................................................... 164
Fittings & Losses ........................................................................... 166
Insulation........................................................................................ 167
Insulation on Outside of Pipe or Duct ..................................... 168
Insulation on Inside of Pipe or Duct........................................ 168
Heat Transfer.................................................................................. 168
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Insulation data.......................................................................... 169

More Details on Convective Heat Transfer............................. 169
Fluid Properties .............................................................................. 171
Design Alerts.................................................................................. 171
Optional input ................................................................................ 171
Initial flow rate guess .............................................................. 171
Parallel pipes ........................................................................... 172
Workspace display................................................................... 172
Design factor............................................................................ 172
Special conditions.................................................................... 172
Intermediate elevations............................................................ 172
Pipe line size and color............................................................ 173
Notes .............................................................................................. 173
Status.............................................................................................. 173
Junction Specifications windows ......................................................... 174
Format #1: Junctions with one or two connecting pipes............... 174
Format #2: Junctions with more than two connecting pipes.......... 176
Parameters common to all junction Specifications windows ............... 177
Junction Number ............................................................................ 177
Junction Name................................................................................ 177
Junction Elevation.......................................................................... 177
Database List.................................................................................. 179
Copy Data From Jct list ................................................................. 179
Same as parent junction........................................................... 179
Pipe connectivity............................................................................ 179
Jumping to another junction........................................................... 179
Initial Pressure/Head and Temperature Guess ............................... 180
Displaying junction names and numbers ....................................... 181
Design Factor ................................................................................. 181
Changing the icon graphic ............................................................. 182
Changing the icon size ................................................................... 182
Specifying Base Area..................................................................... 182
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Notes .............................................................................................. 182

Status.............................................................................................. 182
Area Change Specifications window.................................................... 183
Assigned Flow Specifications window................................................. 184
Assigned Pressure Specifications window ........................................... 186
Bend Specifications window ................................................................ 187
Branch Specifications window ............................................................. 189
Check Valve Specifications window.................................................... 191
Specifying losses............................................................................ 192
Control Valve Specifications window.................................................. 192
Control Valve types ....................................................................... 193
PRV/PSV static vs. stagnation pressure .................................. 194
Action if setpoint not achievable ................................................... 194
Open Percentage Table .................................................................. 195
Dead End Specifications window......................................................... 196
General Component Specifications window ........................................ 196
Heat Exchanger Specifications window ............................................... 198
Tube configuration model ....................................................... 198
Heat transfer................................................................................... 200
Jet Pump Specifications window.......................................................... 200
Orifice Specifications window ............................................................. 202
Orifice types................................................................................... 203
Pump Specifications window ............................................................... 203
Pump Model ................................................................................... 204
Nominal NPSH and Efficiency (optional)............................... 204
Pump impeller modifications................................................... 204
Check valve at pump discharge ............................................... 205
Pump configurations................................................................ 205
NPSHR (optional in pump configuration)............................... 205
Efficiency and power usage (optional in pump configuration)207
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Variable speed................................................................................ 207

Controlled pressure or flow ..................................................... 207
Energy cost calculations................................................................. 209
Pump heat addition (Thermal) ....................................................... 210
Optional data .................................................................................. 210
Representing Multiple Pumps With One Junction .................. 210
Viscosity corrections ............................................................... 210
Relief Valve Specifications window .................................................... 211
Specifying losses............................................................................ 212
Reservoir Specifications window ......................................................... 213
Energy balance ........................................................................ 213
Pipe depth & loss coefficients........................................................ 215
Screen Specifications window.............................................................. 216
Spray Discharge Specifications window .............................................. 217
Loss Model..................................................................................... 219
Tee/Wye Specifications window.......................................................... 219
Loss factors .................................................................................... 220
Three-Way Valve Specifications window............................................ 221
Valve Specifications window ............................................................... 221
Exit valves ............................................................................... 222
Loss models ............................................................................. 223
Optional data .................................................................................. 224
Venturi Specifications window ............................................................ 224
Loss models.................................................................................... 224
Volume Balance Specifications window.............................................. 226
Global Edit windows ............................................................................ 227
Global Pipe editing......................................................................... 227
Global Junction editing .................................................................. 229
Editing common junction data................................................. 229
Editing specific junction data .................................................. 231
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7. Customizing AFT Fathom .......................................... 235

Parameter and Unit Preferences ........................................................... 235
Parameter Preferences.................................................................... 236
Unit Preferences............................................................................. 237
Setting preferred units ............................................................. 238
Description of selected unit ........................................................... 238
Custom monetary units .................................................................. 238
Database connections..................................................................... 238
Command buttons .......................................................................... 239
Workspace Preferences......................................................................... 240
Pipes and Junctions ........................................................................ 240
Pipe Line Options .................................................................... 241
Closed pipe/junction option..................................................... 241
Action When Drawing Selection Right To Left...................... 242
Pipe endpoint adjustments....................................................... 242
Modifying icon size ................................................................. 242
Action when dragging junctions.............................................. 242
Auto increment labels.............................................................. 242
Icon source............................................................................... 242
Display Options.............................................................................. 243
Workspace drawing ................................................................. 244
Workspace symbols ................................................................. 244
Pipe direction arrows............................................................... 244
Displaying name and/or ID numbers ....................................... 244
Setting the default junction label position............................... 245
Allowable Workspace label movements ................................. 245
Popup menu ............................................................................. 245
Special Conditions Graphics ................................................... 245
Colors and Fonts ............................................................................ 245
Sample Workspace......................................................................... 245
Command buttons .......................................................................... 247
Toolbox Preferences............................................................................. 247
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Customizing Toolbox contents ...................................................... 248

Toolbox shortcuts .................................................................... 249
General Preferences.............................................................................. 249
Customizing the Output........................................................................ 250
Specifying graph style preferences....................................................... 251
Auxiliary Graph Formatting window ...................................... 251
Specifying Visual Report preferences .................................................. 251
Customizing Pipe Fittings & Losses..................................................... 252
Building custom databases ................................................................... 253
Adding custom fluid properties to the Fluid Database .................. 253
Adding custom pipe materials to the Pipe Material Database ....... 255
Friction Data Sets .................................................................... 257
Insulation Data Sets ................................................................. 257
Pipe Thermophysical Properties.............................................. 258
Adding Custom Insulation Data..................................................... 258
Adding custom junction data to the Component Database ............ 258
Editing the Component Database................................................... 259
Database Manager ................................................................................ 260
Types of databases................................................................... 260
Setting available databases............................................................. 260
Connecting and disconnecting to a database.................................. 261
Editing databases............................................................................ 262
Benefits of shared databases .......................................................... 264
Creating an enterprise-wide, network database system........................ 266
Overview ........................................................................................ 266
Creating database files ................................................................... 267
Sharing database files using DATABASE.LIB ............................. 269
Connecting to the external shared databases ................................. 271
8. Hydraulic Theory and Loss Models .......................... 273

The Solver............................................................................................. 273
Stagnation vs. static pressure boundaries....................................... 277
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When to use static pressure ..................................................... 279

Static pressure at pressure control valves................................ 280
Open vs. closed systems – hydraulics................................................... 280
Balancing energy in the network .......................................................... 283
Energy balances with AFT Standard fluids ................................... 284
Open vs. closed systems – thermal ....................................................... 285
Verifying network solutions ................................................................. 286
Pressure drop calculation methods ....................................................... 287
Pressure drop calculation methods for Newtonian fluids .............. 288
Roughness-based methods ............................................................. 288
Laminar flow ........................................................................... 288
Turbulent flow ......................................................................... 288
Transition flow ........................................................................ 289
Helical tubes ............................................................................ 289
Hydraulically smooth ..................................................................... 289
Hazen-Williams method................................................................. 289
Resistance....................................................................................... 291
MIT Equation for crude oil ............................................................ 291
Miller Turbulent method................................................................ 292
Frictionless pipes ........................................................................... 292
Pressure drop calculation methods for non-Newtonian fluids ............. 293
Duffy method for pulp and paper stock ......................................... 293
Brecht & Heller method for pulp and paper stock ......................... 294
Power Law non-Newtonian............................................................ 294
Bingham Plastic non-Newtonian.................................................... 295
Non-Newtonian flow through non-pipes ................................. 296
Design factors ....................................................................................... 297
Heat transfer in pipes............................................................................ 297
Thermal resistance ......................................................................... 299
Heat transfer options in the Pipe Specifications window .............. 300
Fluid Internal resistance .......................................................... 300
Pipe Wall resistance ................................................................ 301
Insulation resistance ................................................................ 301
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External resistance................................................................... 301

Heat Transfer Area Ratio......................................................... 301
Modeling known wall temperatures ........................................ 302
Viewing calculated thermal results in Output................................ 302
Submergence .................................................................................. 302
Solution Control parameters................................................................. 303
Solution tolerance specification..................................................... 304
How tolerances relate to solution accuracy............................. 307
Relaxation ...................................................................................... 307
Flow Rate Relaxation .............................................................. 308
Pressure Relaxation ................................................................. 309
Avoiding false convergence .................................................... 309
Maximum Iterations ....................................................................... 309
Temperature Limits........................................................................ 310
Global Balance (mass and energy)................................................. 310
Matrix Method ............................................................................... 310
Solution Progress window and iteration history................................... 310
Warnings in the solution....................................................................... 311
Modeling irrecoverable losses.............................................................. 312
Loss models and reference material ..................................................... 313
Design factors ................................................................................ 314
Area change.................................................................................... 314
Bend ............................................................................................... 315
90 degree bends ....................................................................... 315
Non-90 degree bends ............................................................... 316
Valve .............................................................................................. 317
Orifice ............................................................................................ 317
Orifice discharge coefficient ................................................... 318
Screen............................................................................................. 319
Tee/Wye ......................................................................................... 320
Diverging Case ........................................................................ 322
Converging Case...................................................................... 323
K and CV (valve coefficient) .......................................................... 325
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CD (discharge coefficient) at spray discharge ................................ 325

K for fire sprinklers........................................................................ 326
Pumps ................................................................................................... 326
Heat Exchangers ................................................................................... 328
Parallel flow: .................................................................................. 328
Counterflow: .................................................................................. 328
Crossflow: ...................................................................................... 328
Both fluids unmixed (where n = N −0.22 ) ............................... 328
One fluid mixed, the other unmixed, if Cmax is the mixed fluid328
One fluid mixed, the other unmixed, if Cmin is the mixed fluid329
One shell pass, multiple of two tube passes ............................ 329
Chempak thermophysical property database ........................................ 329
Accuracy options ..................................................................... 329
ASME steam tables database................................................................ 329
AFT Standard fluids ............................................................................. 330
Transport properties ....................................................................... 330
9. Special Topics and Troubleshooting Models .......... 331

The philosophy of computer modeling................................................. 331
Troubleshooting models ....................................................................... 332
Use the Model Data window.......................................................... 332
Poor pump curve fits ...................................................................... 333
Resistance curves ........................................................................... 336
Use the Output window Sort feature.............................................. 336
Tee/Wye junction complexity........................................................ 336
Lower the flow rate relaxation....................................................... 337
Try absolute tolerance.................................................................... 337
Disable global mass or energy balance .......................................... 338
Make initial flow rate guesses for pipes ........................................ 338
Review the Iteration History .......................................................... 338
Change boundary conditions.......................................................... 338
Turn off parts of the model ............................................................ 339
Break a large model into submodels .............................................. 339
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Using manufacturer pressure drop data ................................................ 339

Control valve failure issues .................................................................. 340
How pressure junctions work ............................................................... 340
The role of pressure junctions .............................................................. 343
Examples ........................................................................................ 344
Sizing pumps with flow control valves.......................................... 349
Using fixed head rise pumps ................................................... 353
Pressure control valves................................................................... 354
Closing parts of a system ............................................................... 356
App. A. Keyboard Modifiers and Shortcuts.................. 359

Selection Drawing Tool........................................................................ 359
Double-clicking tool ................................................................ 359
Control key .............................................................................. 359
Shift key................................................................................... 359
Alt key ..................................................................................... 360
Dragging .................................................................................. 360
Pipe Drawing Tool................................................................................ 360
Double-clicking tool ................................................................ 360
Control key .............................................................................. 360
Shift key................................................................................... 360
Zoom Select Tool ................................................................................. 361
Shift key................................................................................... 361
Panning the Workspace ........................................................................ 361
Dragging junctions from Toolbox ........................................................ 361
Control key .............................................................................. 361
Shift key................................................................................... 361
Inspecting pipes and junctions.............................................................. 362
Shift key................................................................................... 362
Control key .............................................................................. 362
Moving junctions with connected pipes ............................................... 362
Control key .............................................................................. 362
Pipe and junction Specifications window ............................................ 362
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F3 function key........................................................................ 362

F5 function key........................................................................ 363
App. B. Limitations......................................................... 365
App. C. Installation Issues............................................. 367

Customization files ............................................................................... 367
Special file control features.................................................................. 367
What is the Control.aft File?.......................................................... 367
Specifying where Chempak is located ........................................... 368
Special network installations (remote tokens) ............................... 368
Network installations............................................................................ 369
Problems loading the Graphics Server ................................................. 370
App. D. Chempak Technical Information...................... 373
App. E. Obtaining Technical Support ........................... 375

AFT's two levels of support.................................................................. 375
1. Annual Support, Upgrade and Maintenance (SUM).................. 375
2. Flow Modeling Consulting Support........................................... 375
Contacting AFT .................................................................................... 376
Telephone support.......................................................................... 376
Web site.......................................................................................... 376
E-Mail support ............................................................................... 376
Mail support ................................................................................... 376
References ...................................................................... 377
Glossary .......................................................................... 379
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Nomenclature
A cross-sectional flow area of a pipe
cp specific heat, constant pressure
CD discharge coefficient
CV valve coefficient
CHW Hazen-Williams factor
D diameter of a pipe
f friction factor
fT turbulent friction factor (used by Crane, 1988)
F error value in mass balance
Fr Froude number
g gravitational constant
h internal convection coefficient
h enthalpy
H head
HGL hydraulic gradeline (same as head)
J Jacobian matrix
k thermal conductivity
K loss factor
K constant for Power Law fluid
Ksprinkler fire sprinkler loss factor
L length of a pipe
m& mass flow rate
n general constant
n constant for Power Law fluid
Nu Nusselt Number
P pressure, static
Ph heated perimeter
Po pressure, stagnation
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xxiv AFT Fathom 7.0 User’s Guide
Pw wetted perimeter
q heat rate to a pipe
Q volumetric flow rate
q” heat flux
r radius
r relaxation
R, R’ resistance
Rc coefficient of rigidity
Re Reynolds Number
Rh Hydraulic radius (equal to radius divided by 2)
s pump speed
S Submergence
S Hydraulic gradeline gradient
Sy yield stress
T temperature
U overall heat transfer coefficient
V velocity
x distance along pipe centerline
z elevation
α, μ, θ angle
β diameter ratio
ε roughness
ν kinematic viscosity
ρ density
μ dynamic viscosity
Subscripts
i junction at which solution is sought
j junctions with pipes connecting to junction i
o stagnation
∞ infinity, far away, ambient
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Welcome to AFT Fathom™ 7.0 for Windows. AFT Fathom is a

graphical platform for modeling incompressible flow in pipe networks.
AFT Fathom brings increased productivity to the pipe flow engineer by
combining traditional engineering hydraulic analysis with the Windows
graphical user interface (GUI). By implementing a drag-and-drop
method of pipe flow modeling, AFT Fathom simplifies the pipe network
modeling process.
An integral part of the interface is AFT Fathom's Workspace window.
Here you place icons and draw lines to represent the components of a
pipe flow system. You then enter data for the components in the
associated Specifications windows.
AFT Fathom shows you both input data and analysis results in graphical
form, allowing rapid analysis of the model's validity. Identifying poor
assumptions, catching typographical errors, and rerunning models are all
accelerated because of AFT Fathom's graphical environment. This
reduces the possibility of modeling errors.
AFT Fathom 7.0 also includes three add-on modules which extend AFT
Fathom’s extensive modeling capabilities into new areas. The Extended
Time Simulation (XTS) module allows the engineer to model time
varying system behavior. The Goal Seek & Control (GSC) module
allows the engineer to perform multivariable goal seeking and simulate
control system functions. The Cost (CST) calculation module allows the
engineer to calculate system costs, both initial and recurring. The
modules can be used individually or together.

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2 AFT Fathom 7.0 User’s Guide
Whether your pipe system model will be used to evaluate and improve
an existing system or to design a new one, AFT Fathom increases your
productivity in the modeling process.
Modeling capabilities
AFT Fathom can be used to model a wide variety of engineering
systems. AFT Fathom consists of the standard version plus three
optional add-on modules.
Standard version capabilities

• Open and closed (recirculating) systems
• Network systems that branch or loop, with no limit on the number of
loops
• Pressure fed systems and gravity fed systems
• Pumped systems, including multiple pumps in parallel or in series
• Pumps with variable speed, controlled pressure, controlled flow, and
viscosity corrections
• Systems with pressure and/or flow control valves
• Systems with valves closed and pumps turned off
• Heat transfer and system energy balance
• Systems with variable density and viscosity
• Multiple design cases in a single model file
• Non-Newtonian fluid behavior
• Cost calculation of pump energy usage
Add-on module capabilities (optional)

• Transient modeling (XTS)
• Pump starting and stopping over time (XTS)
• Valve opening and closing over time (XTS)
• Tank liquid level changes automatically calculated (XTS)

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Chapter 1 Introduction 3
• Multi-variable goal seeking and control simulation (GSC)
• Initial and recurring cost calculation of system components (CST)
AFT Fathom provides hundreds of standard loss models for pipe system
components and allows you to enter your own loss data. Variable loss
models that depend on flow are supported.
AFT Fathom's powerful solution engine is based on standard techniques
used for many years in industry. The Newton-Raphson method is used to
solve the fundamental equations of pipe flow that govern mass and
momentum balance. Solutions are obtained by iteration, and matrix
methods optimized for speed are employed to obtain convergence.
What this user’s guide covers

This User’s Guide documents features in standard AFT Fathom without
any of the optional add-on modules. In certain cases references will be
made to the modules for clarification. In general it will be assumed in
this document that the user does not have access to any of the add-on
modules.
The three add-on modules are documented in a separate “AFT Fathom
7.0 Modules User’s Guide” provided when any module is licensed.
Interface features
AFT Fathom's graphical interface is based on drag-and-drop operations,
which make it simple to build a model of a generalized pipe system. You
control the arrangement, and you benefit from the direct visual feedback
regarding the layout of your model.
Data is entered for the components in Specifications windows, which are
opened by double-clicking the component of interest. Additional global
editing features simplify making large-scale changes to the model.
AFT Fathom handles both traditional English and SI systems of units.
You assign units to all input parameters by choosing from lists. This
highly flexible approach removes the burden of hand calculated unit
conversions.
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Numerous output reports can be generated, all of which are
customizable. All printed output is of report quality. Effectively
organized output data also aids in verifying modeling accuracy.
Thermophysical property data

AFT Fathom derives physical properties from one of four sources. The
first is the standard AFT Fathom set of incompressible fluids which
contains data for about 70 common fluids (called AFT Standard).
The second are Unspecified (by Fathom) Fluids, for which data is
provided by the user.
The third is water (and steam) data from the ASME Steam tables.
The fourth is the Chempak™ database, first introduced in AFT Fathom
4.0. Chempak is licensed from Madison Technical Software and is
offered as an optional add-on to AFT Fathom. Chempak has a database
of approximately 700 fluids, and supports user specified fluid mixtures.
AFT Fathom is restricted to non-reacting mixture calculations.
In the remainder of this User’s Guide it will be assumed in general
discussion that the user has access to the Chempak Database. If the user
does not, then the portions describing Chempak will not be applicable.
Who can use AFT Fathom

AFT Fathom assumes that the user possesses a good general knowledge
of engineering pipe system hydraulics. Even the most advanced and
easy-to-use software package cannot make up for a lack of fundamental
knowledge on the part of the user. The level of knowledge assumed by
AFT Fathom is consistent with that obtained in a typical engineering
undergraduate course in fluid mechanics. See the copyright page in this
User’s Guide for cautionary information.
Engineering assumptions in AFT Fathom

AFT Fathom is based on the following fundamental fluid mechanics
assumptions:

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• Incompressible flow
• One-dimensional flow
• No chemical reactions
• Steady-state conditions (the XTS module allows transient modeling)
Installing AFT Fathom

You install AFT Fathom on your computer by running the SETUP.EXE
program located on the installation CD. The setup program will install
AFT Fathom, the Help system, example models, verification models, and
AFT Fathom support files to your hard disk.
Note: You must use the setup program to install AFT Fathom. You
cannot simply copy the files from the installation disks to your hard
drive.
Before you run the setup program, make sure your computer platform
meets the minimum requirements.
Check hardware and system requirements

To install and run AFT Fathom, your computer must have the features
listed in Table 1.1.
Read the README.TXT file

The README.TXT file is included on the installation CD.
README.TXT contains information about installation and support
material that is more up to date than this User’s Guide.
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Table 1.1 Computer hardware and software requirements to use
AFT Fathom
Feature Required
Processor Pentium II or higher
Hard disk space 40 MB
CD-ROM drive Yes
Monitor resolution SVGA (800x600)
RAM 128 MB
MS-Windows Windows 98, Me, NT
4.0, 2000, XP, Vista, or
later versions
Run the setup program

When you run the setup program, you will be prompted for the directory
where you want AFT Fathom installed. To run the setup program:
1. Insert the CD into your CD-ROM drive.
2. If Autorun is disabled, from the Start button choose Run. Assuming
your CD-ROM is drive “d”, type d:\ setup, or click the Browse
button and search for the setup program on your CD-ROM drive in
the Fathom 7.0 directory.
3. Select Fathom 7.0 on the displayed menu.
4. Follow the instructions on the screen.
Getting started with AFT Fathom

If you are not familiar with basic techniques used in Windows
applications (working with the mouse, selecting menus, using dialog
boxes, and so on), first consult your Windows documentation.
To gain an understanding of the powerful features available in AFT
Fathom, read Chapters 3-9 of this User’s Guide. For an overview of the
model building process and AFT Fathom’s capabilities, read Chapter 2
and follow the instructions for building a simple model.

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Example models
An auxiliary help file (called FathomExamples (SI).hlp) is installed with
AFT Fathom and leads the user through modeling a number of real
world systems. This help file can be accessed by choosing “Show
Examples” from the Help menu. The example models discussed in
FathomExamples (SI).hlp are installed in the Examples folder. It can be
opened from the Help menu by choosing “Show Examples”.
Using online help

To access AFT Fathom's online help, press the F1 function key or select
Help from the menu bar. For convenient access, much of the content of
this User’s Guide is included in the Help system. The Help button in
each dialog window provides context-sensitive help on the features of
that window.
In the Help system you have the option of searching for information on
specific topics or searching through the hierarchical layout to find more
general information.
Verification models
A large number of hydraulic solution verification models have been built
and compared to published results from the open literature. These are
included in the Verification sub-folder below AFT Fathom. Along with
the models you will find documented comparisons in the Verification
Help file also installed in the Verification folder.
AFT Fathom overview

The AFT Fathom window has five subordinate windows that work in an
integrated fashion. You work exclusively from one of these windows at
all times. For this reason they are referred to as Primary Windows.
Of the five Primary Windows, two are input windows, two are output
windows, and one displays output and input information. Figure 1.1
shows the relationship between the Primary Windows.
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Model Data
Visual Report
Workspace Output
Graph Results
Figure 1.1 Primary Window workflow in AFT Fathom
Input windows
The two windows that function exclusively as input windows are the
Workspace window and the Model Data window. These two windows,
one graphical and the other text-based, work together to process model
input data with immense flexibility. The tools provided in these two
windows allow you to model a large variety of pipe networks.
The Visual Report window can function in support of both input and
output data. As an input window, it allows you to see the input data
superimposed on the pipe system schematic created on the Workspace.
Output windows
The two windows that function exclusively as output windows are the
Output window and the Graph Results window. The Output window is
text-based, while the Graph Results window is graphical. These two
windows offer a powerful and diverse range of features for reviewing
analysis results for modeling errors, gaining a deeper understanding of
the pipe system's flow behavior, and preparing the results for
documentation.
As an output window, Visual Report allows you to see the output results
superimposed on the pipe system schematic created on the Workspace.
The five Primary Windows form a tightly integrated, highly efficient
system for entering, processing, analyzing, and documenting
incompressible flow analyses of pipe networks.

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Converting models and databases from earlier versions of AFT

Fathom
AFT Fathom 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 models and databases can be used directly
with AFT Fathom 7.0. For AFT Fathom versions previous to 4.0, the
AFT Convert utility is provided. This will convert your models and
custom databases for use with AFT Fathom 7.0. Just run the Convert
utility and select the formats you want to convert to and from. You can
convert a single file or a list of files. In addition, several kinds of
preference files can be converted.
The Convert utility also can convert an AFT Fathom 7.0 model to an
AFT Arrow™ model.
What’s new in version 7.0
AFT Fathom Standard
Pipes
• Pipe parameters, in addition to junctions, can be changed using
Excel file import
• New pump viscosity correction method utilizing ANSI/HI 9.6.7-
2004 method
• A graph of the pipe intermediate elevations can be shown in the
Specifications Window
• Select special on pipe material added
• Fixed heat rate added as a pipe heat transfer model
• Pipe submergence (in accordance with ANSI/HI 9.8.7) and
submergence margin design alerts added
Junctions
• A graph of the Open Percentage, Cv, and Flow Area can be shown in
the specification windows for Valves, Control Valves, and Three-
Way Valves.
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• Open Percentage vs. Cv data was made available for Pressure Drop
Control Valves.
• Improved orifice pressure drop model
Workspace
• Last selection on the Workspace can be reselected
• Junction and pipe numbers can be incremented automatically as a
group
• Global junction editing menu item added based on Workspace
selection
• New orthogonal drawing guide
Model Data
• The raw data for curve fits can be shown for the junctions.
• Intermediate pipe elevations can be shown.
Output
• Display multiple instances of the same parameter with different units
• Output Control parameter selection improved and made uniform
• Output Control parameter units are selected next to the parameter in
the grid
• Output window allows double-clicking column header to see
parameter definition
• Added pipe submergence in accordance with ANSI/HI Standard
9.8.7 added along with submergence margin and depth displayed &
pipe submergence and submergence margin design alerts added
• Pump NPSH margin ratio added to available Pump Summary output
parameters
• Pipe volume added as a new output parameter

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Graph Results
• Enhanced pump system curve generation offers enhanced calculation
of system curves for parallel pump systems, enhanced composite
pump curves for systems with different pumps in parallel, inclusion
of single pump curves on same graph as composite pump curve, and
inclusion of pump efficiency curve for single and multiple pump
systems
General
• Curve fit configuration window parameter and unit selection
features improved
• INI and user files are now saved in the User folder on the system
rather than in the Windows directory.
CST Module
• The Cost Report can show results from multiple scenarios.
Automatic pipe and pump selection using AFT Mercury

An AFT Fathom derived product has been developed by Applied Flow
Technology that automates the selection of pipe sizes and system
equipment. This product is called AFT Mercury™.
AFT Fathom accurately models the pipe flow behavior for a pipe system
specified by the user. However, if the user is designing the system, the
system is not yet specified. In such a case, the user proposes a system to
AFT Fathom, and AFT Fathom reports how the system will perform.
With AFT Mercury, the user defines the design requirements, and AFT
Mercury determines the optimal pipe system that satisfies the
requirements. AFT Mercury employs a new technology developed by
Applied Flow Technology engineers called IntelliFlow®.
Information on AFT Mercury can be obtained from the AFT website or
by contacting AFT.
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CHAPTER 2
A Walk Through AFT Fathom
This chapter is designed to give you the big picture of AFT Fathom's
layout and structure. Some of the more basic concepts will be used to
build a three-pipe, four-junction model to solve the classic
three-reservoir problem.
This chapter is not intended to replace the more in-depth discussions
given in later chapters. To acquire a more detailed understanding of AFT
Fathom's menus and functionality before creating a model, skip over this
chapter.
A number of other example model discussions are included in a Help file
distributed with AFT Fathom called FathomExamples(SI).hlp. It can be
opened from the Help menu by choosing “Show Examples”.
Step 1. Start AFT Fathom
¾ To start AFT Fathom, click Start on the Windows taskbar, choose

Programs, then AFT Products then AFT Fathom. This refers to the
standard menu items created by setup. You may have chosen to specify a
different menu item.
When you start AFT Fathom, the Workspace window is always the
active (large) window. The Workspace window is one of five Primary
Windows.
After AFT Fathom loads, you will notice four windows in the lower part
of the AFT Fathom window; these represent four of the five Primary

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Windows that are currently minimized (see Figure 2.1). The AFT
Fathom window acts as a container for the five Primary Windows.
The Workspace window

The Workspace window is the primary vehicle for building your model.
This window has two main areas: the Toolbox and the Workspace itself.
The Toolbox is the bundle of tools on the far left. The Workspace takes
up the rest of the window. See Chapter 4 for more detailed information
on the Workspace.
You will build your pipe flow model on the Workspace using the
Toolbox tools. At the top of the Toolbox are a Shortcut button and four
drawing tools. The Selection Drawing tool, on the upper left below the
Shortcut button, is useful for selecting groups of objects on the
Workspace for editing or moving. The Pipe Drawing tool, on the upper
right below the Shortcut button, is used to draw new pipes on the
Workspace. Below these two tools are the Zoom Select tool and the
Annotation tool. The Zoom Select tool allows you to draw a box on the
Workspace after which AFT Fathom will zoom into that area. The
Annotation tool allows you to create annotations and auxiliary graphics.
Below the four drawing tools are twenty-two icons that represent the
different types of junctions available in AFT Fathom. Junctions are
components that connect pipes and also influence the pressure or flow
behavior of the pipe system. The twenty-two junction icons can be
dragged from the Toolbox and dropped onto the Workspace.
When you pass your mouse pointer over any of the Toolbox tools, a
ToolTip identifies the tool's function.
Step 2. Lay out the model

To lay out the classic three-reservoir model, you will place the three
reservoir junctions and a branch junction on the Workspace. Then you
will connect the junctions with pipes.

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Chapter 2 A Walk Through AFT Fathom 15
A. Place the first reservoir
¾ To start, drag a reservoir junction from the Toolbox and drop it on

the Workspace. Figure 2.2a shows the Workspace with one reservoir.
Toolbars
Workspace
Toolbox
Minimized
primary
windows
Status Bar
Figure 2.1 The Workspace window is where the model is built
Objects and ID numbers

Items placed on the Workspace are called objects. All objects are
derived directly or indirectly from the Toolbox. AFT Fathom uses three
types of objects: pipes, junctions and annotations.
All pipe and junction objects on the Workspace have an associated ID
number. For junctions, this number is, by default, placed directly above
the junction and prefixed with the letter “J”. Pipe ID numbers are
prefixed with the letter “P”. You can optionally choose to display either
or both the ID number and the name of a pipe or junction. You also can
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drag the ID number/name text to a different location to improve
visibility.
The reservoir you have created on the Workspace will take on the
default ID number of 1. You can change this to any desired number
greater than zero and up to 30,000.
Figure 2.2a Walk Through Model with one reservoir placed
Editing on the Workspace

Once on the Workspace, junction objects can be moved to new locations
and edited with the features on the Edit menu. Cutting, copying, and
pasting are all supported. A single level of undo is available for all
editing operations.
B. Place the second and third reservoirs

The remaining two reservoirs can be created the same way as the first
one or they can be derived from the existing reservoir.
¾ To create a second reservoir from the existing one, select junction J1
by clicking it with the mouse. A red outline will surround the junction.

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Choose Duplicate from the Edit menu and move the J2 junction to the
right of J1. Your Workspace should appear similar to that shown in
Figure 2.2b.
Figure 2.2b Walk Through Model with two reservoirs placed
¾ To create the third junction, select one of the two reservoirs on the
Workspace and once again choose Duplicate from the Edit menu.
Arrange the three junctions, numbered J1, J2, and J3, as shown in Figure
2.2c.
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Figure 2.2c Walk Through Model with three reservoirs placed
Figure 2.2d Walk Through Model with all junctions placed

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C. Add a branch junction
¾ To add a Branch junction, select a Branch from the Toolbox and place
it on the Workspace as shown in Figure 2.2d. The Branch will be
assigned the default number “J4”.
Note: The relative location of objects in AFT Fathom is not important.

Distances and heights are defined through dialog boxes. The relative
locations on the Workspace establish the connectivity of the objects, but
have no bearing on the actual length or elevation relationships.
¾ Before continuing, save the work you have done so far. Choose Save
As… from the File menu and enter a file name (WalkThru, perhaps) and
AFT Fathom will append the “.fth” extension to the file name.
D. Draw a pipe between J1 and J4

Now that you have four junctions, you need to connect them with pipes.
¾ To create a pipe, click the Pipe Drawing tool icon. The pointer will
change to a crosshair when you move it over the Workspace. Draw a
pipe above the junctions, similar to that shown in Figure 2.2e.
The pipe object on the Workspace has an ID number (P1) shown near
the center of the pipe.
¾ To place the pipe between J1 and J4, use the mouse to grab the pipe in
the center, drag it so that its left endpoint falls within the J1 Reservoir
icon, then drop it there (see Figure 2.2f). Next, grab the right endpoint of
the pipe and stretch the pipe, dragging it until the endpoint terminates
within the J4 Branch icon (see Figure 2.2g).
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Figure 2.2e Walk Through Model with first pipe drawn
Figure 2.2f Walk Through Model with first pipe inlet end connected

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Reference positive flow direction
Located on the pipe is an arrow that indicates the reference positive flow
direction for the pipe. AFT Fathom assigns a flow direction
corresponding to the direction in which the pipe is drawn. You can
reverse the reference positive flow direction by choosing Reverse
Direction from the Arrange menu or selecting the reverse direction
button on the Toolbar.
In general the reference positive flow direction indicates which direction
is considered positive. However, when used with pumps and certain
other junction types the pipes must be in the correct flow direction
because that is how AFT Fathom determines which side is suction and
which is discharge. If the reference positive direction is the opposite of
that obtained by the Solver, the output will show the flow rate as a
negative number.
Figure 2.2g Walk Through Model with first pipe connected
E. Add the remaining pipes

A faster way to add a pipe is to draw it directly between the desired
junctions.
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¾ Activate the pipe drawing tool again. Position the cursor on the J4
Branch. Press and hold the left mouse button. Stretch the pipe up to the
J2 Reservoir then release the mouse button. Then draw a third pipe from
the J4 Branch to the J3 Reservoir. Your model should now look similar
to Figure 2.2h. In Figure 2.2h the junction icons for J2 and J3 have been
rotated (using tools on the Arrange Menu) and the J3 label has been
moved slightly to the left (using drag-and-drop) so it is more visible.
At this point all the objects in the model are graphically connected. Save
the model by selecting Save from the File menu or Toolbar.
Figure 2.2h Walk Through Model with all objects connected

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Note: It is generally desirable to lock your objects to the Workspace

once they have been placed. This prevents accidental movement and
disruption of the connections. You can lock all the objects by choosing
Select All from the Edit menu, then selecting Lock Object from the
Arrange menu. The lock button on the Toolbar will appear depressed
indicating it is in an enabled state, and will remain so as long as any
selected object is locked. Alternatively, you can use the grid feature and
snap to grid. The simplest way to enable this is to select Snap to Grid on
the Options menu, although the Workspace Preferences window can also
enable this and has more flexibility.
Step 3. Complete the first four checklist requirements
¾ Next, click the checkmark on the Toolbar that runs across the top of
the AFT Fathom window. This opens the Checklist window (see Figure
2.3). The Checklist contains five items (six if the optional XTS module
is in use). Each item needs to be completed before AFT Fathom allows
you to run the Solver.
The Status Bar at the bottom of the AFT Fathom window also reflects
the state of each Checklist item (see Figure 2.1). Once the Checklist is
complete, the Model Status light in the lower left corner turns from red
to green.
A. Specify solution control

The first item, Specify Solution Control, is always checked when you
start AFT Fathom because AFT Fathom assigns default solution control
parameters. In general, you do not need to adjust Solution Control
values. If necessary, you can make adjustments by opening the Solution
Control window from the Analysis menu.
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Figure 2.3 The Checklist tracks the model’s status. You may or
may not see a sixth Checklist item called Transient
Control. This is only visible when the XTS Module is
active.
B. Specify output control

The second item on the Checklist is Specify Output Control. Like
Solution Control, this item is always checked when you start AFT
Fathom. Default Output Control parameters and a default title are
assigned.
You may want to add a descriptive title for the model. To do this, open
the Output Control window (see Figure 2.4) and enter a title on the
General tab. In addition, this window allows you to select the specific
output parameters you want in your output. You also can choose the
units for the output.
¾ Close the Checklist and select Output Control from the Analysis menu.
(Figure 2.4 shows the Output Control window). Click the General tab,
enter a new title (if you like you can title this “Classic Three-Reservoir
Problem”), then click OK to accept the title and other default data.

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Figure 2.4 The Output Control window lets you customize the
output
C. Specify system properties

The third item on the Checklist is Specify System Properties. To
complete this item, you must open the System Properties window (see
Figure 2.5). This window allows you to specify your fluid properties
(density, dynamic viscosity, and optional vapor pressure), viscosity
model, gravitational acceleration and atmospheric pressure.
For models with variable fluid properties, the values for density and
viscosity are default fluid properties. You can then enter different
property values, if desired, for any pipe in the Pipe Specifications
window.
Fluids that allow heat transfer can be modeled by choosing the Heat
Transfer with Energy Balance option. In this case, you will be required
to also enter heat transfer information for the pipes and temperature for
some of the junctions.
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Figure 2.5 The System Properties window lets you enter physical
properties
You can model the fluid properties in one of five ways.

1. Unspecified fluid – This fluid model allows you to directly type in
the density, viscosity and vapor pressure. You cannot perform heat
transfer analysis with an unspecified fluid.
2. AFT Standard fluid – This fluid model accesses fluid data from the
AFT Standard database. These fluid properties are either
temperature dependent or dependent on the solids concentration.
You type in the desired condition (e.g., temperature), click the
Calculate Properties button and the required properties are
calculated. Users can add their own fluids to this database. This
model supports heat transfer analysis if specific heat and thermal
conductivity data is included. Custom fluids are created by opening
the Fluid Database window from the AFT Fathom Database menu or
by clicking the Edit Fluid List button in the System Properties
window.
3. Water Data from ASME Steam tables – This fluid model obtains
water data from the ASME Steam tables built into AFT Fathom. It

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also supports steam data, which can be used in AFT Fathom if
incompressible.
4. Chempak Fluid – This fluid model allows you to select a single fluid
from the Chempak database list. These fluid properties are pressure
and temperature dependent, although some are temperature
dependent only. This fluid model supports heat transfer analysis.
5. Chempak Mixture – This fluid model allows you to create a liquid
mixture from among the Chempak database fluids. These fluid
properties are pressure and temperature dependent. This fluid model
supports heat transfer analysis.
After selecting either the ASME Steam tables or the Chempak options
above, you must then select Liquid Properties or Gas Properties. Upon
entering a pressure, AFT Fathom will display a temperature range
applicable to liquid or gas, depending upon which was selected.
Note: As heat transfer has a significant impact on gas flow fluid
properties and, since AFT Fathom calculates flow on an incompressible
basis, heat transfer is disabled when Gas Properties are selected.
¾ Select System Properties from the Analysis menu to open the System
Properties window. For this example, select the AFT Standard fluid
option, then choose “Water at 1 atm” from the list and click the Add to
Model button. The properties for AFT Standard water are given only as
a function of temperature. Enter 21° C in the temperature box, click the
Calculate Properties button and click OK.
¾ Open the Checklist once more or observe the Status Bar and you should
now see the third item checked off.
D. Specify cost settings

In the standard AFT Fathom the Cost Settings window allows you to
apply energy cost data to pumps. By default, energy cost calculations are
not enabled and thus this fourth Checklist item is checked off. As we are
not calculating energy costs here, there is no need for cost information
and this item can be skipped.
For information, the Cost Settings window allows application of other
types of cost data when using the CST Module.
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Step 4. Define the model components (checklist item #5)

The fifth item on the checklist, Define All Pipes and Junctions, is not as
straightforward to satisfy as the first three. This item encompasses the
proper input data and connectivity for all pipes and junctions.
If the XTS Module is active, there will be a sixth Checklist item called
Transient Control. If this is visible, you can skip this Checklist item for
this example.
Object status
Every pipe and junction has an object status. The object status tells you
whether the object is defined according to AFT Fathom's requirements.
To see the status of the objects in your model, click the floodlight icon
on the Toolbar (alternatively, you could choose Show Object Status
from the View menu). Each time you click the floodlight, Show Object
Status is toggled on or off.
When Show Object Status is on, the ID numbers for all undefined pipes
and junctions are displayed in red on the Workspace. Objects that are
completely defined have their ID numbers displayed in black. (These
colors are configurable through Workspace Preferences from the
Options menu.)
Because you have not yet defined the pipes and junctions in this sample
problem, all the objects' ID numbers will change to red when you turn on
Show Object Status.
Undefined Objects window

The Undefined Objects window lists all undefined pipes and junctions
and further displays the items that are not yet defined. You can access
this from the View menu or toolbar.
A. Define Reservoir J1
¾ To define the first reservoir, open the J1 Reservoir Specifications

window (see Figure 2.6) by double-clicking the J1 icon. Enter a reservoir
surface elevation of 90 meters. You can assign any unit of length found
in the adjacent dropdown list box of units.

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Note: You can also open an object's Specifications window by selecting

the object (clicking on it) and then either pressing the Enter key or by
clicking the Open Pipe/Jct Window icon on the Toolbar.
¾ Enter surface pressure of 1 atmosphere (atm) and leave the pipe

depth as zero in the table on the Pipe Depth and Loss Coefficient tab.
The Temperature option, which is only used when heat transfer is chosen
in the System Properties window, is not visible. The Density option,
which is not required for constant density models, is also not visible.
Note: You can specify preferred units for many parameters (such as
meters for length) in the Parameter & Unit Preferences window.
You can give the component a name, if desired, by entering it in the

Name field at the top of the window. In Figure 2.6, the name of this
reservoir is Supply Tank A. By default the junction’s name is the
junction type. The name can be displayed on the Workspace, Visual
Report or in the Output.
Most junction types can be entered into a custom database allowing the
junction to be used multiple times or shared between users. To select a
junction from the custom database, choose the desired junction from the
Database list. The current junction will get the properties from the
database component.
The Copy Data From Jct list will show all the junctions of the same type
in the model. This will copy selected the parameters from an existing
junction in the model to the current junction.
The pipe table on the Pipe Depth & Loss Coefficients tab allows you to
specify entrance and exit loss factors for each pipe connected to the
reservoir (in this case there is one). You can enter standard losses by
selecting from the drop down list in the table. The default selection is the
Custom option with loss factors specified as zero. To later change the
loss factors, click within the pipe table and enter the loss. You can also
specify a depth for the pipe.
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Figure 2.6 Specifications window for Reservoir J1
The Optional tab allows you to enter different types of optional data.
You can select whether the junction number, name, or both are displayed
on the Workspace. Some junction types also allow you to specify an
initial pressure as well as other junction specific-data. The junction icon
graphic can be changed, as can the size of the icon. Design factors can
be entered for most junctions, which are applied to the pressure loss
calculations for the junction in order to give additional safety margin to
the model.
Each junction has a tab for notes, allowing you to enter text describing
the junction or documenting any assumptions.
The highlight feature displays all the required information in the
Specifications window in light blue. The highlight is on by default. You
can toggle the highlight off and on by double-clicking anywhere in the
window or by pressing the F2 key. The highlight feature can also be
turned on or off by selecting it on the Options menu.

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¾ Click OK. If Show Object Status is turned on, you should see the J1 ID
number turn black again, telling you that J1 is now completely defined.
The Inspection feature

You can check the input parameters for J1 quickly, in read-only fashion,
by using the Inspection feature. Position the mouse pointer on J1 and
hold down the right mouse button. An information box appears, as
shown in Figure 2.7.
Inspecting is a faster way of examining the input in an object than
opening the Specifications window.
B. Define junctions J2, J3, and J4
¾ Next, open the Specifications windows for Reservoir junctions J2

and J3 and enter surface elevations of 60 meters and 30 meters,
respectively. Leave the pipe depth as zero for each. When you enter this
data you should see the ID number of each junction on the Workspace
turn black, because the status has changed to defined. The last remaining
undefined junction is the J4 Branch junction.
¾ Open the J4 Branch Specifications window (see Figure 2.8). In this

window, all three connecting pipes should be displayed in the pipe table
area. You could associate loss factors with each pipe by clicking within
the pipe table and entering the data.
¾ Enter an elevation of zero meters for the J4 Branch junction (an

elevation must be defined for all junctions). You could also click the
Optional tab then specify a flow source or sink at the junction; for now
leave this as zero. Click OK. All the junctions have now been defined.
¾ Save the model again before proceeding.
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Inspection
window
Figure 2.7 Inspecting from the Workspace with right mouse

button
C. Define Pipe P1
Data for pipes and junctions can be entered in any order. In this example
we did the junctions first. The next step is to define all the pipes. To
open the Pipe Specifications window, double-click the pipe object on the
Workspace.
¾ First open the Pipe Specifications window for Pipe P1 (see Figure
2.9). For Pipe P1, enter a length of 300 meters, and select the Material as
Steel with a nominal 8 inches (20.3 cm ID) size, schedule 40. Click OK.
Pipe P1 is now defined.
The Pipe Specifications window

The Pipe Specifications window offers control over all important flow
system parameters that are related to pipes.

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Pipe table
Figure 2.8 Specifications window for Branch J4
Figure 2.9 Specifications window for Pipe P1
The Inspect feature also works within the Pipe Specifications window.
To Inspect a connected junction, position the mouse pointer on the
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connected junction's ID number and hold down the right mouse button.
This is helpful when you want to quickly check the properties of
connecting objects. (You can also use this feature in junction
Specifications windows for checking connected pipe properties.)
By double-clicking the connected junction number, you can jump
directly to the junction's Specifications window. Or you can click the
Jump button to jump to any other part of your model.
D. Define Pipes P2 and P3
¾ Open the Specifications window for Pipe 2 and enter a length of 610
meters. Select the material as Steel, nominal 8 inches (20.3 cm ID),
schedule 40. In the Specifications window for Pipe 3, enter a length of
915 meters. Select the material as Steel, nominal 8 inches (20.3 cm ID),
schedule 40.
The Checklist should now be complete. Everything is ready to submit to
the Solver.
¾ Before running the model, save it to file one more time. It is also a
good idea to review the input using the Model Data window.
E. Review input in the Model Data window

The Model Data window is shown in Figure 2.10. To change to this
window, you can select it from the Window menu, the Toolbar, pressing
Ctrl-M, clicking anywhere in the Model Data window if it has been
restored or, if minimized, clicking on the minimized window at the
bottom of the screen and restoring it. The Model Data window gives you
a text-based perspective of your model. Selections can be copied to the
clipboard and transferred into other Windows programs, saved to a
formatted file, printed to an Adobe PDF, or printed out for review.
Data is displayed in three general areas. The top is called the general
area, the middle the pipe area and the bottom the junction area.
The Model Data window allows access to all Specifications windows by
double-clicking the appropriate ID number in the far left column of the
table. You may want to try this right now.

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Customize view
General data
Pipe data
Junction data
Figure 2.10 The Model Data window shows all input in text form
Step 5. Run the solver
¾ Choose Run from the Analysis menu or click the arrow icon on the
Toolbar. During execution, the Solution Progress window displays (see
Figure 2.11). You can use this window to pause or cancel the Solver's
activity. When the solution is complete, click the View Output button
and the text-based Output window will appear (see Figure 2.12). The
information in the Output window can be reviewed visually, saved to
file, exported to a spreadsheet-ready format, copied to the clipboard,
printed to an Adobe PDF file, and printed out on the printer.
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Figure 2.11 The Solution Progress window displays the

convergence progress
Step 6. Review the output

The Output window is similar in structure to the Model Data window.
Three areas are shown, and you can enlarge each area by selecting the
options from the Show list box on the Toolbar or from the View menu.
The items displayed in the tables are those items you chose in the Output
Control window (Checklist item # 2).
A. Modify the output format

If you selected the default AFT Fathom Output Control, the Pipe Results
table will show volumetric flow rate in the second column (Figure 2.12)
with units of m3/sec (cubic meters per second).

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¾ Select Output Control from the Analysis menu or Toolbar to open the
Output Control window (Figure 2.13). On the Display Parameters tab,
select the Pipes button. The list of selected pipe output parameters will
be displayed on the right hand side. Change the units for Volumetric
Flow Rate by selecting m3/hr (cubic meters per hour) from the unit list
shown beside the parameter.
¾ Click OK to display changes to the current results. You should see

the volumetric flow rate results, still in the second column, in units of
gal/hr. Notice the Velocity results in the third column.
Customize view
General results
Pipe results
Junction results
Figure 2.12 The Output window displays output in text form
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Figure 2.13 Output Control customizes the Output
¾ Select Output Control from the Analysis menu one more time. Select
the Display Parameters tab, and select the Pipes button. The Reorder
scroll bar on the far right allows you to reorder parameters in the list.
You can also use manual drag-and-drop on the rows to change the
parameter order.
¾ Select the Velocity parameter and use the Reorder scroll bar or drag-
and-drop to move it up to the top of the parameter list.
¾ Click OK to display the changes to the current results. You will see
in the Pipe Results table that the first column now contains Velocity and
the third column contains the Volumetric Flow Rate. The Output Control
window allows you to obtain the parameters, units and order you prefer
in your output.
¾ Select Output Control from the Analysis menu once again. Select the
Display Parameters tab, and select the Pipes button. From the list on the

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left select Volumetric Flow Rate. Click the Add button to add it to the
list on the right and change its units to m3/hr. Then use the reorder
button or row drag-and-drop to move it below the previous Volumetric
Flow Rate item.
¾ Click OK to display the changes to the current results. You will see
two columns of Volumetric Flow Rate each with different units. This is
helpful when you want to see an output parameter in different sets of
units simultaneously.
¾ Lastly, double-click the column header Velocity in the Output

window Pipe Results Table. This will open a window in which you can
change the units once again if you prefer. These changes are extended to
the Output Control parameter data you have previously set.
Figure 2.14 The Visual Report Control window selects content for
the Visual Report window which integrates results with
model layout
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B. View the Visual Report
¾ Change to the Visual Report window by choosing it from the Window

menu, Toolbar, pressing Ctrl-I, clicking anywhere on the window if it’s
been restored or, if minimized, clicking on the minimized window at the
bottom of the Workspace and restoring it. This window allows you to
integrate your text results with the graphic layout of your pipe network.
¾ Click the Visual Report Control button on the Toolbar (or View
menu) and open the Visual Report Control window, shown in Figure
2.14. Select Volumetric Flow Rate in the Pipe Results area and
Gradeline Hydraulic Inlet in the Junction Results area. Click the Show
button. The Visual Report window graphic is generated (see Figure
2.15).
Figure 2.15 The Visual Report window displays output data on the
input schematic. It also can operate in “Input Mode”
where it displays input data.
It is common for the text in the Visual Report window to overlap when
first generated. You can change this by selecting smaller fonts or by
dragging the text to a new area to increase clarity (this has already been
done in Figure 2.15). This window can be printed or copied to the

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clipboard for import into other Windows graphics programs, saved to a
file, or printed to an Adobe PDF file.
C. Graph the results
¾ Change to the Graph Results window by choosing it from the menu

or clicking its icon. The Graph Results window offers full-featured
Windows plot preparation.
¾ Click the Select Graph Data button to open the Select Graph Data
window shown in Figure 2.16. From the tabs, select Profile Along a
Flow Path. From the Graph Parameters list choose Static Pressure. In the
Pipe and Junction selection area click on Pipe 1 and 2, then click the
Show button. A graph appears showing the static pressure along the flow
defined by pipes 1 and 2, Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.16 The Select Data window controls the Graph Results
content
You can use the other buttons in the Graph Results window to change
the graph appearance and to save and import data for cross-plotting. The
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Graph Results window can be printed, saved to file, copied to the
clipboard, or printed to an Adobe PDF file. The graph’s x-y data can be
exported to file or copied to the clipboard.
Figure 2.17 The Graph Results window offers full-featured plot

generation
Conclusion
You have now used AFT Fathom's five Primary Windows to build a
simple model. Review the rest of this User’s Guide for more detailed
information on each of the windows and functions.

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CHAPTER 3
Fundamental Concepts
This chapter explains the fundamental concepts and conventions AFT

Fathom employs in processing pipe system analysis data, as well as how
to interpret the information AFT Fathom processes.
Pipes and junctions

AFT Fathom employs two fundamental pipe system constructs: pipes
and junctions.
Pipes are conduits for steady-state1, incompressible, one-dimensional
fluid flow. The flow rate through the entire length of the pipe is always
constant. Because pipes have constant diameters, the fluid velocity is
also constant. Pressure drop due to friction occurs in pipes. Heat transfer
may or may not occur depending on the type of model you select.
Junctions are connector points for pipes and are elements at which flow
balances are made. Some junction types can only connect to one pipe;
others can connect with up to twenty-five. AFT Fathom provides a total
of twenty-two junction types.
In addition to balancing flow, junctions also influence the flow or
pressure behavior of the system. For example, a reservoir junction
applies a constant pressure at a location, and the flow there is free to
1
The XTS module allows transient modeling and, hence, the flow and the
velocity in pipes can change with time.

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adjust in whatever manner is consistent with the governing equations. In
contrast, an assigned flow junction applies a known flow rate at its
location, allowing the pressure to adjust to that level dictated by the
governing equations.
The twenty-two junction types allow you to specify special kinds of
irrecoverable pressure losses or fluid behavior. Among the twenty-two
junctions there is some overlap in features.
Junctions communicate with each other through the pipes connecting
them. Each pipe must be connected to two junctions. There are no
exceptions to this rule.
A pipe differs from a junction in that it has a reference positive flow
direction. To say a pipe has a flow rate of 1 kg/sec is meaningless unless
the flow direction is specified.
In general, you do not need to specify the actual flow direction in a pipe,
because AFT Fathom sorts out the true physical flow directions of the
system you define. For example, if you specify the reference positive
flow direction from left to right, and the solution is in fact the opposite
direction, then that information will be presented in the output as a
negative flow rate. Inlet and outlet conditions correspond to the
reference positive flow direction, not the actual flow direction.
However, it is important to specify the proper flow direction for pipes
which connect to junctions such as pumps or control valves. AFT
Fathom uses the flow direction of the pipes to determine in which
direction to increase or reduce pressure.
Convention for flow entering and exiting

Many of the junction types permit fluid flow to come into or pass out of
the system in a prescribed manner. The most obvious of these is the
reservoir junction. Reservoirs maintain a constant pressure head at a
node, and the flow adjusts according to the governing equations. While
in principle the fluid is stored or removed from the reservoir, AFT
Fathom considers the fluid as coming into or going out of the system.
The stored reservoir fluid is not part of the system.
The convention for defining inward or outward flow for the system or
any AFT Fathom object is that flow in is positive (that is, the object
gains the flow) and flow out is negative (the object loses the flow).

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Chapter 3 Fundamental Concepts 45
Features for modeling irrecoverable losses

AFT Fathom works almost exclusively with the concept of the loss
factor, also known as K factor or resistance factor. No provision has
been made for the equivalent length approach to solving pressure drop
problems. In some Specifications windows, other popular methods for
specifying loss information are provided where they are consistent with
the loss factor method. For example, you will find Cd (discharge
coefficients) for orifices.
Modeling equivalent length data

Although AFT Fathom does not directly model equivalent lengths for
pipes, if you have equivalent length data you would like to apply to a
pipe, an easy way to do this is to increase the design factor for the pipe.
The design factor is specified on the Pipe Specifications window
Optional tab, and acts as a multiplier on the standard pipe friction.
Special capabilities for junctions

Many of the junction types allow you to specify losses as a function of a
flow parameter such as mass flow rate. In these cases AFT Fathom
incorporates the loss factor's dependence on flow into the solution; AFT
Fathom then adjusts the loss factor during the solution process so it is
consistent with the final flow solution.
Some of the junction types offer the flexibility of specifying losses
where the upstream and downstream pipe areas change (for example, as
in the case of an orifice located at an abrupt pipe contraction). The loss
factor models account for the effect of a change in pipe diameter.
Convention for specifying junction base area

Loss factors are area dependent. When specifying a loss factor at a
junction, the base area is of critical importance. By default AFT Fathom
adheres to the following convention: whenever it makes sense
physically, the base area is always the upstream pipe flow area.
However, this can be modified by the user. In most junction
Specifications windows, the base area can be specified as the upstream
pipe, downstream pipe, user specified area or diameter.
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However, some junction types, especially those that allow three or more
connecting pipes, specify loss factors based on each connecting pipe
flow area, whether upstream or downstream. An example of this is a wye
in which each of the connecting pipes has a different diameter. The idea
of specifying a loss factor based on upstream flow area loses meaning
because there may be more than one upstream pipe. In these cases the
loss factor is referenced to the base area of the actual downstream
pipe(s) where it connects to the junction. The types of junctions that do
not always follow the upstream pipe area convention are Tee/Wye,
Branch, Reservoir, Assigned Pressure, and Assigned Flow. Other
exceptions are Valves and Relief Valves specified as exit valves.
Specifying losses
Local losses can be specified in two ways. The most flexible way of
including a loss factor in an AFT Fathom model is to associate it with a
junction specifically defined for that type of loss. This also allows you to
define a loss as a function of a flow parameter such as Reynolds Number
or volumetric flow rate, or as a function of the area change ratio between
the upstream and downstream pipes. This method results in the greatest
clarity.
Secondly, you can include loss factors with pipes. When you specify
Fittings & Losses in the Pipe Specifications window, the loss is assumed
to be distributed evenly along the pipe length, much like friction losses.
For this reason a pipe-associated loss factor is referred to as a distributed
loss. The losses at junctions, on the other hand, are point losses.
Specifying frictional losses in pipes

AFT Fathom also offers a flexible approach to selecting friction models
for pipes. For each pipe in the model you may specify an absolute
roughness, a roughness that is relative to the pipe diameter, a Hazen-
Williams factor, a hydraulically smooth roughness, an explicit friction
factor, a pipe resistance, or a frictionless pipe. There are some
restrictions to where frictionless pipes can be located in a model. These
are discussed in Chapter 8.
There are also two special loss models. The MIT equation is applicable
for petroleum. And the Miller turbulent is applicable for light
hydrocarbons.

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CHAPTER 4
The Five Primary Windows
This chapter explores the features found in AFT Fathom's five Primary
Windows and explains the role each plays in the analysis process.
Overview
AFT Fathom has five Primary Windows. The Primary Windows are
subordinate to the AFT Fathom window and can be maximized or
minimized within the boundaries of the AFT Fathom window. The
Primary Windows are permanent in that you work in one of these
windows at all times.
The Primary Windows work together to provide tools for entering model
input, analyzing results for accuracy, and preparing results for
documentation. Figure 4.1 summarizes the workflow using the Primary
Windows.
• The Workspace window allows you to build the model visually and
see the model layout.
• The Model Data window is the text-based complement to the
Workspace window. The Model Data window shows input data in
text form. This window works hand-in-hand with the Workspace
window to provide exceptional flexibility in manipulating data.
• The Output window displays the results of the analysis in text form
and lets you produce attractive, effectively organized printed output.
• The Visual Report window merges the output data with the pipe
system layout from the Workspace to present a unique perspective of

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the results. This window also allows customized layout of the
information for documentation and presentation purposes. An
alternate use for the Visual Report window is to show textual input
data combined with the input schematic.
• The Graph Results window provides full-featured Windows plotting
capability. Here results can be viewed in a variety of ways for
evaluating system performance or identifying important trends. The
Graph Results window also allows graph customization.
You can change between the five Primary Windows by selecting them
from the Window menu, the Toolbar, or by clicking the appropriate
icons within the AFT Fathom window.
Model Data
Visual Report
Workspace Output
Graph Results
Figure 4.1 Primary Window workflow in AFT Fathom
The Workspace window

The Workspace window is the sole area where you specify the model
layout and connectivity. The Workspace window has two separate
functional areas: the Toolbox on the far left and the Workspace itself
encompassing the rest of the screen (see Figure 4.2).
At the top of the Toolbox (Figure 4.3), a Shortcut button and four tool
icons are slightly offset from the rest of the junction icons. These are the
Selection Drawing Tool, Pipe Drawing Tool, Zoom Select Tool, and the
Annotation Tool.

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Chapter 4 The Five Primary Windows 49
Shortcut Button
The Shortcut button pops up an information window describing different
keyboard shortcuts available on the Workspace and Specifications
windows. This information is also available by clicking Keyboard
Shortcuts on the Help menu, and is described with more detail in
Appendix A. The Shortcut Button can be hidden using features on the
Toolbox Preferences window.
Toolbars
Toolbox
Workspace
Status bar
Figure 4.2 The Workspace window is where you assemble your

model
The Selection Drawing Tool

The drawing tool in the upper left corner (and below the Shortcut
button) of the Toolbox is the Selection Drawing Tool (see Figure 4.3).
This tool is one means of selecting groups of objects on the Workspace
for group operations such as dragging or duplication.
To select a group of objects, click the Selection Drawing Tool and draw
a box around the desired objects on the Workspace.
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If you Double-click the Selection Drawing Tool it remains active until
you click it again a single time. This allows you to make a series of
selections.
Tip: If you draw the selection from right to left, all objects within and
crossing the selection boundaries will be selected. If you select left to
right, only objects completely enclosed within the section boundaries
will be selected.
Three keyboard modifiers extend the Selection Drawing Tool's
functionality. If you hold down the CTRL key when completing the
selection drawing (just before releasing the mouse button), the Selection
Drawing Tool remains active. The CTRL key thus performs the same
function as double-clicking the tool.
If you first double-click the Selection Drawing Tool or hold down the
CTRL key, you can also hold down the SHIFT key while drawing the
selection box and the enclosed pipes and junctions will be deselected.
Finally, if you first double-click the Selection Drawing Tool or hold
down the CTRL key, you can also hold down the ALT key while
drawing the selection box and the enclosed pipes and junctions will
toggle. That is, any pipes or junctions that were selected will become
deselected, and vice versa.
The Pipe Drawing Tool

The tool in the upper right corner (and below the Shortcut button) of the
Toolbox is the Pipe Drawing Tool. With this tool you can draw new
pipes on the Workspace, starting and ending at any desired location.
To draw a pipe, click the Pipe Drawing Tool. The mouse pointer will
change to a crosshair when you move it over the Workspace. Position
the cursor at the pipe’s starting point, hold down the left mouse button
while dragging the cursor to the pipe endpoint, then release the mouse
button.
Two keyboard modifiers extend the Pipe Drawing Tool's functionality. If
you hold down the SHIFT key down while drawing on the Workspace,
you can draw pipes that are perfectly horizontal or vertical. This may
improve the aesthetics of your model.
If you hold down the CTRL key when completing the pipe drawing (just
before releasing the mouse button), the Pipe Drawing Tool remains

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active, and you can draw a series of pipes without returning to the
Toolbox each time.
If you double-click the Pipe Drawing Tool it remains active until you
click it again a single time. This allows you to draw a series of pipes
without returning to the Toolbox each time.
Shortcut Button
Selection Drawing Tool Pipe Drawing Tool
Zoom Select Tool Annotation Tool
Branch Reservoir
Assigned Flow Assigned Pressure
Area change Bend
Tee/Wye Valve
Control Valve Check Valve
Relief Valve Three-Way Valve
Dead End Orifice
Venturi Screen
Heat Exchanger Spray Discharge
Pump Jet Pump
Volume Balance General Component
Figure 4.3 Tools on the Workspace window Toolbox
Pipe handles and segmenting a pipe

When a single pipe is selected, two black squares (or more if the pipe is
segmented), called handles, appear. When the cursor is placed over a
pipe handle it changes to a crosshair and the pipe handle can be moved
or stretched by dragging with the left mouse button.
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A pipe can be segmented or “bent” into numerous sections (See Figure
4.4). This does not affect the model or the results, only the visual
representation. It does not add an “elbow” to the model or the resulting
pressure drop effects of an elbow.
Figure 4.4 Pipe with five segments
This feature is useful in graphically bending the pipe around another part
of the model or graphically showing that there are embedded elbows as
Fittings & Losses.
You can add a segment to a pipe in several ways. If you are not using the
orthogonal drawing feature the easiest way to add a single segment is to
select Pipe Segments and Add from the Arrange menu. If there are no
segments, then a single segment can also be added by selecting the
Add/Remove Segment from the Toolbar. If the pipe already has one or
more segments, this Toolbar selection will remove all segments.
A more flexible way of adding or removing segments is to use the Pipe
Segment Manager. To open the Pipe Segment Manager, choose Pipe

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Segments and Manager from the Arrange menu. A window will display
(Figure 4.5) where you can add, remove and merge segments.
If you use the orthogonal drawing feature then segments are
automatically inserted as you draw.
Figure 4.5 The Pipe Segments window allows you to create,

merge and remove pipe segments.
Orthogonal drawing
Orthogonal drawing can be enabled on the Workspace Preference
window or by toggling the menu item on the Arrange menu. Orthogonal
drawing can be used with or without a snap to grid enabled.
When orthogonal drawing is on, then vertices are automatically inserted
into pipes to enforce drawing only along the horizontal and vertical.
When junctions are moved with connected pipes, then pipes may also
have vertices inserted to maintain orthogonality.
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If you are drawing an orthogonal pipe, you can hold the SHIFT key and
the vertex location will flip. If you select the handle of a non-endpoint
vertex and hold the SHIFT key, the vertex will flip. If you select the
handle of a pipe endpoint and hold the SHIFT key, a new vertex will be
inserted at that location.
Tips for using orthogonal drawing features

Orthogonal drawing can create some confusion for the user because
segments from different pipes may overlap each other and hence become
indistinguishable. Tips on how to avoid this are given here.
• Use the SHIFT feature to flip vertices to avoid segment interference
• Use Segment Manager to add new vertices
• Use a fine grid and snap to grid features combined with disabling the
option to automatically adjust pipe endpoints to junction centers. See
Workspace Preferences window for more information.
• If you have a junction with several connecting pipes that interfere,
enlarge the junction to 150% or 200% of normal size and follow the
tip in the previous bullet to disable the automatic pipe endpoint
adjustment feature.
The Zoom Select Tool

The Toolbox tool below the Selection Drawing Tool is the Zoom Select
Tool. With this tool you can draw a box that will cause the Workspace to
zoom to that box. The maximum zoom size is 200%.
One keyboard modifier alters the Zoom Select Tool's behavior. If you
hold down the SHIFT key while selecting the zoom area, the zoom state
will always be 100%.
The Annotation Tool

The Toolbox tool below the Pipe Drawing Tool is the Annotation Tool.
With this tool you can draw a box that will contain an Annotation
displayed on the Workspace.
As shown in Figure 4.6, the Annotation Tool allows you to create a text
message and, by clicking on the appropriate tab, show an outline around

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the message and draw lines with pointers to certain areas of the model.
Different style, color and font options are provided.
Figure 4.6 The Workspace Annotation tool dialog box.
Annotations can be “attached” to the Workspace, a pipe or a junction.

When attached to the Workspace, the annotation always remains in the
same location until you move it. When attached to a pipe or junction, the
annotation will move when the pipe or junction is moved. The Scenario
Options tab allows you to specify in which scenarios the annotation
appears.
Annotations print out with the model. Figure 4.7 shows the Workspace
with an Annotation displayed.
Annotations can be displayed or hidden among different scenarios using
the Annotation Manager.
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Figure 4.7 Annotation added to the workspace
Junction icons
Below the four drawing tools are twenty-two junction icons. The
junctions allow you to model a large variety of pipe flow networks. To
add a junction to a model, drag the desired icon from the Toolbox and
drop it anywhere on the Workspace.
As you move the mouse pointer over the Toolbox, a ToolTip identifies
the type of junction under the mouse pointer.
The types and order of junction icons on the Toolbox can be modified
through the Toolbox Preferences window. For more details on how to
customize the Toolbox, refer to Chapter 7.
Editing features
Junction and pipe objects on the Workspace can be manipulated as
individual items or as groups. This applies to cutting, copying, pasting,

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deleting, duplicating, dragging, locking, and undoing. Pipe objects on the
Workspace can be stretched by selecting the pipe at one end and
dragging it to a new location.
Selecting groups of objects

A group of objects can be selected for manipulation in six ways:
1. By clicking the Selection Drawing Tool and drawing a box around
the desired objects
2. By holding down the SHIFT key while clicking each object in the
group
3. By selecting a pipe or junction, then choosing Select Flow Path from
the Edit menu
4. By choosing Select All from the Edit menu
5. By choosing Select Special from the Edit menu
6. By choosing a group from the Edit menu (Groups -> Select)
When the SHIFT key is depressed, you can click repeatedly on the same
object to select and deselect it. Selected junctions are outlined in red;
selected pipes are also shown in red. The selection color is configurable
in the Workspace Preferences.
The Copy and Paste operations allow you to duplicate a group on the
Workspace. When you copy an item, it is placed on the Windows
clipboard; from there you can paste it into another Windows graphics
program as a picture.
New objects added to the Workspace from the Toolbox are undefined
(refer to Chapter 5 for details on defining objects). Objects derived
through duplication or copying retain all relevant Specifications window
information. If a group of fully defined objects is duplicated or copied,
AFT Fathom retains the object status and connectivity within the new
group.
Selecting objects in a flow path

The pipes and/or junctions in a flow path may all be easily selected
using the Select Flow Path item on the Edit menu, Toolbar or the Popup
menu (shown when the right mouse button is pressed while the cursor is
over an empty area on the Workspace). A flow path is a sequence of
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pipes and junctions where there is no branching or flow sources or sinks.
The endpoint junctions can be included in the flow path if the All
Objects Including Endpoints option is chosen.
If a junction is selected which has multiple flow paths attached to it
(e.g., a branch with 3 or more pipes) then objects in each of the
connected flow paths will be selected. This feature is very useful in
duplicating or deleting sequences of pipes and junctions. It can also be
used to quickly define groups for graphing or for selected Output or
Model Data listings.
Selecting last selection

The last pipes and/or junctions selected may be reselected by selecting
Select Last Selection from the Edit menu.
Aligning objects
Tools to align components in your model are located on the Arrange
menu.
Creating and Managing Saved Groups

Groups of pipes and junctions can be named for later recall. This is done
using the Group tools on the Edit menu. The easiest way to create a
named Group is as follows:
1. First select on the Workspace the pipes and junctions you want in
the group
2. Choose Groups -> Create from the Edit menu or Toolbar.
3. You will be prompted for a name for the group. Enter a meaningful
name and click OK.
4. The Group Manager then opens. The selection of pipes and
junctions in the Group will match those currently selected on the
Workspace. If you want to modify the selections once more, you can
do it here.
You can include Subgroups inside of your Groups. Subgroups are
existing Groups. If, for example, you included a Subgroup in your
Group, and later change the contents of the Subgroup, the Group which
contains the Subgroup would also be changed.

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After you have created a Group, you can then quickly reselect that
Group of pipes or Junctions on the Workspace by choosing Group ->
Select from the Edit menu or Toolbar and choosing the name of the
Group.
The Group Manager can be opened by choosing Group -> Manager from
the Edit menu or Toolbar. The Group Manager allows you to modify,
create, delete or rename Groups.
Another place Groups are available is in the Select Special window.
Special group usage

Besides being useful for selection and general data management, groups
of pipes and/or junctions are used in other ways. These are listed below:
1. Fluid Groups – Used with loop to loop multi-fluid heat transfer to
specify which fluids are in which loops.
2. Pipe Sequences – Used in creating profile graphs
3. Maximum Cost Groups – Used in the CST module to calculate costs
for junctions. See the Modules User’s Guide or Help system for
more information.
4. Goal Seek & Control – Used in the GSC module as either a Group
Sum or Group Max/Min goal type. See the Modules User’s Guide or
Help system for more information.
Bookmarks on the Workspace

Bookmarks can be added on the Workspace in relation to individual
pipes or junctions. You can quickly navigate around the Workspace by
moving from Bookmark to Bookmark.
Use the Bookmark tools on the View menu to set Bookmarks and to
display different bookmarked pipes or junctions.
Last View
The last view of the Workspace is always saved in memory and can be
displayed by selecting Last View from the View Menu or Toolbar.
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Customizing features
Workspace Preferences
The Workspace Preferences on the Options menu lets you customize the
appearance and behavior of the Workspace. New defaults can be saved
so AFT Fathom will always appear and behave according to your
preferences.
See Chapter 7 for more information on Workspace Preferences.
Figure 4.8 Pipes and junctions can be selectively displayed on

the Workspace using the Display Pipes and Junctions
window on the View menu.
Adjusting the Workspace size

Should the model expand beyond a single screen (as it often will), the
Workspace size can be expanded by choosing Workspace Size from the
View menu. By clicking the boxes in this dialog window you can expand
or contract the Workspace area. Each box represents the area of the
original Workspace screen. When the Workspace is enlarged, scroll bars

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automatically appear to simplify navigation of the enlarged Workspace.
The View menu also allows you to zoom in and out at ratios of 25%,
50%, and 75% of the normal size. The Custom Zoom feature allows you
to specify the exact zoom value you desire. There also is a Zoom to Fit
selection, which zooms the model so that one can see the entire model.
Selective display of pipes and junctions

Pipes and junctions can be shown or not shown on the Workspace by
choosing Display Pipes and Junctions on the View Menu (see Figure
4.8).
Additionally, junctions may be alternatively displayed as an outline or a
solid gray box. By selecting the pipe(s) or junction(s) in the lists and
pressing the << Shift or Shift >> buttons, an “x” will move left or right
indicating how the objects will be displayed on the Workspace. A
junction which is shown as an outline or a solid box may still be opened
for editing.
AFT Fathom does not limit the number of junction icons you can show
at a time.
Scale/flip workspace
The Workspace can be scaled horizontally and/or vertically by choosing
Scale/Flip Workspace on the Arrange menu (see Figure 4.9). Scaling
will move the junctions and will stretch or shrink the pipes so that the
area the model covers is changed by the percentage specified.
Flipping the Workspace horizontally and/or vertically will move the
pipes and junctions to their mirror image locations. This is useful when
you are building a system which has symmetrical or mirrored sections.
For example, you could select the section, duplicate it, and then flip it
horizontally, vertically, or both, with Scale/Flip Selected Objects Only
checked.
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Figure 4.9 The Workspace can be scaled or flipped
Renumbering the Workspace objects

Objects on the Workspace can be renumbered in one of three ways:
Renumber Automatic, Renumber Wizard and Renumber Increment. By
choosing Renumber Automatic from the Edit menu (see Figure 4.10)
selected pipes and/or junctions can be renumbered starting at the lowest
selected number or at a specified number. If a pipe or junction which is
not selected to be renumbered already has the next number in sequence,
it will only be changed if the Force Sequential checkbox is checked.
Fathom will start at the beginning of the flow path containing the lowest
numbered selected pipe and will attempt to march down the pipes in the
direction of flow. It is recommended that renumbering be performed
after the model has been completed so that the junctions and pipes are
completely connected.
Tip: If you want certain sections of the model to be numbered in
sequence, then use the Renumber Automatic feature on the selected
sections only. It is also preferable in the case of large or complicated
models to renumber small sections at a time.

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Figure 4.10 Pipes and junctions can be renumbered automatically

using the Renumber Automatic window opened from
the Edit menu
The Renumber Wizard, initiated from the Edit menu, puts the
Workspace into a “renumber mode” whereby clicking on pipes and/or
junctions changes their numbers (Figure 4.11). Renumbering criteria is
specified on the sliding panel at the left, and when the mouse cursor is
moved over the Workspace one can click on the objects and they will
renumber according to the criteria.
You can adjust all pipe and junction numbers on the workspace by a set
increment by selecting the Increment renumber option from the Edit
menu.
Renumber Increment is also on the Edit menu and allows you to
increment or decrement all selected pipes and junctions by a specified
value.
Background Graphic
You can load a graphic into the background of the Workspace and build
your model on top of that graphic. The graphic could be, for instance, a
topographic map or a facility drawing. Such graphics are loaded from the
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File menu by choosing Load Background Picture. At your option the
background graphic can be included in Workspace printouts.
Figure 4.11 The Renumber Wizard allows you to renumber objects

by simply clicking on them.
Specifications windows
Each object on the Workspace has an associated Specifications window.
The Specifications window lists all the input data for the selected object.
There are three ways to open an object’s Specifications window from the
Workspace:
1. Double-click the object
2. Select the object and click the Open Pipe/Jct Window icon on the
Toolbar
3. Select the object and press ENTER
The Specifications windows can also be accessed through the Model
Data window.

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Printing and exporting the Workspace

The Workspace image can be:
• Copied to the clipboard
• Saved to a picture file
• Saved directly to an Adobe PDF file
• Sent to the printer
The Print Preview/Special window allows the above outputs to be
applied to all or selected Workspace objects.
The Model Data window

The Model Data window offers a text-based perspective on all
engineering information in the pipe flow model (see Figure 4.12). This
window is immensely useful for obtaining a global view of the model
and rapidly checking the input.
The Model Data window does not offer any tools to build or add to a
model; all model assembly must occur in the Workspace.
The Model Data window allows you to manipulate existing elements
from the Workspace. Therefore, a complete model can be assembled in
the Workspace window without ever opening the Model Data window.
In fact, for small models this may be the preferred approach.
The Pipes table allows display of all input data for all pipes in the model.
Details of fittings and losses are displayed in the Pipe Fittings & Losses
table, accessed with an adjacent tab. The Pipe Fittings & Losses table
displays all fittings with K factors grouped into columns.
The other display tab in the pipe area is the Pipe Detail Summary, which
assembles a list of details about each pipe in another format useful to
some engineers.
The junction data area is below the pipe data area. Here the junction data
is separated into tables for each junction type. Click the folder tabs to
see the data for any type of junction.
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Open Model
Data Control
General data
section
Customize view
Pipe data
section
Junction data
section
Figure 4.12 The Model Data window provides a convenient

summary of model element specifications
To edit information in the Model Data window, you can open the
Specifications window for the pipe or junction. This can be done by
double-clicking the far left column where the pipe or junction ID
numbers are shown. Alternatively, you can use the Global Edit windows
opened from the Edit menu.
Display and printing features

The Show Data options on the View menu (and Toolbar) lets you
specify the combination of pipe, junction, and general information you
want to see in the Model Data window.
The Print Content window lets you specify the content to include in the
printed Model Data report and select the font to be used for printing.
This window is opened from the View menu (or Toolbar).
The Model Data window contents can be:

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• Saved to a formatted text file
• Exported to a delimited file suitable for direct importing into
spreadsheet software
The Model Data Control window

The Model Data Control allows you to customize what data to show for
the pipes and for each junction type and also which pipes and junctions
to show (see Figure 4.13). It can be opened from the View menu (or
Toolbar).
Figure 4.13 The Model Data Control window allows selection of

the parameters to show in the Model Data window
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Pipe data display
The data to be shown for pipes is selected on the left side of the Model
Data Control window. Only the items with check marks will be shown in
the Model Data window. All pipes shown will report the selected items.
Junction data display

The data to be shown for the junctions is selected on the right side of the
Model Data Control window. The data is grouped by junction type.
However, some data is general and applied to each of the junction types.
Select the junction type from the list and then select the data for that
junction type. Each type also includes the general data which may be
selected/deselected. You can select/deselect the general data for all
junction types simultaneously by clicking Set Common.
Show selected pipes and junctions

Specific pipes and junctions can be shown in Model Data. Click the
Show Selected Pipes/Junctions tab, then click the items in the lists to
select the pipe(s) and junction(s) to be shown.
Scenario Format
A powerful Model Data feature when using scenarios is to show all
direct ancestor data in the Model Data along with data from the current
scenario. The Scenario Format features allow you to do this, and to
highlight where data changes occur. See Figure 4.14. Note that the
scenario name is appended to the pipe and junction number in the left
columns.
Other data
When pipes with intermediate elevations are specified, you can specify
which pipe data is to be displayed in the Model Data window:
Show only pipes with intermediate elevations
Show only non-horizontal pipes
Show all pipes
In addition, you can specify whether junction curve data is to be
displayed with the Model Data, or not.

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Figure 4.14 Model Data display of scenario ancestor data. This

functionality is enabled in Model Data Control.
Database connections
In the lower left of the Model Data Control window there is a Database
checkbox. If this box is checked, your Model Data Control parameters
are set up as determined by the database to which you are connected.
This is referred to as an active database. To make it inactive, uncheck
the box or change one of the Model Data Control settings controlled by
the database.
If the checkbox is unchecked, but enabled, you are connected to a
database but the settings are not being passed to the Model Data Control
window. The database is thus inactive. To make it active, check the box
then click the OK button.
If the checkbox is disabled, there is no connected database.
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See Chapter 7 for an in-depth discussion of how databases are
configured and administered through your local or wide area network.
The Output window

The Output window is the primary vehicle for communicating the results
of an analysis in text form (see Figure 4.15). The Output window
follows the same general window organization as the Model Data
window.
When a model is submitted to the Solver, the Solution Progress window
appears. After the solution is obtained, you can view the results in the
Output window by clicking the View Output button.
Open Output Control
General section
Customize view
Pipe output section
Junction output section
Figure 4.15 The Output window displays output in text form
If the information in the Output window is not in the desired format, you
can choose Output Control from the Analysis menu (or Toolbar) to
modify the format. The Output Control window (see Figure 4.16) lets
you specify the parameters, their units, and the order of their display in
the Output window (Figure 4.15).

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Data in the Output window can be:
• Saved to a formatted text file
The printed and Adobe PDF output follows the same flexible, organized,
and accessible format as the Output window itself.
The Show options on the View menu (or Toolbar) lets you enlarge each
of the output sections for greater clarity. The Print Content window,
available on the View menu (or Toolbar), lets you specify the content to
include in the printed Output report and select the font to be used. The
Sort window, opened from the Arrange menu (or Toolbar), offers the
ability to sort the Pipe Results or Junction Results tables according to the
values in any of the columns. The Transfer Results to Initial Guess
feature on the Edit menu (and Toolbar) sets all pipe and junction initial
flows and pressures equal to the converged results, which causes future
runs to converge much faster.
You can view the input data for individual pipes or junctions directly
from the Output window in one of two ways. First, if you press down the
right mouse button on the pipe or junction number in the far left column
of the table you will see the Inspection window. Second, if you double-
click the pipe or junction number you will open the Specifications
window in read-only form where you can review input in detail.
The Output Control window

The Output Control window (see Figure 4.16) allows you to customize
the parameters shown on the Output window. The control features are
grouped on numerous tabs.
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Change output order

using this tool
Select Output
Parameter to Modify
List of parameters to
show in the Output
List of all parameters

that can be shown in
the Output
List of parameters can

be shown
alphabetically or by
category
Description of Output
item can be turned on
here
Database connection
Figure 4.16 The Output Control window selects parameters for the
Output window. Here the Pipe parameters are shown.
Pipe, Junction and Summary parameters

The Display Parameters tab controls the parameters to be shown for the
pipes, junctions and summary reports. The output type is selected from
the group of buttons at the top. For each output type, the list on the left
side shows all available parameters for the selected report. For the pipe
and junction output, this list can be viewed in alphabetized or
categorized mode, which makes it easier to find a parameter.
Choose a parameter to be shown by selecting it on the left-hand list and
clicking the Add button. The selected item will appear in the list on the
right either at the bottom or at the previously selected location. The list
on the right shows the order of the parameters to be displayed in the
output and the units (if any) in which to display the results.
You can change the order of the output by selecting a parameter on the
right-hand list, then clicking the Reorder scroll bar on the far right or by
using manual drag-and-drop on the selected row. The list will be
reordered accordingly. The output is presented in the order defined in
this list.

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The units used for a parameter can be changed by selecting the
parameter then choosing the desired units from the adjacent dropdown
list. By selecting the units of interest, you can obtain your results in
whatever units you find most convenient and meaningful. This means
that you can enter all your input parameters in one set of units (or a
variety of units, for that matter), and have all your output parameters in a
completely different set of units.
To set selected units for both pipes, junctions and summary reports to
the preferred units (set in Parameter and Unit Preferences), click the Use
Preferred Units button. If you change the units of a parameter and you
would like that unit to be used for all similar parameters in the list or
entire output, select the Same Units button.
You will note that some output parameters do not offer the ability to
specify output units. These parameters either do not have units
associated with them (such as Reynolds Number or friction factor), or
are in fact echoes of input parameters (such as Pipe Nominal Size).
Several Special Summary Reports can be displayed in the Output
window. These include the following:
• Pump Summary
• Valve Summary
• Heat Exchanger Summary
• Reservoir Summary
• Pipe Heat Transfer Output.
• Cost Report
General output
The General section is the text area located at the top of the Output
window. The project title, reference information and other settings
affecting the General Output are defined here.
You can enter a descriptive title which will be used in the Model Data,
Output and Visual Report windows. A title is required and can have up
to 100 characters.
You can keep a lengthy explanation or any other documentation about
your model in the Reference Information section. Names of projects,
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individuals, and assumptions can all be kept with the model. This
information can then be included in your reports to improve tracking.
The checkboxes allow you to enable certain special reports to be shown
in the General Section.
Format and action

The results can be automatically sent to the printer or saved to a file
when the model has reached convergence. Additionally, the results can
be automatically saved as initial conditions by checking the Transfer
Results to Initial When Done option. By saving the results, the iteration
time for Fathom to arrive at a converged solution is reduced. The initial
guess can also be transferred manually by selecting the Transfer Results
to Initial Guesses item from the Edit menu. The model can also be
automatically saved after the initial conditions are transferred. The valve
state (open, closed or failed) can also be saved along with the initial
conditions.
When enabled, the Wrap Table Column headers option makes the output
tables wrap the column headers an extra line if the header is wider than
usual. There are four formatting methods for the pipe and junction
output data:
1. Align on the decimal point
2. Show only the specified number of digits
3. Align only when the differences in magnitudes are less than a user-
set limit
4. Use exponential notation with the specified number of digits when
the differences in the magnitudes are greater than a user-set limit
The first method allows the magnitude of the data to be easily compared
as the data is read down the column. However, a number whose
magnitude is small may force larger numbers to show many digits. For
example, assume that the minimum number of digits is set to four, and
there are two output values: 1234.5 and .09876. These two values will be
displayed in the output as:
1234.50000
0.09876
The second method will force the data to use exactly the number of
digits specified, which may result in the decimal point location changing

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from value to value. Using this method with the above example and
specifying four digits, the output will be displayed as:
1235.
0.09876
The third method will align the data on the decimal point only if the
maximum value in the column divided by the minimum value is less than
a limiting order of magnitude that you set. If this ratio is greater than the
limit then each value in the column will be exactly the number of digits
specified. Using the above example with a limit set to 4 then
1234.5/.09876 = 12500 or an order of magnitude of 5. This is greater
than the limit. The entire column will not be aligned and will be
displayed as:
1235.
0.09876
The fourth method is similar to the third except that if the ratio is greater
than the limit then the entire column will be shown in exponential
format. Using the above example, the column would be shown as:
1.235E+03
9.876E-02
These formatting options are for the entire Output window; however, the
last two are calculated and applied on a column basis. In other words, if
you choose the third option, one column may be aligned but another may
not be.
The output can be forced to always display in exponential notation by
choosing the checkbox.
Cost formatting is provided for the Output Cost Report.
Show selected pipes/junctions

You can choose which pipes and junctions are to be displayed in the
Output window. Clicking a selected item in the list on the Show Selected
Pipes/Junctions tab will deselect it. Clicking a deselected item will select
it. This feature is especially useful when you are interested only in a
certain area of the model.
You can quickly define the output you want by doing the following:
1. Select the pipes and junctions on the Workspace
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2. Open the Output Control window and select the Show Selected
Pipes/Junctions folder tab
3. Click the Workspace button for both the pipes and junctions
4. Click the Show button
Deltas between junctions

You can have Fathom calculate the difference between two junctions for
a particular parameter. These results are displayed in the General
Section. A list of Junction Deltas is created by selecting the upstream
and downstream junctions, the parameter and units of interest, then
clicking the Add >> button. Some parameters will require that either the
inlet or outlet value for the junction be specified. The list will contain
the parameter symbol and the two junction numbers with “in” or “out” in
parentheses. Different parameters can be used for each item in the list so
you can, for example, choose pressure difference between junctions 2
and 10 and also temperature difference between junctions 45 and 16.
Multiple scenarios in Output

You can show results for multiple scenarios in the Output window
concurrently using the features on the Multi-Scenario tab (see Figure
4.17). Here you can display results for scenarios (if they have current
output). You can order the scenarios in such a way that the output for
pipes and junctions will display in the specified order. You can also add
a different color for each scenario. Figure 4.18 shows the Output
window with multiple scenarios displayed.
In the lower left of the Output Control window there is a Database
checkbox. If this box is checked, your Output Control parameters are set
up as determined by the database to which you are connected. This is
referred to as an active database. To make it inactive, uncheck the box or
change one of the Output Control settings controlled by the database.
database but the settings are not being passed to the Output Control

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Figure 4.17 Output Control window selections for multi-scenario

output.

See Chapter 7 for an in-depth discussion of how databases are
Command buttons
There are eight buttons at the bottom of the Output Control window.
Fathom has built-in default parameters, units and settings which you can
choose by clicking the Fathom Default button. You can also develop
your own settings, tailored to your project or industry, and have these
used by default (instead of Fathom’s defaults). To make your own
default, first select the output parameters, units and settings you would
like to use then click the Set As Default button. Your settings will be
saved and will be used each time any new project is initiated. If you
make changes to the settings, and want to get back to your defaults, click
the User Default button. The saved default settings are updated only
when you click Set As Default.
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Figure 4.18 Output window with multiple scenarios displayed.
You can save the output settings (except for the selected pipes/junctions
and junction deltas) to a file by pressing the Save Control Format button
and entering a file name. These settings are loaded again by pressing the
Load Control Format button and choosing the file name. For example,
you may have a final report format that is always desired. You can load
this format before generating final results. If you have another format
you use for reviewing model accuracy, you may want a larger number of
parameters in the output.
The format files you create can be placed on a network for sharing
among a group or company, or incorporated into a company-wide
database, allowing standardized reporting.
If you have made changes you don’t want to keep, click the Cancel
button. Click OK to use the settings you have specified.

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Output parameter descriptions

At the bottom of the Display Parameters tab, a description is given for
the selected parameter. There are three lines shown.
First is the Output Window Table Header. This is the text that is shown
in the headers of the pipe and junction tables on the Output window.
Second is the Visual Report Abbreviation. This is the text shown on the
Visual Report window when you display an output parameter. This text
is very short so as to save space.
Third is the description of the term.
Output window updates

Whenever you change the input model, all output windows are erased.
This prevents you from changing your input model, forgetting to rerun it,
and mistaking the previous Output window for the current model's
results.
Cost Report
The Cost Settings window lets you setup calculation of pump energy
costs. Simple energy cost information can be entered as in Figure 4.19,
or more detailed Energy Cost Databases can be used. The Cost Time
Period is specified for pump cumulative costs, as well as interest and
inflation rates to allow net present value calculations.
The cost over a specified time is displayed in the Output window Cost
Report (Figure 4.20). Different currencies can be specified in the
Parameter and Unit Preferences window.
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Figure 4.19 Cost Settings window configures how to calculate

pump energy costs.
Figure 4.20 Cost Report in Output window displays pump energy

costs over time period specified in Cost Settings.
The Graph Results window

The Graph Results window, shown in Figure 4.21, allows you to
generate high quality printed graphs.
The Select Graph Data window, opened from the View menu (and
Toolbar), lets you control the content of the graph and offers several

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types of standard graphs. The Customize Graph window, opened from
the Options menu (and Toolbar), offers you control of the graph's
general style. Results can be graphed as linear or log versus linear. Fonts
and colors can also be selected.
Figure 4.21 The Graph Results window offers full-featured plot

generation
The graphical data can be exported to a file for later import as a cross
plot against results for a different model. For example, let's say you
would like to see the effect on the system pipe pressure drop when you
change a valve loss factor. You could run the Solver for one value of K
and export the results to a file. Then you could rerun the Solver for a
new value of K and import the results from the previous case for cross
plotting. These features are accessed by choosing Save Graph Data and
Import Graph Data from the File menu.
Graph “Sets” can be created and saved by the user using the tools in the
Select Graph Data window.
The Graph Results window is always erased when you make changes to
model input. Rerun the model to graph the new results.
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The Select Graph Data window

The Select Graph Data window defines what type of graph you want
created and with what parameters and units (see Figure 4.22). You can
create several types of graphs.
Figure 4.22 The Select Graph Data window controls the Graph
Results window
System Curve and Pump Curve vs. System Curve

These two graph types will plot a system curve (without a pump curve)
with respect to a Reservoir, Assigned Pressure, Assigned Flow or Spray
Discharge junction, or a pump curve versus a system curve for a single
pump or group of pumps. The Pump Curve vs. System Curve is only
available if there is a pump in the model.
You can create pump vs. system curves for complex parallel flow
networks. Composite pump curves for pumps in parallel or in series can
also be also generated. If you create a composite pump curve you can
also show single pump curves on the same graph. If efficiency data
exists you can cross-plot the efficiency curve.

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Pump curves and system curves can be displayed in two ways when
parallel pumps are selected. One way is the “traditional” method which
is how AFT Fathom displayed them in AFT Fathom 6.0 and before. The
second method is called the “enhanced” method and it attempts to
determine the flow split on the pumps and adjust the system curve
accordingly. It also attempts to create a better composite curve when
parallel pumps are dissimilar.
Profile Along a Flow Path and EGL, HGL and Elevation

These two types of graphs will plot the selected parameter along a flow
path. The pipes that comprise the path must form a single, continuous
path. The independent variable is the length along the pipe(s).
A path of pipes can be specified in one of two ways. First, the user can
select the pipes in the displayed list. This permits only a single path to be
specified.
Second, one or more flow paths can be specified using groups (see
Figure 4.23). Only groups which consist of a pipe sequence will be
displayed. Figure 4.24 shows multiple paths cross-plotted.
Figure 4.23 Using Groups, multiple pipe sequences can be

selected for cross-plotting.
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Figure 4.24 Multiple pipe sequences can be cross-plotted.
Selected Solutions
The selected solution graph type will plot an output parameter, like
Pressure Inlet, against either selected pipes or junctions. To do this, first
select the type of graph and then, using the options at the top of the list
on the right, choose either pipes or junctions. Then choose the Graph
Parameters you want to show and the Y-axis units for these parameters.
Finally, choose the pipes/junctions you want to be included in the plot
and press the Show button.
You can choose several parameters as long as they all have the same
units. For example you can plot Pressure Inlet and Pressure Outlet
together but not Pressure Inlet and Velocity.
Graph sets
When you have graph parameters and styles set up for a graph that you
may re-create later, graph sets are a time saver. Save the current graph

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information into a graph set and then later when you want to re-create
the graph just load the graph set. Graph sets are available at the bottom
of the Select Graph Data window.
Other graph controls

When you change graph types or parameters you can choose to keep the
labels and/or color styles by clicking the appropriate checkboxes on the
lower right.
The Customize Graph window

The Customize Graph window allows you to customize the plot by
giving you control over the many aspects including:
1. Fonts for titles, numbers, and legend
2. Colors for the graph background, foreground, and data sets
3. Line types and thicknesses
4. Symbol shapes
5. Normal, semi-log, or log-log plots
6. Borders and gridlines
7. Printing preferences (color or monochrome)
You can save the settings you set up by clicking the Save button on the
System tab. If you make changes to the settings, and want to get back to
previous settings, click the Load button on the System tab and load the
file.
The Auxiliary Graph Formatting Window

The Auxiliary Graph Formatting window allows you to more easily
change graph colors and curve thickness in the Graph Results window.
These preferred settings can be saved as the default for future use. In
addition, these preferences are used in all graphs throughout AFT
Fathom. This window is opened from the Options menu or Toolbar.
Printing and exporting the Graph Results image and

data
The Graph Results image can be:
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The x-y data in the Graph Results graph can be:
The Visual Report window

The Visual Report helps you visualize the model data and flow solution
in relationship to the model layout. The Visual Report window displays
the pipe system layout from the Workspace window with information in
text form (see Figure 4.25). Additionally, magnitudes of parameters may
also be shown with color variations.
The values to be shown may come from the input data (when in input
mode) or the Output results. You can change between these by selecting
the option at the top of the Visual Report Control window.
In the Visual Report window, the positions of the junctions and pipes are
fixed based on their locations on the Workspace. While the pipe system
layout cannot be edited in the Visual Report window, the integrated text
results for each pipe or junction can be rearranged by dragging and
dropping to improve the final appearance of the window.
The contents of the Visual Report window can be:
The View menu allows you to zoom in and out at ratios of 25%, 50%,
and 75% of the normal size, as well as choose custom sizes. This feature
compresses more results onto a single page. The printed size is
consistent with the zoom state. That is, if you zoom out to 50%, the

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Visual Report screen prints at 50% of its normal size. The Custom Zoom
feature allows you to specify the exact zoom value you desire. There
also is a Zoom to Fit selection, which zooms the model so that one can
see the entire model.
The Visual Report window is always erased when you make changes to
model input. If viewing output results, rerun the model to view the new
results.
Units displayed in
legend
Figure 4.25 Visual Report window integrates input data and

output results with model layout
The Visual Report Control window

The Visual Report Control window (see Figure 4.26) lets you control the
content and appearance of the Visual Report window. You can also save
custom Visual Report window layouts to disk for later recall, so you
don't have to reformat this window repeatedly.
When the Visual Report window is opened and no output results are
currently displayed, Visual Report Control will be in the Input Display
Mode. If output results are displayed, it will be opened in the Output
Display Mode. Parameters available for display vary depending upon the
mode, i.e. input or output. If output results exist, the display mode may
be changed at any time.
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Figure 4.26 The Visual Report Control window allows you to

configure the Visual Report display
Display parameters
The parameters to be shown in the Visual Report window are selected
from the Display Parameters tab. The left list selects the pipe parameters
and the right list selects the junction parameters. In these lists you can
show only the parameters you have selected in the Output Control
window, or all output parameters. You can select more than one
parameter; however, the Visual Report window may get crowded if too
many are selected.
General display
The General Display tab allows you to configure several other items.

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The title, defined in the Output Control window, and filename can be
shown or not shown depending on your preference. The scenario name
can also be shown.
Figure 4.27 The Visual Report with the units and Color Map in the
Legend
The units for all parameters can be shown in a legend (see Figure 4.25)
instead of next to the parameter value. This will reduce the amount of
text and crowding shown in the Visual Report window. The legend can
be moved to any location in the Visual Report window. If this option is
chosen while in input-only mode, all values will be converted to a
consistent set of units.
You can change various font sizes by clicking one of the Fonts buttons
and choosing the font desired or by using the font size change buttons on
the Toolbar.
The number of digits to show in the numerical display can be configured
using the provided drop-down list.
Normally on the Workspace, closed objects are displayed using special
graphics (dashed lines, X’s, etc.). The number of an object which has
special conditions set, by default, has an X preceding the J or P (e.g.
XJ56). If you want these symbols to be used in the Visual Report
window also, choose the Show Closed Symbols checkbox. Normally,
pipes in closed sections are shown as dashed lines, and junctions
outlined with a dashed line. If you want these symbols to be used in the
Visual Report window also, choose the Use Closed Object Style
checkbox.
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If a background picture exists on the Workspace, it can be shown in the
Visual Report by selecting the checkbox provided. Similarly, if a grid is
shown on the Workspace it can be shown on the Visual Report.
Show selected pipes and junctions

You can choose, on an individual pipe and junction basis, what you
would like to show in the Visual Report Control window (see Figure
4.28). This display customization feature is useful for large models
where only some of the data points are of interest. For simplicity, this
discussion will focus on just the pipes; however, the junctions behave in
the same fashion.
Each pipe is listed with a set of x’s to the left of the name. The x’s
indicate what will be shown. To change the settings, first choose the
pipe(s) to change. Then use the checkboxes on top to set or clear the x’s.
If more than one pipe is selected and the current options are different,
the checkbox will look grayed and the first click will clear the checkbox
and the second click will set it (notice junctions 1 and 2 in Figure 4.25).
You can have any combination of settings, including no settings at all.
To restore the settings to what is shown in the Workspace and the data,
click the Workspace Settings button.
Color map
The Color Map feature allows you to visualize magnitudes of various
parameters by coloring the pipes (see Figures 4.25 and 4.27). There is
one Color Map for the output mode and another for the input-only mode.
A Color Map is useful to show graphically where, for example, high
velocities or reverse flows are located or to visualize the pipe diameters
or lengths in a model.
To create a Color Map, first choose a parameter and units for which all
pipes will be categorized. Then choose a color, select the operator (i.e. >,
>=, =, <=, <) and enter a value, then press Add to Map. Values can be
categorized on an absolute value basis by selecting this option.
The order of entry is not important. AFT Fathom will sort the entries
first by value and then by the operator, with the > being above the <. The
pipes will be colored using the first match found in the map, starting
from the top of the map. If no match is found, the pipe will be the
Workspace pipe color. Be careful to avoid overlapping operators and
values. If, for example, the map had the following four colors,

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Figure 4.28 The Visual Report Control window allows you to

individually select the object, name, number and data
to be shown in the Visual Report window.
1) >=60
2) <60
3) >=20
4) <20
then there is no way colors 3 and 4 will be used because any pipe less
than 20 is also less than 60. Since <60 is before <20 in the map, the pipe
will be colored using 2.
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Figure 4.29 The Visual Report Control Color Map allows you to
specify the display colors for pipes according to their
output values.
To avoid overlapping colors, only use less than (<) as the last entry. A
better map would be to use
1) >=60
2) >=20
3) <20.
You can choose to categorize the pipes based on their absolute values by
choosing the Display Absolute Value checkbox. To delete a map value,
click the color you want to delete then click the Remove Setting button.
Instead of coloring the pipes, you could choose to color just the pipe
numbers. This is done by choosing the Color Pipe Labels and clearing
the Color Pipes checkboxes in the Color Options area. You could also
apply the colorization to both. Choose the Print Black & White

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checkbox if you don’t have a color printer. The pipes will be printed in
black.
The color map values can be displayed in a legend by checking the
Display in Legend checkbox (see Figure 4.29). The color map will
appear in the legend after the pipe and junction units, if that option was
selected. The legend may be dragged and dropped to any location in the
Visual Report window.
Command buttons
You can save the output settings (except for the selected pipes/junctions)
to a file by clicking the Save Options button and entering a file name.
These setting are loaded again by pressing the Load Options and
choosing the file name. This file may be shared among engineers or
incorporated into a company-wide database.
Fathom will initially try to place the text for pipes and junctions based
on their positions on the Workspace. You can drag the text to new
locations which will give the best visual presentation. These positions
are saved with the model. You can reset the locations back to where
Fathom initially placed the text by clicking the Reset Locations button
and then confirming the operation.
If you have made changes which you don’t want to keep, click the
Cancel button. Click Show to apply your settings.
Visual Report annotations
Annotations for the Workspace

Annotations created on the Workspace can be displayed on the Visual
Report by opening the Workspace Annotation window (double-click the
annotation) and selecting the Also Show on Visual Report on the
Scenario Options tab.
Workspace annotations displayed on the Visual Report can be moved on
the Visual Report but not edited.
Creating Visual Report annotations

An annotation can be created specifically for the Visual Report by
choosing Create Annotation from the Edit menu or Visual Report
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Toolbar. When the Create Annotation tool is activated, you can draw an
annotation on the Visual Report just like on the Workspace.
Visual Report annotations have all the properties of a Workspace
annotation, except they can be displayed only on the Visual Report.
The Toolbars
The Toolbars offer quick access to the features used most frequently in
AFT Fathom. Figure 4.30 shows the Toolbars. There are actually six
Toolbars in all. One is the Common Toolbar, and it is always shown. Its
features are common to all five Primary Windows. In addition, there is
one Toolbar for each Primary Window, offering features appropriate for
work in that window. Each of the functions on the Toolbar is also
available through the menu system.
The Toolbars can be customized, and entirely new Toolbars created, by
right-clicking in the Toolbar area.

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Figure 4.30 The Toolbars allow you to quickly access important

features. There is one common Toolbar and a special
Toolbar for each of the five Primary Windows. You see
only two Toolbars at a time in AFT Fathom. The
function of each tool is indicated in the ToolTips that
appear when you hold the cursor over the button. The
Toolbars are customizable.
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CHAPTER 5
Building and Running Models
This chapter discusses the basics of building and running a pipe flow
model with AFT Fathom. AFT Fathom assumes that the user has a good
general understanding of engineering pipe hydraulics. Users who have
not been exposed to pipe flow analysis software may have difficulty
grasping the network modeling concepts initially.
Creating objects
The pipe flow model is assembled on the Workspace by arranging
graphical objects (pipes and junctions) that represent parts of a physical
pipe flow system. In addition to pipe and junction objects, annotation
objects can also be added.
Pipes
To create a pipe, select the Pipe Drawing Tool from the Toolbox and
draw a line on the Workspace to represent the pipe. To draw multiple
pipes more quickly, hold down the CTRL key while drawing each pipe.
This keeps the Pipe Drawing Tool active, so you don't have to select it
for each pipe. Alternatively, you can double-click the Pipe Drawing Tool
to “lock” it down. You can then continue to draw pipes until you click
the Pipe Drawing Tool a second time.
To draw a vertical or horizontal pipe, hold down the SHIFT key while
drawing the pipe.

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The length of the line on the Workspace has no relationship to the
physical length of the pipe. The Workspace pipe is merely an abstract
representation of a pipe.
If a pipe is drawn as an extremely short line, AFT Fathom eliminates the
line immediately after it is drawn.
Another way to create new pipes is to duplicate existing pipes with the
Duplicate or the Copy and Paste features found on the Edit menu. When
a new pipe is derived from a previous pipe, the new pipe retains the
engineering information associated with the original pipe.
When a new pipe is created it is assigned a default ID number. When the
pipe is displayed on the Workspace, the ID number is preceded by the
letter “P” to indicate that it is for a pipe. An arrow on the pipe indicates
the reference positive flow direction for the pipe. From the Pipe
Specifications window you can change the ID number to any value
greater than zero and up to 30,000. The reference positive flow direction
can be reversed by choosing Reverse Direction from the Edit menu or by
selecting the reverse direction button on the Toolbar.
Tip: The pipe or junction ID number text can be dragged to a new

location to improve visibility. The new location is saved with the model.
If you want the text returned to its default location, double-click it. If
you want all pipe and junction text returned to the default locations,
choose Reset Label Locations from the Arrange menu.
Each pipe must be connected to two junctions. There are no exceptions

to this rule.
A pipe can be segmented or “bent” into numerous sections (see Figure
5.1). This does not affect the model or the results, only the visual
representation. It does not add an “elbow” to the model or the resulting
pressure drop effects of an elbow.
This feature is useful in graphically bending the pipe around another part
of the model or graphically showing that there are embedded elbows as
Fittings & Losses.

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Chapter 5 Building and Running Models 99
Figure 5.1 Pipe with five segments
You can add a segment to a pipe in several ways. If you are not using the
orthogonal drawing feature the easiest way to add a single segment is to
select Pipe Segments and Add from the Arrange menu. If there are no
segments, then a single segment can also be added by selecting the
Add/Remove Segment from the Toolbar. If the pipe already has one or
more segments, this Toolbar selection will remove all segments.
A more flexible way of adding or removing segments is to use the Pipe
Segment Manager. To open the Pipe Segment Manager, choose Pipe
Segments and Manager from the Arrange menu. A window will display
where you can add, remove and merge segments. A “handle” will appear
in the middle of the pipe for each new segment. As the cursor passes
over the handle the cursor will change to a crosshair. Press and hold
down the left mouse button and drag the middle of the pipe to the
desired location. By holding the SHIFT key the pipe segment will move
only at right angles.
If you use the orthogonal drawing feature then segments are
automatically inserted as you draw. In this case you can use the SHIFT
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key to flip vertices (if an internal vertex handle is selected). If you select
an endpoint handle of an existing pipe the SHIFT key will insert a new
vertex at that location.
Junctions
To place a junction, drag the icon from the Toolbox onto the Workspace.
The twenty-two available junctions represent various pipe system
components.
When you duplicate a junction using the Duplicate or Copy and Paste
features on the Edit menu, the new junction retains the engineering
information associated with the original junction.
Junctions are shown on the Workspace with default ID numbers, which
you can change in the Junction Specifications window. The letter “J”
precedes the ID number to signify that it is for a junction. From the
junction’s Specifications window you can change the ID number to any
desired value greater than zero and up to 30,000. Identical ID numbers
can be assigned to both a pipe and a junction because the “P” or “J” will
distinguish the two.
Unlike pipes, junctions do not have reference positive flow directions.
Junctions for which the flow direction is important (such as pumps and
control valves) derive the flow direction from the flow direction of the
connecting pipes.
Morphing junctions
A junction can be “morphed” from one type to another. To morph a
junction, hold down the CTRL key and select a junction from the
Toolbox and drop it onto an existing Workspace junction. The junction
type will change to the new junction type, and data that can be kept will
be copied into the new junction.
Splitting pipes
If you hold down the SHIFT key while selecting a junction from the
Toolbox and then drop the junction onto an existing pipe, the pipe will
split into two pipes. The physical length of the original pipe will be
automatically halved, and the new pipe will be assigned the balance.
Thus the sum of the two pipe lengths will equal the length of the original

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pipe. Any fittings/losses in the original pipe will be left in the original
pipe, and the new pipe will have no fittings/losses.
Annotations
To create an annotation, select the annotation tool on the Toolbox and
draw the outline of the annotation. When you release the mouse button,
the Workspace Annotation window will display. Here you can enter text
for the annotation, draw lines and arrows, change colors, and draw
outlines. You also can change the colors of the annotation.
Annotations can be cut, copied, pasted, duplicated, and moved like pipe
and junction objects. When you select an existing annotation, resizing
handles appear.
The Annotation Manager allows you to show or hide annotations within
different scenarios.
Moving objects
Objects on the Workspace can be moved individually or as groups.
Clicking a Workspace object selects it. Pipe objects change color when
selected. Junction and annotation objects are outlined in red when
selected. This color is configurable in the Workspace Preferences.
To move an object, select it, drag it within the Workspace, and drop it in
the desired location. When an object is dragged beyond the existing
Workspace area, the Workspace is expanded accordingly.
A pipe object can be stretched by grabbing the handles (small black
squares) at the pipe endpoints and moving an endpoint to a new location.
To prevent accidental movement, lock the objects on the Workspace.
The Lock feature is accessed from the Edit menu or the lock button on
the Toolbar.
To group multiple objects for movement or other operations, hold down
the SHIFT key when selecting the objects. Objects can also be grouped
by drawing a box around them using the Selection Drawing Tool on the
Toolbox. You can use the Select Special on the Edit menu to group
objects based on specified criteria.
You can also select all objects in a flow path as follows:
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• Select one object in the flow path
• Choose Select Flow Path from the Edit menu or Toolbar
• Choose what type of objects you want to select
The endpoints of a flow path are the junctions which connect more than
one flow path, like a branch junction connected to three or more pipes.
You can choose to include or exclude these end point junctions.
Tip: You can undo all pipe and junction movements using Undo on the
Edit menu or Toolbar. You also can press the escape key during the
movement to cancel the move.
Editing objects
The objects you place on the Workspace can be edited with the editing
commands from the Edit menu or the Toolbar. Objects can be cut,
copied, pasted, duplicated, and deleted. These operations can be
performed on individual objects or on groups. The Edit menu provides
one level of undo for each editing operation. Alternately, you can use the
Undo button on the Toolbar.
The Copy Graphics feature on the Edit menu will copy the specified
Workspace objects to the Windows clipboard. This image can then be
pasted into other Windows applications.
Connecting objects
During construction of a new model, objects can be placed anywhere on
the Workspace. In order to assemble a model that is ready to submit to
the Solver, you must connect the objects properly.
Remember that connectivity only exists between junctions and pipes.
There are no junctions that connect to junctions, and no pipes that
connect to pipes.
AFT Fathom will attempt to automatically connect pipes and junctions
when they are moved. This eliminates unnecessary opening of the pipe
and junction Specifications windows. If Fathom cannot make the
connection automatically, then the following three steps may be required
to establish a connection between a junction and a pipe:

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1. Graphically connect the objects on the Workspace. The pipe
endpoint must terminate within the boundaries of a junction icon.
Figure 5.2 shows a graphical connection between a pipe and a
junction.
2. After the pipe is graphically connected to two junctions, Double-
click the pipe to open its Specifications window, then click OK to
accept the connected junctions as determined by AFT Fathom. It is
most efficient to do this when you are entering the pipe's data in its
Specifications window.
3. Open the Specifications window of the corresponding junction and
accept the pipe connectivity determination. You can do this as you
enter the junction's data in its Specifications window.
Figure 5.2 A pipe and junction graphical connection
If the model seems to not be connected properly, you can also use the
Extended Model Check feature on the View menu.
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When you accept AFT Fathom's connectivity interpretation, the
connection advances from a graphical connection to a model connection
(For more information on Specifications windows, refer to Chapter 6.)
The model connectivity you establish on the Workspace is retained only
as long as you maintain the graphical objects in their current visual
relationship to each other. If you move a pipe or a junction and break the
graphical connection, AFT Fathom disconnects the two objects.
However, if you move a group of connected objects, their model
connectivity is maintained.
Defining objects
Each Workspace object in a model must be defined before AFT Fathom
can obtain a solution. AFT Fathom examines your model for proper
definition before it gives you access to the Solver.
To define an object, you must specify all the required property data for
the object and satisfy its connectivity requirements as described in the
following sections.
The Show Object Status feature identifies pipe and junction objects in
the model that are not completely defined.
Specifying required property data

To specify the required property data for an object, open its
Specifications window. This can be done in six ways:
1. Double-click the object on the Workspace
2. Select the object (by clicking on it once, or using the Selection
Drawing Tool) and press ENTER
3. Select the object and click the Open Pipe/Junction Window icon on
the Toolbar
4. Double-click the left column of the appropriate table in the Model
Data window (where the object ID number is shown)
5. Jump from another Specifications window
6. Double-click the connected pipe or junction number in a
Specifications window

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When editing in a Pipe Specifications window, pressing the F5 function
key jumps automatically to the next higher numbered pipe. Pressing F5
while holding the CTRL key jumps to the next lower number. Junction
windows behave similarly.
Parameters that functionally describe the pipe or junction are entered in
the Specifications window. Some parameters in the Specifications
windows are required while some are optional. The optional parameters
offer you added control over your model and the ability to obtain special
information.
Highlighting required information

You can toggle the highlight feature on and off in any of the following
ways:
• Double-click anywhere in the Specifications window
• Press the F2 function key when a Specifications window is open
• Choose “Highlight in Pipe and Jct Windows” from the Options
menu
The highlighting feature may be especially useful when you are first
learning to use AFT Fathom or when you are having difficulty obtaining
a defined object status.
A more detailed discussion of the contents of pipe and junction
Specifications windows is given in Chapter 6.
Use status feature

Each pipe and junction Specifications window has a Status tab. The
Status tab shows what required information for the pipe or junction is
missing.
Undefined objects window

You can open the Undefined Objects window to view all undefined
objects and the undefined properties. This is available on the View
menu.
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Satisfying connectivity requirements

In addition to entering the required information for each object in the
model, you must satisfy these connectivity requirements:
• You must accept the connectivity information shown in each object's
Specifications window (refer to “Connecting objects” earlier in this
chapter).
• Each junction must have the appropriate number of pipes connected
to it. For example, a venturi must have exactly two connecting pipes,
whereas a reservoir may have one to twenty-five connecting pipes.
(Details on each of the junctions are given in Chapter 6 and
summarized in Table 6.1.)
• Pipes must always be connected to two junctions, one at each pipe
endpoint.
Should you ever delete any of the required information in the
Specifications window or move a connected object from its connection,
the object's status reverts to undefined.
For example, say you place a pump on the Workspace. A pump requires
inlet and outlet piping. AFT Fathom reflects this by requiring each pump
to be assigned an upstream pipe and a downstream pipe. Entering only
the pump constants and setting an elevation is necessary but not
sufficient information to define the pump according to AFT Fathom's
requirements. Once you have entered the pump data and properly
connected it, the pump is defined.
Inspecting objects
The Inspection feature is a time saving feature for reviewing the data
associated with a Workspace pipe or junction object. Inspection displays
the data for an object in read-only format (see Figure 5.3).
To inspect a pipe or junction object, position the mouse pointer on the
object and hold down the right mouse button. Inspecting is quicker than
opening the Specifications window if you want to look at an object's
input data but not edit it.
Tip: If you press the SHIFT key when you perform the inspection, only
the items not yet specified are displayed. If you press the CTRL key

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when you perform the inspection, the output data will be displayed (if
output exists).
Figure 5.3 Inspecting from the Workspace with right mouse

button
The Inspection feature is also available in each Specifications window.

This is useful if you want to check the input data of objects connected to
the one on which you are working.
For example, when working in an Orifice Specifications window, you
may wish to quickly check the upstream and downstream pipe diameters
previously defined. Holding down the right mouse button on each
connected pipe ID number will show you that pipe's primary input
parameters.
The Inspection feature works similarly in Pipe Specifications windows
when you inspect connected junctions. Judicious inspecting can save you
time when assembling or troubleshooting a model.
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Using the Checklist

Assembling a model that is ready to submit to the Solver is not, at first
glance, an obvious process. The new user will wonder where to begin,
and even the experienced user will at times lose track of what
information has already been entered and what information remains to
be entered. To help you in this process, the Checklist window tracks the
status of your model and communicates to you where you lack complete
information.
The Checklist shows five items (six when using the XTS module) that
need to be addressed (see Figure 5.4). When a requirement has been met,
you will see a check mark next to the item in the Checklist window. You
can view the Checklist by selecting Checklist from the View menu or
Toolbar.
As a guide to the user, the Checklist items are also shown on the Status
Bar at the bottom of the AFT Fathom window (Figure 5.5).
When you have entered the proper information for all Checklist
requirements your model is complete and ready to submit to the Solver.
As long as the Checklist remains uncompleted the Model Status Light in
the lower left corner is red. If you try to run a model with an incomplete
Checklist, you are informed what Checklist items are not completed. The
Model Status Light will turn green when the Checklist is complete.
Figure 5.4 The Checklist tracks the model’s status. If you are
using the XTS module, a sixth item will be visible.

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Status bar
Status light
Figure 5.5 The Status Bar shows the status of each Checklist
item. The Model Status Light turns green when the
model is complete.
Specify Solution Control

For a new model, the Checklist shows three items checked and two
unchecked. The first item is Solution Control; this is checked because
the solution control parameters have been set to default values which do
not generally require modification.
AFT Fathom attempts to shield less experienced analysts from the
details of numerical convergence by providing robust defaults. More
experienced users of numerical modeling software, however, will desire
access to the parameters that control the behavior of the Solver. The
Solution Control parameters can be modified by opening the Solution
Control window from the Analysis menu. More information on Solution
Control is given later in this chapter and in Chapter 8.
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Specify Output Control

The second Checklist item, Output Control, is also checked initially
because Output Control defaults have been specified. However, you will
probably want to change the title of your analysis from the default (on
the General tab).
The Output Control window allows you to choose the parameters you
want included in your output and the units for those parameters. You can
also rearrange the output parameters to appear in the order you find most
productive. These features are discussed in more detail later in this
chapter.
Specify System Properties

The third Checklist item can be addressed by changing to the System
Properties window. Here the working fluid(s), gravitational level, and
atmospheric pressure are entered. Defaults are assigned for gravity and
atmospheric pressure. You can choose to use an Unspecified Fluid, an
AFT Standard fluid, Water Data from ASME Steam Tables, or, if you
have licensed the Chempak add-on, the Chempak fluids. Chempak fluids
permit user specified mixtures.
Specify Cost Settings

The fourth Checklist item, Cost Settings, is checked initially because
cost calculations are not by default enabled. Here the user can specify
parameters for calculating pump energy costs. The CST module allows
additional selections.
Define All Pipes and Junctions

The fifth Checklist item, Define All Pipes and Junctions, is more
abstract and cannot be addressed like the other three items by simply
opening a window and entering the proper information. This item
requires that the proper specifications have been entered and
connectivity requirements have been met for all objects in the model.
When you have properly defined all Workspace objects, the fifth
Checklist item will be completed.

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Solution control
The solution control parameters you can specify are tolerances for
pressure, flow rate, and temperature balance, two numerical relaxation
parameters, the number of iterations to perform before stopping, and
optional features such as temperature limits and disabling global mass or
energy balancing (see Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6 The Solution Control window allows control over

parameters that affect the Solver
To open the Solution Control window, select Solution Control from the
Analysis menu. The parameters that control the behavior of the Solver
are closely linked to the solution methodology employed by AFT
Fathom. Therefore, a detailed discussion of the features in the Solution
Control window is presented in Chapter 8.
The default Solution Control settings have been chosen to provide the
most robust solution settings applicable to most models. In general, you
do not need to modify these parameters. Change them only when you are
comfortable with the effect the changes will have on your analysis or if
you have a model that does not converge with the default settings.
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Output control
Most engineering analyses involve processing a very large amount of
information, some of which is critical but most of which is of lesser
importance. The key to accurately and efficiently analyzing engineering
systems is the proper identification of the critical information that affects
the system; when this is accomplished, resources and attention can be
focused where they will have the most benefit. Too much secondary
information can obscure the critical information and result in lost time
or, worse, erroneous conclusions.
Change output order
using this tool
Select Output
Parameter to Modify
List of parameters to
show in the Output
List of all parameters

that can be shown in
the Output
List of parameters can

be shown
alphabetically or by
category
Description of Output
item can be turned on
here
Database connection
Figure 5.7 The Output Control window selects parameters for

Output. The list of available parameters (on the left)
can be viewed alphabetically or by category.
AFT Fathom recognizes this dilemma and provides the Output Control
window for customizing your output. The Output Control window is
available on the Analysis menu and is shown in Figure 5.7. This window
is described in detail in Chapter 4 and will be described only briefly
here. The Output Control window allows you to specify the following:

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• Pipe and junction output parameters to be included in the output
• Engineering units in which the output parameters will be expressed
• The order in which the output parameters will appear
• Display of same parameter in multiple units
• Content and order of summary reports
• Which pipes and junctions to show in the output
• Changes in parameter values between junctions
• Title appearing on the output report
• Model reference information for detailed documentation purposes
• Formatting preference of the numbers which appear in the output
parameters
• Where to direct the output once it has been obtained
System properties
The System Properties window gives you control over the fluid and
environmental properties that influence your pipe system analysis.
Figure 5.8 shows the System Properties window, which is accessed
through the Analysis menu.
The two fluid properties that are required for all analyses are density and
dynamic viscosity. Fluid vapor pressure is an optional specification.
These properties can be entered by hand when the fluid is selected as
Unspecified, or they can be obtained from the database list of AFT
Standard, the ASME Steam tables data, or Chempak fluids. When
selected from the list, density and viscosity cannot be edited as they
depend on the specified temperature (and pressure if ASME Steam
tables or Chempak).
System fluid property variation

The System Properties window allows you to choose from one of four
fluid property variation models. The first fluid property variation model
is for constant fluid properties. When this model is chosen, all pipes in
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the system are assigned the fluid properties you specify in the System
Properties window.
Figure 5.8 The System Properties window is where you choose

the fluid(s) for your model. The case above uses an
AFT Fathom Standard fluid.
The second model is for variable properties, but without heat transfer. In
this model, the fluid properties assigned in the System Properties
window are used as the default fluid properties (densities, viscosities and
vapor pressures) for each pipe. You can then assign different fluid
properties within each Pipe Specifications window. This allows you to
model systems that may be subject to large temperature variations or
systems that contain more than one fluid.
The third model incorporates a full heat transfer model with an energy
balance on the system for a single fluid. This option is only available for
fluids which have Specific Heat and Thermal Conductivity data
available. Additionally, only liquids should be used since gas
thermodynamics is beyond the scope of AFT Fathom (AFT Arrow™ is
ideally suited for compressible, real-gas analysis). When this model is
chosen, additional temperature information is required for pipes and
several junction types to be defined.

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The fourth model functions the same as the third except it allows
multiple fluids in the model in separate loops. These employ Fluid
Groups.
If you choose a variable fluid property method, you can also constrain
the density to remain constant by selecting the Always Use Constant
Density checkbox. By maintaining a constant density, the hydraulic
grade line concept retains meaning, even though the viscosity may vary.
Density and dynamic viscosity

The fluid density and dynamic viscosity can be obtained from
handbooks, special databases or literature, vendors, or from your own
measurements. AFT Fathom allows these parameters to be entered in
whatever units you find most convenient.
Vapor pressure and cavitation

The vapor pressure does not affect the solution, and that is why it is
optional. However, certain important phenomena occur when the fluid
static pressure drops to the vapor pressure. These phenomena all result
from cavitation.
Cavitation occurs when the fluid static pressure drops to the fluid vapor
pressure (usually as a result of flow through a restricted area of some
kind). Small bubbles or “cavities” of vapor tend to occur and persist
until the fluid moves to a location where the static pressure is increased
sufficiently above the vapor pressure to cause them to collapse. In
addition to causing undesired noise, cavities that collapse in proximity to
a structural element can cause severe damage to the structure.
Pumps generally have a required NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) or
NPSP (Net Positive Suction Pressure) that must be provided by the pipe
system to prevent cavitation in the pump. Pump cavitation may lead to
degraded pump performance, or, in the worst case, it may damage or
even destroy the pump. In addition to pump cavitation, cavitation may
occur downstream of restrictions such as valves and orifices.
The fluid databases

The AFT Standard Database offers to the user 71 common fluids. The
optional Chempak Database offers approximately 700 fluids, and also
offers liquid and gas mixture capabilities.
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The AFT Standard Database
The AFT Standard Database offers property data based on temperature
or, if entered by the user, solids concentration.
To add a fluid into your model, select it from the list at the top and
choose the Add to Model button. The fluid will appear in the lower list
of Fluids in Current Model. Enter a temperature and click the Calculate
Properties button to display the density, viscosity and vapor pressure.
The AFT Standard Database supports two different independent
variables. Most commonly, the independent variable will be temperature.
All fluids provided by AFT are temperature dependent. User created
fluids can depend on either temperature or solids concentration. Fluid
properties dependent on solids concentration are useful for modeling
sludge in pipe systems. The choice of which independent variable to use
is offered in the Add New Fluid window opened from the Fluid
Database window.
More information on the custom fluids is given in Chapter 7.
The ASME Steam Tables Database

The ASME Steam Tables Database offers users access to water and
steam properties obtained from the IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997
for the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam (ISPWS-IF97),
(see ASME Press in References). This database is selected by choosing
the option, at which point “ASME ’97 Water” is automatically displayed
in the Fluids in Current Model area.
The Chempak database

The optional Chempak database offers the user approximately 700
fluids. In addition, it offers non-reacting mixture calculations.
A Chempak fluid is added the same way as a Standard fluid, by selecting
it in the list at the top and choosing the Add to Model button (see Figure
5.9). You also have the option of creating a mixture of Chempak fluids
by choosing the Create New Mixture and Add button. This will open the
Create Mixture window shown in Figure 5.10. Here you can specify a
mixture of fluids in any composition ratio you desire.

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Figure 5.9 The System Properties window is where you choose

the fluid(s) for your model. The case above uses
methanol, a Chempak fluid.
The basis of all mixtures is either mass or mole, and is specified on the
System Properties window itself. There are no limits to the number of
components in a particular mixture.
The mixtures you create here are referred to as pre-mixtures because you
are specifying the composition before the model is run.
Accuracy option
There is one accuracy option for Chempak fluids and mixtures. The
State Property Accuracy option influences the number of elements used
in curve fits for calculating property data. If you are not modeling heat
transfer, you should use the high accuracy option. If you are modeling
heat transfer, you may want to start with standard accuracy. Then use
high accuracy for final runs, depending on the importance and run time
for the model. The high accuracy option will increase run time by a
factor of about two for heat transfer models.
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Figure 5.10 The Create Mixture window (opened from the System
Properties window) allows you to create predefined
mixtures for the model.
Viscosity models
The default viscosity model is Newtonian, which applies to a wide
variety of important liquids including water. Some liquids exhibit a
dependence of viscosity on the fluid dynamics, and these fluids are
called non-Newtonian. When one of these model is selected, additional
input parameters are required (see Figure 5.11).
AFT Fathom offers four non-Newtonian viscosity models. Two of the
models apply to pulp and paper. These are the Duffy model and the
Brecht & Heller model.
Also available are models for Power Law fluids and Bingham Plastics.
See Darby, 2001 for more information on these viscosity models.

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More extensive discussion of these viscosity models is given in Chapter
8.
Non-Newtonian flow in non-pipe elements

The non-Newtonian viscosity models are designed for calculating
pressure loss in pipes. But what about other elements such as elbows and
valves?
There does not seem to be any standard calculation methods for such
elements. AFT Fathom therefore offers an approximate method. At your
option, standard K values and/or loss curves will be modified by ratioing
the provided loss values (assumed to be Newtonian) by the non-
Newtonian and Newtonian friction factors. See Chapter 8 for more
discussion.
If you wish to use these correction factors, select the appropriate option
in the provided fields.
Figure 5.11 Non-Newtonian fluid data on System Properties.
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Atmospheric pressure
AFT Fathom uses a default atmospheric pressure of 1 standard earth
atmosphere, or 14.696 psia. (101.325 kPa) You are free to change this
value. This pressure is also used to convert absolute pressures to gauge
pressures. Keep in mind that atmospheric pressure varies with altitude. If
you are doing one project at Sea Level and another at 2500 meters you
should adjust the Atmospheric Pressure. See Figure 5.12 for the System
Data tab.
Gravitational acceleration
The default for gravitational acceleration is 1 standard earth
gravitational acceleration, or 32.174 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2) You can change
this to a multiple of standard earth accelerations (that is, number of g's)
according to the design environment for your system. In principle, the
body force on a fluid system does not have to be due to gravity. See
Figure 5.12 for the System Data tab.
Transition Reynolds Numbers

AFT Fathom allows you to modify the transition Reynolds Numbers.
The default values are Reynolds Number less than 2300 is laminar and
greater than 4000 is turbulent. In the transition zone a linear
interpolation is assumed. This applies for friction factors and convection
heat transfer coefficients (see Chapter 8). See Figure 5.12 for the System
Data tab.
You can modify these transition Reynolds Numbers if you choose.
Editing the AFT Standard fluid database

AFT Fathom provides a fluid database for numerous common fluids. If
the working fluid is not in the database, you may elect to enter the fluid
properties in a custom database for later recall.

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Figure 5.12 System Properties window System Data tab
To enter or modify fluid properties in the fluid list database, click the
Edit Fluid List button or select Fluid Database from the Database menu.
The fluids you define are incorporated into the fluid list as if they were
native to AFT Fathom. The fluid data is saved to disk and read in when
AFT Fathom is loaded. More information on building custom fluid
databases into AFT Fathom is given in Chapter 7.
If you want to change the data for one of the AFT Standard fluids you
can select the fluid, click Add To Database, then enter a new name for
the fluid. You can now edit this copy of the original fluid data (the
original will still exist).
Cost settings
The Cost Settings window (Figure 5.13) is used to enable cost
calculations in AFT Fathom. When used with the standard AFT Fathom,
it enables energy cost calculations. The cost of energy can be entered
directly, or more sophisticated energy cost models can be included in
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energy cost databases. Cost calculations are shown in the Output
window Cost Report.
Energy cost
Energy cost data can be easily specified by choosing the “Use This
Energy Cost Information” option and entering the energy cost directly.
More detailed energy costs can be set up in one or more Energy Cost
Databases, with daily variations in rates.
Different types of currencies can be specified in the Parameter and Unit
Preferences window under “monetary units”, and output costs can be
displayed in the preferred currency.
Cost Time Period

Here you can enter how you want recurring costs to be calculated. You
can specify a Cost Time Period over which you want the pump costs
calculated. You can also specify interest and inflation rates, which will
cause cost calculations to be based on net present value.
Figure 5.13 Cost Settings window allows specification of pump

energy calculation parameters.

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Use with CST Module
When used with the CST module, the Cost Settings window allows you
to specify what cost categories you would like to include in the cost
calculation. These can be:
• Material
• Installation
• Maintenance
• Operation (i.e., Energy)
You can also instruct AFT Fathom to total an engineering parameter
such as weight or volume.
Finding object definition status

In order to complete the fifth Checklist item and gain access to the
Solver, you must properly define all objects on the Workspace.
Show Object Status

The Show Object Status feature helps you identify which objects on the
Workspace are defined and which are not. This feature can be toggled on
and off by selecting it from the View menu or by clicking the floodlight
button on the Toolbar.
Turning Show Object Status on displays the undefined junction and pipe
ID numbers in the Undefined Color, which is red by default. The color
can be changed through the Workspace Preferences window. Show
Object Status helps you rapidly assess where your model requires
additional information.
Leaving Show Object Status always toggled on is not recommended for
large models, as it will slow the Workspace graphics response. When
this feature is on, every Workspace graphical operation you perform
must be accompanied by a check of all pipe and junction connections.
This check takes time, and could degrade your graphics performance.
The most efficient way to use Show Object Status is to turn it on only
when you have finished adding and arranging the Workspace objects. If
you need to graphically edit your model, it is best to turn Show Object
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Status off, perform your graphical editing, then turn it back on when you
need it.
List Undefined Objects

The Undefined Objects window can be opened from the View menu or
Workspace Toolbar. It lists all undefined pipes and junctions and
displays the undefined properties as well. See Figure 5.14.
Figure 5.14 The Undefined Objects window displays undefined

pipe and junctions and the undefined properties of
each.
Defining pressures for the system

AFT Fathom needs a pressure specified in the system, to be used as the
reference point upon which all other pressures are based. In certain
cases, however, more than one pressure must be specified. These cases
include systems which contain pressure control valves, flow control
valves, internal relief valves, or fixed flow pumps.

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Chapter 9 contains a comprehensive discussion on this topic. See the
Role of pressure junctions.
Fluid groups and multi-loop heat transfer

The purpose of fluid groups is to allow heat transfer calculations in
different loops which have different fluids. This option is enabled in
System Properties by selecting “Heat Transfer With Energy Balance
(Multiple Fluids)”.
When enabled in System Properties, a new menu item appears on the
Edit menu Groups flyout menu. The submenu is called Fluids. Here is
how this feature is used:
1. Select a base fluid in System Properties
2. Select “Heat Transfer With Energy Balance (Multiple Fluids)”
option in System Properties
3. Select each fluid loop on the Workspace and use the Groups / Create
feature on the Edit menu to give the group a name. At this point the
pipes and junctions are standard AFT Fathom groups.
4. Open the Fluid Groups window be selecting Groups / Fluids on the
Edit menu.
5. Specify which groups are to be “Fluid Groups”
6. Specify what fluid is to be used in each fluid group.
7. Click OK
Now when you run the model, each of the pipes and junctions in each
group will take on the fluid properties assigned to that fluid group.
Here are some guidelines for use:
1. A pipe or junction can belong to one and only one fluid group
2. Every pipe and junction must belong to a fluid group
Use with Heat Exchangers

Fluid groups allow heat exchangers to be modeled with thermal links to
other heat exchangers carrying different fluids.
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Using scenario manager

Scenario Manager is a powerful tool for managing variations of a model,
referred to as scenarios. Scenario Manager allows you to:
• Create, name and organize scenarios
• Select the scenario to appear in the Workspace (the ‘current’
scenario)
• Delete, copy and rename scenarios
• Duplicate scenarios and save them as separate models
• Pass changes from a scenario to its variants
All scenarios are saved within the model file.
The Scenario Manager window

Illustrated in Figure 5.15, the left side of the Scenario Manager window
contains the scenario tree, displaying the names of the currently defined
scenarios, their relationship to other scenarios and which is the current
Workspace scenario (the current scenario is also identified in AFT
Fathom’s Status Bar). On the right there is a place where one may record
notes related to that scenario.
Those attributes whose value comes from a different scenario are linked,
while those values coming from the selected scenario are not linked.
Linked attributes will inherit changes made in the same object and
attribute of the linked ancestor. This inheritance will occur over as many
generations as the link exists.
Creating, organizing and editing scenarios

The “All Scenarios Defined in Model” portion of the Scenario Manager
window shows the name and relationship of all currently defined
scenarios. Scenarios are referred to as either a parent or child, plus the
Base Scenario, which may be thought of as the root scenario. Upon
opening a new model file, only a Base Scenario will be present. To
create a new scenario below the Base Scenario, select the Base Scenario
by clicking on it, then click the Create Child button and enter a name for
the new scenario.

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Figure 5.15 illustrates a model with a Base Scenario with three children,
‘3 in PVC Pipe’, ‘3.5 in PVC Pipe’ and ‘4 in PVC Pipe’, representing
three different size pipe runs. Each of these, in turn, has two children,
‘North hydrant open’ and ‘South hydrant open’, for the two operating
cases.
Current
Workspace
scenario
Scenario tree
Rename,
delete, clone,
promote & save
scenarios by
clicking here
Create a new
scenario by
clicking here
Figure 5.15 Scenario Manager window
‘3 in PVC Pipe’, ‘3.5 in PVC Pipe’ and ‘4 in PVC Pipe’ were created by
first selecting the Base Scenario then clicking on Create Child. ‘North
hydrant open’ and ‘South hydrant open’ were, in turn, created by
selecting each of the above children scenarios for the three different pipe
run sizes, then clicking on Create Child (Note: alternatively, one could
have made the Base Scenario current, created the ‘3 in PVC Pipe’ child,
then selected it and created the ‘North hydrant open’ and ‘South hydrant
open’ scenarios below it, then, with ‘3 in PVC Pipe’ still selected, click
on Other Actions / Clone With Children twice, then rename the new
clones ‘3.5 in PVC Pipe’ and ‘4 in PVC Pipe’). The ‘North hydrant’ and
‘South hydrant’ scenarios may be thought of as grand children of the
Base Scenario. This concept of scenario ancestry is helpful in keeping
track of the differences and similarities between scenarios discussed
later.
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A box with a plus sign next to a scenario indicates it may be expanded to
reveal children scenarios while a box with a minus sign indicates the
level is fully expanded with all children scenarios shown, if any. No box
indicates there are no children. Levels may be expanded by clicking on
the plus sign and condensed by clicking on the minus sign.
Clicking on the Other Actions button reveals a menu providing the
following choices:
• Rename – renames the selected scenario
• Delete – deletes the selected scenario
• Clone Without Children – creates a copy of the selected scenario at
the same level (a sibling)
• Clone With Children – creates a copy of the selected scenario along
with its children
• Promote – raises a scenario one level, i.e. from a child to a
sibling…active only for scenarios more than one level below the
base scenario
• Save Scenario to File Without Children – saves the selected scenario
to a new file without its children
• Save Scenario to File With Children – saves the selected scenario
and its children to a new file
It is important to remember that AFT Fathom’s Edit menu Undo does
not apply to Scenario Manager operations. To undo a Rename scenario
operation, you can rename the scenario again to the old name. To undo a
Clone or Save Scenario operation, you can delete the clone or file
created. Once a scenario is deleted or promoted, there is no way to un-
delete or un-promote the scenario.
Viewing scenario differences

A scenario’s data and that for all of its direct ancestors can be viewed in
the Model Data window (Figure 5.16). This functionality can be enabled
in the Model Data Control window. Output from different scenarios can
also be displayed in the Output window using Output Control features.

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Figure 5.16 Model Data display of scenario ancestor data. This

functionality is enabled in Model Data Control.
Modifying individual scenarios

When first created, a scenario is identical to its parent. To modify or run
a scenario, it must first be made the current Workspace scenario by
selecting it within the Scenario Manager window, then clicking on the
Load As Current Scenario button. (The name of the current scenario is
displayed in both the Scenario Manager window and in AFT Fathom’s
Status Bar.) Once a scenario is the current scenario, changes may be
made to differentiate it from its parent using any of AFT Fathom’s
editing tools and functions. When an attribute is changed within a
scenario it breaks the link for this attribute. Subsequent changes in the
scenario’s ancestors will no longer affect this attribute.
Properties of a scenario that may differ from its ancestors include:
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• Presence and location of objects – one may add or delete pipes and
junctions within a scenario and the workspace locations may vary
from scenario to scenario
• Pipe and junction specifications – all values set in the specification
windows
• System Properties – fluid selected, temperature of fluid, viscosity
model, system data
• Solution Control – solution method, tolerances, relaxation
• Output Control – Output window content and formatting
• Cost Settings – application of cost data
• Database Manager – The connected database content can be varied
between scenarios
• Visual Report – Visual Report content and color maps
Workspace Preferences, Parameter and Unit Preferences, General
Preferences and Model Data Control apply to all scenarios.
Passing changes to child scenarios

Scenario Manager will pass changes made in a scenario to linked
attributes of its descendants, allowing multiple scenarios to be modified
in one operation and maintain similarity between scenarios where
desired.
Any attribute whose value is the same as that of the scenario’s parent is
linked to the parent. In turn, if the parent’s attribute value is the same as
that of its parent, then the child’s attribute is linked to its grandparent.
This ancestral linking of attributes can exist across any number of
generations. A change made to a scenario will be passed downward to its
children, grandchildren, etc., as far as the link exists. Changes are NOT
passed upward from child to parent.
Once an attribute is changed within a scenario, the link is broken.
Subsequent changes in the scenario’s ancestors, parent, grandparent,
etc., will no longer affect that attribute.

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Scenario logic examples
For many users, it is easiest to grasp Scenario Manager when it is
explained how the coding logic is actually implemented. Blank fields for
children, grandchildren, etc., mean to look to the parent for the data. The
Base Scenario never has blank fields (Figure 5.17a). Data only passes
downwards, never upwards.
Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 __ __
GrandChild #1 __ __
Figure 5.17a Scenario Manager logic – Blank fields for Child #1 and
GrandChild #1 mean that the data is to come from the
parent. If the Base scenario data is changed, all
descendants are changed.
If a child scenario does not have a blank field, then data for that property
is initiated at that scenario level (see Figure 5.17b).
Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 2 __
GrandChild #1 __ __
Figure 5.17b Scenario Manager logic – Child #1 does not have a

blank field, so it’s Diameter would be 2, not 3, as
would GrandChild #1.
If a scenario is changed, and it’s child has different data, then the change
will not pass downwards (see Figure 5.17c).
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Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 2 __
GrandChild #1 __ __
Diameter Length
Base 6 40
Child #1 2 __
GrandChild #1 __ __
Figure 5.17c Scenario Manager logic – Changing the Base Scenario

Diameter from 3 to 6 would not impact Child #1 or any
descendents in that line. Changing the Length from 25
to 40 would also change the length in Child #1,
GrandChild #1, and any descendents of GrandChild
#1.
If a child scenario has data that is different than the parent, its children
cannot relink to the parent (see Figure 5.17d).
If a child scenario’s data, which was previously changed and is thus
different from the parent, is changed back to the same vale as the parent,
the inheritance link is re-established (see Figure 5.17e). It’s descendant’s
link is also re-established.

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Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 2 __
GrandChild #1 3 __
Figure 5.17d Scenario Manager logic – Even if the GrandChild #1

has the same Diameter as the Base, it is not linked to
the Base because it and its parent are not blank.
Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 3 __
GrandChild #1 3 __
Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 __ __
GrandChild #1 __ __
Figure 5.17e Scenario Manager logic – If the Diameter in Child #1 is

changed to be the same as the Base, it will be
“blanked out” the next time the scenario is loaded and
the link re-established. And so will GrandChild #1, if
it’s Diameter is also the same.
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Figure 5.17f shows data for two pipe properties across three scenarios.
The data that would be used when each scenario is loaded is as follows:
1. Base scenario
a. Diameter = 3
b. Length = 25
c. Changes to Diameter will not pass downwards
d. Changes to Length will affect only Child #1.
2. Child #1 scenario
a. Diameter = 2
b. Length = 25
c. Changes to Base Diameter will not affect Diameter
d. Changes to Base Length will affect Length
3. GrandChild #1 scenario
a. Diameter = 2
b. Length = 15
c. Changes to Base Diameter will not affect Diameter
d. Changes to Child #1 Diameter will affect Diameter
e. Changes to Base Length or Child #1 Length will not affect
Length
Diameter Length
Base 3 25
Child #1 2 __
GrandChild #1 __ 15
Figure 5.17f Scenario Manager logic – Input data for these

properties explained in the text.

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Re-establishing broken links
A link may be re-established by returning the attribute to the same value
as that of its parent. This can be done manually by entering the value or
selecting the Copy Data From Pipe list and selecting the Parent Pipe
Data option. Within other data windows it is done by selecting the Same
As Parent option in Solution Control, Output Control, System Properties,
Cost Settings, Database Manager or Visual Report Control.
Since links are identified by comparing attribute values of pipes or
junctions with the same Workspace ID number, renumbering a scenario
will break the links of all pipes and junctions renumbered. Since
numbers must be unique, once a link has been broken by renumbering, it
may not be re-established.
Fast scenario changes

AFT Fathom remembers the most recent scenario you had open, and
allows you to quickly change back to that scenario by using the Last
Scenario feature. Last Scenario is found on the View menu and Toolbar.
Importing Excel Data
Overview
A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet can be used to make changes to objects
in an AFT Fathom model. The model must be opened in AFT Fathom to
the scenario in which the changes are to be made. The values in the
Excel file are located in specific locations as described in the Setting Up
Excel section. Once the Excel file is created and saved, these changes
can be read in to AFT Fathom, changing the model. Any errors and a list
of changes made are reported.
Setting up Excel
The changes are entered on a worksheet named “AFT Transfer” (see
Figure 5.18). There can be other worksheets in the workbook but Fathom
will only look for a sheet with this name. The first data is entered in cell
B2. Column A and row 1 are not read and are available for user
comments. The file structure looks like the following:
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Figure 5.18 Microsoft Excel sheet with data changes to import into
AFT Fathom.
The order of the columns cannot be changed, however, there can be any
number of rows of changes. Leave an empty line at the end to signal the
last change.
The Apply column (column B) signals that the row should be read by
Fathom. To signal that the row is to be used, enter a “Y” or “*” in the
cell; to signal that data should not be used, enter an “N” or leave the cell
blank.
The values for the Object Type, Parameter ID and Change Code are
discussed in the Change Parameters section below.
The workbook can remain open. However, it must be saved so that AFT
Fathom can read the data.
Reading changes into AFT Fathom

Select ‘Import Excel Change Data’ from the File menu. Select the Excel
file to use for the changes and click Open. The changes will then be
processed.
After the changes have been made, a report is shown listing each change.
Any errors that have occurred are listed first. The row number displayed
is the row in the Excel file.

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Note: In order for the pipe or junction to accept the changes, some
fields must already contain data. For example, if the heat rate for a heat
exchanger is being changed, there must already be a heat rate and units
entered into the heat exchanger junction object. This is to insure that the
correct set of units are being used. These values can be set using Global
Edit to an arbitrary value before the changes are made from Excel.
Table 5.1 Excel importing Object Type Definition
Object Type Description

1 Junction
2 Pipe
Table 5.2 Excel importing Change Codes Definition
Code Description Example

Single/Real Values (S)
1 Set equal to value Change flowrate from 100 to 104
2 Change by value (+/-) Add 25 to the heat rate
3 Change by percent (+/-) Increase the pressure by 5%
Integer Values (I)
11 Set equal to value Set valve special conditions closed
12 Change by value (+/-) Add 3 holes to sparger
String/Character Values (C)
21 Set equal to value Set object name
Change Parameters
There are three classes of parameters:
1. Single or real numbers (S)
2. Integer numbers (I)
3. String or character values (C)
The object type (pipe or junction) is shown in Table 5.1. The class of
parameter is identified in Table 5.3. Each of these classes have their own
Change Codes, Table 5.2. An ‘Invalid change type’ error will be
generated if the Parameter ID and the Change Code do not match (Table
5.4).
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Table 5.3a Excel importing Junction Parameter ID Definition
ID Class Description
Common Junction Parameters
1 S Inlet Elevation
2 S Outlet Elevation
3 S Design Factor
4 I Special Condition
5 I Optimization Setting
Area Changes
500 S Loss Value
Assigned Flows
300 S Flow Setting
301 S Flow Temperature
Assigned Pressures
400 S Pressure Setting
401 S Temperature
Branches
100 S Imposed Flow
101 S Imposed Flow Temperature
Check Valves
1000 S Loss Value
Control Valves
900 S Control Setting
901 S Full Open Loss
Elbows/Bends
600 S Loss Value
General Components
2000 S Loss Value

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Table 5.3b Excel importing Junction Parameter ID Definition
Heat Exchangers
1500 S Loss Value
1501 S Heat Rate
1502 S Controlled Temperature
1503 S Secondary Flow
1504 S Secondary Temperature
1505 S Secondary Specific Heat
1506 S Secondary Convection Coefficient
1507 S Secondary Area
1508 S Heat Transfer Design Factor
Orifices
1200 S Loss Value
1201 S Back Pressure
1202 S Back Temperature
Pumps
1700 S Pump Speed (%)
1701 S Assigned Flow
1702 S Control Point
Relief Valves
2100 S Loss Value
2101 S Cracking Pressure
2102 S Back Pressure
Reservoirs
200 S Surface Pressure
201 S Temperature
Three-Way Valves
2700 S Open Percentage
Screens
1400 S Loss Value
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Table 5.3c Excel importing Junction Parameter ID Definition
Sprays
1600 S Loss Value
1601 S Flow Area
1602 I Number of Holes
1603 S Exit Pressure
1604 S Exit Temperature
Valves
800 S Loss Value
801 S Restricted Area
802 S Open Percentage
803 S Back Pressure
804 S Back Temperature
Venturi
1300 S Loss Value

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Table 5.3d Excel importing Pipe Parameter ID Definition
1 S Design Factor - Additional Losses
2 S Design Factor - Heat Transfer
3 S Design Factor - Friction
4 I Special Condition
5 I Cost Setting
6 S Scaling Factor
10 S Length
11 C Nominal Size Set (must match text in Spec Window)
12 I Nominal Size Increment
13 C Nominal Type Set (much match text in Spec Window)
15 S Inner Diameter (for unspecified, cylindrical pipes)
16 S Duct Height (for rectangular ducts)
17 S Duct Width (for rectangular ducts)
18 S Flow Area (for non-circular pipes)
19 S Wetted Perimeter (non-circular pipes)
20 S Specified Loss (fixed K value)
30 S Roughness Value (for unspecified friction models)
Table 5.4 Excel importing Error Messages
Error Description
Object not found The Object ID entered was not found in the model/scenario open.
Check the ID and the Object Type
Invalid parameter ID The Parameter ID entered does not match the Object Type
Parameter conflict The value could not be changed because it conflicts with another
setting. An example would be trying to set a loss value for a valve
that is using a resistance curve. Check the junction settings.
Invalid parameter value The value could not be changed because it is out of range or is
not valid for the object. Check the current value of the object and
the new value being changed.
Invalid change type The Change Code is not valid for the Parameter ID. An example
would be using a code 1 for an integer type.
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Special modeling features

The modeling utilities described in this section help you build your
model more rapidly and keep track of what you are doing and what
assumptions you have made.
Workspace Find
The Find window utility shown in Figure 5.19 helps you find a particular
pipe or junction by its ID number and name. The Find utility becomes
more useful for models that expand over multiple Workspace pages.
You can access the Find utility by selecting Find on the View menu or
by clicking the button on the Toolbar. The Workspace is moved so that
the pipe or junction is located near the center of the screen.
Figure 5.19 The Find feature for the Workspace is helpful for
locating a specific pipe or junction. It is opened from
the View menu or Toolbar.

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Reverse Direction
Each pipe you create has a reference positive flow direction as indicated
by the arrow on the pipe. If you want to reverse the reference positive
flow direction, you can do so by manually moving the pipe endpoints.
However, this procedure is tedious. The Reverse Direction utility toggles
the reference positive flow direction for the selected pipe or pipes.
The Reverse Direction utility is accessed from the Arrange menu or from
the reverse direction button on the Toolbar.
Select Special
Select Special is a tool for selecting or deselecting objects based on
certain criteria (see Figure 5.20) and allows you to quickly select a group
of objects.
Figure 5.20 You can customize your selections using Select

Special. It is accessed from multiple locations within
AFT Fathom to assist with selecting groups of pipes
and/or junctions.
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When first opened, Select Special will select all the objects currently
selected on the Workspace. You may alternatively select objects based
on several other criteria available from the Selection Type drop-down
menu. Objects in the Pipe Selections or Junction Selections list may be
selected or deselected based on the criteria by clicking the Select Pipes
or Select Junctions button or the Deselect Pipes or Deselect Junctions
button.
Invert will deselect all selected objects and select all unselected objects.
Clicking on the All or None buttons will result in all of the objects being
selected or deselected respectively.
Several select/deselect operations may be performed in succession.
When finished, click on OK button.
This tool is available from several windows and will select the items on
the window from which it is opened. For example, it could be used to
display only the closed valves in the Output window when it is accessed
from the Show Selected Pipes/Junctions tab in the Output Control
window.
Special Conditions
Some junctions have Special Conditions that alter the normal state of the
junction. For example, a valve can be closed, a pump turned off, or a
relief valve opened. Pipes can also be set closed which will effectively
close the pipe to flow at both ends.
The special conditions are set in one of three ways:
1. By selecting the junction(s) or pipe(s) on the Workspace and
choosing Special Conditions from the Edit Menu
2. By selecting the junction(s) or pipe(s) on the Workspace and
clicking the Special Condition icon on the Toolbar
3. By opening the junction’s or pipe’s Specifications window and
clicking the appropriate condition on the Optional tab
The pipes or junctions that have special conditions set are shown using a
special symbol before the ID number (an “X” by default). This symbol
can be customized in the Workspace Preferences window.
As shown in Figure 5.21, when the special condition results in a section
of the model being closed or “turned off”, the pipes which will have zero
flow are displayed as dotted lines. This indicates visually that they are

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cut off from flow; the junctions are outlined with a dotted line. The
default dotted line can be changed in the Workspace Preferences
window.
An X next to the
junction or pipe number
indicates a special
condition has been set
Dashed lines for pipes

and around junctions
indicate closed model
sections
Figure 5.21 Workspace display when a valve is closed using the

Special Condition. Notice the “X” next to the valve
number (J14), which is shown in red by default. Also
notice the connecting pipes shown with dashed lines
and junctions with dashed outlines which indicate
nonflowing sections of the model.
The user can specify Special Conditions for Control Valves to be either
closed or fully open. Similarly pumps can be turned off and either allow
flow through or stop the flow.
Merging models
Two models can be merged together using the Merge command on the
File menu. Here’s how:
• Open the first model
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• Choose Merge on the File menu
• From the file list, select the model to be merged
If there are duplicate numbers, the objects in the second model will be
changed. The second model will be selected (highlighted) so that you
can move it into position (be careful not to click off the selected portions
or the second model may be deselected).
Tip: To move a selected group of objects, use a junction icon, instead of

a pipe, to drag the group. This will avoid missing the pipe and clicking
on an empty area of the Workspace which will deselect your group.
Merging models with multiple scenarios

If the model you are merging from has multiple scenarios, only the base
scenario can be merged. If you want to merge one of the children of that
model, do the following:
1. Open the model which you want to merge.
2. Open the Scenario Manager.
3. Select the child scenario you want to merge.
4. On the Other Actions button, choose the Save Scenario to File
Without Children.
5. Enter a name and click OK. This process creates a new Fathom
model with the desired scenario as the base scenario.
6. Open the original model and merge in the new model file created in
Step 5.
Print Preview/Special
The Print Preview/Special window shown in Figure 5.22 allows you to
access special print features such as Print Preview and Fit to One Page.
It is accessed from the File menu.
The Print Preview/Special window also offers you a preview of the print
content and format for all Primary Windows. By clicking the Print
Preview button you can review your printed material at several zoom
states. Individual pages can be printed.

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The Fit On One Page feature causes the graphic image generated from
the Workspace or Visual Report windows to be compressed onto a single
page. This is a convenient feature for creating reports of your model.
AFT Fathom supports whatever printer page sizes are supported by your
printer, so use of legal paper or larger may allow you to get more visible
details. The graphics can also be centered vertically and/or horizontally.
You also can fit your content onto multiple pages.
Figure 5.22 The Print Preview/Special window is opened from the

File menu or Toolbar
The Print Preview/Special window allows you to set the page

orientation, which can also be changed once you are in the Print Preview
window itself.
Several other special printing features affect the Workspace and Visual
Report. The Only Print Selected Pipes and Junctions works with
Workspace printing by selectively printing the pipes and junctions
currently selected on the Workspace.
The Include Hidden Pipes and Junctions feature includes hidden pipes
and/or junctions on the Workspace or Visual Report in the printed
content. By default this box is not selected, and hidden pipes and
junctions are not included in Workspace and Visual Report printouts.
By default, AFT Fathom prints the junction icons for the Workspace and
Visual Report with the same colors as displayed on the screen. It also
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prints the background color as the same color as your Workspace or
Visual Report background. You can also specify that the junction icons
be printed in black and white (still with the color background) or that the
entire printout be black and white.
If you added a Workspace Picture into the background, you can include
this picture in the printout.
Finally, if you have a grid displayed on the Workspace or Visual Report,
you can include the grid in the printout.
Transfer Results to Initial Guesses

AFT Fathom’s iterative Solver discussed in Chapter 8 takes initial
guesses (also called initial conditions) and applies the principles of
mass, momentum and energy balance to improve the guesses. This is
called iteration. It continues to refine the solutions until agreement with
the governing equations is obtained.
After a converged answer is obtained, you can choose to take these
results and use them as the initial guesses for a subsequent run. This
causes much faster convergence in subsequent runs because you are
starting the Solver at or very close to the actual solution.
This feature is called Transfer Results to Initial Guess, and it is on the
Output window Edit menu and Toolbar.
Batch runs
AFT Fathom scenarios or models can be run in batch mode, a feature
that is especially useful for running a group of scenarios or models
during lunch or overnight.
¾ To run models in batch mode, follow these steps:

1. Click “Start Batch Run” on the File menu.
2. Select the Batch Run Type. This is whether you want to run
scenarios from the current model or different model files. If the
current model does not have any scenarios then only the second
option will be available.
3. If the Batch Run Type is “Scenarios in Current Model”, then choose
the Add Scenarios button and select the scenarios you wish to run.

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4. If the Batch Run Type is “Models from Different Files”, then the
models can be selected individually using the “Add Model Files”
button, or loaded from a Batch File (by Choosing the “Load From
Batch File” button). A Batch File is a text file listing all models you
would like to run. At any time a selected model file can be removed
by clicking the “Remove Selections”. The current list of models can
be saved to a Batch File for use in the future by clicking the “Save
List to File” button.
5. Use the Output Options in the lower left to modify style and content
of output, and whether to save the output data to a file and/or send it
to a printer or Adobe PDF file. All reports will use the specified
font.
6. Click the Start Run button to begin the batch run.
AFT Fathom then opens each scenario or model file in sequence,
automatically runs each scenario/model that has a completed Checklist,
and sends results to the specified destination. All pertinent information
that is generated during the batch run (such as error messages) are
automatically displayed when the final scenario/model is finished.
The entire batch run can be canceled at any time by clicking the Cancel
button in the Solution Progress window.
Bill of Materials
A Bill of Materials is a summary of all materials, components, and
fittings that have been specified for a project. This summary can be
printed out for review and documentation, or it can be exported to a file
in a format ready for spreadsheet software. Once opened within a
spreadsheet, pricing information can be entered in adjacent columns to
obtain the cost of the specified materials.
The Bill of Materials window is opened from the File menu. An example
is shown in Figure 5.23.
Print Content
With either the Model Data or Output window active, you can open Print
Content from the View menu (see Figure 5.24), allowing you to specify
the content and format of Model Data and Output reports.
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Figure 5.23 The Bill of Materials is accessed from the File menu
once the model is completely defined (i.e., completed
checklist). It shows the pipe and system equipment
grouped by type and size.
You can include Model Reference Information (entered in the Output

Control window) to document your model or make important comments
you want kept with the model.
The various tables in the General section, Pipe section, and Junction
section can be selectively printed. All Pipe and Junction Notes are
shown in the Model Data General section and can be printed at your
option.
Empty columns in the three Model Data tables can be ignored in the
printed report. You can also have each of the Print Content sections start
on a new page. Both of these are formatting options in the Print Content
window.

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Figure 5.24 Print Content window specifies the print content of

the Model Data or Output window. It is opened from
the View menu or Toolbar.
The printer font and style of your choice can be selected for the printed
report. Large reports can be condensed by selecting small fonts. A good
choice for large reports is Arial True Type Regular Style at a 6 or
8-point size.
Tip: When opened from the Output window to specify Output printing
content, the Model Data content can be added to the beginning of the
Output data by selecting the “Include Model Data With Output”
checkbox. Some may find it useful to have all input data printed with the
output.
Suggest Pump
Once you have sized a pump, you can use the Suggest Pump window to
find an actual pump that meets the requirements (Figure 5.25). Suggest
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Pump is opened from the Output window Database menu, as well as the
Output Toolbar.
The Suggest Pump windows allows you to specify search criteria and to
select the databases you want to search. Search criteria includes pump
head, NPSH and BEP proximity. You can sort the pumps by proximity to
operating head, BEP or alphabetically.
Once one or more pumps that meet your criteria have been identified,
you can quickly view a composite curve for a pump by selecting it in the
table and clicking the Show Pump Curve button.
In addition, you can pass operating point data to Internet hosted pump
supplier websites which use Intelliquip™ Selector.
Figure 5.25 Suggest Pump window searches your databases or

certain Internet hosted databases for pumps which
satisfy operating requirements.
Flow Total
The Flow Total utility feature is convenient for getting a quick answer
on how much inflow or outflow has been specified for a group of

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Assigned Flow or Branch junctions. This option is enabled only after a
model is completely defined.
To use this utility on the Workspace, select the group of junctions in
which you are interested. Then choose Flow Total from the View menu.
The total flow into the system for this group of junctions will be
calculated. Use of this feature can clarify the input data and be helpful in
detecting modeling errors.
Extended Model Check

The connections and settings of each pipe and junction are exhaustively
checked using the Extended Model Check item on the View menu. This
is also helpful if the model seems to not be connected correctly.
Math calculator
For convenience, AFT Fathom offers you quick access to the Windows
Calculator; simply select Calculator from the View menu or press
CTRL+K in any Specifications window.
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CHAPTER 6
Pipe and Junction Specifications

Windows
This chapter discusses the Pipe and Junction Specifications windows,

the features they offer, and how you use these features to obtain a proper
model of your system.
Each pipe and junction on the Workspace has an associated
Specifications window. In the Specifications window, you enter the
engineering data that represents the pipe or junction you are modeling.
The Specifications window also contains AFT Fathom's interpretation of
the connectivity within your model.
Each of the twenty-two junction types has a separate Specifications
window. The Specifications window is the primary vehicle for entering
input data for the components of your model. The Global Edit windows,
discussed at the end of this chapter, can be used to change data for
multiple pipes and junctions all at the same time.
You can access an object's Specifications window in six ways:
1. Double-clicking the object on the Workspace
2. Selecting the object on the Workspace and pressing ENTER
3. Selecting the object on the Workspace and clicking the Open
Pipe/Jct Window icon on the Toolbar
4. Double-clicking the left column of the appropriate table in the
Model Data window (where the object ID number is shown)

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5. Clicking the Jump button in another Specifications window
6. Double-clicking the connected pipe or junction number in another
Highlight feature
The highlight feature identifies required input data in the Specifications
window. You can toggle the highlight feature on and off in any of the
following ways:
• Double-click within the Specifications window (outside of the
tabbed area)
• Press the F2 function key
• Choose Highlight in Pipe and junction Windows from the Options
menu
The highlighting feature may be especially useful when you are first
learning to use AFT Fathom or when you are having difficulty obtaining
a defined object status.
Jump feature
By clicking the Jump button in a Specifications window, you can move
directly to the Specifications window of a selected pipe or junction.
Pipe Specifications window

Each pipe on the Workspace has engineering information associated
with it. Each pipe must have an ID number, a length, a diameter, a
friction model specification, and two connecting junctions. If heat
transfer is being modeled, heat transfer conditions are required. If the
pipe is not purely cylindrical, additional geometry information is also
required. Figures 6.1a-g shows the Pipe Specifications window.

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Chapter 6 Pipe and Junction Specifications Windows 157
Figure 6.1a Pipe Specifications window Pipe Model tab.
Figure 6.1b Pipe Specifications window Fittings & Losses tab.
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Figure 6.1c Pipe Specifications window Insulation tab (available

only when Heat Transfer With Energy Balance is not
selected in System Properties).
Figure 6.1d Pipe Specifications window Heat Transfer tab

(available only when Heat Transfer With Energy
Balance is selected in System Properties).

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Figure 6.1e Pipe Specifications window Fluid Properties tab

(available only when Variable Fluid Properties are
selected in System Properties).
Figure 6.1f Pipe Specifications window Design Alerts tab.
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Figure 6.1g Pipe Specifications window Optional tab.
Common input parameters

The common input parameters are located above the tabbed folders
(Figure 6.1a-g) and are discussed below.
Pipe number
Every pipe must have an ID number. When you create a new pipe, AFT
Fathom assigns a default pipe number. The pipe number can be changed;
however, duplicate pipe ID numbers are not accepted, and ID numbers
must be greater than zero and up to 30,000. The pipe numbers you
choose have no bearing on the model connectivity, direction, or layout.
They are merely convenient identifiers.
Pipe name
A name can be assigned to each pipe for reference purposes. The default
name is simply “Pipe.” Names do not need to be unique. The name can
be shown on the Workspace, in the Visual Report and in the Output
window. By using names, attention can be called to important or critical
pipes.

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Copy Data From Pipe
The Copy Data From Pipe dropdown list allows you to conveniently
copy another pipe’s properties to the current pipe. You can copy all or
part of the parameters from an existing pipe in the model to the current
pipe by choosing one of the pipes in the list and then specifying which
parameters to copy. Only the parameters you choose will be copied to
the current pipe.
The Copy Previous button functions the same way as the Copy Data
From Pipe except that the last pipe edited is used. This is convenient
when there are several pipes that have the same or similar parameters.
Same as parent pipe

If the current model is a child scenario, in the Copy Data From Pipe list
there is an option to set the pipe to Parent Pipe Data. This will change
the selected pipe properties to be the same as its parent.
Connected junctions
The connected junctions area shows you AFT Fathom's interpretation of
the junctions that are connected to the particular pipe. Every pipe must
be connected to two junctions in order to be completely defined. When a
junction does not yet exist at one of the pipe endpoints, “None” appears
in the area where the junction ID number would normally be displayed.
All pipes on the Workspace have a reference positive flow direction. The
reference positive direction is indicated on the Workspace by an arrow
on the pipe. Based on the reference direction, AFT Fathom identifies an
upstream junction and a downstream junction.
To determine the properties of the connected junctions, you can use the
Inspection utility. To inspect, position the mouse pointer over the
connected junction ID number and hold down the right mouse button.
Pipe Model
The Pipe Model tab (Figure 6.1a) allows you to input geometric data for
the pipe.
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Pipe length
The Length entry represents the length of pipe between the two
connecting junctions. The length entered in the Pipe Specifications
window has no relationship to the length of pipe you draw on the
Workspace. The Workspace pipe is merely an abstract used for
conceptual modeling purposes. The pipe drawn on the Workspace is
similar to the conceptual pipe drawn on an engineer's calculation pad.
Every pipe must be assigned a length. This length can be any positive
value. To the right of the Length field, a dropdown list allows you to
choose the units of the pipe length.
Pipe material
The Pipe Specifications window allows you to leave the pipe material
unspecified or to choose a pipe material from a list. When you select
Specified Material, the dropdown list allows you to make material
selections. The ability to specify pipe materials is available for any of
the five pipe geometries.
AFT Fathom provides default pipe material data for several different
kinds of pipe. In addition to these pipe materials, you may add your own.
Access to the Pipe Material Database is available on the Database menu.
By entering your own custom pipe materials, you can build a pipe
material database that is saved to disk and read in during startup. Once
you enter materials data, AFT Fathom treats the pipe materials as if they
were native to the program. More detail on building a custom pipe
material database is given in Chapter 7.
When you select a pipe material from the materials list, two things
happen:
1. In the Size area, the dropdown lists for nominal pipe Size and Type
are enabled
2. In the Friction Model area, a default friction data set and
accompanying handbook pipe roughness value is entered
The Type entry allows you to select the specific type, class, or schedule
of material for the nominal pipe size. Once the type is selected, the pipe
diameter is shown in the diameter field. This diameter cannot be edited.
In the Friction Model area, the value shown is not to be construed as the
correct pipe roughness value for your application. The pipe roughness

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depends on many factors, most importantly the age of the pipe. AFT
Fathom offers the pipe material roughness as a guide. You will want to
enter the roughness value that is most representative of your application.
Multiple friction data sets can be compiled for each pipe. For example,
friction data for pipes with different ages can be set up. These different
data sets are then made available in the Data Set dropdown list. More
information on creating multiple friction data sets is given in Chapter 7
in the section on custom pipe materials.
Pipe geometry
Five different pipe geometries can be modeled in AFT Fathom. The
default geometry is the cylindrical pipe. The other four geometries are
the rectangular duct, the cylindrical annulus, the noncylindrical pipe, and
the helical tube.
Pipe diameter is a critical pipe parameter. For the default cylindrical
pipe, the diameter is merely the diameter of the cylinder. For pipes that
are not strictly cylindrical it is common engineering practice to define a
hydraulic diameter; this allows you to calculate pressure drops in pipes
that are not cylindrical using well known cylindrical pipe methods. The
hydraulic diameter is given by Equation 6.1:
4 Ac
DH = (6.1)
Pw
where AC is the pipe cross-sectional area and PW is the pipe wetted
perimeter.
When the pipe is a rectangular duct, cylindrical annulus or a non-
cylinder, AFT Fathom calculates the hydraulic diameter for you. If you
select the rectangular duct, the Duct Width and Duct Height fields are
enabled. If you select the cylindrical annulus, the Outer Pipe ID and
Inner Pipe OD are enabled. If you select a noncylindrical pipe, the Flow
Area and the Wetted Perimeter fields are enabled.
When you model a pipe as a helical tube, the pipe friction pressure drop
model is modified as discussed in Chapter 8. If you select a helical tube,
the Size input area changes to allow you to enter the coil diameter in
addition to the pipe inner diameter.
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Pipe diameter
The inner diameter of the pipe is entered in the Inner Diameter field in
the Pipe Specifications window. For cylindrical pipes whose material is
unspecified, the diameter and units may be entered directly.
If the material is specified from the Pipe Material list, the diameter
cannot be edited; the value is derived from the database for the selected
material, size, and type.
For rectangular ducts, cylindrical annuli and noncylindrical pipes, the
inner diameter becomes the hydraulic diameter. For rectangular ducts the
hydraulic diameter is calculated from the values you enter for the Duct
Width and Duct Height. For cylindrical annuli, the hydraulic diameter is
calculated from the values you enter for the Outer Pipe's inner diameter
and the Inner Pipe's outer diameter. For noncylindrical pipes, the
hydraulic diameter is calculated from the values you enter for Flow Area
and Wetted Perimeter.
For helical tubes, you must specify the pipe inner diameter as well as the
coil diameter.
ID Reduction (Scaling)
The reduction in diameter due to scaling can be accounted for by
entering a percent reduction in the ID Reduction (Scaling) field. Zero
percent would represent no reduction.
Friction Model
A common problem in specifying pipe roughness is that long term
operation of the pipe often results in deposits forming on the inside of
the pipe. This is commonly referred to as fouling. Fouling increases
roughness and, in severe instances, decreases the area available for fluid
transport (also causing greater pressure loss in the pipe). You are
encouraged to seek out applicable pipe design data when specifying pipe
roughness in your model.
The Friction Model area of the Pipe Specifications window offers eight
methods for specifying frictional models. Methods 1, 2, 4 and 5 all rely
on the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor method of calculating pipe
pressure drop.
1. Absolute roughness – AFT Fathom's default method is to specify
the roughness as an absolute average roughness height. Values of

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pipe roughness can be found in many pipe handbooks or from
manufacturer's data.
2. Relative roughness – Some pipe roughness specifications are given
as a relative roughness. In this case, the roughness height is divided
by the pipe diameter. Relative roughness has no units, so when you
enter a relative roughness, the Units dropdown list is disabled.
3. Hazen-Williams – The Hazen-Williams method uses an empirical
factor (CHW) to relate the flow rate to the pressure drop in the pipe.
This method is still in common use in the field of water distribution.
You can specify the Hazen-Williams factor for any pipe. Note that
there are two definitions for the Hazen-Williams factor. The first is
based on head and that is the one used in AFT Fathom. The second
is based on pressure and can be found in references such as those
from the NFPA. The differences are usually small and are discussed
in Chapter 8.
4. Explicit Friction factor – If you already know the friction factor for
the pipe, you can enter the value explicitly.
5. Hydraulically smooth – You can also specify a pipe as
hydraulically smooth. Modeling a pipe as hydraulically smooth
implies that its roughness is negligible. However, having a small
roughness is not the same as being frictionless. Rather, the pipe
friction factor follows the hydraulically smooth curve in the
turbulent region of a standard Moody diagram. You are encouraged
to consult a standard fluid mechanics textbook for additional
discussion of this subject.
6. Resistance – You can specify a pipe resistance in terms of head loss
and volumetric flow rate. The pipe head loss will then be as follows:
dH = RQ2.
7. Frictionless – For modeling purposes, it is occasionally useful to
model a pipe as having no friction. There are limitations to where
such a pipe can be located in your model. Basically, a frictionless
pipe cannot be the sole connection between two branching junctions.
8. MIT Equation – The MIT Equation is appropriate for crude oil. See
Chapter 8 for a discussion of how this method is implemented.
9. Miller Turbulent – The Miller Turbulent method is appropriate for
light hydrocarbons. See Chapter 8 for a discussion of how this
method is implemented.
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Because you are free to specify the friction model for each pipe
individually, you can mix and match the friction models throughout your
pipe system if you choose.
If you find it more convenient to use a certain type of friction
specification, like the Relative Roughness method for example, you may
want to change the defaults in the Parameter and Unit Preferences
window to reflect this. When you change the default method, the other
methods are still accessible, but the Pipe Specifications window always
comes up with your preferred method selected.
The preceding friction models all apply to Newtonian viscosity models.
The viscosity model is specified in System Properties window. If the
user chooses one of the non-Newtonian models, the preceding friction
data may not be used in the calculation.
A more detailed theoretical discussion of the different friction models is
given in Chapter 8.
Fittings & Losses

The Fittings & Losses K factor is one way to enter loss factors in your
model. The Fittings & Losses K factor is added to the friction loss
calculated by the Solver. This is useful when a pipe contains elbows and
other fittings which you don’t want to represent as junction icons, but do
want to account for the pressure losses.
You can use any of the losses supplied in the Fathom database or you
can enter a specific loss factor. To enter losses, click the Fittings &
Losses tab (Figure 6.1b) and then click the Specify Fittings & Losses
button to open the Pipe Fittings & Losses window (Figure 6.2). This
window allows you to specify losses from a table of standard losses.
Because many of the fittings & losses are dependent on pipe diameter,
you must specify a diameter before you can open the Pipe Fittings &
Losses window.
The types of pipe losses are divided into several categories represented
by tabs. To add a loss to the pipe, click the table cell which describes the
fitting or loss and type in the quantity. When you are done entering all
the losses in each of the categories, press OK and you will see a
summary list in the Pipe Specifications window.

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Figure 6.2 Pipe Fittings & Losses window opened from the Pipe
The Area Changes loss does not change the size of the pipe, it only puts
in a loss factor based on the pipe diameter and the area ratio of the loss.
When this option is selected, notice the illustration of how the loss is
defined, where Apipe is the area of the pipe and As is the area of the loss.
These area changes are useful to model fittings between a pipe and
another junction like a pump or heat exchanger.
The abbreviations used in the Fittings & Losses window are listed at the
bottom of the window. You can double-click the image to see the
reference information for the loss.
Insulation
In general, insulation data can be entered either on the Insulation tab or
Heat Transfer tab. Only one of these tabs displays at a time.
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If heat transfer is not modeled, then an Insulation tab appears on the Pipe
Specifications window (Figure 6.1c). In such a case the insulation will
have no thermal effect. Its effect is on the cost and (potentially) on the
pressure drop.
Insulation on Outside of Pipe or Duct

If the insulation is on the outside of the pipe or duct, it will have no
hydraulic effect. The only impact then will be in the area of cost. This is
planned for a future version of the CST module.
Insulation on Inside of Pipe or Duct

If the insulation is on the inside of the pipe or duct, it will reduce the
flow area and change the pressure drop calculations. AFT Fathom
accounts for this diameter reduction in such cases. The user must enter
the insulation friction characteristics.
Heat Transfer
This tab is only visible when heat transfer is being modeled. Heat
transfer modeling is enabled in the System Properties window.
Each pipe responds thermally to the environment outside the pipe. The
heat transfer model allows you to model the heat transfer characteristics
of the pipe (Figure 6.1d). AFT Fathom offers five heat transfer models:
Isothermal, Adiabatic, Convective Heat Transfer, Constant Heat Flux,
and Constant Heat Rate. (See Chapter 8 for a more detailed explanation
of these methods.)
1. Isothermal - The Isothermal model maintains the pipe at the
specified temperature.
2. Adiabatic - An adiabatic pipe is one that has perfect insulation
and thus no heat transfer takes place. This model differs from
Isothermal in that the temperature into the pipe is taken from the
upstream junction. This is the default model.
3. Convective Heat Transfer - This model allows you to specify
heat transfer data for the internal fluid, pipe wall, three layers of
insulation and external convection. See Chapter 8 for additional
information.

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4. Constant Heat Flux - The constant heat flux model is useful in
cases where the temperature difference between the fluid and the
ambient environment is extremely large or in cases where a large
radiant heat flux exists.
5. Constant Heat Rate – This model allows you to specify a
constant heat rate into or out of the pipe.
Note that similar to flow rate definition, heat flow is positive when
flowing into the pipe, and negative when flowing out.
Insulation data
If modeling Convective Heat Transfer, then insulation data is specified
as part of the heat transfer input process. If not modeling Convective
Heat Transfer, insulation data can be input in the same manner as
described above for the Insulation tab and for the same purposes.
More Details on Convective Heat Transfer

You can model up to six levels of thermal resistance between the fluid
and the external ambient temperature. The resistance can be either radial
as in a pipe or linear such as in a plane wall.
The Fluid Internal resistance will usually be obtained from a correlation
such as Dittus-Boelter. It can also be specified directly by the user as a
constant.
The Pipe Wall resistance data is obtained either from a pipe material
database or directly entered by the user. If a Pipe Material is chosen on
the Pipe Model tab, and that material has thermal conductivity data,
options are provided in the Conductivity/Convection Data Source
column to use that data or to allow you to directly enter a (constant)
thermal conductivity value. These two options are “Material Database”
and “User Specified”.
Note that obtaining the thermal conductivity from a pipe material
database permits temperature dependent thermal conductivity to be
employed. With this option, AFT Fathom dynamically selects the pipe
wall thermal conductivity during model solving based on the local
temperatures that exist. Conversely, user specified values are always
constant.
In addition to thermal conductivity, the pipe wall thickness is required.
The pipe wall thickness is an optional parameter in the pipe material
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database. If it exists, it will be displayed in the Thickness column, and
cannot be edited. If it does not exist in the database, you can enter a
thickness.
Three insulation resistances are provided. These represent three
insulations stacked on top of each other, with the first insulation the one
closest to the fluid. These can be either on the outside of the pipe, inside
of the pipe or both.
The Insulation resistance data is obtained either from an insulation
database, pipe material database or directly entered by the user. If a Pipe
Material is chosen on the Pipe Model tab, and that material has
insulation data sets associated with it, an option is provided in the
Conductivity/Convection Data Source column to select that insulation
data set. The insulation data sets include the insulation thickness, and
value is displayed in the thickness column.
You can also select insulation directly from the Insulation Database. Or
you can specify a (constant) thermal conductivity value for the
insulation. Each of these two options require you to enter an insulation
thickness. Altogether the three insulation options are “Material
Database”, “Insulation Database” and “User Specified”.
Note that obtaining the thermal conductivity from an insulation or pipe
material database permits temperature dependent thermal conductivity to
be employed. With this option, AFT Fathom dynamically selects the
insulation thermal conductivity during model solving based on the local
temperatures that exist. Conversely, user specified values are always
constant.
Finally, an external convection coefficient can be specified to represent
external free or forced convection. This is a constant value.
All six thermal resistances allow specification of an HT Area Ratio. This
represents extra heat transfer area that might exist. For example, if the
pipe has fins, the HT Area Ratio will be greater than one.
To model constant wall temperature, assign the ambient temperature to
the wall temperature, and apply only the internal convection thermal
resistance.
A table is displayed in the Output window Pipe area showing the
temperature distribution in the pipe and insulation.

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Fluid Properties
This tab is only visible when variable properties are being modeled
(Figure 6.1e). Variable property modeling is enabled in the System
Properties window.
For models with variable fluid properties, you can assign different fluid
properties to each pipe in the model. This is convenient for modeling
systems that are subject to temperature variations and systems that have
multiple fluids. The pipe fluid properties are displayed in the Pipe
Specifications window, and can be modified by selecting the Fluid
Properties button. Besides varying the fluid properties, the viscosity
model can varied from pipe to pipe. Thus some pipes in the model can
be modeled as Newtonian, while others as non-Newtonian.
Design Alerts
A design alert (Figure 6.1f) allows you to specify certain maximum
and/or minimum parameters for the pipe. After running the Solver, any
exceeded parameter will be identified in the Warnings section of the
Output window and the specific cell containing the value in the Pipes
section will be highlighted.
Optional input
There are several optional input parameters (Figure 6.1g). These are
described in the following sections.
Initial flow rate guess

The Initial Flow Rate Guess is the initial guess at the mass flowrate,
volumetric flowrate or velocity solution through the pipe. Specifying a
good initial guess of the flow solution decreases the number of iterations
the Solver must execute in order to arrive at a converged solution.
However, specifying initial guesses takes time and good judgment.
If you do not specify an initial flow guess, AFT Fathom implements a
proprietary method of generating first guesses. This method is usually
sufficient to get the Solver going in the right direction so a converged
solution results. However, the method of generating first guesses is not
100% effective, and there may be times when you will have to specify
the first guess in order to obtain a solution. More discussion on this
subject is given in Chapter 8.
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Parallel pipes
Here you can specify that the pipe is one of a number of parallel pipes.
The pipe properties thus represent a single pipe. This is useful, for
example, to represent a bundle of tubes in a heat exchanger.
Workspace display
You have the option of specifying what to display on the Workspace.
You can choose to display any combination of pipe ID number, pipe
name, pipe size and pipe schedule. This is helpful in large models to
reduce the text on the Workspace and to focus on what you think is
important. The default setting for this can be changed in the Workspace
Preferences window.
Design factor
You can specify three design factors for each pipe – one for the pipe
friction, one for fittings & losses that you add to the pipe, and another
for heat transfer if heat transfer is modeled.
Design factors allow you to specify multipliers on the pipe friction
calculations, fittings & losses and heat transfer that are applied by the
Solver during the solution process. Design factors are helpful for adding
safety margins to your design calculations.
Special conditions
You can also assign a Special Condition for the pipe. In addition to
turning off junctions you can also close a pipe by selecting Closed in the
Special Condition area. This will shut the pipe (like shutting a valve) and
no flow will be allowed to pass through. An ‘X’ will be placed before
the pipe’s ID number and the pipe will appear dashed to signal that the
Special Condition is set and the pipe is closed.
Intermediate elevations
Pipe inlet and exit elevations are obtained from the upstream and
downstream junction elevation data. The pipe elevations in between are
assumed to vary linearly.
In general, the pipe elevation profile will have no effect on the hydraulic
results, and the linear assumption is suitable. However, even though the
hydraulics are predicted accurately, the intermediate pipe pressures are

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not (unless the elevation is in fact linear). As long as these pressures are
within the allowables for the pipe, and do not drop below vapor pressure,
then no problems arise. However, if the pressures do exceed these
conditions, it is important to find this out.
One way to account for this is to break the pipe up into smaller
individual pipes, with additional junctions (usually branch junctions)
connecting them. These junctions can be set at the proper elevations, and
the actual elevation profile can thus be modeled.
Another approach is to use intermediate pipe elevations. Here an
elevation profile can be entered directly for the pipe, and only a single
pipe is required as long as the diameter is constant.
To use intermediate pipe elevations, tick the check box for Use
Intermediate Pipe Elevations, and enter the elevation profile. To do this,
the pipe length entered on the Pipe Model tab is required. AFT Fathom
will ensure the total length in the intermediate elevation area matches the
length on the Pipe Model tab. It does so by fixing the length of the final
section to the difference between the sum of the lengths in the table and
the actual length entered by the user. The end elevation is also fixed to
that of the downstream junction. If the user later modifies the
downstream junction elevation, the pipe’s final elevation section will be
automatically updated.
After the intermediate elevations have been entered, a graph showing the
data can be displayed.
Pipe line size and color

The default thickness of the line shown on the Workspace and default
pipe color is defined in the Workspace Preferences window. You can
change the displayed line thickness and color for each pipe individually
if you desire.
Notes
Each pipe can have notes associated with it. This is useful for listing
assumptions, reference documents, drawings, measurements, etc.
Status
The Status tab shows which required input data has not been entered.
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Junction Specifications windows

The twenty-two different types of junctions on the Toolbox offer a great
degree of freedom in assembling a pipe network model. While there is
some redundancy in capabilities between the junctions, each of the
twenty-two types of junctions offers specialized features to allow you to
prepare a good conceptual model of the physical system of interest.
Table 6.1 compares the features of the junction types.
There are twenty-two junction Specifications windows, one for each
junction type. Each junction Specifications window falls into one of two
basic window formats, depending on the number of connecting pipes
allowed for that junction type.
Format #1:
Junctions with one or two connecting pipes
The first basic window format is for junction types that allow only one
or two connecting pipes (see Figure 6.3). While junctions do not have an
explicitly defined flow direction like pipes do, typically those with two
pipes or less adopt a direction from the connecting pipes. For these
junction types, upstream and downstream pipes are recognized by AFT
Fathom based on the reference positive flow direction of the connecting
pipes. The upstream and downstream pipes are displayed separately near
the top of the window.
In this first basic window type, it is generally important to have the
pipe’s reference positive flow directions specified in the physically
correct directions. A good example of this is a Pump junction which
will add pressure to the system in the direction of positive flow through
the connecting pipes. The Pump junction interprets where to add the
pressure based on the directions of the connecting pipes.

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Table 6.1 Comparison of junction capabilities
Connecting Special Restricted Custom Window
Junction Type
Pipes Conditions Area Database Format
Area Change 2 √ 1
Assigned Flow 1 √ √ 1
Assigned Pressure* 1/1-25 √ 1
Bend/Elbow 2 √ √ 1
Branch 2-25 √ √ 2
Check Valve 2 √ √ √ 1
Control Valve 2 √ √ 1
Dead End 1 √ 1
General Component 2 √ √ 1
Heat Exchanger 2 √ √ 1
Jet Pump 2 √ √ 1
Orifice 1-2 √ √ 1
Pump 2 √ √ 1
Relief Valve 1-2 √ √ √ 1
Reservoir 1-25 √ 2
Screen 2 √ √ 1
Spray Discharge 1-4 √ √ 2
Tee/Wye** 3 √ 2
Three-Way Valve** 3 √ √ 2
Valve 1-2 √ √ √ 1
Venturi 2 √ √ 1
Volume Balance 2 1
*Assigned Pressure junction connects to only 1 pipe for static pressure,
and up to 25 for stagnation
**Tee/Wye and Three-Way Valve junctions have a unique format closer to Format #2.
Note: AFT Fathom does not prevent negative flow through junctions.
Should this occur, AFT Fathom will use the same loss factor or pressure
drop data referenced to the defined upstream pipe, just as in forward
flow. Because it is possible that the loss factor or pressure drop data
would not be the same for both flow directions, the flow solution could
be misleading. For this reason it is important that you either properly
define the pipe flow directions for junctions or pay close attention to the
flow directions that result. Should negative flow occur in any junction,
AFT Fathom will give a warning in the output.
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To inspect the connected pipe information in this window format,
position the mouse pointer over the connected pipe ID and hold down
the right mouse button.
Fixed display of
connecting pipes
Figure 6.3 Specifications window format #1 (fixed connecting

pipe display).
Format #2:
Junctions with more than two connecting pipes
The second basic window format for junction Specifications windows is
for junctions that allow more than two connecting pipes (see Figure 6.4).
These junctions typically allow up to twenty-five connecting pipes; the
exception is the Tee/Wye junction, which allows only three.
Because the number of pipes connected to a junction may vary, the
second basic format uses a table sized according to the number of
connecting pipes.
An example of this second window format is the Branch Specifications
window, shown in Figure 6.4, which has three connecting pipes. To
determine AFT Fathom's interpretation of the model connectivity for this
second window format, you can review the contents of the table areas.

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There are separate loss factors for flow going into the pipe from the
junction and flow going out of the pipe into the junction. The direction
of the pipe in reference to the junction is also shown in the pipe table.
To inspect connected pipe information in this window format, position
the mouse pointer over the pipe ID number in the left column of the pipe
table and hold down the right mouse button.
Parameters common to all junction Specifications windows

There are several junction parameters common to most junctions
described in this section.
Junction Number
Each junction has an ID number (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4) that you are
free to change. However, no two junction numbers can be the same, and
all junction numbers must be greater than zero and up to 30,000.
Duplicate junction numbers are not accepted. The junction numbers you
choose are arbitrary and have no bearing on model connectivity,
direction, or layout. They are merely convenient identifiers.
Junction Name
Each junction can be assigned a name for reference purposes (see
Figures 6.3 and 6.4). The default name is the junction type. The name
does not need to be unique. The name can be displayed on the
Workspace, Visual Report, Model Data and Output windows.
Junction Elevation
Each junction has an entry for the elevation of the junction (see Figures
6.3 and 6.4). Next to each elevation entry is a set of units. For junctions
that use Format #1, the default inlet elevation is entered by the user, and
the outlet elevation is assumed to the same. A different outlet elevation
can be entered by clearing the “Same as Inlet” checkbox. Different inlet
and outlet elevations will have no affect on the flow solution, but will
offset the local static pressure at the connecting pipe by the hydrostatic
pressure difference.
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Figure 6.4 Specifications window format #2 (pipes displayed in a

table).
Junctions that follow Format #2 have a single elevation and offsets from
that elevation (if they exist) for each individual connecting pipe entered
in the connecting pipe table.
Junction elevations are used to account for pressure changes due to
gravity and thus to allow calculation of absolute pressures in pipes. In a
sense, junction elevations are arbitrarily defined. The magnitude of the
elevation is not important from a solution standpoint, but the relative
elevation difference between junctions is of critical importance because
of its effect on the pressure results.
Elevation is required input for every junction. AFT Fathom uses this
input to determine the relative height changes between one end of a pipe
and the other.
In the Parameter and Unit Preferences window you can set a default
elevation for your system or that new junctions take on the elevation of
the previous junction by default. When a default elevation is specified,

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each time you open a new junction Specifications window the default
elevation is automatically entered. For systems that reside primarily at
the same elevation, this can save time in entering data.
Database List
The Database List (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4) is a list of all custom
equipment you have entered into the Component database. It displays
custom equipment from both the local and network database sources.
Selection of an item automatically retrieves the data and enters it into the
junction. Changes to the custom input data are not accepted. To stop
using a database selection, choose (None) from the database list.
Copy Data From Jct list

The Copy Data From Jct list (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4) is a list of all the
junctions of the same type in the model. This displays a list of
parameters from which you can choose to copy to the current junction.
Same as parent junction

If the current model is a child scenario, in the Copy Data From Jct list
there is an option to set the junction to Parent Junction Data. This will
change the selected junction properties to be the same as its parent.
Pipe connectivity
In each junction Specifications window (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4), you
can see AFT Fathom's interpretation of your system's connectivity. All
junctions must have the proper number of connecting pipes in order to
be completely defined (refer to Table 6.1).
Jumping to another junction

You can jump to another junction from within the Specifications
window (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4). This will save the current junction
information before jumping to the other junction. This method avoids
having to close the current junction Specifications window before
opening another Specifications window.
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Initial Pressure/Head and Temperature Guess

On the Optional tab of each junction Specifications window (see
example in Figure 6.5), except for Reservoir and Assigned Pressure
junctions, is an area for entering an initial guess at the pressure (or head)
and temperature at the junction. The temperature input is only enabled
with heat transfer is modeled. This is only the initial guess and the
solution will vary from this value; it does not specify a fixed pressure at
the junction.
Figure 6.5 The Optional tab offers several optional data inputs
and is very similar for each junction type
Specifying a good initial guess decreases the number of iterations the

Solver must execute in order to arrive at a converged solution. However,
similar to specifying Initial Flow guesses in pipes, specifying initial
guesses takes time and good judgment.
The Reservoir and Assigned Pressure junctions do not allow you the
option of specifying an initial guess. Because the pressure and
temperature are known quantities, no guess is needed. The pressure and
temperature solution is already available.
If you do not specify an initial guess, AFT Fathom implements a
proprietary method of generating first guesses. This method is usually
sufficient to get the Solver going in the right direction so a converged

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solution results. However, AFT Fathom's method of generating first
guesses is not 100% effective, and there may be times when you will
have to specify first guesses in order to obtain a solution.
Displaying junction names and numbers

Also on the Optional tab of each junction Specifications window (see
example in Figure 6.5) is the option to display either the junction ID
number, the junction name, both, or neither. This is helpful in large
models for reducing the text on the Workspace and focusing on what you
think is important. The default setting for this can be changed in the
Workspace Preferences window.
Special Conditions
Some junctions allow you to set Special Conditions (see example in
Figure 6.5). This feature allows you to override the default behavior of
the junction. For example, the special condition for a Valve junction is
to have it shut off. The special condition for a Relief Valve is for it to be
open no matter what the pressure. Not all junction types support special
condition settings. If you want to close a junction which does not
support special conditions, set the Special Condition of its upstream or
downstream pipe (i.e., turn off the pipe).
The junction for which the Special Condition is set will have an ‘X’
placed before the junction ID number. If the special condition is to close
the junction, by default it will be outlined with a dashed line. These
settings may be changed in the Workspace Preferences window.
Design Factor
You can specify a design factor for each junction (see example in Figure
6.5). Design factors allow you to specify multipliers on the junction
pressure loss. These multipliers are applied by the Solver during the
solution process. In the case of a pump, the design factor multiplies the
pressure rise. Design factors are helpful for adding safety margins to
your design calculations.
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Note: If you are designing for some minimum condition, you may want
to use the design factors differently for pumps than for other junction
types. If you use 1.1 for all junctions with a pressure loss, you will get an
extra 10% pressure drop. Using the same 1.1 on your pump will give an
extra 10% pressure rise. This will work against the 10% margin on your
pressure losses. If you want to use a pump design factor in this case, it
might be best to use 0.9.
Changing the icon graphic

You may want to change the icon to better represent a specific junction
type. This is accomplished by clicking the Change Icon button on the
Optional tab (see example in Figure 6.5). The Change Icon window
appears, allowing you to choose a new icon from a list of available
icons.
Changing the icon size

You may want to change the size of the junction to distinguish it from
other junctions. This is accomplished by clearing the Use Workspace
Default for Size checkbox and selecting the desired size in the drop
down list (see example in Figure 6.5).
Specifying Base Area

Junction windows that follow Format #1 allow selection of the base area
for loss models. By default the base area will be the upstream pipe area.
The user has the option of using the downstream pipe area or directly
specifying an area or diameter.
Notes
Each junction can have associated notes. This is useful for listing
assumptions, reference documents, drawings, measurements, etc. Notes
are entered in the provided area on the Notes tab.
Status
The Status tab shows which required input data has not been entered.

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Area Change Specifications window

The Area Change Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.6. The
Area Change junction type must always have two connecting pipes. This
junction type allows you to model the irrecoverable loss that occurs at
the area transition between two pipes, whether expansion or contraction.
The Area Change Specifications window follows the first of the two
basic Specifications window formats, displaying the connecting pipes in
a fixed format. A flow direction through the junction is adopted from the
defined directions of the two connecting pipes. Consistent with AFT
Fathom's convention, the loss factor base area is referenced to the
upstream flow area shown as the Base Area.
The Area Change Specifications window offers two standard types of
area change losses: the Conical Transition and the Abrupt Transition.
The window shows a schematic of the selected geometry.
Figure 6.6 The Area Change Specifications window
The critical parameter that influences the magnitude of the area change
loss is the area ratio between upstream and downstream pipes. Until you
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have input the information for the upstream and downstream pipes that
allow for flow area determination, the standard Area Change junction
loss factor is not calculated. For conical transition geometries you also
need to specify the conical angle.
If the standard loss factors provided are inadequate for your application,
you may specify your own custom loss factor referenced to the upstream
pipe flow area.
More information on the standard loss factor types for Area Change
junctions is given in Chapter 8.
Assigned Flow Specifications window

The Assigned Flow Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.7. The
Assigned Flow junction type allows you to connect one pipe and to input
a known flow rate entering or leaving at a particular location in your
system. You also can include an irrecoverable loss with this junction
type.
The Assigned Flow Specifications window follows the first of the two
basic Specifications window formats, displaying the connecting pipe
information in a fixed format. Depending on whether you specify the
junction as an inflow or outflow type, the required connecting pipe
(upstream/inlet or downstream/outlet) will be enabled while the other
pipe is disabled. Note that if the flow is specified as Inflow (to the
system) then the reference positive flow direction of the connected pipe
must be away from the junction (i.e. the junction is upstream of the
pipe).
Tip: If you see that the required pipe in the Specifications window states
“None” but a pipe is connected to the junction graphically, then check
the Inflow/Outflow setting on the junction or the reference positive flow
direction of the pipe.

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Figure 6.7 The Assigned Flow Specifications window
The Assigned Flow junction type allows you to specify positive flow
rates as volumetric or mass flow rates. Negative flow rates are not
accepted. If, for example, you have an outflow type junction and your
system is physically flowing in, you cannot assign a negative flow rate to
the junction. You must reverse the connecting pipe flow direction to be
consistent with the actual direction and change from an outflow type to
an inflow type.
Special Conditions
You can set a Special Condition for an Assigned Flow junction, which
will turn the flow off and make it act like a Dead End.
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Assigned Pressure Specifications window

The Assigned Pressure Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.8.
The Assigned Pressure junction type allows you to connect up to twenty-
five pipes. The Assigned Pressure junction is convenient for specifying a
known pressure in your system. It also allows you to specify
irrecoverable losses due to the fluid dynamic effects of the connecting
pipe geometry.
Figure 6.8 The Assigned Pressure Specifications window
The Assigned Pressure junction type has much in common with the
Reservoir junction. In each case you specify parameters in order to
achieve a known pressure. However, the Assigned Pressure junction
allows you to specify either stagnation or static conditions. This is useful
if, for example, you are modeling a system where the pressure in a pipe
is known and the location is being used as a boundary in the model. If
the measured conditions are for a location with a velocity, then they
represent static conditions and the choice of static properties should be

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selected. In this case, the choice of a Reservoir junction would be
inappropriate. Similar to the Reservoir, an Assigned Pressure junction
causes the rest of the system to distribute the flow in a manner consistent
with the defined pressure. You can specify the units for pressure by
selecting from the adjacent drop-down list.
The distance of each connecting pipe (if any difference exists) from the
elevation can be entered in the pipe table.
When a heat transfer fluid model is used, you must also specify a
temperature. You also have the option to balance the energy at the
junction. This will adjust the temperature in order to make the incoming
and outgoing energy balance. For additional information, see the
discussion on energy balance in the Reservoir Specifications window.
If the static pressure option is selected, only one connecting pipe is
accepted. The reason for this restriction is that multiple connecting pipes
could have different flows and, hence, velocities. Different velocities
will affect the static pressure, thus a unique static pressure cannot be
specified.
This limitation does not affect specified stagnation pressure because
stagnation pressure does not change with velocity. See Chapter 8 for
more information on this subject.
Bend Specifications window

The Bend Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.9. The Bend
junction type must always have two connecting pipes. This junction type
allows you to model the irrecoverable loss that occurs when the flow
direction changes through a bend or elbow.
The Bend Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
Specifications window formats, displaying the connecting pipes in a
fixed format. A flow direction through the junction is adopted from the
defined directions of the two connecting pipes. Consistent with AFT
upstream flow area shown as the Base Area.
The Bend Specifications window offers three standard types of bend
losses: the Smooth Bend, the Standard Elbow (the standard short radius
threaded elbow), and the Mitre Bend. The window shows a schematic of
the selected geometry. Until you have input the information for the
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upstream pipe that allows flow area determination, the standard Bend
junction loss factor is not calculated. For smooth radius bends you also
need to specify r/D, the radius of curvature over the pipe diameter. This
ratio must be greater than 1.
Figure 6.9 The Bend Specifications window
Note: In principle, the upstream and downstream pipe diameters should

be the same. However, the Bend only checks the upstream pipe diameter,
which is what it uses for a base area even if the physical flow is in the
opposite direction. If you are working with a user-specified loss, your
geometry may have different diameter pipes connecting to the elbow. In
this case, you would purposely define different upstream and
downstream pipe areas. However, you would still want to be careful that
the custom loss factor you assign is referenced to the upstream pipe flow
area.
For bends that are not at a 90-degree angle, you can enter the angle and
the standard loss factor will be calculated.
If the standard loss factors provided are inadequate for your application,
you may specify a custom loss factor referenced to the upstream pipe
flow area.

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More information on the standard loss factor types for Bend junctions is
given in Chapter 8.
Branch Specifications window

The Branch Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.10a-b. The
Branch junction allows up to twenty-five connecting pipes. The Branch
junction is the most flexible junction type for building network models
that have flow splits. Other significant features are the ability to impose
a flow source or sink at the junction and the ability to specify separate
loss factors for each connecting pipe. The Branch junction must have at
least two connecting pipes.
Figure 6.10a The Branch Specifications window Loss Coefficients

table.
The Branch Specifications window follows the second of the two basic
Specifications window formats. A table on the Loss Coefficients tab
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displays the connecting pipe information. This table grows in size to
accommodate up to twenty-five connecting pipes. After you add a fifth
pipe a scroll bar appears, allowing you to review and enter loss factors
for all pipes in the table.
For each connecting pipe, the pipe table lists the reference flow direction
and up to two loss factors. The first loss factor is for physical flow out of
the pipe and into the branch. The second is for physical flow into the
pipe and out of the branch. The loss factors can be specified
independently or left as zero. To edit within the pipe table, simply click
in the appropriate column and row.
Figure 6.10b The Branch Specifications window Optional tab

allows you to specify a flow source or sink.
The Branch junction also offers you the option of specifying a flow
source or sink at the junction. According to AFT Fathom's convention, a
source of flow into the system is defined as positive, while a

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consumption of flow with flow out of the system (a sink) is defined as
negative. Along with the flow rate you must specify the temperature
when heat transfer is modeled.
Check Valve Specifications window

The Check Valve Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.11. The
Check Valve junction type requires two connecting pipes. This junction
type allows you to model valves that prevent reverse flow.
The Check Valve Specifications window follows the first of the two
a fixed format. The Check Valve junction does not have an explicit flow
direction, but adopts a flow direction from the connecting pipes.
Consistent with AFT Fathom's convention, the loss factor base area is
referenced to the upstream flow area.
Figure 6.11 The Check Valve Specifications window
A check valve is a device that allows flow in only one direction. AFT
Fathom assumes that the check valve is initially open. If the flow
solution indicates that forward flow will not occur, AFT Fathom closes
the valve and solves the flow distribution again.
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A check valve Special Condition can be either open or closed.
Specifying losses
You specify the losses for the check valve on the Valve Model tab in the
Specifications window. For convenience, you can specify the constant
loss characteristics of a check valve as a valve coefficient (CV) or as a
loss factor (K). Chapter 8 details the relationship between K and CV.
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Check
Valve Specifications window makes additional features available
(similar to what is shown in Figure 6.16). Using these new features you
can input check valve loss factors or pressure drops that vary with flow.
To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial constants, fit a curve
to available data, or use interpolated x-y data. When a variable loss is
specified, AFT Fathom dynamically modifies the loss factor in the
Solver to agree with your input. You can choose any of the optional flow
and pressure parameters provided; you can also specify the most
convenient units.
An optional input in the Check Valve Specifications window is the
Restricted Area. This parameter describes the effective area restriction in
the valve. This is done for the purpose of assessing cavitation. In most
cases, information on the size of the restricted area must be obtained
from the manufacturer or from test data.
Control Valve Specifications window

The Control Valve Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.12.
Control Valve junctions are always internal to the system, with two
connecting pipes. This junction type allows modeling of valves that offer
special pressure or flow control characteristics at a location in the pipe
system.
The Control Valve Specifications window follows the first of the two
a fixed format. The Control Valve junction does not have an explicit
flow direction, but adopts a flow direction from the connecting pipes.

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Figure 6.12 The Control Valve Specifications window
Control Valve types

You can model four types of control valves:
• Pressure Reducing Valves (PRV’s)
• Pressure Sustaining Valves (PSV’s)
• Flow Control Valves (FCV’s)
• Pressure Drop Control Valves (PDCV’s)
Loss information for a control valve is not required, because control
valves are dynamic devices that change their geometry in response to the
pipe system behavior. The loss that results is that required to maintain
the control parameter. You can, however, specify the full-open loss. This
is the loss that will occur should the valve fail to a full-open state.
A PRV is a device that controls the pressure in a pipe system. The PRV
maintains a constant control pressure downstream of the junction as long
as the upstream pressure exceeds the control pressure. If the upstream
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pressure is lower than the control pressure, the ability to control pressure
is lost.
A PSV is similar to a PRV in that it controls pressure in a pipe system.
While the PRV maintains a constant downstream pressure, the PSV
maintains a constant upstream pressure. If the downstream pressure rises
higher than the control pressure, the ability to control pressure is lost.
An FCV is a device that maintains a constant flow rate in a pipe system.
By setting the junction to an FCV type and entering a flow rate, the
junction will limit the flow through the connecting pipes to be equal to
the control flow rate. The FCV can lose its ability to control flow when
the pressure drop across it becomes zero.
A PDCV is a device that maintains a constant (stagnation) pressure drop.
For this option, valve failure cannot be modeled. An indicator that an
unrealistic pressure drop has been demanded is a failure to obtain a
converged solution.
PRV/PSV static vs. stagnation pressure

The control pressure for a PRV or PSV can be either static or stagnation.
The default selection is static, as this is the most frequent application in
industry. See Chapter 8 for more information.
Action if setpoint not achievable

It is possible that the control valve cannot achieve the specified control
setpoint. There are several actions the valve can take in such cases. By
default, the Always Control (Never Fail) feature is selected. This option
is physically unrealistic but useful for modeling purposes. The reason
this option is physically unrealistic is that the valve can add pressure to
maintain control, thus acting like a pump. If this occurs, the user is
clearly warned in the output. The Always Control option is useful
because it gives a clear indication to the user of how far away the valve
is from being able to control.
For flow control valves, other options for valves which cannot achieve
control are to have the valve Open Fully or Close. By default the valve
fully opens. Once the control valve loses control, whether open or
closed, AFT Fathom will solve the model again.
Pressure control valves are more complicated. These valves have two
potential actions when control cannot be achieved. The first action is

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when the control cannot be achieved due to insufficient upstream
pressure. The second is due to excessive downstream pressure. The
default behavior for pressure reducing valves is to Open Fully due to
insufficient upstream pressure, and close due to excessive downstream
pressure. The defaults for pressure sustaining valves are the opposite.
You can override the default behavior by clearing the Use Default
Actions selection and specifying the desired actions.
AFT Fathom will determine if the valve can maintain control based on
the Loss When Fully Open value. If this fully-open pressure drop is
greater than the pressure drop which balances the system, the control
valve fails. In other words, the control valve can’t open wide enough
(becoming less restrictive) to achieve control, so it fails. If you enter data
in the Open Percentage table on the Optional tab, you can select to have
the data taken directly from the table for the 100% open case. You can
also choose to not have any losses associated with the valve in the full-
open state by selecting None. Note that when a control valve fails open
this fully-open loss will be used for the valve.
Special Conditions
Control valves have two special conditions. To open fully and not
control, or to close.
Open Percentage Table

The Optional tab allows data to be entered for special control valve
characteristics. Specifically, the valve Cv and Flow Area can be
Specified vs. the Open Percentage of the valve. This data does not affect
AFT Fathom’s flow solution. However, engineers frequently desire to
know the valve’s open percentage during operation to ensure it meets
design requirements. The Valve Summary (in the Output window)
always displays the valve Cv, and if data is specified for open percentage
and flow area it will also display open percentage and flow area at the
operating point. A graph of the open percentage, Cv, and flow area data
can be displayed.
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Dead End Specifications window

The Dead End Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.13. The Dead
End junction must always have one connecting pipe. This junction type
is one way to define flow in a pipe as truly zero. Use of this junction
allows AFT Fathom the liberty of skipping the flow solution, since the
flow is known to be zero.
Figure 6.13 The Dead End Specifications window
The Dead End Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
fixed format. The only required information is the connecting pipe and
the elevation.
General Component Specifications window

The General Component Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.14.
The General Component junction type is internal to the system and
requires two connecting pipes. This junction type allows you to model

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the irrecoverable loss that occurs through equipment that may not be
explicitly represented on the Toolbox and to specify loss factors as a
function of a flow.
The General Component Specifications window follows the first of the
two basic Specifications window formats, displaying the connecting
pipes in a fixed format. The flow direction through the junction is
determined by the defined directions of the connecting pipes. Consistent
with AFT Fathom's convention, the loss factor base area is referenced to
the upstream flow area.
Figure 6.14 The General Component Specifications window
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the General

Component Specifications window makes additional features available.
Using these new features you can input loss factors or pressure drops
that vary with flow. To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial
constants, fit a curve to available data, or use interpolated x-y data.
When a variable loss is specified, AFT Fathom modifies the loss factor
in the Solver to agree with the solution. You can choose any of the
optional flow and pressure parameters provided, and you can specify the
most convenient units.
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Heat Exchanger Specifications window

The Heat Exchanger Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.15.
The Heat Exchanger junction type is internal to the system and requires
two connecting pipes. This junction type allows you to model the
irrecoverable loss that occurs through heat exchanger equipment. You
also have the ability to specify loss factors as a function of a flow
parameter.
The Heat Exchanger Specifications window follows the first of the two
a fixed format. The flow direction through the junction is determined by
the defined directions of the connecting pipes. Consistent with AFT
upstream flow area.
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Heat
Exchanger Specifications window makes additional features available
can input heat exchanger loss factors or pressure drops that vary with
flow. To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial constants, fit a
curve to available data, or use interpolated x-y data.
Tube configuration model

The Heat Exchanger junction offers a special model for tube side
pressure drop. The tube configuration model allows the user to specify
tube properties and quantities, scaling and frictional characteristics,
multiple passes, blocked tubes and K factors for turnarounds. The
pressure drop is then calculated based on this data.

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Figure 6.15 The Heat Exchanger Specifications window. The

Thermal Data tab only appears when Heat Transfer
With Energy Balance is selected in System Properties.
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Heat transfer
When heat transfer is modeled, you can select from eleven different heat
exchanger models. Of the eleven models, six are based on the heat
exchanger configuration, such as parallel flow or counter flow. The
NTU-Effectiveness method is used to perform the energy balance.
Alternatively, several other models can be used including constant heat
rate in or out, heat rate in or out as a function flow rate, fixed exit
temperature, and fixed temperature/enthalpy drop/rise. Pressure loss and
thermal results will be displayed in the Heat Exchanger Summary in the
output, as well as information on secondary fluid conditions and log
mean temperature difference.
Note that similar to flow rate definition, heat flow is positive when
flowing into the system, and negative when flowing out.
When modeling convective heat exchangers (such as parallel or
counterflow) two heat exchanger junctions can be linked thermally. This
thermal link allows the two heat exchanger junctions to represent two
sides of the same heat exchanger. This capability can also be used to
model heat transfer between loops with different fluids (see Fluid
Groups).
Special Conditions
The Special Condition for a Heat Exchanger junction functions
differently than other junctions. Here you can turn off the heat transfer
for the heat exchanger.
Jet Pump Specifications window

The Jet Pump Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.16. The Jet
Pump junction type is internal to the system and requires two connecting
pipes, representing the suction and the discharge. The supply flow is
specified explicitly and modeled internally in the junction type.

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Figure 6.16 The Jet Pump Specifications window
The Jet Pump Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
fixed format. The flow direction through the junction is determined by
the defined directions of the connecting pipes.
The Jet Pump junction is useful for modeling jet pumps, also known as
eductors. Jet pumps are devices which use a high pressure injected fluid
to entrain a lower pressure fluid and induce motion, thus pumping the
lower pressure fluid. The high pressure fluid is referred to as the supply
fluid, the low pressure fluid is the suction fluid, and the combined
mixture is the discharge fluid. If the supply and suction fluid are
different, the variable physical properties model should be used (selected
in the System Properties window). In such a case the data for the jet
pump will be best entered on a mass flow rate basis, which includes the
effect due to density.
To describe the performance characteristics, data must be entered for the
pressure ratios at maximum and minimum flow, as well as the flow ratio
at maximum flow.
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If the pipe flow model includes heat transfer, a supply temperature is
required.
Orifice Specifications window

The Orifice Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.17. The Orifice
junction type requires two connecting pipes. This junction type allows
you to model the irrecoverable loss that occurs through a plate-type flow
restriction. It also allows you to specify loss factors as a function of a
flow parameter and an orifice loss for pipes with an area change.
The Orifice Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
fixed format. The Orifice junction does not have an explicit flow
Figure 6.17 The Orifice Specifications window
Orifices that are located at an exit are specified as exit orifices. These
orifices require an associated back pressure definition. Exit orifices can

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only be connected to a single upstream pipe. To specify an exit orifices,
select the Exit Orifice checkbox. Then specify the exit pressure and, if a
heat transfer fluid model is used, the exit temperature.
Orifice types
AFT Fathom provides two standard orifice types: sharp-edged and
rounded. The loss factors for these orifices are taken from handbook
values. More information on the loss models for the standard orifices is
given in Chapter 8. In addition to the standard orifices that AFT Fathom
provides, you can enter your own custom orifice loss factor that is
consistent with the application.
For convenience, you can specify constant loss characteristics of an
orifice as a discharge coefficient (Cd) or as a loss factor (K). The
standard orifice geometries include a functional dependence on the
upstream and downstream pipe areas, which may be different. Chapter 8
details the relationship between these concepts.
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Orifice
Specifications window makes additional features available. Using these
new features you can input orifice loss factors or pressure drops that
vary with flow. To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial
An optional input in the Orifice Specifications window is the Restricted
Area. This parameter describes the effective area restriction in the
orifice. This is done for the purpose of assessing cavitation. In most
from handbook or test data.
More information on the standard loss factor types for Orifice junctions
is given in Chapter 8.
Pump Specifications window

The Pump Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.18. The Pump
junction type requires two connecting pipes This junction type allows
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you to model the pressure/head that is added to the system by a pump,
fan or blower. The pump can be of either the centrifugal or positive
displacement kind. It also provides access to curve fitting tools.
The Pump Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
defined directions of the connecting pipes.
Because all pumps are different, AFT Fathom does not provide any
pump types. You must obtain the proper pressure and flow data that
describes the pump from the manufacturer or from test data. You will
want to save frequently-used pumps into the Component database.
In performing curve fitting or specifying pump constants, you can work
with pressure or head and with volumetric or mass flow rate. A variety
of units are provided in dropdown lists. These features allow you to
enter your pump information in the most convenient and meaningful
format.
Pump Model
The basic definition of the pump is performed on the Pump Model tab
(Figure 6.18, top). However, some of the information is optional. You
can model a pump with a pump curve, a fixed flow or fixed
pressure/head rise. When using a fixed flow, the total pressure/head
developed by the pump is calculated. This is useful for pump sizing or
modeling positive displacement pumps. When using a fixed
pressure/head rise, the flow that can be generated at that pressure/head
will be calculated.
Nominal NPSH and Efficiency (optional)

When using a fixed flow rate or pressure/head model, a nominal
efficiency and NPSHR can be entered as an approximation. This can be
useful for sizing or design purposes, although ultimately more precise
efficiency and NPSHR data should be entered when modeling a pump
curve.
Pump impeller modifications

AFT Fathom will also automatically adjust the pump curve for modified
impeller trims. If using pump configurations (discussed below) one can

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enter an actual impeller trim and AFT Fathom will use the affinity laws
to adjust the pump curve. Select the Impeller Modifications checkbox
(see Figure 6.18) to enter this.
Check valve at pump discharge

AFT Fathom offers a dedicated check valve junction, but frequently it
may be easier to just specify that the pump has a check valve at the
discharge. If using the XTS Module, a check valve junction will not
close until the time step after the reverse flow occurs. However, when
used as part of the pump junction it will never allow backflow at any
time step.
Pump configurations
Pump data can be entered for multiple configurations. This is available
only for pumps modeled as pump curves. The default is a single
configuration.
A pump configuration is a pump with a specific impeller trim and
operating speed. Multiple impeller trims and operating speeds can be
specified as part of the pump, then a particular combination can be
chosen.
Figure 6.19 shows the Pump Configuration window. Raw data can be
entered, imported from file, or pasted from the clipboard. Then a
polynomial curve can be fitted to the data. Data for head, NPSH, and
efficiency or power can be entered or the data can be interpolated. Also
data for the pump’s end of curve and NPSH constant for variable speed
can be entered.
If multiple configurations are entered, they are displayed on the Pump
Specifications window in dropdown lists for selection (see Figure 6.20).
NPSHR (optional in pump configuration)

The net positive suction head required (NPSHR) or net positive suction
pressure required (NPSPR) can be expressed as a function of mass or
volumetric flow rate. This data is optional and is not required to
completely define the pump. Both the required and available values are
given in the Pump Summary in the General Output section.
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Figure 6.18 The Pump Specifications window. Top shows the

Pump Model tab, and bottom shows Variable Speed.

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For variable speed pumps, you can supply an affinity exponent to adjust
the full speed NPSHR/NPSPR to that at the alternate speed. According
to the affinity laws, the head ratio and speed ratio are related by the
square law. However, the NPSHR ratio does not necessarily obey this
affinity law. This exponent allows you to account for this.
Note that in the Elevation area a data field is provided for the reference
elevation for NPSH calculations. This may be the pump suction
elevation or pump centerline.
Efficiency and power usage (optional in pump configuration)

The pump efficiency or power usage can be specified. This does not
affect the pump performance, but allows for quick assessment of power
used at the operating point and the proximity to BEP (Best Efficiency
Point). If efficiency or power data is supplied, the power, efficiency and
percent of BEP at the operating point is given in the Output Pump
Summary.
Variable speed
The pump operating speed can be entered as a percent of full speed. It is
assumed that the pump curve is entered at full speed. You can use a
speed that is lower or higher than full speed. AFT Fathom will adjust the
full speed pump curve using standard affinity laws relating speed ratios
to pressure/head rise ratios and flow rate ratios.
Controlled pressure or flow

You can optionally model a controlled pump (Figure 6.18, bottom). This
would allow modeling, for example, of a variable frequency drive
(VFD). The pump will then deliver the flow rate, suction pressure or
discharge pressure you set by varying the speed. The resulting speed will
be reported in the Pump Summary in the General Results section on the
Output window. Alternatively, if modeling a suction or discharge
pressure, it can be controlled only if it exceeds some level either high or
low. Otherwise the pump will operate on its regular pump curve.
These parameters are set in the Variable Speed tab.
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Figure 6.19 Pump Configuration window Pump Data tab above

where raw data is entered and curve fit or
interpolated. Composite Graph tab below.

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Energy cost calculations

The Pump Specifications window is the only junction type which always
displays a Cost tab in the standard version. This allows for setting up
energy costs calculations. In the CST module other costs can be
calculated here.
Multiple configuration
selections displayed
Figure 6.20 Pump Specifications window with multiple

configurations available.
The Cost tab offers the option of calculating costs or not. Choose the
“Include Cost in Report” option to have the costs calculated. A simple
energy cost can be specified in the Cost Settings window, and more
detailed cost structures with daily rate variations can be setup as an
Energy Cost Database.
The period of time over which to calculate costs is specified in Cost
Settings, as well as interest and inflation rates to permit net present value
cost calculations.
The energy cost is shown in the Output window Cost Report.
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Pump heat addition (Thermal)

If heat transfer modeling is used, the Thermal tab will appear and heat
added to the fluid by the pump due to inefficiency can be modeled.
Three options are available:
1. Enter the percentage of ideal energy required by the pump that goes
into heat addition. Typically this would equal the actual efficiency
subtracted from 100%. For example, if the pump was 70% efficient,
the entry here would be 30%.
2. Enter the percentage of the lost energy (i.e., the inefficiency) that
goes into fluid heating. Typically this would be 100%, which says
that all inefficiency goes into heat.
3. You can also directly enter a heat load which goes into the fluid.
Optional data
Representing Multiple Pumps With One Junction

If multiple identical pumps exist in parallel or closely spaced in series,
rather than modeling each as a separate junction they can all be
collapsed into a single junction. When doing so, intermediate piping is
ignored. This can shorten model runtimes.
To use this feature, specify the number of pumps at the location and
whether they are in parallel or in series.
Viscosity corrections
Viscosity corrections to standard rotodynamic pump curves have been
published in the Hydraulic Institute Standards. The method, based on the
ANSI/HI Standard 9.6.7-2004, is employed. The corrections to head rise,
flow rate and efficiency, referred to as CH, CQ and CE, respectively, are
given in the Pump Summary output.
Special Conditions
The Pump junction has two Special Conditions. One turns the pump off
and treats the pump as a closed valve. Hence no flow goes through the
pump. The second turns the pump off but allows flow to go through.

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Relief Valve Specifications window

The Relief Valve Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.21. The
Relief Valve junction type requires two connecting pipes, unless you
specify it as an exit relief valve, in which case only one connecting pipe
is allowed. This junction type allows you to model valves that open
when sufficient pressure exists.
The Relief Valve Specifications window follows the first of the two
a fixed format. The Relief Valve junction does not have an explicit flow
Figure 6.21 The Relief Valve Specifications window
A relief valve is a safety device designed into a pipe system. Relief

valves typically have a “cracking pressure.” The cracking pressure is that
pressure at which the valve will open to relieve the pressure in the rest of
the system. A relief valve may be specified as an internal, exit or inline
exit type. Internal relief valves open to permit flow into a previously
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isolated portion of piping where it is presumed that an exit path exists
for relief. An exit type relief valve allows flow to go directly out of the
system. An inline exit allows normal flow through an inlet and outlet
pipe, and relief flow directly out of the system.
For relief valves you must specify a differential cracking pressure at
which the valve will open. Exit relief valves can only be connected to a
single upstream pipe and you must define an associated back pressure.
AFT Fathom assumes all relief valves are closed at the start of an
analysis; it opens them if the flow solution indicates a cracking pressure
has been exceeded. After opening a relief valve, AFT Fathom solves the
flow distribution again. The through flow path of an inline exit relief
valve is always open.
The Special Condition for a relief valve is to fail the valve open so that
flow will be allowed to pass through it even if the pressure is not above
the cracking pressure.
Specifying losses
You specify the losses for the relief valve on the Valve Model tab in the
Specifications window. For convenience, you can specify the constant
loss characteristics of a relief valve as a valve coefficient (CV) or as a
loss factor (K). Chapter 8 details the relationship between K and CV.
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Relief
Valve Specifications window makes additional features available
can input relief valve loss factors or pressure drops that vary with flow.
To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial constants, fit a curve
to available data, or use interpolated x-y data. When a variable loss is
specified, AFT Fathom dynamically modifies the loss factor in the
Solver to agree with your input. You can choose any of the optional flow
and pressure parameters provided; you can also specify the most
convenient units.
A special loss model is available for relief valves which supports typical
passive type valves. This is the Cv Variable loss model.
An optional input in the Relief Valve Specifications window is the
Restricted Area. This parameter describes the effective area restriction in
the valve. This is done for the purpose of assessing cavitation. In most

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from the manufacturer or from test data.
Reservoir Specifications window

The Reservoir Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.22a-b. The
Reservoir junction type allows you to connect up to twenty-five pipes.
One connecting pipe is required. The Reservoir junction is convenient
for specifying a fixed pressure in your system.
A Reservoir junction applies a defined pressure and temperature at the
junction location in the model. When solving a pipe flow system, a
Reservoir causes the rest of the system to distribute the flow in a manner
consistent with the defined pressure.
The Reservoir Specifications window follows the second of the two
basic Specifications window formats. A table on the Loss Coefficients
tab displays the connecting pipe information. This table grows to
accommodate up to twenty-five pipes. After you add a fifth connecting
pipe, a scroll bar appears, allowing you to review and enter loss factors
for all pipes in the table.
Energy balance
The energy balance feature is displayed only when heat transfer is being
modeled. For an open system, most users desire that the temperature
remains fixed, like the pressure does. However, for closed, recirculating
systems you will usually want the temperature to vary. In a closed
system, the temperature supplied by the reservoir may not match what
returns from the piping system. This results in an energy imbalance at
the reservoir. If the Balance Energy feature is selected in the Reservoir
Specifications window, then AFT Fathom will adjust the reservoir
temperature to that which results in an energy balance at the reservoir.
The resulting temperature will appear in the output.
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Figure 6.22a The Reservoir Specifications window Reservoir

Model tab.
You may not always want to use this option for closed systems. For
example, if you have a large reservoir at a specific temperature, you may
want to keep the temperature fixed. This will indicate that the energy in
the return flow is small compared to the energy stored in the reservoir.
Such a system is not in thermal balance, for if you were to allow the
system to operate in this condition for a long time, eventually the
temperature in the reservoir would change to bring about energy balance.
In other words, keeping the temperature fixed allows a steady-state flow
solution while looking at a time slice of a transient thermal solution.
Another reason for keeping the junction at a fixed temperature is if there
is a significant heat transfer source at the junction. If heat is transferred
into or out of the reservoir, then energy balance is not desired. In such a
case you will want to vary the fixed inlet temperature until the energy
summation equals that of the heat transfer source. This could occur, for
example, if the reservoir walls were actively cooled.
See Chapter 8 for more information on modeling closed systems.

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Pipe depth & loss coefficients

The pipe table (Figure 6.22b) displays the reference positive flow
direction of each connecting pipe. To enter loss factors, select the cell in
the table and edit the value. Each pipe can use a different loss model or
custom value.
The depth or elevation for each connecting pipe can be entered in the
table. The depth is the distance below the liquid surface level.
Figure 6.22b Individual pipe depths (or elevations) and loss

coefficients may be specified in the Reservoir
If a pipe returns to the reservoir above the liquid surface, the depth is
entered as a negative number, or the elevation is specified higher than
that of the liquid surface. Pipes that discharge above the liquid surface
are assumed to have liquid free fall to the liquid surface. AFT Fathom
applies the proper boundary condition for above the liquid surface. If the
pipe is above the liquid surface, the only appropriate condition is for the
fluid to be flowing from the pipe into the reservoir. Fluid cannot flow
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from the reservoir into the pipe as the pipe is above the liquid surface. If
this occurs, AFT Fathom will assume the fluid flowing into the pipe is
the same as the reservoir fluid, solve the system, and then give a warning
in the output.
Screen Specifications window

The Screen Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.23. The Screen
junction type requires two connecting pipes. This junction type allows
you to model the irrecoverable loss that occurs through a screen, mesh,
or filter flow restriction. It also allows you to specify loss factors as a
function of a flow parameter.
The Screen Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
fixed format. The Screen junction does not have an explicit flow
direction; it adopts a flow direction from the connecting pipes.
referenced to the upstream flow area shown as the Base Area.
AFT Fathom provides four standard screen types for your use:
sharp-edged perforated plate, round-edged perforated plate, circular wire
screen, and silk thread screen. The loss factors for these screens are
taken from handbook values. More information on the loss models for
the standard screens is given in Chapter 8. In addition to the standard
screens that AFT Fathom provides, you may enter your own custom
screen loss factor that is consistent with the application.
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Screen
new features you can input screen loss factors or pressure drops that vary
with flow. To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial constants,
fit a curve to available data , or use interpolated x-y data.

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Figure 6.23 The Screen Specifications window
An optional input in the Screen Specifications window is the Restricted
Area. This parameter describes the effective area restriction in the
screen. This is done for the purpose of assessing cavitation. In most
from handbook or test data.
Spray Discharge Specifications window

The Spray Discharge junction must have at least one connecting pipe,
and it allows up to four. This junction offers a flexible way of modeling
a flow exiting the system through a nozzle or spray device.
The Spray Discharge Specifications window, shown in Figure 6.24,
follows the second of the two basic Specifications window formats. A
table displays the connecting pipe information. The pipe table grows in
size to accommodate up to four connecting pipes.
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Figure 6.24 The Spray Specifications window
The exit pressure to which the Spray Discharge junction discharges must
be entered. If a heat transfer fluid model is used, then exit temperature
must also be entered.
Two geometries can be modeled. The first is a normal, one hole spray,
where the discharge flow area of the hole is entered. The second is a
sparger which, in principle, works in the same way as a spray. For the
sparger, the flow area of a single hole and the number of holes are
entered. This assumes that the holes are hydraulically close in proximity
and are the same area.
For each connecting pipe, the pipe table on the Pipe Losses tab lists the
reference flow direction and up to two loss factors. The first loss factor
is for physical flow out of the pipe and into the junction, the second is
for physical flow into the pipe and out of the junction. The loss factors
can be specified independently or left as zero. To edit within the pipe
table, click in the appropriate column and row.

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Loss Model
The discharge coefficient for the junction is entered in the appropriate
box. The physical area of the exit flow can also be entered. These two
parameters are used to calculate the discharge flow rate, which depends
on the difference between the internal pressure in the system and the
specified exit pressure.
The K Fire Sprinkler model uses the K value as defined by the fire
sprinkler industry. Whereas the standard K loss value is dimensionless,
the K Fire Sprinkler has units associated with it. See Chapter 8 for more
details.
If you select a Resistance Curve, the Spray Discharge Specifications
window makes additional features available. Using these new features
you can input the spray pressure drop that varies with flow. To enter
these factors, you can specify polynomial constants, fit a curve to
available data , or use interpolated x-y data.
Tee/Wye Specifications window

The Tee/Wye Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.25. The
Tee/Wye junction type requires three connecting pipes. To increase
clarity, the window allows you to arrange the pipes with respect to an
image. Four different tee/wye models are available.
The Tee/Wye Specifications window does not strictly follow either of
the two basic Specifications window formats. Instead, the three
connecting pipes are arranged in the Arrangement area using provided
lists and images.
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Figure 6.25 The Tee/Wye Specifications window
Loss factors
There are two Loss Models available for Tee/Wye junctions: Simple and
Detailed. If you choose the Simple type of Tee/Wye, no loss factors will
be calculated. This is equivalent to a Branch with no loss factors entered
for the connecting pipes. In some systems the losses associated with a
Tee/Wye are small compared to the overall loss in the system. To avoid
unnecessary calculations you should choose the Simple type of Tee/Wye
unless you need the actual losses.
The Detailed type of Tee/Wye will calculate the loss factors as they
depend on the flow split as well as the geometry. Because of the
dependence on the flow split, loss factors usually cannot be calculated
before performing an analysis. AFT Fathom incorporates the best
available models to calculate tee and wye loss factors during the actual
solution. These calculations account for the percentage of the flow split
and the angle of connection. This offers a significant advantage over
hand calculated losses.

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If you have specific loss factors that you want to use for a tee/wye
junction, you should use a Branch junction instead.
Three-Way Valve Specifications window

The Three-Way Valve junction type always connects to three pipes
(Figure 6.26). This junction type allows you to model the irrecoverable
losses that occur through a valve with multiple inlets or outlets.
The Three-Way Valve Specifications window does not follow either of
the two basic Specifications window formats, instead showing the
connecting pipes in drop-down lists. This allows specification of which
pipe is the combined flow pipe and which two are the split flow pipes.
All losses in a Three-Way Valve are based on Cv. The Cv data is entered
for various percent open positions, and the user ultimately specifies the
actual percent open to be used in the model and the resulting Cv values
for the two flow directions are calculated and displayed. A graph of the
open percentage and flow area data can be displayed.
Special Conditions
When the percent open choice causes the Cv of one or both flow
directions to be zero, this applies a Special Condition on that flow split
which closes the valve.
Valve Specifications window

The Valve Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.27. The Valve
junction type requires two connecting pipes, unless you specify it as an
exit valve, in which case only one connecting pipe is allowed. This
junction type allows you to model the irrecoverable loss that occurs
through a flow control component. You also have the ability to specify
loss factors as a function of a flow parameter.
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Figure 6.26 The Three-Way Valve Specifications window
The Valve Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
defined directions of the connecting pipes. Consistent with AFT
upstream flow area shown as the Base Area. Valve junctions are
typically internal to the system, with two connecting pipes.
Exit valves
Valves that are located as exit flow control mechanisms are specified as
exit valves. These valves require an associated back pressure definition.
Exit valves can only be connected to a single upstream pipe. To specify
an exit valve, check the Exit Valve checkbox. Then specify the exit
pressure and, if a heat transfer fluid model is used, the exit temperature.

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Figure 6.27 The Valve Specifications window
Loss models
Numerous handbook loss factors for generic valve configurations are
given in the Valve Data Source area by selecting Handbook Data.
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Valve
new features you can input valve loss factors or pressure drops that vary
with flow. To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial constants,
fit a curve to available data , or use interpolated x-y data.
If you input Cv vs. open percentage on the optional tab, you can enter
the actual open percentage and AFT Fathom will calculate the Cv.
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Optional data
Open percentage data can be entered with Cv and flow area data. When
available, the Cv can be obtained on the Loss Model tab by entering the
open percentage. A graph of the open percentage and flow area data can
be displayed.
An optional input in the Valve Specifications window is the Restricted
Area. This parameter describes the effective area restriction in the valve
for the purpose of assessing cavitation. In most cases, information on the
size of the restricted area must be obtained from the manufacturer or test
data.
For more information on the loss models for these valves, refer to
Chapter 8.
Special Conditions
The Special Condition for a valve always closes it.
Venturi Specifications window

The Venturi Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.28. The
Venturi junction type requires two connecting pipes. This junction type
allows you to model the irrecoverable loss that occurs through a venturi
area change, which is frequently used in conjunction with pressure taps
in flow measurement devices. It also allows you to specify loss factors as
a function of a flow parameter.
The Venturi Specifications window follows the first of the two basic
fixed format. The Venturi junction does not have an explicit flow
Loss models
AFT Fathom does not provide any standard venturi loss models. Venturi
flow characteristics vary from vendor to vendor, so it is difficult to find
generally applicable models. You must enter your own custom venturi

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loss factor that is consistent with the application. This information
should be obtained from the manufacturer or from test data.
For convenience, you can specify constant loss characteristics of a
venturi as a discharge coefficient (Cd) or as a loss factor (K). Chapter 8
details the relationship between these concepts.
Figure 6.28 The Venturi Specifications window
When you select Variable K Factor or Resistance Curve, the Venturi

new features you can input venturi loss factors or pressure drops that
vary with flow. To enter these factors, you can specify polynomial
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Volume Balance Specifications window

The Volume Balance Specifications window is shown in Figure 6.29.
The Volume Balance junction type is internal to the system and requires
two connecting pipes.
The Volume Balance Specifications window follows the first of the two
a fixed format. The flow direction through the junction is determined by
the defined directions of the connecting pipes.
Figure 6.29 The Volume Balance Specifications window
The Volume Balance junction is useful for modeling pipelines with a

moving interface between fluids of different density. Such a scenario is
in reality a transient application, because the mass in the system is not
steady with time. Fathom is designed to balance mass at all branches,
except for the Volume Balance junction. For the Volume Balance, the
volume is balanced between the upstream and downstream pipes. This is
consistent with the fact that an equal velocity exists at the interface,
resulting in a volume balance at the interface.

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Volume Balance junctions should be used in conjunction with the
variable physical property model, without heat transfer but with variable
density (see System Properties window).
Global Edit windows

The Global Pipe Edit and Global Junction Edit windows, accessible
through the Edit menu, assist you in making large scale changes to your
model.
Figure 6.30 The Global Pipe Edit window allows you to change
data for many pipes at the same time. This is how the
window appears when first opened.
Global Pipe editing

The Global Pipe Edit window, shown in Figures 6.30 and 6.31, allows
you to edit data for multiple pipes at the same time. Here is how you use
it:
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1. Open the Global Pipe Edit window from the Edit menu.
2. Select the pipes you want to edit from the Pipe list on the left (see
Figure 6.30).
3. Click the Select Pipe Data button. This will open the Pipe
Specifications window (see Figure 6.1) in which you can enter the
data you want to change on each of the selected pipes.
4. Enter the pipe data you want to change and click the OK button in
the Pipe Specifications window.
5. The Global Pipe Edit window now lists the parameters to change in
a list on the right (see Figure 6.31). Select the parameters you want
to change.
6. Click the Apply Selections button.
Note that you cannot change some data, like the pipe ID number, using
this global method.
Figure 6.31 The Global Pipe Edit window after selecting the
“Select Pipe Data” button. Data can now be applied.

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Global Junction editing

The Global Junction Edit window, shown in Figures 6.32-6.36, allows
you to edit data for multiple junctions at the same time.
Junction data falls into two broad categories. Common data such as
elevation and initial pressure which apply to all junctions, and junction
specific data, such as a pump curve, which are specific to certain types
of junctions. You can switch between the two categories by selecting the
option in the upper left (see Figure 6.32).
Choice of editing
common or
specific data
Figure 6.32 Global Junction Edit window. This is how the window
appears when first opened to edit Common data.
Editing common junction data

You can open the Global Junction Edit window for common data editing
in two ways. First, you can choose Common Data from the Global
Junction Edit menu selection on the Edit menu, or you can choose one of
the other specific junction types on the menu and then choose the
Common Data option in the upper left (see Figure 6.32).
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Here is how you globally edit junction common data:
1. Open the Global Junction Edit window.
2. Select the Common Data option in the upper left (see Figure 6.32).
3. Select the junctions you want to edit from the Junction list on the
left (see Figure 6.32). Note that all junctions in the model are shown,
no matter what the junction type.
4. Click the Select Common Junction Data button. This will open the
Common Junction Data Edit window (see Figure 6.33) in which you
can enter the data you want to change on each of the selected
junctions.
5. Enter the junction data you want to change and click the OK button
in the Junction Specifications window.
6. The Global Junction Edit window now lists the parameters to change
in a list on the right (see Figure 6.34). Select the parameters you
want to change.
Note that you cannot change some data, like the junction ID number,
using this global method.
Figure 6.33 Common Data Edit window for global junction editing.

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Figure 6.34 The Global Junction Edit window after selecting the
“Select Common Junction Data” button. Data can now
be applied.
Editing specific junction data

You can open the Global Junction Edit window for specific data editing
in two ways. First, you can choose the junction type from the Global
Junction Edit menu selection on the Edit menu, or you can choose
Common Data on the menu and then choose the Specific Data For option
in the upper left (see Figure 6.35), and then choose the junction type
from the dropdown list.
Here is how you globally edit specific types of junctions:
1. Open the Global Junction Edit window.
2. Select the Specific Data For option in the upper left (see Figure
6.35).
3. Select the type of junction you want to edit in the dropdown list in
the upper left (see Figure 6.35). Here Spray Discharge is selected.
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Option for
specific types of
junctions.
Junction type
selected in list.
Figure 6.35 The Global Junction Edit window allows you to

change data for specific types of junctions (Spray
Discharge shown here)
4. Select the junctions you want to edit from the Junction list on the
left (see Figure 6.35). Note that only junctions of type selected in the
upper left are shown (Spray Discharge junctions in this case).
5. Click the Select Spray Discharge Data button (the button name will
change based on the type of junction selected). This will open the
appropriate junction Specifications window, in this case the Spray
Discharge Specifications window.
6. Enter the junction data you want to change and click the OK button
in the Spray Discharge Specifications window (or whatever window
type is displayed).
7. The Global Junction Edit window now lists the parameters to change
in a list on the right (see Figure 6.36). Select the parameters you
want to change.

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Figure 6.36 The Global Junction Edit window allows you to

change data for specific junction types (Spray
Discharge junctions shown here)
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CHAPTER 7
Customizing AFT Fathom
This chapter explains how to customize AFT Fathom in ways that

increase your productivity. To accelerate repetitive operations you can
customize the way the Workspace looks and behaves and the way output
is formatted. Changes to the program's appearance and functionality are
saved to the FATHOM7.INI file in your user application directory.
You can also build custom databases that are read in during startup and
used as if they were native to the program. These databases are saved to
the FTH_USER7.DAT file in your user application directory.
If you pursue extensive customizing of AFT Fathom, you are strongly
advised to make regular backup copies of the two files (FATHOM7.INI
and FTH_USER7.DAT). If the files ever become corrupted you could
lose all the custom data.
Tools are also provided to allow creation of network databases to share
frequently used data and report formats across a local or wide area
network.
Parameter and Unit Preferences

The Parameter and Unit Preferences window, shown in Figure 7.1, is
accessed from the Options menu. The features in this window allow you
to specify the default parameters with which you would like to work. By
changing any of the parameters in this window you do not lock yourself
out from certain features. Rather, when you encounter lists or options
during assembly of your model, AFT Fathom offers your default

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parameters as a first choice. This way you do not have to repeatedly
change the parameter in the Specifications windows.
Parameter Preferences
The first set of parameters you can set are the Default Pipe Data. By
default, the most recent pipe material and size selection is automatically
used for future pipes. A default pipe material can be specified. And a
default Pipe Friction Model can be specified.
Figure 7.1 Parameter and Unit Preferences window sets default

values to use.
Second, there are Default Design Factors. If you want to set up defaults
that are applied to your pipes and junctions, here is where you do it.
In the upper right you can specify default parameters for flow rate and
pressure head.
Finally, default elevation data can be specified.

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Chapter 7 Customizing AFT Fathom 237
Note: The inputs here merely specify defaults for pipes and junctions
not yet placed in the model. If you want to change data for existing pipes
and junctions, use the Global Pipe Edit and Global Junction Edit
windows.
Unit Preferences
You can set the units you prefer to use in AFT Fathom on the Unit
Preferences tab (see Figure 7.2). These units are selected as a first choice
in the unit selection boxes. You can choose any of the units available. To
set a new default, choose the unit type from the list on the right and click
the Set As Preferred Unit button.
Figure 7.2 Using the Unit Preference tab in the Parameter and
Unit Preferences window, you can set the default units
you want to work with and choose to show only the
units you want to work with.
You also can customize the units used by AFT Fathom. For each
parameter, AFT Fathom can use many different units. However, if only a
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few are ever typically used, then the others can be removed. This will
decrease the number of items in the unit selection boxes, making it easier
to choose the one desired. If a preferred unit is removed from those
available to Fathom, a new one will have to be chosen before leaving
this area. You also must have one set of units available for each
parameter.
To customize the units, first choose the parameter to modify on the list
on the left. Then, among the unit types on the right, check or uncheck the
boxes for the units you want or do not want to see.
You can select or unselect all displayed units by clicking the appropriate
button. Also, English and SI units can be selected as a group for
parameters by clicking the appropriate button.
Tip: To choose only English or SI units for all parameters, go to the Unit
Preferences tab, choose the Default Unit System then click the Apply
Default Units button. This will use AFT Fathom’s default units. This
will also change the preferred units.
Setting preferred units

To set a particular unit as the preferred unit, choose it in the list on the
right, and click the Set as Preferred Unit button.
Description of selected unit

A more complete description of the selected unit is shown at the lower
right of the window in the Unit Description field.
Custom monetary units

Monetary units can be set up by the user to allow pump energy cost
calculations in whatever currency is desired. On the Unit Preferences tab
select Monetary units and “New” and enter data for name of the
currency and conversion rate to the base units of U.S. Dollars. Once
entered, the currency can be selected for monetary input and output.
In the lower left of the Parameter and Unit Preferences window there are
two Database checkboxes. If these boxes are checked, your Parameter

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and Unit Preferences parameters are set up as determined by the
database to which you are connected. This is referred to as an active
database. To make them inactive, uncheck the boxes or change one of
the Parameter and Unit Preferences settings controlled by the database.
You can specify database connections separately for parameters and
units.
If the checkboxes are unchecked, but enabled, you are connected to a
database but the settings are not being passed to the Parameter and Unit
Preferences window. The databases are thus inactive. To make them
active, check the boxes then click the OK button.
If the checkboxes are disabled, there are no connected databases.
Later in this chapter we’ll discuss how databases are configured and
administered through your local or wide area network.
Command buttons
There are eight buttons at the bottom of the Parameter and Unit
Preferences window. Fathom has built-in default parameters, units and
settings which you can choose by clicking the Fathom Default button.
You can also develop your own settings, tailored to your project or
industry, and have these used by default (instead of Fathom’s defaults).
To make your own default, first select the parameters, units and settings
you would like to use, then click the Set As Default button. Your settings
will be saved and will be used each time any new project is initiated. If
you make changes to the settings, and want to get back to your defaults,
click the User Default button. The default settings are updated only
when you click Set As Default.
You can save the parameter and unit settings to a file by pressing the
Save Preferences button and entering a file name. These setting are
loaded again by pressing the Load Preferences button and choosing the
file name. The format files you create can be placed on a network for
sharing among a group or company, or incorporated into a company-
wide database, allowing standardized reporting.
If you have made changes that you don’t want to keep, click the Cancel
button. Click OK to use the settings you have defined.
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Workspace Preferences
The Workspace Preferences window is accessed from the Options menu.
The features offered in this window allow you to customize the
appearance and behavior of the Workspace.
Pipes and Junctions

You can customize the pipe thickness and style, and the junction size, on
the Pipes and Junctions tab, shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3 The Pipes and Junctions tab in the Workspace

Preferences window.

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Pipe Line Options
Normally, all pipes on the Workspace are displayed using the same line
thickness. This thickness value is set using the dropdown list at the top
of the Pipe Line Options area. A sample of how the pipe will be
displayed is shown immediately below the dropdown list.
There are two additional options that will vary the line thickness
according to the pipe diameter. If you choose the Vary Thickness With
Pipe Diameter option, the pipe line thickness will be varied according to
the pipe physical diameter. The smallest diameter pipe in the model will
be displayed as a line 1 pixel thick and the largest diameter pipe will be
displayed as a line the thickness you specify in the Pipe Line Thickness
dropdown list. All other pipes will be shown using a thickness
somewhere in between, according to their diameter.
Similarly, the Vary Thickness Using option will vary the pipe line
thickness from the smallest diameter pipe in the model to the largest.
However, in this option you can specify the range of pipe diameters and
line thicknesses to use. If a pipe is smaller than the minimum diameter
specified it will be shown using the minimum thickness. Accordingly, if
a pipe is larger than the maximum diameter, the maximum thickness will
be used. This option is useful to keep a few very large or very small
pipes in the model from skewing the display.
By varying the pipe thicknesses you can easily see the feeding pipes, the
large flow area pipes, or the small supporting flow pipes.
Each individual pipe allows you to modify its thickness, which overrides
the default size set here.
Closed pipe/junction option

You can change the pattern of a closed pipe by choosing the style (e.g.
dots or dashes) from the dropdown list box in the Closed Pipe/Junction
Options area. All pipes, whether closed using the Special Conditions
option or closed as a result of another object, will be displayed using this
style.
The junctions in a closed flow path are outlined using this style. An
example of the closed pipe style is shown below the list box. If you
choose Solid there will be no distinction made between a closed and
open pipe.
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Action When Drawing Selection Right To Left
By default this option is turned ON, and when ON the Selection
Drawing tool on the Workspace will select all objects completely or
partially within the selection box when the selection box is drawn from
right to left.
Pipe endpoint adjustments

By default, pipes snap to the center of junction icons. You can disable
this here if you desire.
Modifying icon size

The default size of the junction icons on the Workspace can be changed
to 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%, 150% or 200% of the full size. Click the
option button next to the desired size in the Junction Icon Size area; the
sample junction will change, reflecting your choice. Reducing the
junction size may free up more Workspace area and present a more
useful or appealing perspective of your models. Each individual junction
allows you to modify its size, which overrides the default size set here.
Action when dragging junctions

Normally, when a junction is dragged around the Workspace, the pipes
stay attached unless the CTRL key is pressed during the movement. You
can reverse this action (pipe will detach while dragging unless the CTRL
key is pressed) by checking the Leave Connected Pipes in Place check
box. This is useful when you are rearranging the model.
Auto increment labels

When new pipes or junctions are added to the Workspace, they are
assigned a new number that is greater than the highest pipe or junctions
number by one. The increment can be changed from this default to a
higher value.
Icon source
Limitations exist in Windows 95, 98 and Me that can affect AFT
Fathom’s ability to display large models on the Workspace. The
limitations relate to what are called GDI resources. The practical result
is that models that display more than 150-250 junctions may have
trouble. In such cases, it is recommended the Icon Source be changed to

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the Large File Icon Method. This allows you to use all icons that are
displayed on the Toolbox, plus it offers the ability to rotate icons. The
Toolbox Icons Only option only allows display of icons that are shown
on the Toolbox. When either of these options are chosen, the Workspace
Icon area on each junction Specifications window is disabled. Using
different color junctions is therefore not available.
Windows NT, 2000 and XP do not experience these limitations and the
user should thus always use the Complete Icon Set.
Display Options
From the Display Options tab you can change the symbols used, text
content, and location of the text on the Workspace (see Figure 7.4).
Figure 7.4 The Display Options tab in the Workspace Preferences

window.
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Workspace drawing
A grid can be displayed on the background for modeling convenience.
The grid can be fine, medium or coarse. The grid lines can be solid or
dashed. And finally, the pipes and junctions can be snapped to the grid
you specify.
The grid can be included in printouts by specifying its inclusion in the
Print Preview/Special window. Grids can also be toggled on and off on
the Arrange menu.
Orthogonal drawing mode can be enabled in the drawing area. This
provides automatic Workspace drawing guides which enforce orthogonal
pipes. Orthogonal drawing can also be toggled on the Arrange menu or
by using the F4 function key. See Chapter 4 for tips on how to best use
the orthogonal drawing feature.
Workspace symbols
Special symbols can be displayed on the Workspace adjacent to pipes
and junctions to denote special behavior. For example, an X (or symbol
of your choice) can represent a Special Condition. If you want to use
these symbols, click the “Use” checkbox and specify the desired symbol.
By default all symbols are selected for use.
Pipe direction arrows

Each pipe has a reference direction, and this direction can be displayed
in one of two ways. First, an arrow can be displayed on the Workspace
pipe (this is the default). Second, an arrow can be displayed next to the
pipe number. If an arrow is shown on the pipe itself, one of several
styles can be selected.
Displaying name and/or ID numbers

You can set the default number and/or name display setting for junctions
and pipes in the Pipe/Junction Display area. This setting will be used for
all new pipes and junctions. You can change the setting on a pipe-by-
pipe or junction-by-junction basis in the Specification window or by
using Global Edit.

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Setting the default junction label position
The default label position for all junctions on the Workspace can be
adjusted in the Junction Label Location area. Click the option button at
the desired location around the sample junction icon. Note that the
junction (and pipe) labels can be moved individually
Allowable Workspace label movements

By default, pipe and junction labels can be moved to new locations. You
can change this functionality to only allow movements when holding the
shift key.
Popup menu
The popup menu can be disabled (it is enabled by default) here. The
popup menu is a context sensitive menu available on the Workspace.
Special Conditions Graphics

By default, a junction with a Special Condition has a red square drawn
around it. That can be disabled here.
Colors and Fonts

The color of pipes, junction labels, etc., can be set on the Colors and
Fonts tab (see Figure 7.5). To change the color of an item such as the
Workspace background, select the Workspace Background from the list
and click the Set Color button. You also can just double-click the
Workspace Color itself. The color of individual pipes can be assigned in
each pipe window. This will override the default pipe color specified
here.
In addition to the color area, the junction and pipe font is displayed. To
change fonts, click the Change Fonts button to open the Fonts window
then, choose a new font or font style. A sample is displayed above the
Change Font button.
Sample Workspace
The tab for Sample Workspace shows you a sample of how the
Workspace pipes and junctions will appear if you click the OK button.
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In the lower left of the Workspace Preferences window there is a
Database checkbox. If this box is checked, your Workspace Preferences
parameters are set up as determined by the database to which you are
connected. This is referred to as an active database. To make it inactive,
uncheck the box or change one of the Workspace Preferences settings
controlled by the database.
Figure 7.5 The Colors and Fonts tab in the Workspace

Preferences window.

database but the settings are not being passed to the Workspace
Preferences window. The database is thus inactive. To make it active,
check the box then click the OK button.

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Later in this chapter we’ll present a discussion of how databases are
Command buttons
There are eight buttons at the bottom of the Workspace Preferences
window. Fathom has built-in default parameters, units and settings
which you can choose by clicking the Fathom Default button. You also
can develop your own settings, tailored to your project or industry, and
have these used by default (instead of Fathom’s defaults). To make your
own default, first select the settings you would like to use, then click the
Set As Default button. Your settings will be saved and will be used each
time any new project is initiated. If you make changes to the settings,
and want to get back to your defaults, click the User Default button. The
settings are updated only when you click Set As Default.
You can save the parameter and unit settings to a file by pressing the
Save Preferences button and entering a file name. These setting are
loaded again by pressing the Load Preferences button and choosing the
file name. The format files you create can be placed on a network for
sharing among a group or company, or incorporated into a company-
wide database, allowing standardized reporting.
If you have made changes which you don’t want to keep, click the
Cancel button. Click OK to use the settings you have defined.
Toolbox Preferences
The Toolbox Preferences window is accessed through the Options menu.
Figure 7.6 shows the layout of the Toolbox Preferences window. The
features in this window allow you to customize the Toolbox in the
manner that is most productive for you.
Once you have changed the appearance and functionality of the Toolbox,
you can set your changes as the user default values by clicking the Set
As Default button. From then on, AFT Fathom will always load with
your default Toolbox settings.
When you open the Toolbox Preferences window you can see two large
areas labeled Current Toolbox and Unused Tools. By dragging the
junction type icons from the Current Toolbox to the Unused Tools area
you can remove these junction types from the Toolbox. This may be
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useful if you use only a limited number of junction types and don't want
the unused types displayed on the Toolbox.
Figure 7.6 Toolbox Preferences window allows you to customize

the Workspace Toolbox.
Customizing Toolbox contents

You can also reorder the icons on the Toolbox by dragging and dropping
them to the desired locations on the Current Toolbox.

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Toolbox shortcuts
You can show or hide Toolbox shortcut information.
In the lower left of the Toolbox Preferences window there is a Database
checkbox. If this box is checked, your Toolbox Preferences parameters
are set up as determined by the database to which you are connected.
This is referred to as an active database. To make it inactive, uncheck
the box or change one of the Toolbox Preferences settings controlled by
the database.
database but the settings are not being passed to the Toolbox Preferences
Later in Chapter 7 a lengthy discussion is given of how databases are
General Preferences
The General Preferences window (Figure 7.7) allows you to:
• Specify automatic model saving
• Options for opening models with scenarios
• What content to display on the Status Bar
• Tip of the Day feature
• Number of data points to show in input tables
• Whether or not to confirm before clearing output results
• Setting parameters for “button flashing” for curve fit buttons on
junction Specifications windows
• Whether to show orthogonal drawing tips
• Default locations for saving models
• Common database locations
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• Backup folders where your FTH_USER7.DAT and FATHOM7.INI
files are copied (this is useful for keeping backups should you
change computers)
Figure 7.7 General Preferences window allows you to specify a

range of preferences.
Customizing the Output

AFT Fathom allows you to save your output preferences as the user
default. To do this, change the Output Control window to your preferred
arrangement, then click the Set As Default button. From then on this
arrangement will be the default used when any new project is initiated.
If you make changes to the Output Control window and you want to
return to your user default setup, click User Default. Clicking Fathom
Default activates the original defaults used by AFT Fathom. No updates
to the defaults are made unless you click Set As Default.

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You can save frequently-used output formats to file for later reuse. For
example, for checking modeling errors you may wish to create an Output
Control file named “ALL.DAT” that has all parameters, which you can
quickly access when needed. You may have another named
“FINAL.DAT” for final reports. The Output Control format files can be
located on a PC network for access by all engineers to allow for standard
reporting between different projects and groups.
More extensive discussion on using Output Control to customize your
output is given Chapter 4.
Specifying graph style preferences

When preparing graphs in the Graph Results window, you may prefer to
work with certain colors and styles. The Customize Graph window
allows you to save the style preferences using the features on the System
tab. You can later recall these preferences using the features in the same
area.
Auxiliary Graph Formatting window

The Auxiliary Graph Formatting window allows you to more easily
change graph colors and curve thickness in the Graph Results window.
These preferred settings can be saved as the default for future use. In
addition, these preferences are used in all graphs throughout AFT
Fathom. This window is opened from the Options menu or Toolbar.
Specifying Visual Report preferences

The Visual Report window content is specified in the Visual Report
Control window. To open the Visual Report Control window, choose it
from the View menu or Toolbar. Through the Visual Report Control
window you can choose the parameters you want to see in the Visual
Report window.
The parameters and text locations are automatically saved with the
model. However, you may want to save the settings for use with a
different model. To save your preferred layouts to an AFT Fathom visual
layout file, click the Save Options button and assign a file name. The
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default file extension is .fvs. Later you can recall your customized
layouts for rapid preparation of the Visual Report window.
The many features in the Visual Report Control window are described
further in Chapter 4.
Customizing Pipe Fittings & Losses

The Pipe Fittings & Losses window presents organized lists of pipe loss
fittings. This list is customizable. You can add your own fittings to the
base list provided with AFT Fathom. The Pipe Fittings & Losses
window is accessed through the Pipe Specifications window.
The standard losses provided with AFT Fathom are located in the
FATHOM7.DAT file in the same directory as the AFT Fathom
executable file. You should not change anything in this file.
The Fittings & Losses Edit window (Figure 7.8) can be opened from the
Database menu.
Figure 7.8 Fittings & Losses Edit window allows you to and edit
fitting and loss data that is used in pipes.

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Building custom databases

One of the more powerful features of AFT Fathom is that it provides
extensive customization capabilities. AFT Fathom provides the tools to
build custom databases for fluid properties, pipe materials, and all
junction types except Volume Balance. AFT Fathom incorporates these
databases internally and offers them to you through lists.
There are two types of databases that may be customized: local and
external (Note: the AFT Default Internal Database is not included here
since it may not be altered). The local database is located in the
FTH_USER7.DAT file in the user’s application data directory.
In AFT Fathom you can create multiple external or local custom
databases. The Database Manager window on the Database menu
simplifies this process.
When the databases are placed on a network, the data management
features described below can be implemented.
Specific, quality-checked data can be entered into databases located on a
local or wide area network of PC’s. This data is not accessible to the end
users through AFT Fathom itself, so it is guarded data.
Once placed on a network, users can connect to any database found in
the Database Manager. Users can connect to as many databases as they
want, and get access to all data in databases using Database Manager.
Adding custom fluid properties to the Fluid Database

You can open the Fluid Database window from the Database menu or
from within the System Properties window. Figure 7.9 shows the layout
of the Fluid Database window. This window allows you to review
currently defined custom fluids, to change the parameters that define the
fluids, and to enter new fluids. All fluid properties are assumed to be a
function of temperature only.
Once you have entered a custom fluid, it will appear in the Fluid List
area of the System Properties window whenever you use AFT Fathom.
You can add new fluids to the database by clicking the Add New Fluid
button and opening a new window (see Figure 7.10). The constants
provided allow you to describe the variation of density, dynamic
viscosity, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and vapor pressure as they
depend on temperature or solids concentration for newtonian fluids. In
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addition, there is an option to describe the variation of density, viscosity,
rigidity coefficient and yield stress for a Bingham Plastic non-newtonian
fluid as it depends on solids concentration. This window provides the
tools to perform polynomial curve fits of fluid data; or, if you already
have appropriate constants, you can input them directly. In addition, the
raw data can be interpolated.
Figure 7.9 Fluid Database window shows existing AFT Standard

fluids and allows user to add new fluids.
Density and viscosity are required for all fluids. Specific heat and
thermal conductivity and reference temperature/enthalpy point are
required in order to perform heat transfer calculations. Vapor pressure is
required if checks and warnings for cavitation are desired. Note that the
reference temperature/enthalpy do not need to be exact values since only
changes in the parameters are used.
The Fluid Database window also allows you to open the Change Fluid
Data window, which is essentially the same window as the Add New
Fluid window. For easy editing, data for the fluid you wish to change is
entered for you in the appropriate areas. The original curve fit data you
entered is also displayed.

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Figure 7.10 Add New Fluid window is where you input data for a
custom AFT Standard fluid.
The Add New Fluid/Change Fluid Data windows displays cross-plotting

of your custom curves against the curve fit data points. You can also
import data from text files into these windows.
Adding custom pipe materials to the Pipe Material

Database
You can open the Pipe Material Database window from the Database
menu. Figure 7.11 shows the Pipe Material Database window. Using this
window, you can easily add to the user database the geometric
information for any pipe material in the length units of your choice.
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Figure 7.11 Pipe Material Database window shows existing pipe

materials and allows user to add new materials
After you have entered a custom material, each time you open a Pipe
Specifications window the material will be available to you for quick
selection. This minimizes the need to work with handbooks.
Pipe materials typically have a range of nominal sizes and a specific
type, class, or schedule that describes the actual dimension. AFT Fathom
works with the inner diameter of the pipe, since that is the parameter that
directly affects the fluid mechanics.
You can also add multiple Friction Data Sets for each pipe material.
This allows you to keep, for example, different friction values that may
apply to the same pipe under different conditions. These conditions
could be related to the age of the pipe or the type of fluid being carried.
¾ To add custom pipe materials to the user database, choose the entry
location you desire in the list on the left (Pipe Materials, Sizes and
Types). Then click the New button below. For example, to add an
entirely new material, click the Pipe Materials selection in the list then
click the New Material button. To add a new size for an existing material
(say Steel), click Steel in the list then click the New Size button. To add
a new type to the Steel 1 inch size, click Steel 1 inch in the list then click
the New Type button.

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When adding a new material, you also will be asked to specify a
geometry, enter a nominal size, type of material, diameter, friction data
set, and friction value to define the first data. Optionally you can add in
a wall thickness. From then on you can enter additional nominal sizes
and types. The name descriptors you choose for the material, size, and
type are at your discretion. They can contain text mixed with relevant
numbers if you desire.
In addition to manual entry of the custom pipe materials, you also can
import pipe material data from a file. When you click the Import From
File button, a dialog box will appear that is self explanatory. Just follow
the directions in the dialog box. By choosing to import from a file, you
will be able to have a separate copy of the data for later access.
Friction Data Sets

A friction data set can be associated with the entire pipe material, or
with specific sizes or types. For instance, a friction data set associated
with Steel (i.e., the top level) might be called “25 year usage” and have a
roughness value of 0.005 inches. This data set is then available to all
sizes and types of steel. However, if “25 year usage” is associated only
with the 1 inch of Steel, it will apply only to the pipe schedules that are 1
inch.
You can also associate friction data sets with a specific type (i.e.,
schedule). For instance, you can make a “25 year usage” and associate it
only with 1 inch schedule 40 Steel pipe and assign its roughness value as
0.006 inches. Then all Steel pipe would use 0.005 inches for “25 year
usage” friction while the different value for 1 inch schedule 40 of 0.006
inches would supercede the value of 0.005 inches associated with all
Steel pipe.
Finally, among multiple friction data sets you can specify a default data
set.
Insulation Data Sets

Insulation data sets are similar to friction data sets. An insulation data
set can be associated with the entire pipe material, or with specific sizes
or types. Insulation data sets are based on insulation data that has been
specified in the Insulation Database.
For instance, an insulation data set associated with Steel (i.e., the top
level) might be based on insulation data in the Insulation Database called
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“Denver Heating Company K-Series”. You might assign it a thickness of
1 inch and name it “Colorado Standard”. Once entered, all steel pipe
sizes would have a Colorado Standard insulation data set based on
Denver Heating Company K-Series insulation that is one inch thick.
In practice, different thicknesses would likely be associated with
different pipe sizes. To accomplish this, you could create insulation data
sets for pipes one inch or less, call them “Colorado Standard”, and make
them ¼ inch thick. Pipes 1-4 inches could also have “Colorado
Standard” sets, but would use ½ inch insulation, and pipes larger than 4
inch could have “Colorado Standard” and be specified as 1 inch thick.
Then in the Pipe Specifications window you can choose “Colorado
Standard” insulation, and the appropriate thickness for the size you have
chosen would be used.
Finally, among multiple insulation data sets you can specify a default
data set.
Pipe Thermophysical Properties

The Pipe Material Database window allows you to assign
thermophysical properties of the pipe. The density of the pipe can be
entered as a constant, and the thermal conductivity as a function of
temperature. The thermal conductivity is used in heat transfer
calculations for pipes.
Adding Custom Insulation Data

The Custom Insulation database is accessed from the Database menu.
Custom Insulation database items are used for heat transfer calculations
of pipes. The insulation thermal conductivity is entered as a function of
temperature, and density as a constant.
Insulation data can be applied directly to pipes, and can also be
associated with the Pipe Material Database as insulation data sets.
Adding custom junction data to the Component

Database
To simplify modeling and eliminate repetitive data entry, AFT Fathom
allows you to save frequently-used junction data to a custom database.
Once saved, the custom equipment data can be immediately recalled
from the Database List in the Specifications window. Using this tool,

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you can easily build your own database of pumps, valves, or other
components supplied by specific manufacturers.
¾ To save a Custom junction to the database, open the junction

Specifications window and enter all required data. Close the window and
choose Add Component to Database from the Database menu. You will
be prompted to enter a name for the custom component. Enter a
descriptive name and close the window. If you open the junction again,
the custom name will be selected in the Database List.
AFT Fathom accepts custom data for all junction types except Volume
Balance. Volume Balances are not included because there is no custom
information for a Dead End and thus nothing to store.
Figure 7.12 Component Database window shows junctions items

in database and allows editing
Editing the Component Database

You can delete or rename any existing database component by opening
the Component Database window from the Database menu (see Figure
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7.12). To edit an existing database entry, select the item in the list and
click the Edit Data button. This opens the data into a Specifications
window where the data can be modified.
Database Manager
Accessed from the Database menu, Database Manager allows you to –
• Connect to and disconnect from databases
• Create and delete databases
• Review the content of databases
• Move contents between databases
Types of databases
There are two types of databases in standard AFT Fathom, and two more
when using the CST Module.
• Engineering Database
• Energy Cost Database
• Cost Database (CST Module only)
• Kbase Cost Database (CST Module only)
Setting available databases

To work with a database you must first make it available to AFT
Fathom. Referring to Figure 7.13, clicking on the Edit Available
Databases button and choosing Add Engineering Database from the
dropdown menu will open a standard file dialog box with which you
may browse to and select a database. A database may be removed from
the list of available databases by selecting it and clicking on the Remove
Selected Database from the same dropdown menu. Contents of a
database may be reviewed by selecting a database from the list and
clicking on the Review Content button.

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Figure 7.13 Available Databases in the Database Manager
The AFT DEFAULT INTERNAL DATABASE and the AFT FATHOM

LOCAL USER DATABASE may not be removed and will always
appear in the list of available databases. External shared databases will
also always appear in the available database list. These databases are
distinguished from other external databases by being listed in the
DATABASE.LIB file residing in the AFT Fathom directory.
Connecting and disconnecting to a database

To use a database within a model it must first be made available, as
described above, and connected using the features in the Connect To
Database tab. To connect a database, select it from the list of available
databases and click on Add to Connections (see Figure 7.13). Similarly,
to disconnect a database, select it from the list of Connected Databases
and click on Disconnect Database. The sections contained in the selected
database will appear in the list to the right, Database Selections, from
which the sections to be used in the model may be selected; i.e.
components, fluids or pipe materials.
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Figure 7.14 Connect To Database tab of the Database Manager

allows you to connect to and disconnect from
databases, review their contents and select the
sections of a database to be used.
The contents of a connected database may be reviewed by selecting it

and clicking on Review Content.
Clicking on Set As Default will establish the list of connected databases
as the default list, while clicking on User Default will set the
connections to the default list.
Editing databases
The Edit Database tab of Database Manager allows you to create and
delete databases, and edit their contents by copying sections or items
from one database to another. The tab is divided into a Source Database
area on the left and a Changing Database area on the right (see Figure
7.15).
To edit a database, first choose a source database by selecting one of the
four options:

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• Currently available external
• Data From Current Model – components, fluids and materials made
in the current model using the Component Database, Fluid Database
or Pipe Material Database
• Local User Database – FTH_USER7.DAT located in your
application data directory, where component, fluid and materials
data created by the user is stored by default
• Other External – by selecting this option and clicking on the Select
Database, you are able to browse and select a database file from any
available drive and directory
Select the database to

be used as the source
Click here to select an

external database as
the source
File name, title and

available sections
within the source are
listed here
Selected items may be

moved or copied from
the source to the
database being
changed
Figure 7.15 Edit Database tab allows you to select sections from a
specified database and add them to an existing or new
database.
The file and descriptive name of the selected database are displayed as
well as the sections available in that database, i.e. fluids, components or
pipe materials.
The database to be changed and what changes are to be made are
specified in the Changing Database portion of the Edit Database tab.
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• Select Database to Edit… – browse to and select an existing
database file
• Create New Database… - specify a location, file name and
descriptive name for a new database. The file and descriptive name
of the selected or created database appears below (Figure 7.16).
• Delete database – deletes the database displayed
• Review content – displays the content of the database listed
• Delete section – deletes from the listed database the section selected
from the Database Sections list
Figure 7.16 After specifying a database file name, you will be

prompted for a description which will then appear in
the various lists of the Database Manager when this
database is selected.
Benefits of shared databases

When the Fathom databases are placed on a network, powerful data
management procedures can be implemented. Specific, quality-checked
data can be entered into databases located on a local or wide area
network of PC's. This data is not accessible to the end users through
AFT Fathom itself, so it is guarded data.
Once the data is placed on a network, users can connect to any database
listed in DATABASE.LIB by selecting the database in the Connect
Database window on the Database menu. Users can connect to as many
databases as they want, and get access to all data in databases listed in
DATABASE.LIB.

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In addition, special modeling control files can also be included in your
network databases. These include:
• Output Control format files
• Model Data Control format files
• Workspace Preference format files
• Parameter Preference format files
• Unit Preference format files
• Visual Report Control format files
• Toolbox Preference format files
If the user connects to a database with these files and selects to be
connected to any of these control files, the model will inherit the control
formatting specified in the control files. This means that special report
layouts, special graphical representations and colors, and other special
controls can be decided upon by the database constructor, and those
control features can be selected into local models by end users. This is
highly useful for creating customized reports for certain customers or
project requirements.
By way of example, if the Output Control window is specified as coming
from the “Mine Shaft Cooling Output Format” database, it would appear
as shown in Figure 7.17.
If you uncheck the Database checkbox or change certain data in the
Output Control window, the database will remain connected but change
to an inactive state. When the database is inactive, none of its data flows
through to the model. To bring the Output Control data back into sync
with the connected database, recheck the Database checkbox in Output
Control.
This entire custom database concept lends itself naturally to the idea of
specific project databases. Each project has differing requirements that
depend on the nature of the project and the end customer. Data for each
project can be assembled into separate databases, allowing faster and
more accurate transmission of the controlled data and desired reporting
formats to engineers.
Maintaining a network database allows commonly-used data to be
controlled, which may be helpful in instances where quality control is
strict.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 265

Database
connection
Figure 7.17 Output Control window with database connected and

active.
Creating an enterprise-wide, network database system
Overview
Users of AFT Fathom on a network can access common databases to
simplify model verification, improve analysis and reporting consistency,
and eliminate redundant work.
To accomplish this there is some initial setup that must be done. First,
the data for components, materials, formats, etc., needs to be created and
saved to various data files. Secondly, these files must be made available
to the users of AFT Fathom by creating a file named DATABASE.LIB
in the FATHOM folder. Thirdly, the users need to connect to the new
databases listed and select the sections to use. Each of these broad steps
is discussed below. To maintain control and integrity of the data, it
would be advised that one person is given the responsibility to create and

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maintain the network databases. The discussion below will be given
from the viewpoint of this person.
Figure 7.18 shows the relationship between Internal Databases and
External Databases as well as the database file listing that AFT Fathom
uses to find these databases. An External Database is any database file
that is created by the user and listed in the FTH_DBUSER.LIB residing
in the users local application directory. The user can make these
available and unavailable, and connect and disconnect from these
databases using Database Manager. The database files themselves may
be located on any local or mapped drive. These database files are also
distinguished by being under the local user’s complete control. External
Shared Databases, on the other hand, are common to all AFT Fathom
users on the network, therefore the local user cannot remove them from
the list of available databases. However, the user can choose to connect
or disconnect from these databases using Database Manager. Finally, to
complete the discussion, there are two special databases, the Default
Internal Database and the Local User Database. These files are AFT
Fathom Internal Databases which cannot be disconnected or made
unavailable.
Creating database files

The first thing to do is create the files that contain the information to be
shared. These files will be referred to as database files and can contain
information about pipe materials, components (e.g. pumps, valves, etc.),
fluids, Output Control formats, Visual Report settings, etc. The
following are several ways to create database files:
• Use the Edit Database feature in the Database Manager, as described
previously. Data can be taken from the current model or other
databases.
• Save the control formats to separate files. This can be done on the
Output Control window, Visual Report control window, etc.
• Copy and paste sections from one file into another file using a text
editor.
This discussion will focus on the first and second methods. Let’s assume
that the person responsible for the network database has already created
a new pipe material. Also, assume that the goal is to create a network-
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 267

wide database to contain this material, as well as two Output Control
settings and a Visual Report format.
Database Groups and Filenames Database Titles/Descriptions

Fathom Internal Databases
AFT Default Internal Database
FATHOM7. DAT
FTH_USER7.DAT
AFT Fathom Local User Database
External Shared Databases

(DATABASE.LIB) Vail Resort Materials
VailMaterials.dat
Development Output Control Settings
Development Output.dat
Final Report Output.dat

Final Report Output Format
Visual Report Format.dat
Visual Report Format

External Databases
(FTH_DBUSER.LIB)
My Custom Output Settings
My Report Output.dat
My VR Format.dat
My Custom Visual Report Format
Figure 7.18 An example of the relationship between External

Databases and External Shared Databases.
The information for the material is copied from the Local User Database
(FTH_USER7.DAT) to a new file using the Database Editor in the
Database Manager (see Figure 7.15). For the source database choose
Local User Database and then select Pipe Materials. Then click Create
New Database and enter a file name, VailMaterials.dat, for this example.
Then enter a description of the database. This description is how AFT
Fathom users will refer to the database and should concisely describe
what is in the database (for this example we’ll use “Vail Resort

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Materials”). Then click the Copy button to copy the pipe materials from
the Local User Database to this new database file. The pipe material
database file has now been created and is ready to be used.
Now we need to create two Output Control settings, one with a wide
variety of parameters for use during the project development phase and
another, more concise set, with the pertinent data for a final report.
Again, there are many ways of creating these database files. For the
development report format, let’s create a database file directly. Open the
Output Control window and select the pipe and junction output
parameters needed. Then click Save Control Format and enter the file
name (Development Output.dat in this case). You may want to open the
file in Notepad or other text editor and change the file heading (first line
of the file) from the default to something more descriptive,
“Development Output Control Settings”, for example.
Now, for the settings for a final report, let’s create the file using the
Database Editor in the Database Manager (see Figure 7.15). Open the
Output Control window again, select the parameters needed for the final
reports and click OK. Then open the Database Manager and go to the
Edit Database tab (see Figure 7.15). Click Data From Current Model and
then choose the Output Control section. Then click Create New
Database and enter a file name, Final Report Output.dat, for this
example. Then enter a description of the database, something descriptive
like “Final Report Output Format”. Then click the Copy button to copy
the Output Control format from the local model to the new database file.
To complete the database files, we need to create a Visual Report
format. To do this a model must first be run; any model can be used in
this case. After the model is run and a converged answer is obtained, go
to the Visual Report Control window and select the parameters to show
on the Visual Report. Then click Save Options, then enter the name of
the file, for example, Visual Report Format.fvs. Again, you may want to
open the file in Notepad or other text editor and change the file heading
(first line of the file) from the default to something more descriptive,
“Visual Report Format”, for example.
Sharing database files using DATABASE.LIB

Now that the database files for Pipe Materials, Output Controls Settings
and a Visual Report Format have be created, they need to be made
available to the users of AFT Fathom. Depending on the scope of use,
these database files can be placed into one of two groups. If the database
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 269

is to be used locally by one user, it is put in the External Database group.
On the other hand, if the database is to be common among many users
and shared over a network it is put into the External Shared Database
group.
Continuing the above example, the goal is to share these database files,
so ultimately they need to be External Shared Databases and listed in the
DATABASE.LIB file in the Fathom directory on the network. However,
since Fathom does not write directly to the network files for security
reasons, it is easiest to temporarily treat these files as local External
Database files which will be listed in the FTH_DBUSER.LIB file
located in the Windows folder of the local machine.
It is recommended that External Shared Databases files be copied to the
network server and placed in a subfolder of the AFT Fathom folder (e.g.
AFT Products\AFT Fathom\Databases). The files may, however, be
located anywhere on the network that is accessible to the users. For our
example, we are going to put all three database files on the network in a
subfolder called Databases. It is easier to copy the files to the Databases
folder before they are made available in AFT Fathom. This will help
establish the correct paths to the files as the files are made available
using the Database Manager.
Once the database files are in their final locations, open the Database
Manager and click the Edit Database List button on the Connect to
Database tab (see Figure 7.13). Each of the new database files we have
created needs to be added to the Available Databases. Once added, the
description of the database you just added appears in the Available
Databases list. When you have added all the new database files, click
Close and the External Database listing file (FTH_DBUSER.LIB) in
your Windows folder is automatically updated.
Now we need to discuss how the paths should be setup. When you add a
database, AFT Fathom will write the full path of the database to the
External Database listing (FTH_DBUSER.LIB). That means that if you
browsed to the database file using a mapped drive letter then the path
will include that drive letter. However, if other users try to access the
databases but have the AFT Fathom folder mapped to a different drive
letter they will not be able to locate the database files. Other options
include using either relative paths or the computer name in the path (e.g.
\\Network Server\Eng Apps\AFT Products\AFT
Fathom\Databases\filename.dat). You can automatically have AFT
Fathom use the computer name when you add the file by choosing

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Network Neighborhood, then the computer and then browse to the
database file. If you would rather use relative paths, you can manually
edit them in the database listing file. All database files must be relative
to the AFT Fathom folder where the executable is located.
When the three database files were added above, they became External
Databases and were listed in FTH_DBUSER.LIB. Now we need to move
this listing from the local machine to the AFT Fathom folder on the
network so that all users can access the database files. Once the listing
file is moved to the network, it must be renamed DATABASE.LIB.
Once this is done, all users can now access the database file we have
created.
Connecting to the external shared databases

Now that the databases have been placed on the network and made
available to all AFT Fathom users, each user must now connect to the
databases and make the sections active as needed. When a user opens the
Database Manager, the External Shared Databases are listed in the
Available Databases section on the Connect To Database tab (See Figure
7.14). Choose a database from this list and click Add to Connections and
the database will now appear in the Connected Databases. Then choose
the section(s) from the list on the right-hand side to become active. A
database can be connected without having any sections selected and
active. Finally, to have these connections in place every time you start
AFT Fathom, click Set As Default. To apply these settings to a model
made previously, open the model, go to Database Manager, click User
Default and, if you have set the default, the connections and setting will
now be applied to the model.
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CHAPTER 8
Hydraulic Theory and Loss Models
AFT Fathom employs standard matrix solution techniques for solving

pipe network problems. The solution techniques use the basic
engineering concepts of mass and momentum balance to determine the
flow distribution and pressure losses in the network.
This chapter presents an overview of the solution technique and the
solution control parameters available to you. This chapter also describes
each of the junction types as it relates to the solution scheme. Many
junction types have standard, handbook loss models. The nature of the
loss models that AFT Fathom uses and references for those loss models
are also given.
The Solver
AFT Fathom's Solver is designed to achieve a balanced flow, pressure
and, if heat transfer is used, energy solution in a pipe network. Before
using the Solver in an application, you must have at least a basic
understanding of pipe fluid mechanics. A review of basic pipe fluid
mechanics can be obtained from standard undergraduate fluid mechanics
textbooks (Fox and McDonald 1985; White 1979).
AFT Fathom makes use of standard matrix solution techniques (Jeppson
1976). The method is known as the H-Equation method, where H, the
piezometric head, is solved for at each junction by forcing continuity of
flow through each connecting pipe. Simultaneously, the head loss across
each pipe is updated based on the flow balance information. The flow
rate and head are solved in an inner-outer loop algorithm, where the flow

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is guessed, the head loss is calculated consistent with that guess, and the
flow is updated according to the new pressure drop information. The
Newton-Raphson method is employed to refine each successive solution,
resulting in a sparse square matrix that is solved during each solution
pass.
The concepts of pressure and hydraulic grade line (HGL, also called
piezometric head) are related but use different frameworks for
considering pipe system behavior. The HGL includes both the static and
elevational effects of pressure. The relationship between the two is given
by Equation 8.1:
P
HGL = +z (8.1)
ρg
where z is the elevation. Each concept offers certain advantages.
The solution technique makes use of the continuity and one-dimensional
momentum equations. AFT Fathom uses pressure and mass flow rate as
the unknown parameters because they are more fundamental in nature
than the head and volumetric flow rate used by Jeppson and thus extend
more naturally to mechanical and chemical systems.
In the following discussion, subscripts denote values at junctions. Thus,
Pi represents the pressure at junction i. Double subscripts denote values
along pipes connecting two junctions. Thus, m & ij represents the mass
flow rate in the pipe connecting junctions i and j.
Application of the law of mass conservation to each junction yields:
n
∑ m&
j =1
ij =0 (8.2)
where n is the number of pipes connected to junction i. Equation 8.2

states that the net mass flow rate into each junction must sum to zero.
The basic equation for pipe pressure drop due to friction can be
expressed with the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
L ⎛1 2 ⎞
ΔPf = f ⎜ ρV ⎟ (8.3)
D⎝2 ⎠

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Chapter 8 Hydraulic Theory and Loss Models 275
where ΔPf is the frictional pressure loss. The total pressure change
between junctions is given by the momentum equation in the form of the
Bernoulli equation:
1 1
P1 + ρV12 + ρgz1 = P2 + ρV2 2 + ρgz2 + ΔPf (8.4)
2 2
The static and stagnation pressure are related as follows:
1
Po = P + ρV 2 (8.5)
2
Substituting Equation 8.5 into 8.4
Po,1 + ρgz1 = Po,2 + ρgz2 + ΔPf
Solving for the frictional pressure drop for a constant area pipes yields:
Po,i − Po, j + ρg ( zi − z j ) = ΔPf (8.6)
where i and j denote upstream and downstream junction values.

The definition of mass flow rate is:
m& = ρAV (8.7)
Combining Equations 8.3 and 8.6 and substituting for velocity, V, using
Equation 8.7 gives the mass flow for each pipe:
1/ 2
⎛ Po,i − Po, j + ρg ( zi − z j ) ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = m& ij (8.8)
⎜ R′ij ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where Rij′ is the effective flow resistance in the pipe and the subscript ij
refers to the pipe connecting junctions i and j.
⎛ f ij Lij ⎞ 1
Rij′ = ⎜ + K ij ⎟ (8.9)
⎜ Dij ⎟ 2 ρA 2
⎝ ⎠ ij
Note that R ′ is not the same as R, which is the resistance used in the
Output Control window and is expressed by the following equation:
ΔH = RQ 2
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 275

Substituting Equation 8.8 into Equation 8.2 results in the equation to be
applied to each junction i:
n 1/ 2
⎛ Po,i − Po, j + ρg ( zi − z j ) ⎞
∑ ⎜
⎜ R′ij
⎟
⎟
=0 (8.10)
j =1 ⎝ ⎠
where n is the number of pipes connected to junction i.
To be completely general, Equation 8.10 should be written for junction i:
n 1/ 2
⎛ Po,i − Po, j + ρg ( zi − z j ) ⎞
∑ ⎜
⎜ R′ij
⎟
⎟
= m& i, Applied (8.11)
j =1 ⎝ ⎠
to allow for application of boundary condition flow rates to a boundary
junction node.
Equation 8.11 as applied to each junction in the network represents the
system of equations that need to be solved to determine the stagnation
pressure at each junction. To solve this system, the Newton-Raphson
method is employed. In the Newton-Raphson method, new values for
each unknown are calculated based on the previous value and a
correction that uses the first derivative of the function.
In this instance the function would be of the form:
n 1/ 2
⎛ Po,i − Po, j + ρg ( zi − z j ) ⎞
Fi = ∑ ⎜
⎜ R′ij
⎟
⎟
− m& i, Applied (8.12)
j =1 ⎝ ⎠
The method involves finding all the junction stagnation pressures, Po,i ,
that cause all of the Fi to go to zero, thus satisfying Equation 8.11 at all
junctions.
When applied to a system of equations, the Jacobian matrix contains all
the required derivative information to employ the Newton-Raphson
technique. The Jacobian, JF, is given by:

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⎡ ∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1 ⎤

⎢ ∂P ∂P L ∂P ⎥
⎢ o,1 o,2 o, n ⎥
⎢ ∂F2 ∂F2 ∂F ⎥
⎢ L 2 ⎥
J F = ⎢ ∂Po,1 ∂Po,2 ∂Po, n ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ M ⎥
⎢ ∂Fn ∂Fn ∂F ⎥
⎢ L n ⎥
⎣⎢ ∂Po,1 ∂Po,2 ∂Po, n ⎦⎥
v
The column matrix Po contains the stagnation pressure at each junction,
v
and column matrix F contains the F values (Equation 8.12) at each
v
junction. The updated solutions for Po are obtained from the following
Newton-Raphson equation:
v v v
Po, new = Po,old − J F−1F (8.13)
Traditional implementations of the Newton-Raphson method require

initial guesses at the solution before the Solver can begin. This often
results in the situation where you have to know the solution ahead of
time in order to solve for it. To avoid placing this burden on the user,
AFT Fathom uses a proprietary method for generating first guesses. This
method is usually sufficient to get the solution going in the right
direction, especially for systems that don't have highly non-linear
features.
However, there are times when AFT Fathom's first guess does not lead
to a converged solution. In these cases, AFT Fathom provides you with
the option of specifying your own initial guesses of flow and pressure.
Stagnation vs. static pressure boundaries

With two exceptions (to be discussed), all pressure-type boundary
conditions in AFT Fathom are stagnation. This works very well for
things such as storage tanks, cooling ponds, lakes, etc., where the
volume associated with a pressure is large and will not change
(significantly) with time. These boundaries have no velocity associated
with them, and using stagnation pressure is thus appropriate. These
boundary conditions are most clearly rendered in AFT Fathom by use of
a Reservoir junction.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 277

2 3 4 5
Figure 8.1 Reservoir with one connecting pipe
Consider the reservoir in Figure 8.1 and neglect entrance losses at

location 3. When the liquid in a reservoir flows into connecting pipes,
the static pressure immediately drops due to the increase in velocity (see
Figure 8.2).
P2 = Po,2 = Po,3
P3
ΔPloss
Pressure
1
ρV32 Po,5
2
1 P5
ρV52
2
Location 2 Location 4 Location 5

Location 3
Distance (x)
Figure 8.2 Pressure profile along horizontal pipe shown in Figure

8.1.

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It is tempting to say that because there is no velocity in the reservoir,
then it does not matter whether the reservoir boundary pressure is
considered as a static or stagnation pressure because they are equal. This
is a misconception. The pressure boundary condition in an AFT Fathom
model is applied at location 3 in Figure 8.1, not location 2. At location 2
the static and stagnation pressures are the same, but they are not the
same at location 3. As shown in Figure 8.2, they differ by the amount of
the dynamic pressure (1/2)ρV32.
The appropriateness of either stagnation or static pressure as a boundary
condition depends on whether there is a velocity associated with the
pressure that is specified. Is the pressure in a vessel or large (lower
velocity) header, or is it in a pipe somewhere in the middle of a system?
If the first, stagnation is more appropriate; if the second, static.
Pressure boundary conditions with no velocity are more common across
all piping industries, and are usually appropriate. However, this is not
always the case.
When to use static pressure

Now let's consider the application of a true static pressure boundary
condition. A static boundary condition has a unique velocity associated
with it. From Equation 8.4 it is clear that application of the static
pressure is not sufficient to specify location 1. The velocity and
elevation is also required.
In AFT Fathom, elevation data is entered for junctions. The pipes adopt
the elevation of the junction to which they are connected.
But where does the velocity information for Equation 8.4 come from?
One might respond that it can be obtained from the flow rate. But this
raises another question: what if the flow rate isn’t known? Put another
way, what if the flow rate is what we are solving for?
When the user supplies a stagnation pressure boundary condition, AFT
Fathom can use Equation 8.6. Here no velocity information is required.
A stagnation pressure boundary can thus be supplied to multiple pipes
that might have different velocities. That is why the same reservoir
junction can connect with multiple pipes.
However, if the user specifies a static pressure as the boundary
condition, to apply Equation 8.4 a unique velocity must be supplied.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 279

Thus it is only possible to connect a static pressure to a single pipe with
a unique velocity.
Important: A static pressure boundary has a unique velocity associated
with it, and can thus connect to only one pipe.
Where would one find a static pressure boundary? The best example is
when the boundary condition is inside a pipe. A pipe system model can
start and end anywhere it is convenient for the user. It may be convenient
to not start the model at the physical boundary (such as a tank) but at a
particular location in the pipe system. This could be, for example, at the
location of a pressure measurement. Or it could be at the boundary of the
pipe system for which your company is responsible, with another
company responsible for what is on the other side of that boundary.
If one needs to model such a situation, the Assigned Pressure junction
allows one to model either a static or stagnation pressure. The default
stagnation pressure allows connection of up to 25 pipes. If static
pressure is chosen, only one connecting pipe is allowed.
Static pressure at pressure control valves

Another example of static pressure is at pressure control valves. For
pressure control valves (i.e., PRV’s and PSV’s) the default control
pressure is static pressure. The reason is that the measured pressure that
provides feedback to the controller will typically be a static pressure
measurement. You have the option of modeling pressure control valves
as either static or stagnation pressure.
Open vs. closed systems – hydraulics

In order to model a closed system, only one pressure junction is used in
the model. Typically this would be either a Reservoir or Assigned
Pressure. As elaborated in Chapter 9, pressure type junctions are an
infinite source of fluid and do not balance flow. How then can one be
used to balance flow in a closed system?
To answer this question, it is worth considering how AFT Fathom views
a closed system model. AFT Fathom does not directly model closed
systems, and in fact does not even realize a closed system is being
modeled.

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Consider the system shown in Figure 8.3. This is an open system. Fluid
is taken from J1 and delivered to J4 and J5. Because AFT Fathom’s
solution engine solves for a mass balance in the system, all flow out of
J1 must be delivered to J4 and J5. Because the flow is steady-state, no
fluid can be stored in the system; what goes in must go out.
J4 J5
P3
J1 J2 J3
P1 P2
P4
Figure 8.3 Open system - Flow out of J1 equals the sum of J4

and J5
Now consider the systems in Figure 8.4. The first system appears to be
closed, while the second appears to be open. If the same boundary
condition (i.e., surface elevation and pressure) is used for J1, J11 and
J12 in the second system, to AFT Fathom it will appear as an identical
system to the first system. The reason is that AFT Fathom takes the first
system and applies the J1 reservoir pressure as a boundary condition to
pipes P4, P9 and P10. The second system uses three reservoirs to apply
boundary conditions to P4, P9 and P10. But if the reservoirs all have the
same elevation and pressure, the boundary conditions are the same as J1
in the first system. Thus the same boundary condition is used for P4, P9
and P10 in both models, and they appear identical to AFT Fathom.
But how is the flow balanced at J1 in the first system? Looking at the
first system, one sees that to obtain a system balance, whatever flows
into P10 must come back through P4 and P9. Because there is overall
system balance by the Solver, it will give the appearance of a balanced
flow at the pressure junction J1. If there is only one boundary (i.e.,
junction) where flow can enter or leave the pipe system, then no flow
will enter or leave because there isn’t anywhere for it to go. Thus the net
flow rate will be zero at J1 (i.e., it will be balanced). But recognize that
AFT Fathom is not applying a mass balance to J1 directly. It is merely
the result of an overall system balance.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 281

J8 J9 J6
P8 P7
<P9
P6
J1 J5 J3
P4 P3
P10 P11
J4 J2 J10
P1 P2
J11 J8 J9 J6
<P9 P8 P7
J12
P6
P4
J1 J5 J3
P3
P10 P11
J4 J2 J10
P1 P2
Figure 8.4 The first system is closed, and the second open. In
both systems the flow into P10 is the sum of P4 and
P9. If the second system has the same conditions at
J1, J11 and J12, the two system will appear identical
to AFT Fathom.

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Balancing energy in the network

By applying the continuity equation at a branch point i we get
n
∑ m&
j =1
ij =0 (8.14)
By applying the energy equation at a branch point i we get

n
∑ m& h ij ij =0 (8.15)
j =1
To obtain a valid solution in a network, the stagnation pressure at each

branch point will be equal and the mass flow and energy flow will sum
to zero at the branch. Although the stagnation pressures at the pipe
endpoints will equal that at the connecting junction, this is not true for
enthalpy (and temperature). The enthalpy at the end of a pipe will be that
enthalpy that results from the heat transfer in the pipe. Once the fluid
flows into the junction, the enthalpy will change to the mixture enthalpy,
or the average enthalpy of all inflowing pipes.
If only one pipe flows into the branch, the branch enthalpy will equal the
enthalpy coming out of the pipe. But if more than one pipe flows into the
branch, the enthalpy will reach an averaged condition. It is this averaged
enthalpy that results from mixing of two or more streams at different
enthalpies. This enthalpy is supplied to all outflowing pipes. The
preceding discussion is depicted in Figure 8.5 and follows Equation
8.16.
n
∑ m&
j =1
+
j hj
hmix = n (8.16)
∑ m& +
j
j =1
where the + superscript indicates the summation applies only to positive

inflows into the junction.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 283

m& 1h1
m& 2 h2 m& 3hmix
m& 4 hmix
Figure 8.5 Flow weighted mixing and energy balance
Energy balances with AFT Standard fluids

The AFT Standard fluids do not have enthalpy data, so Fathom uses the
Reference Enthalpy Method, described in the following equation, to
calculate enthalpy:
(
h = href + c p, avg T − Tref )
Therefore Equation 8.16 can be expressed as the following:
n
∑ m& +j [href + c p,avg , j (T j − Tref )]

j =1
hmix = (8.17)
n
∑ m& +j
j =1
The reference enthalpy and temperature is entered in the fluid database,

and should be for a state that is as near as possible to the operating
conditions of your model. As seen from the equation, the pressure

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dependence of enthalpy is ignored. In many cases, this assumption is
acceptable.
Chempak fluids have enthalpy data and Equation 8.16 can be used
directly.
Open vs. closed systems – thermal

In an earlier section the hydraulic aspects of open and closed systems
was discussed. Here we want to discuss the thermal aspects of open and
closed systems. If you have not read and grasped the discussion on
hydraulics in closed systems, please read that section before this one.
Consider the system shown in Figure 8.6. We know that the flows are
balanced at J1, but how can the energy be balanced? For example,
assume the user sets a temperature of 40° C at J1. This temperature will
be the inlet pipe temperature for all pipes that flow out of J1. In this
case, the 40° C will apply only to pipe P10.
The pipes flowing into the reservoir (P4 and P9) will have their own
temperatures that are obtained by balancing energy along their individual
flow paths. This will include heat exchanger input and heat transfer to or
from pipes.
The only way to obtain an overall system energy balance is for the J1
reservoir temperature to adjust to the mixture temperature of all
inflowing pipes. This is the function of the “Balance Energy At
Junction” feature in the Reservoir and Assigned Pressure junctions. The
junction temperature (input as maybe 40° C) is allowed to “float” and
find its own equilibrium. Each iteration the floating reservoir
temperature is passed into pipe P10 until convergence. When passed into
P10, this will affect the return temperatures of P4 and P9. There is a
unique “mixture temperature” (or mixture enthalpy) that will yield an
energy balance at J1. This will be the temperature/enthalpy from
Equation 8.16.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 285

ho,mix is found be J8 J9 J6
balancing energy at P8 P7
exits from P4 and P9
P9 P6
J1 J5 J3
P4 P3
ho,mix is supplied to P10 P10 P11

(i.e., all outflowing pipes) J4 J2 J10
P1 P2
Figure 8.6 Example of balancing energy in a closed system.
Verifying network solutions

As discussed previously, AFT Fathom uses a Newton-Raphson matrix
method to obtain a system level mass balance and energy. When the
Solver is finished, Equations 8.14 and 8.15 are satisfied at all branching
sections. Once solved, it is a simple matter to go back and sum up all
mass flows and energy at each branch to verify that these equations are
satisfied. In fact, AFT Fathom does just that.
After the Solver converges, AFT Fathom loops over each junction and
adds up the inflow and outflow of mass and energy and compares the
sum to the solution tolerances. If it appears that any junction is out of
tolerance, a warning is given in the output.
In the Solution Balance Summary table AFT Fathom provides additional
information on the balance at each junction. This table can be displayed
by selecting the option in the Output Control window General Output
tab. Figure 8.7 shows an example of the Solution Balance Summary
table.

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Figure 8.7 Solution Balance Summary table shown in the Output

window offers a balance report of all junctions in the
model.
Pressure drop calculation methods

AFT Fathom can model both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid
behavior. A non-Newtonian fluid is one where the viscosity depends on
the fluid dynamics. For example, as the velocity changes a non-
Newtonian fluid’s viscosity can change.
On the other hand, a Newtonian fluid’s viscosity does not depend on the
fluid dynamics, and is a function only of the thermodynamic state (i.e.,
temperature and pressure). Most industrial fluids follow the Newtonian
fluid behavior model, although there are important industrial
applications where the fluids are non-Newtonian.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 287

Pressure drop calculation methods for Newtonian fluids

AFT Fathom offers the Darcy-Weisbach loss model approach as the
default method for describing pipe frictional losses. Standard textbooks
give additional discussion on this method. AFT Fathom uses the Moody
approach to calculating friction factors; note that the Moody approach
differs from the Fanning friction factor by a factor of 4.
Except for laminar flow, there are no precise explicit friction factor
correlations available. Like all the more precise methods, AFT Fathom
uses an iterative formulation of friction factor. All methods of friction
factor calculation must address the rather poorly understood area of
laminar to turbulent transition.
Roughness-based methods
Roughness-based methods use a pipe roughness value to calculate the
pressure drop. This can be in the form of an absolute roughness (which
has units of length) or a relative roughness that ratios the pipe roughness
to its diameter.
Laminar flow
For laminar flow AFT Fathom uses the standard laminar equation:
64
f = Re < 2300 (default) (8.18)
Re
Note that the laminar friction factor does not depend on the user
roughness.
The System Properties window allows you to change the default laminar
transition Reynolds Number (see Chapter 5).
Turbulent flow
The Colebrook-White iterative friction factor equation is used to obtain
friction factors in the turbulent flow regime.
−2
⎡ ⎛ε 9.35 ⎞⎤
f = ⎢1.14 − 2 log⎜ + ⎟⎥ Re > 4000 (default)
⎜ D Re f ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎥⎦

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The System Properties window allows you to change the default
turbulent transition Reynolds Number (see Chapter 5).
Transition flow
For Reynolds Numbers in the transition flow regime, a linear
interpolation is used between the laminar and turbulent values.
Helical tubes
For helical tubes the normal friction factor is modified by the following
correlation (Ito 1959):
0.05
⎡ ⎛D ⎞
2⎤
pipe
ΔPhelical = ΔPstraight ⎢Re⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎥
⎢ ⎝ 2rcoil ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Hydraulically smooth
The friction factor in the turbulent range is calculated using Colebrook-
White with roughness = 0 while in the laminar range it continues to be
calculated using Equation 8.18 above.
Hazen-Williams method
AFT Fathom also offers the Hazen-Williams method of specifying
irrecoverable loss information. The traditional Hazen-Williams formula
(Zipparro and Hasen editors, 1993, page 2.7)
V = 1.318C HW Rh 0.63 S 0.54 (8.19)
where:
V = Velocity in ft/s
CHW = Hazen-Williams factor
Rh = Hydraulic radius in feet (equal to half of pipe radius)
S = Slope of gradient (ΔH/L)
The above equation can be solved for head loss and substituting internal
diameter D which is one-fourth of Rh obtains :
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 289

(1 0.54)
⎛ ⎞
D(
V −0.63 0.54 )
ΔH = L ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.55CHW ⎠
or
1.85
⎛ V ⎞
ΔH = L ⎜ ⎟ D −1.17 (8.20)
⎝ 0.55CHW ⎠
Equation 8.20 is what is used in AFT Fathom for Hazen-Williams
calculations.
Some in industry use an alternate form of the Hazen-Williams formula
which has this form (NFPA 13, 1999):
4.52Q1.85
Pd = (8.21)
CHW 1.85 D 4.87
where:
Pd = Pressure drop gradient, psi per foot
CHW = Hazen-Williams factor
Q = Volumetric flow rate (gpm)
D = Internal diameter (feet)
While both Equations 8.19 (and its derivative 8.20) and 8.21 are used
heavily in industry, surprisingly they are not equivalent. The reason
relates to Equation 8.21 being in terms of pressure drop but not having a
fluid density in the equation. Equation 8.21 is intended for water, but it
says that the pressure drop is independent of fluid density. This is
contrary to Equation 8.20 and almost all other references.
The definition of pressure loss as it relates to head loss is
ΔP = ρ g ΔH
If this equation is used to equate Equations 8.20 and 8.21, the density
must be 62.0933 lbm/ft3 to achieve equality. Hence any other density
used in AFT Fathom will result in a pressure drop which does not equal
to that of the Equation 8.21 NFPA formulation. Using the ASME Steam
Tables, a density of 62.0933 lbm/ft3 at 1 standard atmosphere occurs at a
temperature of 91.78 F.

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Users who want their results to match the NFPA version in Equation
8.21 can do so by one of the following two options:
1. Use a density of 62.0933 lbm/ft3 in all calculations, or
2. Use the desired density and then apply a design factor on each
pipe to correct the pressure drop for density. The design factor
should be equal to 62.0933 lbm/ft3 divided by the density in
System Properties. If variable properties are used, the design
factor must be varied on a pipe-by-pipe basis.
Resistance
The pipe resistance relates head loss to volumetric flow rate. In equation
form, the head loss is:
ΔH = RQ 2
Using standard relationships, the friction pressure drop is related to
volumetric and mass flow rate as follows:
Rgm& 2
ΔPf = RρgQ 2 =
ρ
MIT Equation for crude oil

The MIT Equation is appropriate for crude oil and is given by the
following equation (Pipe Line Rules of Thumb Handbook):
dP 139.212 fQ 2 ( ρ ρ water )
=
L D5
1
f = 2
⎡ ⎛ Re ⎞⎤
4 ⎢0.86859 ln⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1964
. ln( Re) − 38215
. ⎠⎦
10,059Qν
Re =
(
d ν 2 − 818.56 )
where:
dP = pressure drop (psid)
2/22/2008 9:08:35 AM Page 291

L = length (miles)
f = friction factor, MIT
Q = volumetric flow rate (barrels/hour)
ρ = density (lbm/ft3)
ρwater = density of water (62.3 lbm/ft3)
D = diameter (inches)
Re = Reynolds number, MIT
ν = kinematic viscosity (Seconds Saybolt Universal)
Miller Turbulent method

The Miller Turbulent method is appropriate for light hydrocarbons and
is given by the following equation (Pipe Line Rules of Thumb
Handbook):
d 2.5 ( dP L) ⎡ ⎛ d 3(ρ ρ ⎤
water )( dP L) ⎟
⎞
Q= ⎢log⎜ + 4.35⎥
⎜ ⎟
5.9113( ρ ρ water ) ⎢⎣ ⎝
0.5
μ2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
where:
dP = pressure drop (psid)
L = length (miles)
Q = volumetric flow rate (barrels/hour)
ρ = density (lbm/ft3)
ρwater = density of water (62.3 lbm/ft3)
d = diameter (inches)
μ = dynamic viscosity (centipoise)
Frictionless pipes
Frictionless pipes are convenient for connecting junctions that may not
have a physical pipe between them. There are, however, some
limitations where a frictionless pipe may be located in a model. An
example is a frictionless pipe that connects two Assigned Pressure
junctions. Such a pipe would have an infinite flow rate. In such cases

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AFT Fathom identifies inappropriate placement of frictionless pipes and
informs the user when a model is run.
Pressure drop calculation methods for non-Newtonian fluids
Duffy method for pulp and paper stock

The Duffy method includes 20 different stock selections to obtain the
constants necessary to apply the method (TAPPI 1988):
Vmax = K ′C σ
Vwater = 122
. C 1.4
If V < Vmax, then
dH
= FKV α C β D γ
L
where:
dH /L = head loss per length (m water / 100 m pipe)
C = pulp consistency (% dryness)
Vmax = max velocity (for Duffy Equation) in above equation
(m/s)
Vwater = water velocity in above equation (limit at which pulp
effects are negligible), (m/s)
D = inner pipe diameter (mm)
F = correction factor for temperature or pipe roughness
(dimensionless)
K’, K, σ, α, β , γ = constants depending on pulp type
(dimensionless)
If V > Vmax but less than Vwater, then use above head loss equation with V
= Vmax. If V > Vwater then just use normal friction calculation for water.
The constants used for the specific type of paper stock are displayed in
the General Results section of the output. In addition, you can optionally
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 293

display in the output the Vmax and Vwater terms, the dryness coefficient
entered, and the Safety Factor either entered or calculated.
Brecht & Heller method for pulp and paper stock

The Brecht & Heller method includes eight different stock selections for
the constants (Ingersoll-Dresser Pumps, 1995). The Brecht & Heller
method is recognized to be more conservative than Duffy. That is, the
pressure drop predictions are higher.
D 0.205Vρ
Re′ =
C1.157
3.97
f =
Re′1.636
fV 2 LK
dH =
D
where:
Re’ = pseudo Reynolds Number (dimensionless)
D = inner diameter (feet)
V = average velocity (ft/s)
ρ = stock density (lbm/ft3)
C = pulp consistency (% dryness)
f = pseudo friction factor (dimensionless)
K = constant depending on pulp type (dimensionless)
L = length (feet)
The constants used for the specific type of paper stock are displayed in
the General Results section of the output. In addition, you can optionally
display in the output the special Reynolds Number and Friction Factor
terms.
Power Law non-Newtonian

This correlation is taken from Darby (2001), pp. 166-167. Note that
Darby uses the Fanning friction factor, which is different from the

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Moody friction factor used in AFT Fathom by a factor of 4. The
equations below have been modified from Darby accordingly.
Defining:
K = constant with units of dynamic viscosity
n = dimensionless constant
Then:
α
f = (1 − α ) f L +
( fT −8 + fTr −8 )1 8
where:
64
fL =
Re pl
0.2728n −1 2
fT =
Re pl1 (1.87 + 2.39n )
f Tr = 7.16 × 10 −4 exp(− 5.24n ) Re pl

(0.414 + 0.757 n )
1
α=
1 + 4− Δ
Δ = Re pl − Re plc
8 D nV (2 − n )ρ
Re pl =
K (2(3n + 1) n )n
Re plc = 2100 + 875(1 − n )
This friction factor can then be used in Equation 8.3.
Bingham Plastic non-Newtonian

This correlation is taken from Darby (2001), pp. 168-169. Note that
Darby uses the Fanning friction factor, which is different from the
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 295

Moody friction factor used in AFT Fathom by a factor of 4. The
equations below have been modified from Darby accordingly.
Defining:
Rc = coefficient of rigidity
Sy = yield stress
Then:
(
f = f L m + fT m )1 m
40000
m = 1 .7 +
Re
where:
64 ⎛ 4 ⎞
fL = ⎜1 + He − He ⎟
Re pl ⎜ 6 Re 3 f 3 Re 7 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
DVρ
Re =
Rc
He is the Hedstrom number:
D 2 ρS y
He =
Rc 2
10 a
fT =
Re 0.193
( (
a = −5.88 1 + 0.146 exp − 2.9 × 10−5 He ))
Non-Newtonian flow through non-pipes
At your option in the System Properties window, you may apply a
correction to hydraulic losses at elements other than pipes. This includes
junctions and pipe fittings & losses.
The correction is as follows:

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f
K non − newtonian = K newtonian non − newtonian
f newtonian
where the friction factor is for the upstream pipe.
Design factors
In each pipe you can specify a Design Factor for the pipe friction. This is
a multiplier that is applied to the friction factor calculated with the
preceding methods.
Heat transfer in pipes

In pipe convective heat transfer, it is convenient to use the change in
temperature rather than enthalpy by introducing the following
approximation:
c p dT = dh (8.22)
Applying an energy balance to the pipe yields:

m& c p dTo = q (8.23)
The heat transfer due to convection is given by the following:

q = UPh (T∞ − T )dx (8.24)
where:
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
Ph = Heated perimeter
The heated perimeter will frequently equal the wetted perimeter, which
is the internal pipe circumference. It can change if part of the pipe is
insulated (it will be less than the wetted perimeter) or there are fins on
the pipe (it will be greater than the wetted perimeter).
Equating Equation 8.23 and 8.24 yields:
dT
m& c p = UPw (T∞ − T ) (8.25)
dx
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 297

Rearranging Equation 8.25 yields:
dT UPh ⎛ T∞ ⎞
= dx⎜ − 1⎟ (8.26)
T m& c p ⎝ T ⎠
Integrating Equation 8.26 yields:
T UPh ⎛ T∞ ⎞
ln 2 = ⎜ − 1⎟( x2 − x1 ) (8.27)
T1 m& c p ⎝ T ⎠
The heat transfer in a pipe for the Convective Heat Transfer model is
given by the following equation:
⎛ PL ⎞
−⎜ U⎟
T∞ − Texit ⎜ m& c p ⎟
=e ⎝ ⎠
T∞ − Tinlet
where:
Texit = pipe fluid exit temperature (deg. F)
T∞ = ambient temperature (deg. F)
P = heated perimeter (ft)
L = length (ft)
m& = mass flow rate (lbm/s)
cp = specific heat (Btu/lbm)
U = overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/sec-ft2-F)
If the constant heat flux model is selected, then the temperature change
is given by the following:
& p (Tinlet − Texit ) PL

q" = − mc
where:
Tinlet = pipe fluid inlet temperature (deg. F)
Texit = pipe fluid exit temperature (deg. F)
P = heated perimeter (ft)
L = length (ft)
m& = mass flow rate (lbm/s)

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cp = specific heat (Btu/lbm)
q” = heat flux (Btu/sec-ft2)
For heat transfer coefficients inside the pipe, the popular Dittus-Boelter
equation is used:
hD
Nu D = = 0.023ReD 0.8 Pr n (8.28)
k
where:
NuD = Nusselt Number (i.e., hD/k, dimensionless)
ReD = Reynolds Number (Dimensionless)
Pr = Prandtl Number (Dimensionless)
n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling
h = heat transfer coefficient
k = thermal conductivity
D = pipe diameter
Thermal resistance
AFT Fathom models two general types of thermal resistance: convective
and conductive. Conductive resistances break down further into either
radial or linear resistance.
The basic equation of linear conduction heat transfer is as follows:
kA
q= ΔT (8.29)
Δx
where k can be a function of temperature. A thermal resistance can is
defined:
Δx
Rcond = (8.30)
kA
Therefore Equation 8.29 can be expressed:
1
q= ΔT
Rcond
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A higher resistance thus means that less heat is transferred for a given
temperature difference, ΔT.
In pipes the heat flow is not linear, but radially outwards from or
inwards towards the pipe centerline. The thermal resistance through a
pipe wall with inner radius, ri and outer radius, ro, is given by (Incropera
and DeWitt, 1981, pp. 81):
⎛r ⎞ 1
Rcond = ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ (8.31)
⎝ ri ⎠ 2πLk
A convective heat transfer thermal resistance, as based on Equation 8.28,
is given by:
1
Rconv = (8.32)
hA
As discussed in Incropera and DeWitt, pp. 69, the overall thermal
resistance is given by:
RTotal = ∑ Ri
and the total heat transfer from the fluid to ambient is thus (Incropera
and DeWitt, pp. 69),
T f − Tamb
q=
RTotal
Heat transfer options in the Pipe Specifications window

In the Pipe Specifications window the user can specify numerous criteria
that affect the heat transfer (Figure 8.8). The ambient temperature
specifies the temperature to which the fluid is transferring heat. The
thermal resistance geometry specifies whether the heat transfer is radial
or linear. The difference is discussed in the next section. And finally,
there are up to six thermal resistances in series that can be modeled.
Fluid Internal resistance

The “Fluid Internal” resistance is that due to convection in the pipe and
was discussed in the previous section. By default, Nusselt numbers
obtained from the Dittus-Boelter correlation are used to quantify the

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convection coefficient. A User Specified option is also provided which
allows specification of a constant convection coefficient. The thermal
resistance is obtained from Equation 8.32, using a surface area, A,
obtained from the defined pipe or duct geometry.
Pipe Wall resistance

The thermal resistance due to the pipe wall requires thermal conductivity
of the pipe wall. This is either entered as function of temperature in the
Pipe Material Database for the pipe, or it is entered as a constant by the
user.
Also required is a thickness, Δx, which is the pipe wall. This is obtained
from the Pipe Material Database or is entered by the user. The surface
area, A, is obtained from the defined pipe or duct geometry.
The thermal conductivity, wall thickness and surface area are used in
Equation 8.30 or 8.31 to obtain the thermal resistance of the pipe itself.
Note that if the thermal conductivity is a function of temperature, AFT
Fathom iterates for the resistance as it iterates for the fluid temperature
solution.
Insulation resistance
The insulation resistance is calculated similarly to the pipe wall
resistance. If the geometry is radial, the radii in Equation 8.31 are
obtained from adding up previous thicknesses of the wall and underlying
insulation. Thermal conductivity data is obtained from the Insulation
Database.
If the insulation is internal, the first insulation is nearest to the fluid.
External resistance
The External resistance is based on a constant convection coefficient
specified by the user, and a surface area obtained from adding up
underlying thickness of pipe and insulation and added to the pipe
internal diameter.
Heat Transfer Area Ratio

For each thermal resistance, a heat transfer area ratio can be specified.
This is a multiplier on the calculated heat transfer area to account for
things such as fins or other non-uniform geometries.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 301

Modeling known wall temperatures
A known wall temperature is modeled by assigning the ambient
temperature to the wall temperature, and applying only the internal
convection thermal resistance.
Figure 8.8 Pipe Specification window heat transfer data input
Viewing calculated thermal results in Output

A table is displayed in the Output window Pipe area showing the
temperature distribution in the pipe and insulation (Figure 8.9).
Submergence
Submergence is a parameter used to determine the amount of liquid
needed on top of a pipe supply from a tank or reservoir to ensure smooth
flow and avoid vortexing. AFT Fathom offers a pipe output parameter
for submergence and also submergence margin, which is the difference
between the submergence and the actual pipe depth. The equation used
in AFT Fathom for submergence is given by ANSI/HI Standard 9.8.7
1998, p. 32:

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S = D (1 + 2.3Fr )
Where S is the submergence and Fr is the Froude number. Note that the
required submergence can be modified by using devices such as baffles
in which case the above equation would not apply.
Figure 8.9 Heat Transfer table in Output window Pipe area shows
temperature distribution in pipe.
Solution Control parameters

AFT Fathom provides you control over a number of parameters that
influence numerical convergence:
• Pressure solution tolerance
• Temperature solution tolerance
• Mass flow rate solution tolerance
• Flow relaxation
• Pressure relaxation
• Maximum iterations
• Temperature limits
• Ability to disable mass and energy balance
• Matrix method
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 303

The default values for the solution control parameters perform well in
the majority of cases. Modify the default parameters only when
necessary or when you are comfortable with numerical convergence
issues.
Solution tolerance specification

The nature of tolerance specification for pressure, mass flow rate, and
temperature is the same. A discussion of tolerance specification will
therefore cover all three areas.
AFT Fathom uses an iterative approach to obtain pipe flow solutions; it
can obtain a converged solution to as many significant digits as you want
(within the computer's numerical capability). However, for practical
engineering problems, each digit after about the fourth significant digit
generally has low confidence associated with it because of the
uncertainties in the input data. The more digits, the lower the
confidence. Further, obtaining those additional digits in your solution
requires additional computer resources, which typically means longer
run times. At a certain point, obtaining additional significant digits
becomes counterproductive.
Therefore, the Solver needs to know when to stop iterating and assume
that a sufficient solution has been obtained. Because you know the
nature of your pipe system much better than the Solver, you are in a
better position to specify the appropriate level of convergence. You do
this by setting the tolerances in the Solution Control window.
AFT Fathom bases the solution tolerance specifications on absolute
change or relative change of the unknown parameter. As the Solver
iterates, AFT Fathom continuously updates the solution. Each time a
solution update is obtained, AFT Fathom compares the new solution to
the old solution for each individual pipe and junction. Presumably, when
the correct solution is being approached, the corrections made during
each iteration become smaller and smaller. When all corrections for an
iteration are smaller than the tolerance you specify, AFT Fathom
considers the solution converged.
The absolute change method is generally more reliable for iterative
solvers like AFT Fathom because it is less sensitive to the magnitude of
the solution, whether close to zero or very large. However, in principle,
specifying absolute tolerance requires some knowledge of the final
solution. If you specify mass flow convergence as sufficient when the

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flow no longer changes by 1 lbm/sec each iteration, then your solution
will be compromised if the magnitude is also near 1 lbm/sec. In this case
it would be better to set the tolerance 3 or 4 orders of magnitude below
the solution.
In programming terms, the logic for absolute tolerance looks as follows:
If (For All Junctions) Pj , new − Pj ,old < TOLabs Then

Convergence = True
Else
Convergence = False
End If
Relative tolerances, on the other hand, check only the relative change of
the number. That is, each successive change is divided by the number
itself. This removes the requirement to be knowledgeable about the final
solution, but can give trouble for problems where one of the solutions is
too close to zero (because the change is divided by a number close to
zero, making a very large number).
In programming terms, the logic for relative tolerance looks as follows:
Pj , new − Pj , old
If (For All Junctions) < TOLrel Then
Pj , new
Convergence = True
Else
Convergence = False
End If
Table 8.1 shows a tolerance example for pressures. Notice how relative
change does not have units, but absolute change has units (of psia).
The default in AFT Fathom is relative tolerance because experience
indicates it is the most robust.
AFT Fathom 7.0 offers options for combining absolute and relative
tolerance. You can tell AFT Fathom to assess convergence based on
whether either an absolute or relative criteria is satisfied, or whether
both absolute and relative criteria are satisfied.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 305

Figure 8.10 shows the tolerance input area in the Solution Control
window. Table 8.2 shows an example of how the four different criteria
would be applied to flow rate iterations.
Table 8.1 Example of relative and absolute change for pressure at

a junction. AFT Fathom looks at the maximum change
for all junctions and checks that it is less than the
tolerance.
Pressure Relative Abs olute
Iteration # (psia) Change Change (psia)
1 100.0 — —
2 60.0 0.6667 40.00
3 72.0 0.1667 12.00
4 66.0 0.0909 6.00
5 67.0 0.0149 1.00
6 66.9 0.0015 0.10
Figure 8.10 Tolerance input on Solution Control window.

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Table 8.2 Example of four tolerance methods for a mass flow rate
solution. Absolute tolerance = 0.0005 lbm/s, Relative
tolerance = 0.0001.
Iteration # Mass Flow Relative Absolute Meets Abs. Meets Rel. Meets Abs. Meets Abs.
Rate (lbm/s) Change Change Tolerance ? Tolerance ? OR Rel. AND Rel.
(lbm/s) Tolerance ? Tolerance ?
1 20.0000 — — — — — —
2 12.0000 0.666667 8.000000 NO NO NO NO
3 14.0000 0.142857 2.000000 NO NO NO NO
4 13.5000 0.037037 0.500000 NO NO NO NO
5 13.6000 0.007353 0.100000 NO NO NO NO
6 13.5900 0.000736 0.010000 NO NO NO NO
7 13.5913 0.000096 0.001300 NO YES YES NO
8 13.5907 0.000044 0.000600 NO YES YES NO
9 13.5909 0.000015 0.000200 YES YES YES YES
How tolerances relate to solution accuracy

The tolerances you set do not have very much to do with how close you
are to the true solution. Do not make the mistake of concluding that the
tolerance you specify means AFT Fathom’s solution is that close to the
true solution. As in Table 8.2, the tolerance is how close the current
iteration values are to the previous iteration values. That is all it means.
If there is concern that the AFT Fathom results may not be close enough
to the true answer, you have the option of lowering the tolerances,
rerunning the models, then comparing the results to the previous run.
After performing such a comparison, if you are satisfied that the results
are not changing in a significant way then you can feel confident in the
model predictions.
Relaxation
Another feature of iterative solvers is called relaxation. In short,
relaxation slows the Solver's progress toward a solution and in the
process reduces the ability of poorly behaved (non-linear) components to
destabilize the solution. AFT Fathom implements a proprietary adaptive
relaxation scheme that reduces the relaxation dynamically in response to
highly non-linear features of the problem. However, you are free to
override AFT Fathom's adaptive approach.
When applied to the flow solution, the relaxation is used as follows:
m& new = r (m& new − m& old ) + m& old
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 307

where r is the relaxation. The solution after each iteration is modified by
weighting it with the previous solution and applying the relaxation
factor. The relaxation must always be greater than zero and less than or
equal to 1. The march toward a solution is thus relaxed, because the
impact of the new solution is minimized by the magnitude of the
relaxation parameter. In essence, by specifying small relaxation values,
you reduce the speed of the march while causing the march to go more
smoothly. This is sometimes the only practical approach for highly
non-linear problems.
A relaxation value of 1 is the same as specifying no relaxation at all.
Each new solution is used directly for the next iteration step. A
relaxation of zero is not accepted because no updates would occur to the
unknown parameters and no solution would be obtained. See Table 8.3
for an example.
Table 8.3 Example of different relaxation values. Old Flow Rate is

that at the previous iteration. Ideal New Flow Rate is that
determined by the matrix solution. Actual New Flow Rate
is what is actually accepted for the new iteration.
Relaxation Old Flow Rate Ideal New Flow Actual New Flow
Value (lbm/s) Rate (lbm/s) Rate (lbm/s)
1 10 20 20
0.5 10 20 15
0.2 10 20 12
0.1 10 20 11
0.05 10 20 10.5
0 10 20 10
There are two relaxation parameters in AFT Fathom 7.0 (See Figure
8.11): Flow rate relaxation and pressure relaxation.
Flow Rate Relaxation

For poorly-behaved systems, a flow rate relaxation of 0.1 is advised.
Experience shows that using flow rate relaxation factors between 0.5 and
1 has limited usefulness. If a flow rate relaxation of 1 does not work, you
should generally try flow rate relaxation parameters between 0.1 and 0.5.
If these still do not work, there are probably other areas where your
model requires modification. In extreme cases, a flow rate relaxation
factor between zero and 0.1 may lead to convergence.

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Pressure Relaxation
Because of the nature of the matrix solver, experience indicates that if
pressure relaxation is used, it should always be set to 0.5 or 1.0.
Anything else will usually destabilize the solution. A pressure relaxation
value of 0.5 usually works best.
Avoiding false convergence

To avoid a false convergence it is important to keep the tolerance at least
one order of magnitude smaller (two orders or more is recommended)
than the relaxation. A false convergence can occur when the change
from the old value to the new value is small enough to be within the
tolerance because it is restricted by the relaxation.
Figure 8.11 General tab on Solution Control window.
Maximum Iterations
The Maximum Iterations parameter in the Solution Control window
determines when the Solver considers the model nonconvergent; it does
not directly affect the solution. There may be many reasons why a model
does not converge. You want to be sure that the Solver does not continue
indefinitely searching for a solution that cannot be obtained because of
an input error or ill-behaved system.
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Most properly defined models will converge in 50,000 iterations. For
larger models, more than 50,000 iterations may occasionally be required,
especially when relaxation is being used. AFT Fathom's default of
50,000 iterations is sufficient for most models.
Temperature Limits
Temperature limits can be useful in models which include heat transfer.
Temperature limits inform the Solver to discard any calculated
temperature that exceeds a certain limit. Occasionally when the Solver is
iterating, wildly incorrect temperatures may result. These can cause the
physical properties to be wildly incorrect, which prevents convergence.
By allowing the Solver to discard temperatures that you know are not
within an expected range convergence can be improved.
Global Balance (mass and energy)

For troubleshooting purposes it can be helpful to allow AFT Fathom to
skip over balancing the mass or energy in the system. Once a solution is
obtained, the balance can be turned back on.
Matrix Method
AFT Fathom’s network solution method requires solution of matrices
thousands of times. The default method is Gaussian Elimination, which
is very robust and usually provides the fastest convergence.
For larger systems, Gaussian Elimination with Pivoting and the LU
Decomposition methods can be better and are therefore provided.
Solution Progress window and iteration history

The Solution Progress window (Figure 8.12) shows you how the current
state of the solution compares to the tolerances you specify. It also gives
information on your Solution Control settings and gives you helpful
feedback on what stage the Solver is in. Most importantly, it tells you
when the model has converged. When converged, click the View Output
button.
When the Solution Progress window is displayed during execution, you
have the option of pausing or canceling the Solver in the middle of a run.

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If you pause, you can change solution control parameters during a run
and resume execution with the new parameters. You also can check the
iteration history.
The Iteration History window shows you a complete history of all
iterations, including the pipe or junction that was most out of tolerance.
If a model is not converging, knowing the pipe or junction most out of
tolerance can be helpful in troubleshooting the model.
Figure 8.12 The Solution Progress window shows you the status
of the Solver. This includes showing how far out of
tolerance the Solver is, and when the solution has
converged.
Warnings in the solution

A number of warnings may be given in the output when you run AFT
Fathom's Solver. These warnings are intended to alert you about
potential problems with the model or solution. Some warnings may
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 311

prove to be harmless upon closer inspection, but you should never ignore
them.
There are different warning levels depending on the importance of the
warning.
1. WARNING – A warning that actually says WARNING offers
important information about the converged solution or the model
itself. The information should always be reviewed.
2. CAUTION – A cautionary warning is of less importance than a full
warning. The included information may or may not be of interest to
the user.
3. Informational – The informational warning is for information only
and is not serious.
A complete list of the warnings you may receive, with a brief
explanation given of each, is given in the Help System. Whenever any
warnings occur that are WARNING level, the General Results section of
the Output Window will be displayed with the text in red.
Modeling irrecoverable losses

Chapter 6 discusses in detail the features offered by AFT Fathom to
model irrecoverable losses. Chapter 3 discusses the basic conventions
used by AFT Fathom for defining losses.
As discussed in Chapter 3, AFT Fathom allows you to specify the base
area for modeling losses at junctions. By default the upstream pipe area
is used.
Junction pressure losses are modeled as point losses (and point additions
for pumps). They are not smoothed out over a length. Pipe losses, both
frictional losses and additional minor losses, are smoothed out over the
pipe length and are more accurately referred to as distributed losses.
Junction loss coefficients and loss coefficients Fittings & Losses in pipes
are taken as the total loss factor by AFT Fathom. This is consistent with
the various reference loss values from Crane, Idelchik and Miller, where
the K value is the total loss for the fitting or component. User specified
loss coefficients must similarly be total, whether specified as a K value,
Cv, resistance curve or otherwise.

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Loss models and reference material

Table 8.4 lists the sources for the loss models used in AFT Fathom. The
losses implemented directly in the code were chosen on the basis of ease
of use. Many loss factor types are functions of the flow, and thus too
general to be easily incorporated.
Table 8.4 Loss model references
Junction Type References

Bend Crane 1988, A-29
Crane 1988, A-26 and
Area Change
Idelchik 1994, 208, 216
Orifice Idelchik 1994, 218, 220
Screen Idelchik 1994, 522-523
Idelchik 1994, chapter 7
Tee/Wye
and Miller
Ingersoll-Rand 1970 Crane

Valve
1988, A-29
Crane (1988) offers good general purpose correlations for modeling

irrecoverable losses in pipe systems. A well prepared pipe flow analyst
would be advised to have copies of all of these references.
Another lesser known source of loss factor information is Idelchik's
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance (1994). This reference is
indispensable for the engineer who must make detailed hydraulic
assessments of pipe systems in which so-called minor losses play a
significant roll. The reference is voluminous in scope and full of tables,
charts and equations for calculating loss factors for almost any pipe
arrangement.
Miller's Internal Flow Systems (1990) is another reference offering good
general purpose hydraulic data.
AFT Fathom models component losses according to the following
equation:
1
ΔPloss = K ρV 2 (8.33)
2
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where K is commonly referred to as the loss factor. Other loss models
and their relationship to K are described at the end of this chapter.
Design factors
Each junction that allows modeling of pressure losses allows input of a
Design Factor. The design factor is multiplied by the K factor
determined by methods discussed in this chapter.
Many junction types allow modeling of K factors as well as other
pressure loss methods. The Design Factor is also applied to these other
methods as a multiplier on the pressure loss.
Area change
Two standard area change loss geometries are available: the conical
transition and the abrupt transition.
The conical expansion correlation (Crane 1988, A-26) is:
2
⎛ μ ⎞⎛ Aup ⎞
K up = 2.6⎜ sin ⎟⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎟ (μ < 45 degrees)
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ Adown ⎠
2
⎛ Aup ⎞
K up = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎟ (μ > 45 degrees)
⎝ Adown ⎠
The conical contraction correlation (Crane 1988, A-26) is:
⎛ μ ⎞⎛ A ⎞
0.8⎜ sin ⎟⎜1 − down ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎜⎝ Aup ⎟
⎠
K up = (μ < 45 degrees)
2
⎛ Adown ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Aup ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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⎛ A ⎞ μ
0.5⎜1 − down ⎟ sin
⎜ Aup ⎟⎠ 2
⎝
K up = (μ > 45 degrees)
2
⎛ Adown ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Aup ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The abrupt expansion correlation (Idelchik 1994, 208) is:
2
⎛ Aup ⎞
K up = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎟
⎝ Adown ⎠
The abrupt contraction correlation (Idelchik 1994, 216) is:
0.75
⎛ A ⎞
0.5⎜1 − down ⎟
⎜ Aup ⎟⎠
⎝
K up =
2
⎛ Adown ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Aup ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Bend
90 degree bends
The three Bend loss correlations are all for turbulent Reynolds Numbers
(Crane 1988, A-29).
The K values for a smooth, flanged bend are provided in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 K values for 90 degree smooth, flanged bends
r/d K r/d K
1 20 f T 8 24 f T
1.5 14 f T 10 30 f T
2 12 f T 12 34 f T
3 12 f T 14 38 f T
4 14 f T 16 42 f T
6 17 f T 20 50 f T
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Table 8.6 Pipe friction factors used for Crane formulas
Nominal Friction Nominal Friction Nominal Friction

Size Factor f T Size Factor fT Size Factor fT
½” 0.027 2” 0.019 8”-10” 0.014
¾” 0.025 2 ½”, 3” 0.018 12”-16” 0.013
1” 0.023 4” 0.017 18”-24” 0.012
1 ¼” 0.022 5” 0.016
1 ½” 0.021 6” 0.015
The standard threaded elbow is given by:

K = 30 f T
where fT is the turbulent friction factor given in Table 8.6.
The Mitre bend is given by:
K = 60 f T
Non-90 degree bends

The two non-90 degree bend loss correlations are for turbulent Reynolds
Numbers (Crane 1988, A-29).
A smooth, flanged bend is given by:
⎛ r ⎞
K = (n − 1)⎜ 0.25πf T + 0 .5 K ⎟ + K
⎝ D ⎠
where n is the number of 90 degree bends, K is the loss factor for one 90
degree bend (Table 8.5), and fT is given by Table 8.6.
The Mitre bend is given by Table 8.7.

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Table 8.7 K values for Mitre bends
μ (deg.) K
0 2 fT
15 4 fT
30 8 fT
μ
45 15 f T
60 25 f T
75 40 f T
90 60 f T
Valve
Standard valve loss models are used from Idelchik, Miller and Crane.
Orifice
The orifice loss factors are all for turbulent Reynolds Numbers. The
sharp-edged orifice shown in Figure 8.13, is given by the following
(Idelchik 1994, 218):
2⎡ 2
⎛ Aup ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
0.375 ⎤
⎢0.707⎜1 − Aorifice ⎟ ⎛ Aorifice ⎞⎥
K up = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ Aorifice ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎜
⎝ Aup ⎟⎠ ⎝ Adown ⎟⎠⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Figure 8.13 Sharp-edged orifice
The round-edged orifice, shown in Figure 8.14, is given by the

following (Idelchik 1994, 220):
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 317

2⎡ 0.75 2
⎛ Aup ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ Aorifice ⎞
K up = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ K ′⎜1 − Aorifice ⎟ + ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ Aorifice ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎜ Aup ⎟⎠ ⎝ Adown ⎟⎠
⎣⎢ ⎝
0.375 ⎤
⎛ Aorifice ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞ ⎥
+2⎜⎜1 − ⎟ K ′⎜1 − orifice ⎟
Adown ⎟⎠ ⎜ Aup ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎝ ⎝ ⎥⎦
where:
K ′ = 0.03 + 0.47 • 10
(− 7.7r / Dorifice )
For other orifice configurations, see Chapter 4 of Idelchik's Handbook of

Hydraulic Resistance (1994).
Figure 8.14 Round-edged orifice
Orifice discharge coefficient

The relationship between orifice CD and K is given by:
K=
(1 − β 4 )(1 − β 2 )
CD 2 β 4

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Screen
The screen loss factors have much in common with orifice loss factors.
In fact, the sharp-edged perforated plate and round-edged perforated
plate screen losses are the same as for orifices with similar area ratios
and equal upstream and downstream areas. Refer to the orifice loss
factor equations for these relationships. The relationships are good for
screen area Reynolds Numbers above 100,000.
The circular metal wire screen, shown in Figure 8.15, is given by the
following equation for screen area Reynolds Numbers above 1000
(Idelchik 1994, 522):
2
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ Aup ⎞
K up = 1.3⎜1 − screen ⎟ + ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎜ Aup ⎟⎠ ⎝ Ascreen
⎝ ⎠
Figure 8.15 Circular metal wire screen
The silk thread screen, shown in Figure 8.16, is given by the following
equation for screen area Reynolds Numbers above 500 (Idelchik 1994,
522):
2
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ Aup ⎞
K up = 2.1⎜1 − screen ⎟ + ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎜ Aup ⎟⎠ ⎝ Ascreen
⎝ ⎠
For other screen configurations, see Chapter 8 of Idelchik's Handbook of
Hydraulic Resistance (1994).
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Figure 8.16 Silk thread screen
Tee/Wye
The loss factors calculated for tee and wye junctions involve
complicated correlations that depend on the flow split, the ratio of flow
areas, and the angle of the connecting pipes. The models used by AFT
Fathom are taken mostly from chapter 7 of Idelchik's Handbook of
Hydraulic Resistance (1994). A few of the more important equations
that AFT Fathom uses will be presented here, and references will be
given for the others.
All tees and wyes have either diverging or converging flow streams.
Two sets of equations are required for each configuration.
In the following discussion, the parameter Kc,s represents the loss factor
based on the combined flow stream flow area, and velocity for the side
branch. Similarly, Kc,st is for the straight-through pipe (the run).
Figure 8.17 depicts the nomenclature. K factor subscripts refer to base
area reference and location in the Tee. For example, Kc,s represents the K
factor for the side branch (s) referenced to the combined (c) pipe flow
area.

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c = combined flow st = straight-through flow s = side branch
Ac Ast Ast Ac
As As
Figure 8.17 Idelchik’s nomenclature for diverging and converging

flow through Tee/Wye junction
In the AFT Fathom Tee/Wye window, a simpler and more general

nomenclature is used. AFT Fathom refers to the a, b and c pipes. This
allows AFT Fathom to cover all the possibilities in Table 8.10 without
specifying exactly which pipe is the combined flow pipe. In some cases,
you may not know all the flow directions in a system, and might not be
able to specify which is the combined flow pipe.
AFT Fathom’s input method allows you to specify which pipe is the
branch pipe. Idelchik calls this the “s” pipe for “side branch”. AFT
Fathom calls it the c pipe. If the tee angle is 90 degrees, it is not
important which pipe you call the a pipe and which the b pipe. The
distinction between a and b takes on more importance for non-90 degree
pipes. In this case, AFT Fathom allows you to specify the angle of the
branch pipe.
Figure 8.18 shows the Tee/Wye Specification window. The α angle
itself is specified on the Tee/Wye Model tab, where there are other
options for how to model the tee.
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Figure 8.18 Tee/Wye Specifications window allows you to specify

the a, b and c pipes. The c pipe is always the branch
pipe. This general method means you do not need to
know the flow direction ahead of time.
Diverging Case
Side branch (Idelchik 1994, 418):
ΔPs ⎡ ⎛ V ⎞2 ⎛ Vs ⎞ ⎤
K c, s = ⎢ s
= λ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 2⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cosα ⎥
2 ⎢ ⎝ Vc ⎠ ⎥
ρVc / 2 ⎣ ⎝ Vc ⎠ ⎦
where λ is found from Table 8.8.

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Table 8.8 Diverging case λ values
As / Ac Qs / Qc λ
≤ 0.35 ≤ 0.4 1.1 - 0.7 Qs / Qc
≤ 0.35 > 0.4 0.85
> 0.35 ≤ 0.6 1.0 - 0.6 Qs / Qc
> 0.35 > 0.6 0.6
Straight run, constant area (Idelchik 1994, 419):

2
ΔPst ⎛Q ⎞
K c, st = = τ st ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟
ρVc2 / 2 ⎝ Qc ⎠
where τst is given in Table 8.9:
Table 8.9 Diverging case τst values
As / Ac Qs / Qc τ st
≤ 0.4 0 - 1.0 0.4
> 0.4 ≤ 0.5 2 (2 Qs / Qc - 1)
> 0.4 > 0.5 0.3 (2 Qs / Qc - 1)
Converging Case
Side branch (Idelchik 1994, 417):
ΔPs
K c, s =
ρVc2 / 2
⎛ ⎛ Q A ⎞2 A ⎛ Qs ⎞
2
Ac ⎛ Qs ⎞
2 ⎞
= A′⎜⎜1 + ⎜⎜ s c ⎟⎟ − 2 c ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ − 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cosα ⎟
⎟⎟
⎜ ⎝ Qc As ⎠ Ast ⎝ Qc ⎠ As ⎝ Qc ⎠
⎝ ⎠
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Table 8.10 References for Tee/Wye junction correlations
Geometry Type Direction Reference

Constant area, sharp Diverging tee Branch Idelchik 1994, 451
Diverging tee Run Idelchik 1994, 453
Converging tee Branch Idelchik 1994, 429-432
Converging tee Run Idelchik 1994, 429-432
Splitting tee From branch Miller 1990, 323*
Combining tee To branch Miller 1990, 316*
Constant area, r/D = 0.1 Diverging tee Branch Idelchik 1994, 459-461
Diverging tee Run Idelchik 1994, 453
Area sum, sharp Diverging tee Branch Idelchik 1994, 452
Diverging tee Run Idelchik 1994, 454-455
Wye Diverging wye Branch Idelchik 1994, 451
Converging wye Run Idelchik 1994, 473
*Estimates have been made on available data
Straight run, constant area (Idelchik 1994, 417):

2 2
ΔPst ⎛ Q ⎞ A ⎛Q ⎞
K c, st = = 1 − ⎜⎜1 − s ⎟⎟ − 2 c ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ cos α
ρVc2 / 2 ⎝ Qc ⎠ As ⎝ Qc ⎠
References for all tee and wye junction correlations are given in Table
8.10.

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K and CV (valve coefficient)

The definition for CV is as follows (Lyons 1982, 133):
Q
CV =
ΔPvalve ( 62.4 / ρ )
where Q is in gpm, ΔP is in psid, and ρ is in lbm/ft3.

It can be shown that K and Cv are related by the following approximate
expression (Lyons 1982):
A2
K valve = 1460
Cv2
where A is in in2 and CV2 is in its normal units (always gpm2/psi).
CD (discharge coefficient) at spray discharge

The pressure drop across a spray discharge which uses a discharge
coefficient is discussed here. The mass flow rate through a restriction is
given as follows:
m& = ρC D AV
The pressure drop across a discharging restriction is given as:
1
ΔP = ρV 2
2
Combining the two yields:
2
1 ⎛ m& ⎞
ΔP = ρ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ C D Aρ ⎠
or
1
ΔP = m& 2
2
2 ρ ( CD A)
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This equation is used for spray discharge junctions in AFT Fathom, with
the ΔP being the difference between stagnation pressure at the spray
discharge inlet and the exit pressure specified for the junction.
K for fire sprinklers

The definition of K value for fire sprinklers is:
Q
K sprinkler =
ΔP
where Q and ΔP can be in the units of your choice. The preference in the
USA is gpm for flowrate and psid for pressure. In Europe it is frequently
liter/min for flow rate and bars for pressure. Note that Ksprinkler is not
dimensionless, but has units associated with it. Also, note that sprinkler
vendor values for Ksprinkler implicitly assume that water is the fluid, so
there is a built-in density of 62.3 lbm/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3. If this sprinkler
is used for something other than water, the Ksprinkler value will need to be
adjusted.
Also note that if the spray is into the atmosphere, as is typical, the ΔP is
the same thing as the gage pressure. That is why the previous equation is
stated by some vendors as just P in the denominator, rather than ΔP.
When stated as just P, the pressure is gage.
Note: The fire sprinkler K is not the same as the dimensionless K value
as given by Equation 8.33 and used extensively throughout AFT Fathom.
The Ksprinkler is related to the discharge coefficient. It can be shown that
the relationship is given by
ρ water
CD A = K sprinkler
2
Pumps
Pumps can operate at variable speeds. Affinity laws (also called
homologous laws) allow an estimation of the pump performance at
speeds other than the design speed.

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To a somewhat lesser degree, impeller diameter changes follow the same
laws as speed changes. Substituting impeller changes for speed changes
below can be used to see the effect of an impeller change.
Before discussing the affinity laws, it should be noted that the affinity
laws are an approximation. In many cases pump manufacturers will have
performance data for a number of speeds. These data should be used if
available. When not available, the affinity laws can be used with an
understanding that an approximation is being made.
The affinity laws for pumps are as follows:
2
ΔH1 ⎛ s1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
ΔH 2 ⎜⎝ s2 ⎟⎠
(8.34)
Q1 s1
=
Q2 s2
where s is the speed. If the pump data is input as a polynomial, the speed
will affect the curve as follows:
2 3 4
ΔH1 = a + bQ1 + cQ1 + dQ1 + eQ1
2 3 4
ΔH 2 = s 2 ΔH1 = s 2 a + s 2bQ1 + s 2 cQ1 + s 2 dQ1 + s 2eQ1
2 3 4
Q2 ⎛Q ⎞ ⎛Q ⎞ ⎛Q ⎞
ΔH 2 = s 2 a + s 2b + s 2 c⎜ 2 ⎟ + s 2 d ⎜ 2 ⎟ + s 2 e⎜ 3 ⎟
s ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠
3 4
Q 2 Q
ΔH 2 = s a + sbQ2 + cQ2 + d 2 + e 23
2
s s
(8.35)
where ΔH1 is the input curve that typically represents 100% speed and
ΔH2 is the head rise at speed s. In this form, the speed s will be a decimal
and not a percent. That is, 50% speed will result in the appropriate s of
0.5. AFT Fathom determines this automatically in the Solver.
If you model the pump as a controlled flow or pressure, AFT Fathom
will backsolve Equation 8.35 for the speed s and include that in the
output Pump Summary.
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Heat Exchangers
AFT Fathom uses the NTU-effectiveness method to calculate energy
balance around heat exchangers where:
UA C min (m& c p )min

N = NTU ≡ C= =
C min C max (m& c p )max
Tc2 − Tc1
and: ε=
Th1 − Tc1
where h and c refer to the hot and cold fluids and 1 and 2 refer to inlet
and outlet properties respectively.
As given in Fundamentals of Heat Transfer (Incropera and DeWitt,
1981), the following relations apply to the various heat exchanger
configurations modeled in AFT Fathom:
Parallel flow:
1 − exp[− N (1 + C )]
ε=
1+ C
Counterflow:
1 − exp[− N (1 − C )]
ε=
1 − C exp[− N (1 − C )]
Crossflow:
Both fluids unmixed (where n = N −0.22 )
ε = 1 − e[(n / C )(exp(− CnN )−1)]
One fluid mixed, the other unmixed, if Cmax is the mixed fluid
⎛ − N )] ⎞
ε = (1 C )⎜1 − e[ −C (1− e ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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One fluid mixed, the other unmixed, if Cmin is the mixed fluid
ε = 1 − e[− (1 C )(1− exp[ −CN ])]
One shell pass, multiple of two tube passes

−1
⎧ ⎛ − N 1+ C 2 ⎞ ⎫
⎜ ⎟
⎪⎪ 1 + e ⎝ ⎠⎪⎪
ε = 2⎨1 + C + 1 + C 2 × ⎬
⎛ − N 1+ C 2 ⎞
⎪ ⎜ ⎟⎪
⎪⎩ 1 − e⎝ ⎠⎪
⎭
Chempak thermophysical property database

The optional Chempak Database offers approximately 700 fluids to the
user. In addition, it offers non-reacting mixture calculations. Information
on the theory and calculation methods used in Chempak is given in
Appendix D.
Accuracy options
When performing interpolations for properties, a 2 point or 4 point
interpolation scheme can be used. The 2 point scheme implemented in
AFT Fathom is the Standard Accuracy option. The 4 point scheme is the
high accuracy option. As mentioned in Chapter 5, use of the High
accuracy option will roughly double the run times for models with heat
transfer.
ASME steam tables database

The ASME Steam Tables Database offers users access to water
properties obtained from the IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the
Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam (ISPWS-IF97), (see
ASME Press in References). These properties are both pressure and
temperature dependent.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 329

AFT Standard fluids

The AFT Standard Database offers about 70 common fluids to the user.
Information on how to use these fluids within AFT Fathom is given in
Chapter 5.
Transport properties
The transport properties in AFT Fathom (specific heat, dynamic
viscosity and thermal conductivity) are assumed to be functions of
temperature only. In general this is a good assumption, although systems
at very high pressure usually start to show some pressure dependence.
These properties are modeled as polynomial curve fits of temperature or
interpolated.

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CHAPTER 9
Special Topics: Including

Troubleshooting Models
This chapter discusses techniques that can be implemented to generate

models using AFT Fathom, and provides direction when you are having
problems obtaining convergence in your model.
The philosophy of computer modeling

Some might say that a “good” computer model is one that accurately
predicts the response of a system; but this is only partly true. The
practicing engineer generally must weigh the accuracy of the model
against the risk, schedule, and/or budget involved. Through experience,
an engineer learns where to focus resources and when an answer is good
enough to base important decisions on.
Although AFT Fathom is designed to speed up the modeling process, it
should never be used as a “black box.” Your model input and output
should always be carefully reviewed.
To make the most effective use of AFT Fathom, you should follow these
guidelines:
1. Be aware of what AFT Fathom can and cannot do and the
assumptions it makes.
2. Learn and use the tools in AFT Fathom that are appropriate for the
specific analysis you want to perform. Detailed and accurate answers

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demand detailed and accurate input. Quick and dirty answers require
less detailed input.
3. Learn and use the tools in AFT Fathom that allow you to process
information in the formats that mean the most to you. Because pipe
flow applications vary so much within different industries, AFT
Fathom is customizable for the way you want to do your pipe flow
work. Understanding the tools will help you gain greater conceptual
control over your pipe flow analyses and reduce modeling errors.
4. Check your input data. Use the features available in AFT Fathom to
review your results for input errors. Pay attention to the information
in the output printout. Don't neglect warnings in the output. Perform
hand analysis checks of results.
5. Bound your problem. Instead of trying to calculate the exact
resistance in a network, or the right loss factor for an orifice, use
your judgment, guided by data, on how much variation might occur.
By running your model at the upper and lower limits, you can obtain
answers, for example, on the maximum and minimum possible
pressure drops in the system. If the results at the maximum and
minimum are acceptable, your analysis is probably finished. If they
are not acceptable, you can further refine the input model.
6. Recognize whether your problem is one of maximization or
minimization. That is, recognize whether the design goal is to
minimize the flow rate, for example, or maximize the flow rate.
Then make your assumptions conservative enough to provide high
confidence that your design requirements are being satisfied.
Troubleshooting models
What should you do if your model will not run, or does run and gives
strange results? There are numerous possible causes of such problems.
This section identifies common problems and offers strategies you can
use to troubleshoot models yourself.
Use the Model Data window

Besides its usefulness for documentation purposes, the Model Data
window is a powerful tool for finding input errors in your model.

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Chapter 9 Special Topics: Including Troubleshooting Models 333
Look at the model in Figure 9.1. If you suspected an input error in one of
the pipes, the task of looking for the error in each individual pipe input
window would be tedious.
Now look at the Model Data window for the pipes in Figure 9.2. Here it
is much easier to scan down columns of data looking for input errors. In
this case, one of the pipe lengths was accidentally entered in miles rather
than feet.
Figure 9.1 Workspace layout of a pipe system with an input error

in one of the pipes (error not shown).
Poor pump curve fits

The Pump Specification window allows curve fits of pump data up to
fourth order. Depending on the number of data points entered, pump
curve fits that look like the one at the top of Figure 9.3 are possible.
AFT Fathom interprets flow rates past the inversion as acceptable
operating points, which can lead to strange results or non-convergence.
You should always take care that your pump curves cross the flow rate
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axis as in Figure 9.3b. If you attempt to generate a curve fit like that
shown in Figure 9.3b, AFT Fathom will warn you. In addition, it will
warn you when you try to run the model.
Figure 9.2 Model Data window display for the model in Figure
9.1. From this perspective it is much easier to see that
one of the pipes (#4) has length data entered in miles
rather than feet. This is not automatically an input
error, as AFT Fathom accepts pipe input with mixed
engineering units. However, more frequently than not
the user intends to use consistent units, so this
probably is an error.

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12
10
Pressure (psid) 6
0
0 50 100 150 200
Flow (ft3/s ec)
12
10
8
Pressure (psid)
0
0 50 100 150 200
Flow (ft3/s ec)
Figure 9.3 Top graph shows a third or fourth order pump curve
fit with an inversion at 150 ft3/sec. AFT Fathom
interprets flow rates to the right of this inversion as
acceptable which can cause convergence problems or
erroneous results. All pump curve fits should include
sufficient data such that the curve crosses the zero
pressure rise axis as shown in the bottom curve.
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Resistance curves
AFT Fathom gives you a lot of power and flexibility in modeling
junction components. There are some pitfalls when entering resistance
curves for junctions.
If you want a fixed pressure drop across a junction, you can use a
resistance curve and then assign all constants to zero except for the “a”
constant. If you do this and the flow is too low to get the pressure drop
you want, a high “a” constant will essentially be an infinite resistance.
This makes the flow solution essentially zero, which is a significant
difficulty for most iterative solvers, including AFT Fathom’s.
Even if AFT Fathom can converge on an answer, the results will
probably be incorrect because real pipe equipment does not behave this
way across a range of flow rates. Typically, the target pressure drop you
want to model will only be valid for a narrow range of flow rates.
A better option than using a fixed pressure drop is to use a curve which
passes through the pressure drop you want to model at the flow rate for
which it is valid. Please consult the topic later this chapter on “Using
manufacturer pressure drop data” for more information on how to do
this.
A final recommendation for resistance curves is that you include in the
curve the zero flow data point, at which the pressure drop will be zero.
This will improve the quality of the curve fit.
Use the Output window Sort feature

The Sort Output feature in the Output window is discussed in Chapter 5.
If a model runs but the results look incorrect, use the Sort feature in the
Output Window to look for extremes in velocity, pressure drop or other
parameters. An input error (like incorrect diameter) may be easier to see
by looking at its effect on the results.
Tee/Wye junction complexity

As discussed in Chapter 8, tee/wye junctions contain powerful and
sophisticated models for determining the pressure losses at flow splits
and converging flow streams. This power comes at the cost of additional
model complexity. The complexity can lead to convergence problems in
models with numerous tees. Here are a couple of recommendations.

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Tee/Wye junctions have two loss options: Simple and Detailed. The
Simple loss model ignores losses at the tee. The Detailed model uses the
correlation summarized in Chapter 8. The potential convergence
problems occur when using the Detailed loss model.
The potential problem is not with the Detailed tee model itself. Rather, it
is due to multiple tees coupling together in such a way that AFT Fathom
cannot converge on all of the flow splits.
You can quickly and easily check if a convergence problem is being
caused by tees. Using the Global Junction Edit window, you can change
all tees to the Simple loss model and rerun the model. If it now
converges, then the problem was due to the use of Detailed tee modeling.
Experience has shown that this problem can frequently be resolved by
using absolute tolerance criteria in the Solution Control window rather
than relative tolerance. Tolerance criteria is discussed at length in
Chapter 8.
You also have the option of just using the Simple (lossless) tee model
for all tees. This is how tees have been traditionally handled, so lossless
tees do have some utility in engineering calculations.
Lower the flow rate relaxation

The Solution Control window allows you to change the numerical
relaxation parameter for both flow rate and pressure. A full explanation
of relaxation is given in Chapter 8. It is recommended that you use only
0.5 or 1.0 for pressure relaxation. But lower values of flow rate
relaxation can be very helpful.
A good first step is to lower the flow rate relaxation to 0.05 or 0.1. By
lowering the flow rate relaxation you improve AFT Fathom's ability to
obtain convergence. The cost is slower run times. In some cases,
accepting the slower run times that come with flow rate relaxation is the
only means of obtaining convergence. You can lower the relaxation
values as low as you want, but it is recommended it not be lowered
below 0.01.
Try absolute tolerance

Most models converge more reliably with relative tolerances, which is
the default in AFT Fathom’s Solution Control window. But some models
converge much better with absolute tolerance. What this usually means
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is that there is at least one element of the model that is close to the real
answer in absolute terms but does not lock in on a relative (percentage)
basis.
If a model will not converge with relative tolerance, you can try
changing to absolute tolerance. Even better, try the option to converge
on either absolute or relative, which will offer the most flexibility.
An explanation of absolute and relative tolerance is given in Chapter 8.
Disable global mass or energy balance

The Solution Control window allows you to disable the mass and/or
energy balance. This can be a useful feature in troubleshooting models.
You can, for instance, disable the energy balance, get a converged
answer, use the Transfer Results to Initial Guess feature, then enable the
energy balance and rerun the model.
Make initial flow rate guesses for pipes

If you do not provide any initial guesses, AFT Fathom will make its own
guesses. On occasion, the AFT Fathom guesses are far away from
reality. For some models, providing a crude initial guess for all the pipe
flow rates in the system can help the model converge.
The crude guesses can be as simple as selecting all the pipes and
initializing all of them to 1 lbm/sec, even though some operate at 0.1
lbm/sec and others at 10 lbm/sec.
Review the Iteration History

The Iteration History window is discussed in Chapter 8. You can use this
to see which pipes or junctions are farthest out of tolerance, which may
direct your troubleshooting efforts toward these elements.
Change boundary conditions

Changing the boundary pressures or flow rates can sometimes give you
insight into what is giving the model trouble.

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Turn off parts of the model

Using the Special Conditions feature, you can turn off elements in your
model and, in effect, shut down entire sections. Then you can focus on
getting selected sections to run to convergence.
Break a large model into submodels

AFT Fathom provides convenient features for deleting parts of your
model and merging parts back in. A section of your model can be
quickly deleted by selecting it on the Workspace and choosing Delete
from the Edit menu. If the section is instead Cut, it can be Pasted into a
new model of its own for testing or holding. At a later time, the removed
sections can be added back into the current model by using the Merge
feature on the File menu.
The advantage of breaking your model into sub-models is that you can
investigate the convergence characteristics of each part of your model
independently. If you can get each sub-model to converge, you should be
able to get the original model to converge also. If one of your sub-
models will not converge, it is doubtful your original model will
converge either.
Using manufacturer pressure drop data

It is not uncommon to obtain a single data point from an equipment
manufacturer. For example, the data might be 20 kPa pressure drop at 1
kg/sec. Along with this data point, another always comes along for free.
The second data point is zero pressure drop at zero flow.
The pressure drop characteristics of most equipment follows the square
law. As the flow rate changes, the pressure drop changes by the square
of the ratio of the flow rate.
In our example, an increase in the flow rate to 2 lbm/sec would result in
a pressure drop of 20 kPa squared, or 400 kPa. Although this may not be
exactly correct, it is much better than assuming a flat 20 kPa drop for all
flow rates, which we know for certain is not correct. Alternatively, the
junction curve fitting window allows you to quickly generate quadratic
data by entering a single data point and clicking the “Fill as Quadratic”
button.
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Control valve failure issues

AFT Fathom offers modeling of PRV’s, PSV’s and FCV’s. Based on the
interaction with the pipe system, control valves can end up in a situation
where they cannot control to the desired control points. When this
occurs, it is an indication that the desired control point cannot be
obtained unless the control valve acts like a pump and adds pressure to
the system. To diagnose which control valves (if any) need to add
pressure to reach their control point, set their failure state to Always
Control (Never Fail).
It is very important to grasp that when a valve fails to control and the
failure action is set to Always Control (Never Fail), the resulting
solution in the Output is only useful for diagnostics and does not
represent a physically meaningful answer. Why is that? Because in order
to maintain the control pressure or flow the valve had to add pressure. If
a control valve is operating in this mode, you will be clearly notified in
the Output window, both in the Warnings and in the Valve Summary.
The following failure options are available for control valves:
1. Maintain control by adding pressure (useful for diagnostics only)
2. Fail open or fail closed if upstream pressure is insufficient
3. Fail open or fail closed if downstream pressure is excessive
(applicable to pressure control valves only)
In such cases where failure to control exists, one or more valves may fail
simultaneously. Once failed, AFT Fathom will not return a valve to its
control capability.
How pressure junctions work

Pressure junctions (e.g., Reservoirs or Assigned Pressures) in AFT
Fathom are an infinite source or sink of fluid. This means that they can
draw or discharge as much fluid as is necessary to maintain the specified
pressure. Some engineers have difficulty grasping this concept, and
misuse pressure junctions in AFT Fathom. This section offers a physical
example of how pressure junctions work to clarify for those having
difficulty with the concept.

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Consider the physical pumping system shown in Figure 9.4. This system
pumps water from a tank near the shore of Lake Michigan to a tank on a
nearby hill.
Discharge
Tank (J2)
Transfer
Pipeline
Transfer
Supply Pump (J3)
Tank (J1)
Shoreline
Elevation
Lake Michigan
Figure 9.4 Physical pumping system to transfer water from

shoreline supply tank (J1) to discharge tank (J2) at top
of hill
An engineer is tasked with sizing the pump for this system. The engineer
has an idea of the discharge head needed for the pump, and so builds an
AFT Fathom model as shown in Figure 9.5.
J2
P3
J1 J3 J4
P1 P2
Figure 9.5 Model to size pump attempting to represent system in

Figure 9.4, but actually represents the system in
Figure 9.6.
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The Figure 9.5 model is attempting to represent the physical system in
Figure 9.4, but it in fact represents the physical system in Figure 9.6.
Transfer Discharge
Pipeline Tank (J2)
Transfer
Supply Pump (J3)
Tank (J1)
Shoreline
Elevation
Lake Michigan (J4)
Figure 9.6 Physical system represented by model in Figure 9.5.
Why? Because the reservoir junction (J4), which is an infinite source of

fluid, has been located between the pump (J3) and the discharge tank
(J2). The J4 reservoir isolates the supply tank and pump (J1 and J3) from
the discharge tank (J2). The J4 reservoir is very much like placing Lake
Michigan between the supply and discharge piping.
If the engineer changes the surface elevation in J4, it is like changing the
surface elevation of Lake Michigan. It will change the flow rate in the
pipes, but no matter how high the water level of Lake Michigan, it does
not change the fact that the pumping system is isolated from the
discharge tank. The flow rate in the piping from J4 to J2 is entirely
dependent on the difference in surface elevations between J2 and J4, and
is not influenced by the J3 pump in any way.
How then should the physical system in Figure 9.4 be modeled? It
should be modeled as shown in Figure 9.7.

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J2
P2
J1 J3
P1
Figure 9.7 Proper model of physical system shown in Figure 9.4.
If the goal is to size the pump at J3, the model is Figure 9.7 can be used
with the pump modeled as a fixed flow pump.
The role of pressure junctions

In modeling a generalized pipe network, it is possible to construct
models that do not have a unique solution. A common occurrence of this
is when a model contains one or more sections completely bounded by
known flow rates. A series of examples with accompanying explanation
will clarify situations where this occurs. The length of this topic is
proportional to the frequency with which engineers get confused over
the issue. It became apparent that an exhaustive discussion would be
very helpful for some engineers. Do not dismiss this topic too quickly
because of its length.
Before beginning, it will be helpful to consider an aspect of the
philosophy of computer modeling. At the risk of stating the obvious, it
must be recognized by the user that a computer model cannot calculate
anything that cannot, in principle, be calculated by hand. All the
computer does is accelerate the calculation process. Some users expect
the model to generate independent information and become frustrated
when the software requests additional information from them. But if the
user was doing the calculation by hand that same information would still
be required. The difference is that in the case of the hand calculation, the
engineer would be forced to think through why the information is
needed.
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However, when the engineer interacts with AFT Fathom, he/she does not
need to think at the same depth as in the hand calculation. So when AFT
Fathom asks for the additional information, it is not as apparent why it is
required. This disconnect in thinking can cause frustration for the user.
Fully understanding the concepts in this topic will greatly reduce the
frustration for some users, and will improve the quality of models for all
users.
Examples
The simplest example is the system shown in Figure 9.8. In AFT Fathom
terms, the system has two assigned flow junctions. Heat transfer has no
effect on the point being made here and is therefore ignored in all
examples.
L = 30 m
D = 5 cm
Inlet f = 0.02 Outlet
Q = 100 m3/hr Q = 100 m3/hr
El = 0 m El = 0 m
Figure 9.8 Model with two assigned flows. This model does not
have a unique solution.
Obviously, the flow in the pipe is known, but, what is the pressure at the
inlet? At the outlet? It cannot be determined because there is no
reference pressure. The reference pressure is that pressure from which
other pressures in the system are derived. There can be one or more
reference pressures, but there always has to be at least one.
The model in Figure 9.8 can be built with AFT Fathom. If you try to run
this model, AFT Fathom will inform you that it cannot run it because of
the lack of a reference pressure. In AFT Fathom there are several
junctions that can act as a reference pressure: the reservoir, assigned
pressure, spray discharge, valve (with the exit valve option), orifice
(with exit orifice option) and exit type relief valves when open.
There are a couple other things worth noting about Figure 9.8. First is
that the model in Figure 9.8 has redundant boundary conditions. When
one flow is specified in a single pipe, the other end must have the same
flow. Thus the second known flow does not offer any new information.
Because the conditions are redundant, there is no unique solution to the

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model in Figure 9.8. In any AFT Fathom model, there is always at least
one unknown for each junction in the model – either pressure or flow
rate. Sometimes there are two unknowns such as with a pump. It is
possible the user may not know either the flow or the pressure at the
pump. In such cases, the user is required to specify the relationship
between flow and pressure. This relationship is called a pump curve, and
by specifying the relationship between the two, effectively one of the
two unknowns can be eliminated. Thus we always end up with one
unknown for each junction.
L = 30 m
Inlet D = 5 cm. Outlet
a Q = 100 m3/hr f = 0.02 P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 0 m El = 2 m
L = 30 m
D = 5 cm
Inlet Outlet
f = 0.02
b P = 35 kPa(g) Q = 100 m3/hr
El = 2 m El = 0 m
L = 30 m
Inlet D = 5 cm Outlet
c P = 35 kPa(g) f = 0.02 P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 2 m El = 2 m
Figure 9.9 a-c Top two models with one pressure and one assigned
flow, bottom model with two pressures. All of these
models have a unique solution.
Second, if the user was allowed to specify two flows as in Figure 9.8,
he/she could specify them with different flow rates. Clearly, they must
have the same flow or an inconsistency occurs. The basic reason the
inconsistency would be possible is because Figure 9.8 does not have a
unique solution.
Figure 9.9a-c shows three other model configuration possibilities. It is
not possible to specify inconsistent conditions for any of the Figure 9.9
models, and they always have a unique solution no matter what input is
specified by the user.
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The four models in Figures 9.8 and 9.9a-c contain all logical
possibilities. In all four cases there are four things we want to know: the
pressure and flow at the inlet, and the pressure and flow in the outlet. In
each case we know two of these four. The problem is that in the Figure
9.8 model the lack of a reference pressure makes it impossible to
determine the inlet and outlet pressures, even though we know the flow.
The three models in Figure 9.9a-c all have at least one pressure, thus all
four of the desired parameters can be determined. Table 9.1 summarizes
this. Also note in Table 9.1 that in the Figure 9.9c case the flow can be
determined, but it is by iteration.
Table 9.1 Four logical possibilities of boundary conditions for

single pipe systems
CASE Inlet Inlet Outlet Outlet OK ? Comments
Pressure Flow Pressure Flow
Fig. 9.8 X X No No reference pressure, cannot
calculate pressures
Fig. 9.9a X X Yes 1 known flow, can calculate
everything directly
Fig. 9.9b X X Yes 1 known flow, can calculate
everything directly
Fig. 9.9c X X Yes 2 pressures, can iterate for flow
As we consider multi-pipe systems, there are a host of other possibilities

that present themselves. All other configuration possibilities which lack
a reference pressure ultimately boil down to the same problem that
exists in Figure 9.8.
The pipe lengths, diameters and friction factors are not included in the
remaining models because they do not influence the main point of this
topic. It is assumed that these parameters can be obtained for each pipe
and the resulting pressure drop calculated with standard relationships.
Consider the model in Figure 9.10. With three boundaries having a
known flow, this clearly has the same problem as the model in Figure
9.8. No unique pressures at any location can be calculated.
A pressure at any one of the three boundaries in Figure 9.10 would be
sufficient to allow a unique solution of the system. It is also possible that
there could be two pressures and one flow, or three pressures. As long as
there is at least one pressure, a unique solution exists.

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Outlet
Q = 50 m3/hr
El = 0 m
Inlet
Q = 100 m3/hr Outlet
El = 0 m Q = 50 m3/hr
El = 0 m
Figure 9.10 Three known flows at boundaries that lack a reference

pressure, similar to the model in Figure 9.8. This
model does not have a unique solution.
Now consider the models in Figure 9.11. The Figure 9.11a model does
have one reference pressure, but in this case there is still a problem. The
Flow Control Valve (FCV) is controlling the flow to 100 m3/hr, and the
downstream flow is demanding 100 m3/hr. The section of the system
preceding the FCV can be solved (because there is a pressure upstream),
but the section after the FCV does not have a unique solution. Why? In
order to obtain a unique solution, the pressure drop across the FCV must
be known. But any pressure drop could exist and satisfy the conditions
of this model. It is thus not possible to determine the pressure at the
outlet flow demand because it depends on the FCV pressure drop which
is not known. The model in 9.11b does have a pressure downstream of
the FCV, and thus there is a unique pressure drop across the FCV and a
unique solution exists for the model in Figure 9.11b.
If you input the remaining data for the Figure 9.11a model and run it in
AFT Fathom, you will get the message shown in Figure 9.12. AFT
Fathom identifies the part(s) of the model where a known pressure is
needed.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 347

J1 J2 J3
Inlet Outlet
a P = 35 kPa(g) Q = 100 m3/hr
El = 3 m El = 0 m
FCV
Q = 100 m3/hr
J1 J2 J3
Inlet Outlet
b P = 35 kPa(g) P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 2 m El = 2 m
FCV
Q = 100 m3/hr
Figure 9.11a-b The model at the top does not have a reference
pressure after the Flow Control Valve so the
pressure drop across the FCV cannot be determined.
The top model does not have a unique solution. The
bottom model has a pressure upstream and
downstream, and a unique solution exists.
Figure 9.12 AFT Fathom message when you try to run the model
shown in Figure 9.11a.

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Sizing pumps with flow control valves

An analogous situation to Figure 9.11a is when the user is trying to size
a pump using the Pump with a fixed flow. The Pump with a fixed flow is
really just a reverse FCV. It controls the flow by adding pressure, rather
than by reducing it. Figure 9.13 shows this case and is another example
of a model without a unique solution, requiring more than one pressure
junction. If the user instead entered a pump curve for this model, it could
be solved.
Inlet Outlet
P = 35 kPa(g) Q = 100 m3/hr
El = 2 m El = 0 m
Pump with Known (fixed) Flow
Q = 100 m3/hr
Figure 9.13 A pump modeled as a fixed flow behaves identically to

the FCV model in Figure 9.11a, for which no unique
solution exists.
Increasing in model complexity, Figure 9.14 shows some additional

examples of models without a unique solution. In particular, Figure
9.14b has a pump with a fixed flow that can add as much pressure as it
wants, and the downstream FCV can then take out as much as it wants.
There are an infinite number of possible solutions.
While it would be highly unusual for a system to have two FCV’s in
series, it is worth considering the model in Figure 9.14b further. It is
common to have an FCV in series with a pump. How does one size the
pump in such a case? There are several ways to do this, one of which is
to change the pump from a fixed flow to an actual pump curve. Trying
multiple pump curves will guide you to the best pump.
But there is a better way. Consider for a moment the pressure drop
across the FCV in Figure 9.14b. In the installed system, is any pressure
drop acceptable? Usually not. It is typical to have pressure drop limits
based on the system design and the FCV itself. A common requirement
is a minimum pressure drop across the FCV. If no minimum pressure
drop exists, let’s say we choose a pump that results in the pressure drop
across the FCV being 0.05 kPa. If the system is built and the pump
slightly underperforms its published curve, the FCV will not be able to
control to its flow control point. Even if the pump does operate exactly
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 349

on the published curve, eventually fouling in the pipes will result in
increased pipe resistance (and pressure drop) and again the FCV will not
be able to control to it’s flow control point.
Inlet Outlet
P = 35 kPa(g) P = 0 kPa(g)
a El = 2 m
El = 2 m
FCV FCV
Q = 100 m3/hr Q = 100 m3/hr
Inlet Outlet
b P = 35 kPa(g) P = 135 kPa(g)
El = 2 m El = 2 m
Pump with Fixed FCV
Flow Q = 100 m3/hr
Q = 100 m3/hr
Figure 9.14 a-b Neither model above has a unique solution. The
top model has two flow control valves in series.
The bottom model has a pump modeled as an
assigned flow in series with an FCV. In both cases
either a third pressure junction is needed between
the two middle junctions, or one of the junctions
must be changed from a flow controlling device.
To avoid these kinds of problems in installed systems, a minimum

pressure drop across the FCV is typically required. This minimum
pressure drop provides the key to sizing the pump in Figure 9.14b.
Rather than model the FCV as a flow control valve, instead model it as a
pressure drop control valve (PDCV) set to the minimum pressure drop
requirement. Then a unique solution exists, the model will run and the
pump can be sized. Once the pump is sized and an actual pump curve
exists, the pump curve can be entered for the pump and the valve can be
switched back to an FCV. Remember that when we use the PDCV, we
are still getting the flow we want for the true FCV, because the pump is
now providing the control.
Think for a moment about what we just did. We went through a thought
process that many engineers have gone through during their hand
calculations. Specifically, we size the pump such that the FCV pressure

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drop is minimized. If the FCV has a larger pressure drop than the
minimum, the pump must pump harder to overcome this excess pressure
drop. In short, it must use more energy and is thus less efficient. Figure
9.15 depicts this process.
Inlet Outlet
a P = 35 kPa(g) P = 140 kPa(g)
El = 2 m El = 2 m
Pump with FCV
Fixed Flow Q = 100 m3/hr
Q = 100 m3/hr
Inlet Outlet
b P = 35 kPa(g) P = 140 kPa(g)
El = 2 m El = 2 m
Pump with PDCV
Fixed Flow dP = 35 kPa
Q = 100 m3/hr
Inlet Outlet
c P = 35 kPa(g) P = 140 kPa(g)
El = 2 m El = 2 m
Pump with Curve FCV
dP = f(Q) Q = 100 m3/hr
Figure 9.15a-c. The model at the top is the same as Figure 9.14b
and does not have a unique solution. To size the
pump, change the model to the second one shown
above, which uses a pressure drop control valve
(PDCV) rather than an FCV. Once the second model
is run, the pump is sized, a pump curve exists, and
the model at the bottom can be run using an FCV.
Let’s make a slight addition in complexity to the model in Figure 9.15.

In this case we have two flow control valves in parallel (see Figure
9.16). To size this pump, we apply the process described in Figure 9.15.
We choose one of the FCV’s, make it a PDCV, size the pump, choose a
pump with an actual pump curve and enter it into the model, then return
the PDCV to an FCV.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 351

J6
P5 P8
J5 J8
FCV FCV
Q = 25 m3/hr Q = 25 m3/hr
P4 P7
J1 J2 J3 J4 J7
P1 P2 P3 P6
Pump – fixed flow

Q = 50 m3/hr
Figure 9.16 A pump with a fixed flow in series with two parallel
FCV’s. The model in its current form does not have a
unique solution. To size the pump, first change the
FCV at J8 to a PDCV.
This brings up the question: which FCV should you turn into a PDCV?
When FCV’s are put in parallel, frequently the pipe design has one of
the FCV’s further away from the pump than the others. Because of the
additional piping leading to this FCV, it will be the weakest link in the
chain of parallel FCV’s, by virtue of having the lowest pressure drop
across it. The most remote FCV should be chosen as the PDCV. If the
most remote FCV is chosen, when the minimum pressure drop required
is applied to the PDCV all other FCV’s in the parallel system will have
greater than the minimum pressure drop — thus satisfying the pressure
drop requirement for those FCV’s as well.
What if you do not know which FCV is the most remote? In this case
make your best guess, change it to a PDCV at the minimum required
pressure drop, run the model, then verify whether all other FCV’s have a
pressure drop that meets or exceeds the requirement. If not, then the
FCV with the smallest pressure drop as determined by the first run is in
reality the weakest FCV. Choose this FCV, change it to a PDCV, then

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change the original PDCV back to an FCV since it is not the weak link.
If the pipe system leading to each FCV is truly identical, and all FCV’s
have identical pressure drops, any of the FCV’s will serve as the PDCV.
The preceding process can be extended to cases where there are three or
more FCV’s in parallel, and also cases with more than one pump in
parallel supplying the FCV’s.
In Figure 9.16 the most remote valve is J8, the one on the right. If the
minimum pressure drop is 35 kPa, change J8 to a PDCV with a 35 kPa
drop. This results in the output shown in Figure 9.17a. Notice how the
pressure drop across the other FCV at J5 (50.07 kPa) is greater than 35
kPa because it is closer to the pump. Also notice how the flow through
J8 is still 25 m3/hr even though it is not controlling flow. Once again, the
reason for this is that the pump is controlling the flow to 50 m3/hr, and
with the J5 FCV controlling to 25 m3/hr, the excess must go through J8.
The pump is thus sized and its pump head rise is shown in Figure 9.17b
(48 meters).
Figure 9.17a-b. AFT Fathom results for the model in Figure 9.16 after
J8 has been changed to a PDCV. Top results show
Valve Summary and bottom results show pump size.
Using fixed head rise pumps

An alternate method of sizing pumps with FCV’s is to use the fixed head
rise pump model. Here the pump head can be adjusted while the flow
control valves can be modeled as FCV’s.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 353

Note: The AFT Fathom GSC module allows pump sizing with flow
control valves to be solved directly using a different method than
outlined here.
Pressure control valves

The problem of non-unique solutions can also occur when a Pressure
Reducing Valve (PRV) or Pressure Sustaining Valve (PSV) is used. A
PRV is used to control pressure downstream of the valve, while a PSV
controls pressure at the valve inlet. One thing that PRV’s and PSV’s
have in common with FCV’s is that the pressure drop cannot be known
ahead of time. The pressure drop depends on the balance of the pipe
system.
Consider the simple system shown in Figure 9.18. With the pressure
controlled downstream of the PRV, the pressure upstream is not known.
Without knowledge of the PRV’s pressure drop, the pressure upstream
of the PRV cannot be determined and thus no unique solution exists.
Inlet Outlet
Q = 100 m3/hr P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PRV
Pdown = 70 kPa(g)
Figure 9.18 If a PRV is downstream of a known flow the PRV

pressure drop cannot be calculated. This model does
not have a unique solution.
Figure 9.19 shows the possible cases with PRV’s and PSV’s, while
Table 9.2 comments on the six cases. In summary, at least one known
pressure is always needed on the side of a pressure control valve
opposite of the controlled side.
If a pump is being sized in series with a PRV or PSV, modeling the
pump as a fixed flow will not permit a unique solution if the pump is
upstream of a PRV or downstream of a PSV. The reasons for this are the
same as those in the previous section on FCV’s.

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Inlet Outlet
a Q = 100 m3/hr P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PRV
Pdown = 70 kPa(g)
Inlet Outlet
b P = 300 kPa(g) Q = 100 m3/hr
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PRV
Pdown = 70 kPa(g)
Inlet Outlet
c P = 300 kPa(g) P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PRV
Pdown = 70 kPa(g)
Inlet Outlet
d Q = 100 m3/hr P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PSV
Pup = 140 kPa(g)
Inlet Outlet
e P = 300 kPa(g) Q = 100 m3/hr
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PSV
Pup = 140 kPa(g)
Inlet Outlet
f P = 300 kPa(g) P = 0 kPa(g)
El = 3 m El = 3 m
PSV
Pup = 140 kPa(g)
Figure 9.19a-f. Six possibilities for PRV and PSV configurations.

Cases a and e do not have unique solutions. See
Table 9.2 for comments.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 355

Table 9.2 Summary of six possibilities for PRV and PSV
configurations.
CASE Inlet Inlet Outlet Outlet OK ? Comments
Pressure Flow Pressure Flow
Fig. 9.19a - PRV X X No No reference pressure upstream
of PRV, cannot calculate
Fig. 9.19b - PRV X X Yes 1 known flow, can calculate

everything directly
Fig. 9.19c - PRV X X Yes 2 pressures, can iterate for flow
Fig. 9.19d - PSV X X Yes 1 known flow, can calculate
everything directly
Fig. 9.19e - PSV X X No No reference pressure
downstream of PSV, cannot
calculate
Fig. 9.19f - PSV X X Yes 2 pressures, can iterate for flow
In combination with the previous examples, it should be apparent how

the non-unique solution problem can occur in more complicated systems.
In all such cases, the reasoning will boil down to the same problems
already discussed.
Closing parts of a system

A model may be built which has sufficient information to obtain a
unique solution. Then a user closes a pipe or junction and suddenly the
problem has no unique solution. This is shown in Figure 9.20a-b. The
top model has a unique solution and will run fine. In the bottom model
the valve is turned off and the section of the system downstream of the
valve has only known flows. No reference pressure exists in this section
because it is isolated from the known pressures in the section on the left.

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J1 J5
a P1 P4
J2 J3 J4 J7 J6
P2 P3 P6 P5
J1 J5
b P1 P4
J2 J3 XJ4 J7 J6
P2 P3 P6 P5
C losed
Figure 9.20 a-b Top model has reference pressures at J1 and J2.
Bottom model has closed valve at J4 which
isolates the J5 and J6 assigned flows. There is no
reference pressure for J5 and J6 and no unique
solution exists for the bottom model.
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APPENDIX A
Keyboard Modifiers and Shortcuts
The keyboard modifiers and shortcuts for the Workspace are

summarized here for convenient reference. These shortcuts are displayed
when you click the Shortcuts button on the Toolbox, and also display at
the bottom of the Toolbox in abbreviated form.
Selection Drawing Tool
Double-clicking tool
If you double-click the Selection Drawing Tool, the Selection Drawing
Tool remains active after you have completed the selection. It remains
active until you click it again a single time.
Control key
If you hold down the CTRL key when completing the selection drawing
(just before releasing the mouse button), the Selection Drawing Tool
remains active. The CTRL key thus performs a similar function to
double-clicking the tool.
Shift key
CTRL key, you can also hold down the SHIFT key while drawing the
selection box and the enclosed pipes and junctions will be deselected.

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Alt key
CTRL key, you can also hold down the ALT key while drawing the
selection box and the enclosed pipes and junctions will toggle. That is,
any pipes or junctions that were selected will become deselected, and
vice versa.
Dragging
If you select the objects by dragging left to right, you will select all
objects completely inside the box.
If you select the objects by dragging right to left, you will select all
objects completely or partially inside the box (if this feature is enabled
in the Workspace Preferences window).
Pipe Drawing Tool
Double-clicking tool
If you Double-click the Pipe Drawing Tool it remains active until you
click it again a single time. This allows you to draw a series of pipes
without returning to the Toolbox each time.
Control key
If you hold down the CTRL key when completing the pipe drawing, the
Pipe Drawing Tool remains active, and you can draw a series of pipes
without returning to the Toolbox each time. The CTRL key thus
performs a similar function to double-clicking the tool.
Shift key
When the orthogonal drawing is off and you hold down the SHIFT key
while drawing pipes on the Workspace, you can draw pipes that are
perfectly horizontal or vertical.
When the orthogonal drawing is on and you hold down the SHIFT key
down while drawing new pipes on the Workspace the pipe vertex will
flip.

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Appendix A Keyboard Modifiers and Shortcuts 361
If you move an existing pipe and hold the shift key while selecting a
handle at one of the pipe endpoints a new vertex will be inserted at that
point endpoint. If you select a handle of an internal vertex (not an
endpoint) while holding the shift key it will flip the vertex.
Zoom Select Tool
Shift key
If you hold down the SHIFT key down while selecting the zoom area,
the zoom state will always be 100%.
Panning the Workspace

If the Workspace has been enlarged beyond the default one screen size
(Workspace scrollbars will be visible), then the Workspace can be
panned by holding down the CTRL key, pressing the mouse down on the
Workspace, and then dragging in the direction you want to move the
Workspace.
Dragging junctions from Toolbox
Control key
A junction can be “morphed” from one type to another. To morph a
junction, hold down the CTRL key while selecting a junction from the
Toolbox. Drop the junction onto an existing Workspace junction. The
junction type will change to the new junction type, and data that can be
kept will be copied into the new junction.
Shift key
If you hold down the SHIFT key while selecting a junction from the
Toolbox and then drop the junction onto an existing pipe, the pipe will
split into two pipes. The physical length of the original pipe will be
automatically halved, and the new pipe will be assigned the balance.
Thus the sum of the two pipe lengths will equal the length of the original
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 361

pipe. Any fittings/losses in the original pipe will be left in the original
pipe, and the new pipe will have no fittings/losses.
Inspecting pipes and junctions
Shift key
If you hold down the SHIFT key when you perform an inspection, only
the items not yet defined are displayed.
Control key
If you hold down the CTRL key when you perform an inspection, the
inspection window will show the output data for the pipe or junction.
Moving junctions with connected pipes
Control key
By default, when you move an existing junction icon, any connected
pipes will move along with the junction and retain the connection. If you
hold down the CTRL key as you release the junction, only the junction
will move. All pipe connections will be broken. This behavior can be
reversed such that connections will not be retained unless you hold down
the CTRL key. This reversal can be specified on the Workspace
Preferences window.
Pipe and junction Specifications window
F3 function key
When in a pipe or junction Specifications window you can toggle the
highlight feature by pressing the F3 function key. You can also toggle
this from the Options menu.

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Appendix A Keyboard Modifiers and Shortcuts 363
F5 function key
When in a pipe or junction Specifications window, if you press the F5
function key, you will jump to the next highest numbered pipe. If you
press the CTRL key while pressing the F5 function key, you will jump to
the next lowest numbered pipe or junction.
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APPENDIX B
Limitations
The size of model you can create with AFT Fathom is limited by the
amount of RAM on your PC. When solving a system, AFT Fathom
creates a square matrix that is double-precision. The size of the matrix is
determined by the total number of tee/wye, branch and three way valve
junctions in your model.
For example, if you have 100 tee/wye and branch junctions, a 100x100
array is created. With double precision, the amount of RAM needed is
16x100x100, or 160KB. A 1000x1000 array would require 16MB.
In addition to this memory requirements, a relatively small amount of
memory is required for other Solver and modeling activities. AFT
Fathom itself requires over 25-30MB of RAM to run.
Window 95, 98 and Me are limited to displaying a maximum of
approximately 350-400 junction icons as a result of the way in which
these operating systems handle graphics resources. Windows NT, on the
other hand, has no such limit. One can determine the amount of free
graphics resources by selecting Help from within AFT Fathom, then
clicking on About AFT Fathom and then System Info. Among the
information displayed will be GDI Memory Available (Graphical Device
Interface). As this value approaches zero, Windows 95 and 98 will
become unstable and, ultimately, crash.
It is important to note that this Windows 95, 98 and Me limitation does
not limit the number of junctions or, as a result, the model size, since
junctions may also be displayed as a solid box, an outline box or not at
all (the junctions are still there even if not displayed, and may be edited
by double clicking on them within the Model Data window). These

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options are selected from the Display Pipes and Junctions item under the
View menu, which allows you to selectively specify how you want
junctions displayed. For example, by displaying all branches in a large
model as an outline, a large number of icons can be made available for
pump, valve, heat exchanger and other junction types where display of
the icon is of greater advantage.

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APPENDIX C
Installation Issues
Customization files
As you customize AFT Fathom, two new files are created in your local
user application directory:
FATHOM7.INI
FTH_USER7.DAT
The FATHOM7.INI file contains the information to customize the
features in AFT Fathom. The FTH_USER7.DAT contains all custom
database information. If you invest significant time in customizing AFT
Fathom, especially in the area of custom databases, you are strongly
advised to keep backup copies of these files.
Special file control features
What is the Control.aft File?

Control.aft is read as AFT Fathom begins to load and instructs AFT
Fathom where certain key files and copy protection tokens are located.
Typically there is little need to change the settings, however this file can
be used to override the internal defaults and customize your working
environment.

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Control.aft is typically located in the application folder. However, on
networks, it may be necessary to locate it in the Windows\System folder
of each client. If AFT Fathom finds the file in the Windows\System
folder it will use it and ignore any file in the application folder.
Control.aft can be edited using any text-based editor. Notepad, supplied
as part of the Windows installation, is a good choice. Be careful to avoid
changing any of the headings or key words. If these are changed AFT
Fathom will not find the important data.
Specifying where Chempak is located

Before AFT Fathom can use the Chempak Fluid Database it needs to
know where both the data and the copy protection token are located.
These paths are specified in the control.aft file. Typically the token is in
the same location as the data files, however, this is not a requirement
(see Special Network Installations).
When Chempak is installed the setup procedure automatically updates
any control.aft file specified with the path to the data and the token.
You can manually edit the file by opening it in Notepad (or any text
editor) and adding the following lines to the [SEARCH PATHS] section
(replace C:\AFT Products\Chempak Data with the path information
based on your system):
ChempakTokenPath = C:\AFT Products\Chempak Data
ChempakDataPath = C:\AFT Products\Chempak Data
This will instruct AFT Fathom to look in the C:\AFT Products\Chempak
Data directory for the data and also for the token.
Special network installations (remote tokens)

At times it may be more convenient to have AFT Fathom installed
locally on each client but have the token located on a network so
multiple users can access AFT Fathom concurrently. This is especially
true for dialup and remote login networks where access to the server is
relatively slow. With AFT Fathom installed locally on the client, it will
load quickly and the only network traffic is the checking for tokens.
The token normally resides in a hidden, system folder of the application
folder. The hidden folder for AFT Fathom is named 0170.092. The key
file, cfth.dll, is located in the application folder.

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Appendix C Installation Issues 369
However, to setup a remote token, where the token is placed in a
different location than the application, first create a folder on the remote
location or server named AFT Fathom 7.0 (for example,
R:\Engineering\AFT Products\AFT Fathom 7.0). Then copy the key file,
cfth.dll, from the Master Floppy Disk into it. Then move the token using
CCMOVE and specify the folder you created (R:\Engineering\AFT
Products\AFT Fathom 7.0) as the destination. The hidden folder will
automatically be created as the token is moved.
In order for this remote token method to work, AFT Fathom on the client
has to know where to look for the tokens. The path to the tokens
(actually the folder were the key file is located) must be specified for
each client. Manually edit the control.aft file to specify the folder where
the cfth.dll file is located. Control.aft should be located on the client in
the application folder or the Windows\System folder. Continuing with
the above example, if cfth.dll is located on R:\Engineering\AFT
Products\AFT Fathom 7.0 then add/edit the following line to the
[SEARCH PATHS] section:
FathomTokenPath = R:\Engineering\AFT Products\AFT
Fathom 7.0
The application can be installed both on the network and the client. In
this case the clients that reference the application on the server do not
need to have their control.aft file modified.
As an extension of the remote token method, the data files for the
Chempak database can also be installed on the local client and the
Chempak token can be placed on the server. You will need to modify the
information in control.aft as described in the Specifying Where
Chempak is Located section.
Network installations
AFT Fathom 7.0 requires a number of auxiliary files to run properly.
Because of how 32-bit Windows operating systems work (Windows 9x,
NT/2000/XP), certain files must be registered in the Windows registry.
For software installed on a client PC this is accomplished directly during
setup. For software installed on a local or wide area network, however,
the installation becomes two-step process.
The first step is to install AFT Fathom on the network using the
“Network (auxiliary files on client)” in the setup program. This performs
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a typical network installation except the auxiliary files are not installed
or registered.
The second step is for each client to run the Client Setup program
installed into a subfolder below AFT Fathom named “Network Client
Setup”. This process uses standard installation protocol whereby the
auxiliary files are copied to the client's SYSTEM folder only if they do
not exist, or are newer versions than those that already exist. The Client
Setup will also install the sample and verification files on the client and
will create shortcut links on the Start Menu referencing the applications
and files on the network server. Finally, it will update the
FATHOM7.INI file with details of the setup. Although this option is not
a perfect solution, we believe it is the best because the client PC registry
points only at local files (as far as AFT Fathom is concerned).
Problems loading the Graphics Server

AFT Fathom uses a third party tool for graphing called the Graphics
Server. There are four files that are used to load and run the Graphics
Server:
• GRAPHS32.OCX
• GSW32.EXE
• GSWDLL32.DLL
• GSWAG32.DLL
Because of how the Graphics Server is written, multiple copies of
GSW32.EXE or GSWDLL32.DLL in your Path will cause problems
when your try to load AFT Fathom 7.0.
In practice, the most common problem is a network installation where all
AFT Fathom files have been installed into the network folder along with
AFT Fathom. Thus, GSW32.EXE and GSWDLL32.DLL will exist in
the AFT Fathom network folder. A client PC which happens to have
copies of either or both of these files on the local hard drive (usually in
the WINDOWS\SYSTEM folder on Windows 95/98 and
WINNT\SYSTEM32 on Windows NT) will fail to load properly. The
most likely reason copies exist on the local hard drive is another
application installed locally uses them.

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Appendix C Installation Issues 371
A complete list of your options is given below, along with an
explanation of the impact of each option. In the following explanations,
the term conflicting files means the GSW32.EXE and GSWDLL32.DLL
files. Your WINDOWS\SYSTEM folder is just called your SYSTEM
folder.
1. Delete the conflicting files on your hard drive – This will solve
the problem for AFT Fathom 7.0, but may cause other software you
use to stop working. This is not a permanent solution in that if you
install other software in the future that installs copies of the
conflicting files into your SYSTEM folder, the current problem with
AFT Fathom will occur again.
2. Change the names of the conflicting files on your hard drive –
This will solve the problem for AFT Fathom 7.0, but may cause
other software you use to stop working. However, when you try to
run the other software and it fails to load because of these missing
files, you can change the names back to the original names. This will
then cause AFT Fathom 7.0 to stop working until you rename them
once again, but will allow you to run your other software that needs
these files. This will also require you to remember which files you
renamed. This is not a permanent solution in that if you install other
software in the future that installs copies of the conflicting files into
your SYSTEM folder, the current problem with AFT Fathom will
occur again.
3. Move the conflicting files on your hard drive into the application
folder that uses them – This will solve the problem for AFT
Fathom 7.0 and still allow the other software you use to run
properly. However, you will need to know which software uses the
conflicting files so you can copy the files into their folder. If you
remember what you do, you can move the files out of the SYSTEM
folder (or wherever conflicting files exist) and into a temporary
folder. When a software application that used to work fails because
these files are missing, you can copy the files into its folder at that
time. This is not a permanent solution in that if you install other
software in the future that installs copies of the conflicting files into
your SYSTEM folder, the current problem with AFT Fathom will
occur again.
4. Allow AFT Fathom 7.0 to automatically rename the files for you
– This is not a perfect solution, but it does have advantages. This
option enables a feature whereby AFT Fathom searches for the
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 371

conflicting files in both your SYSTEM folder and WINDOWS
folder before the full AFT Fathom application is launched. If it finds
them, it automatically renames them and thus only the copies in the
AFT Fathom network folder are found. When you exit AFT Fathom,
the files will be renamed back to their original names. The
advantages are, 1) you can continue to run your other software that
uses these files and AFT Fathom with no conflicts (as long as they
are not run at the same time) and, 2) even if you install other
software in the future, this option will continue to work for you. The
disadvantages are, 1) you are permitting AFT Fathom to change files
on your local hard drive every time it is run, which understandably
makes some users uncomfortable and, 2) you cannot run AFT
Fathom 7.0 at the same time as the other software which needs these
files.
5. Reinstall AFT Fathom with the option to run auxiliary files on
the client (recommended) – This option is the best long-term
option. To do this, first uninstall AFT Fathom from the network and
reinstall it with the option to use auxiliary files on the client. See
Information on Software Installation for more help.

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APPENDIX D
Chempak Technical Information
© Copyright 1998 Madison Technical Software Inc. Used with

permission.
The theoretical basis for Chempak is a lengthy topic and has been
included in the AFT Fathom 7.0 Help system. To learn more about
Chempak, open the Help system and search for Chempak.

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APPENDIX E
Obtaining Technical Support
In order to receive technical support, the Licensing Agreement return

card must be signed by an authorized representative of your company
and returned to Applied Flow Technology within 30 days of purchase.
AFT Fathom is a sophisticated software application intended for trained
engineers, and in order to provide effective support, Applied Flow
Technology needs to know who is using the software.
AFT's two levels of support
1. Annual Support, Upgrade and Maintenance (SUM)

AFT provides a full year of SUM support with each license purchase.
This support is for resolving installation problems, as well as for
resolving questions on how to use specific features in the program and
resolving modeling issues.
After the first year, AFT provides support to those sites that purchase an
annual SUM.
2. Flow Modeling Consulting Support

Through its subsidiary company, Purple Mountain Technology Group,
AFT offers specialized consulting support to users who have general
pipe flow analysis questions. For questions that do not pertain strictly to
AFT Fathom, but instead pertain to the general nature of how to do pipe

1f si.doc
flow analysis, AFT offers high quality consulting services by
experienced engineers at an hourly rate. Call for an hourly rate quote.
Contacting AFT
Telephone support
Applied Flow Technology can be reached at:
(719) 686-1000 (Voice)
(719) 686-1001 (FAX)
Web site
You can download the latest maintenance releases of Fathom, find out
what new things are happening at AFT, and get the latest information by
visiting our website at:
http://www.aft.com
E-Mail support
AFT can also be reached by E-mail at:
support@aft.com or www.aft.com
Mail support
You can send mail to AFT at:
P.O. Box 6358
Woodland Park, CO 80866-6358 USA
You can send courier mail to AFT at:
400 W. Hwy. 24, Suite 201
Woodland Park, CO 80863 USA

1f si.doc
References
ASME Press, ASME International Steam Tables for Industrial Use

(CRTD-Vol. 58), published by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Three Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Crane Co., Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, Technical
Paper No. 410, Crane Co., Joliet, IL, 1988.
Darby, R., Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 2nd edition, Marcel
Dekker, New York, NY, 2001.
Fox, R. W., and A.T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 3rd
edition, Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1985.
Idelchik, I. E., Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 3rd edition, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.
Incropera, F.P. and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY 1981
Ingersoll-Dresser Pumps, Cameron Hydraulic Data, Liberty Corner, NJ,
1995.
Ito, H., “Friction factors for pipe flow,” Journal of Basic Engineering,
Vol. 81, pp. 123-126, 1959.
Jeppson, R. W., Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks, Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI, 1976.
Lyons, J. L., Lyons' Valve Designers' Handbook, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, NY, 1982.
Miller, D. S., Internal Flow Systems, 2nd edition, Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston, TX, 1990.
NFPA 13, Installation of Sprinkler Systems, 1999 Edition, page 13-139.

1f si.doc
Pipe Line Rules of Thumb Handbook, Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX.
TAPPI, Generalized method for determining the pipe friction loss of
flowing pulp suspensions, TAPPI, TIS 0410-14, Atlanta, GA, 1988.
Walters, T. W., “Gas-Flow Calculations: Don't Choke”, Chemical
Engineering, Chemical Week Associates, Jan. 2000, pp. 70-76.
White, F. M., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1979.
Zipparro, V. J., and H, Hasen, editors, Davis’ Handbook of Applied
Hydraulics, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill. New York, NY, 1993.

1f si.doc
Glossary
Base scenario The top level scenario in a multiple scenario model.

Single scenario models always work in the base scenario.
Best Efficiency Point See BEP.
BEP Best efficiency point. Flow rate at which pump operates at
maximum efficiency.
Bingham plastic See non-Newtonian fluid.
Brecht and Heller method A model for pipe pressure drop in pulp
and paper stock flow. See non-Newtonian fluid.
cavitation A phenomenon that occurs when flowing liquids pass
through restricted areas resulting in reduced static pressures and
localized boiling. Can be very destructive to pipe systems.
Checklist The window that tracks the overall completeness of the
model.
convergence The state of the solution when the correct answer has
been obtained.
custom database A customizable database that allows pipe system data
to be saved. Custom databases are read in during startup and used as if
they were part of AFT Fathom.
Database Manager The window that allows creation and connection
to network databases.
defined objects Objects whose properties and connectivity
requirements have been completed.
design alert A value assigned to a pipe parameter for which AFT
Fathom will warn the user when exceeded.

1f si.doc
distributed loss A hydraulic loss that is modeled as occurring over a
finite distance in the pipe system (typical of pipe losses).
Duffy method A model for pipe pressure drop in pulp and paper stock
flow. See non-Newtonian fluid.
EGL Abbreviation for Energy Grade Line.
elevation The vertical coordinate system (in parallel with body force)
that is assigned to junctions. Elevation differences between junctions
make possible calculations of hydrostatic or gravity head pressure
changes.
Energy Grade Line The sum of the pressure head, elevation head and
velocity head. Quantity is relative to the elevational coordinate system
specified by the engineer.
exit valve In AFT Fathom, a valve that is located at the exit from a pipe
system. An exit valve passes fluid to an outside fixed pressure.
flow into system The flow rate that enters the pipe system through a
junction.
Graph Results window The graphical window that allows preparation
of plots.
head In AFT Fathom, synonymous with piezometric head and
Hydraulic Grade Line.
head loss The irrecoverable loss in head that occurs in a pipe system.
Head loss is equal to the frictional pressure loss converted into units of
length.
HGL Abbreviation for Hydraulic Grade Line.
history The information on how the solution scheme progresses.
Hydraulic Grade Line The sum of the pressure head and gravity head.
This quantity is relative to the elevational coordinate system specified by
the engineer.
ID number The unique number associated with a pipe or a junction.
The ID number is always greater than zero and up to 30,000.
incompressible A fluid whose density changes are small enough that a
constant density can be safely assumed.
Inspection A feature in AFT Fathom that allows you to obtain
read-only information about objects.

1f si.doc
Glossary 381
iteration A single step of the Solver, during which a new solution is
obtained based on the previous solution state.
Jump A feature that allows lateral changes to be made between
Specifications windows.
junction In AFT Fathom, a pressure/head solution point that connects
and balances flow from pipes.
lock To fix an object's position on the Workspace in order to prevent
accidental movement.
loss factor A parameter that relates the amount of irrecoverable
pressure loss through a component. Synonymous with K factor.
Model Data window The text-based window where the input for the
model is given in text form and input data can be entered.
Net Positive Suction Head (or Pressure) See NPSH.
Newtonian Fluid A fluid whose viscosity is independent of the
dynamics of the flow. Temperature or pressure dependence may exist.
Non-Newtonian Fluid A fluid whose viscosity is dependent on the
dynamics of the flow such as velocity.
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head. A property of pumps that relates the
supply head needed for proper performance.
NPSHA Net Positive Suction Head Available. See NPSH.
NPSHR Net Positive Suction Head Required. See NPSH
NPSP Net Positive Suction Pressure. A property of pumps that relates
the supply pressure needed for proper performance.
object A pipe system component (either a pipe or a junction) that is
created, exists, and can be viewed on the Workspace.
object status The state of the object, whether defined or undefined.
Output window The text-based window that shows the results of the
analysis.
piezometric head Synonymous with Hydraulic Grade Line.
pipe In AFT Fathom, a conduit for incompressible, steady-state fluid
flow. All pipes have constant diameter and are completely filled with
fluid.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 381

point loss A hydraulic loss that is modeled as occurring at a single
point in the pipe system. Typical of junction losses.
positive flow direction See reference positive flow direction.
Power law See non-Newtonian fluid.
Pressure Reducing Valve A type of valve that maintains a constant
pressure/head at a location, independent of the flow rate.
Primary Window One of AFT Fathom's two input or three output
windows.
PRV See Pressure Reducing Valve.
Pump configuration A particular pump which contains data for
rotational speed and impeller size.
reference positive flow direction The flow direction you assign to a
pipe, which by convention is positive. Flow in the opposite direction is
considered negative.
relaxation A parameter that affects how the iterative solution scheme
approaches a pipe flow solution.
relief valve A type of valve that is typically closed but opens to release
fluid when a set pressure occurs. Used as a protective device.
resistance A convenient term relating the head loss to flow rate (R =
H/Q2).
Scenario Manager Window that allows one to create and manage
multiple pipe flow model scenarios. These include different equipment,
sizes, and operating conditions.
Solver The part of AFT Fathom that contains the pipe flow network
solution method.
Specifications window The window in which an object's properties
are entered.
stagnation pressure Sum of static and dynamic pressures.
steady-state The condition of a system in which the rate of change of
all parameters is negligibly small.
tolerance The value at which the Solver should consider that
convergence has been obtained.

1f si.doc
Glossary 383
Toolbox The area on the Workspace window that offers tools for
building pipe flow models.
valve state The position of the valve control device which regulates the
flow through the valve.
Visual Report window The graphical window that allows integration
of the analysis results with the pipe system schematic.
Workspace The area of the Workspace window where models are
visually assembled.
Workspace window The graphical window where model assembly
occurs and input data can be entered.
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 383


1f si.doc
Database editing 120
Index Aligning objects 58
Annotation Manager 55, 101
A
Annotation tool 14, 54
Absolute roughness 46, 162, 164, 257,
288 Annotations 101
Absolute tolerance See Solution Area Change

Control window as Pipe Loss 167
Adiabatic flow 168 Area Change junction
Affinity laws abrupt transition 183, 314
for pumps 327 conical transition 183, 314
impeller trims 205 loss factors 184, 314
AFT Arrow 9, 114 Specifications window 183
AFT Fathom ASME Steam Tables 113, 116, 329
converting custom databases from Assigned Flow junction
versions previous to 7.0 9
contrast with pressure-type junction
engineering assumptions 4 44
Example models 7 example 344
Getting started 6 loss factors 46
installation 5 Specifications window 184
New features in version 7.0 9 use with Flow Total feature 153
Overview 7 Assigned Pressure junction
qualifications for use 4 as a reference pressure 344
summary of capabilities 2 Balance energy at Junction feature
using online help 7 285
AFT Fathom window 13, 47 How pressure junctions work 340
AFT Mercury 11 loss factors 46
AFT Standard fluid 26, 110 Specifications window 186
Change Fluid Data window 254 the role of pressure junctions 343
Database 4, 116, 330 use in open and closed systems 280
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 385 c:\aft manuals\f7\fathom7 manual 1f si.doc

using static and stagnation pressure Specifications window 189
280
use with Flow Total feature 153
Atmospheric pressure 120
Brecht & Heller method See non-
Auxiliary Graph Formatting window Newtonian
85, 251
C
B Calculator 153
baffles 303
Cavitation 115, 203, 217, 224, 254
Balance energy
CD See discharge coefficient
at Assigned Pressure junction 285
Check valve
in Reservoir 213, 285
At pump discharge 205
Base area 45, 183, 187, 191, 197, 198,
Check Valve junction
202, 216, 222, 224, 320
loss factors 191, 192
Specifying 182
Special Condition check valve 192
Batch runs 148
Specifications window 191
Bend junction
Checklist 23, 108
loss factors 188, 315
Chempak 4, 27, 110, 116, 329
mitre bend 187, 316
accuracy options 329
smooth bend 187, 316
mixtures 27
smooth flanged 315
specifying Chempak file locations
368
standard elbow 187, 316
Colebrook-White 288, 289
Bernoulli equation 275
Color Map See Visual Report window
Bill of materials 149
Component Database 258
Bingham Plastic See non-Newtonian
Connectivity 102, 104, 106
Black and white junction icons 148
graphical connection 103
Branch junction 221
in Junction Specification window
flow source or sink 190 179
loss factors 46 in Pipe Specifications window 161

Index 387
model connection 104 Crude oil 291
Constant Heat Flux model 168, 298 CST Module 27, 59, 123, 209, 260
Constant Heat Rate model 168 CTRL key See Keyboard modifiers,
See Keyboard modifiers
Constant Pressure Drop Valve See
Pressure Drop Control Valve Custom databases See Databases
Continuity equation 274 Customize Graph window 85
Control Valve junction Customizing AFT Fathom See
Databases, See Model Data Control
action if setpoint not achievable 194
window, See Parameters and Unit
failure to control issues 340 Preferences window, See Toolbox
sizing pumps with flow control valves Preferences window, See Workspace
349 Preferences window, See Output
Control window, See Visual Report
special condition options 195 Control window
Specifications window 192 databases 253
static and stagnation pressure 280 files created 367
types 193 fluids 253
Control.aft file 367 graph styles 251
Convective Heat Transfer model 168, junction (component) databases 258
298
Model Data window 66
Conventions See also Base area
Output window 71, 250
flow entering and exiting 44
Parameter Preferences 235
Convergence 309
pipe fittings & losses 252
Converting models from versions
previous to AFT Fathom 7.0 9 pipe materials 255
Copy 56, 57, 98, 100, 102 Toolbox Preferences 247
Cost Databases See Databases Unit Preferences 237
Cost Report 75, 79, 122, 209 Visual Report window 251
Cost Settings window 27, 110, 121, Workspace window 60, 240
209 Cut 56, 102
scenario logic 130 Cv variable 212
Create Mixture window 116 Cylindrical annulus 163, 164
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 387

D fluid See AFT Standard fluid or

Chempak
Darcy-Weisbach 164, 274
fluid database 115, 116, 120, 253
Database Manager 253, 260
fluid properties 120, 253
Benefits of shared databases 264
Friction Data Set 256, 257
Connecting and disconnecting
databases 261 FTH_USER7.DAT 235, 253, 263,
268, 367
creating network databases 267
Insulation Data Set 257
DATABASE.LIB 266, 269
Kbase Cost Databases 260
Editing databases 262
pipe materials 162, 255
Enterprise network databases 266
special control files 265
FTH_DBUSER.LIB 267
Dead End junction
Making databases available 260
scenario logic 130
Defining objects
sharing databases using
DATABASE.LIB 269 Checklist - Define All Pipes and
Junctions 28, 110
DATABASE.LIB 266, 269, 271
List Undefined Objects window 28,
Databases 29, 253 105
Benefits of shared databases 264 object status 57
Component database 179, 204, 258, Delete 57, 102
259
Deltas between junctions 76
Connecting to external shared
databases 271 Density 115
converting from versions of AFT Design Alerts See Pipe Specifications

Fathom previous to 7.0 9 window
Cost Databases 260 Design factors
Creating an enterprise-wide network junctions 181, 314

database system 266 pipes 172, 297
custom junctions 258 discharge coefficient 318
Energy Cost Databases 79, 122, 260 fire sprinkler relationship 326
Engineering Databases 260 orifice 318

Index 389
spray discharge 325 F
Distributed loss 46, 312 Fanning friction factor 288
Dittus-Boelter equation 299 FATHOM7.INI 235, 367
Drag-and-drop 3 FathomExamples.hlp 7
Duffy method See non-Newtonian FCV See Flow Control Valve
Duplicate 57, 98, 100, 102 Find utility 142
Dynamic Pressure 279 Fins 297
Dynamic viscosity 115 fire sprinklers 326
Fittings & Losses See Losses
E
flip vertex 54, 100, 360
Editing
Flip workspace See Workspace
on Workspace 56 window
Efficiency Flow Control Valve 193, 340, 347,
Nominal 204 348, 350
EGL 83 Flow rate relaxation See Solution

Control window
Elbow See Bend junction
Flow Total 152
Elevation 83, 177
Fluid database See AFT Standard fluid
Energy cost See Cost Settings window, or Chempak
See Databases: Energy Cost
Databases Fluid Database window 253, 254
Energy Cost Databases See Databases Fluid Groups 59, 115, 125, 200
Engineering Databases See Databases Fouling 164
Enhanced pump vs system curves 83 Friction Data Set 163, 256, 257
Example models 7 Friction factor 120, 164
Excel Friction models 46, 287
Importing Excel Data 135 Absolute roughness 288
Exit valve See Valve junction Frictionless pipe 292
Explicit friction factor 46, 165 Hazen-Williams 289
Extended Model Check 153 Hydraulically smooth 289
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 389

Miller Turbulent method 292 Gravitational acceleration 120
MIT Equation 291 Grid
non-Newtonian 293 On Workspace 90, 244
Relative roughness 288 Group Manager 58
Resistance 291 Fluid Groups 125
Frictional Losses See Losses Grouping objects 57, 101
Frictionless pipe 46, 165, 292 GSC Module 59, 354
Froude number 303
FTH_DBUSER.LIB 267, 270, 271 H
FTH_USER7.DAT 235, 253, 263, 268, Hazen-Williams 165, 289
367 Heat Exchanger junction
heat transfer 200
G heat transfer models 328
Gaussian Elimination 310
loss factors 198
With pivoting 310
Special Conditions 200
General Component junction
loss factors 197
Tube configuration model 198
Heat transfer 25, 43, 114, 168, 200,
General Preferences 249 297
Global mass and energy balance 310 Fluid Groups 125
Global Pipe Edit window 227, 229 multi-loop 125
Graph Results window 8, 41, 48, 80, Heat transfer coefficient 299
251
internal 120, 299
Import Graph Data 81
overall 297
Save Graph Data 81
Heated perimeter 297
Select Graph Data 80
Helical tubes 163, 164, 289
Graph sets 84
H-Equation method 273
Graphics Server
HGL 83, 274
problems loading 370
Highlight feature 30, 105, 156

Index 391
Homologous pumps See Affinity Laws external and internal 167
Hydraulic diameter 163, 164 thermal resistance 170, 301
Hydraulic Grade Line See HGL Insulation Data Set 170, 257
Hydraulically smooth 46, 165 interest rates See Cost Settings window
Hydrocarbons - roughness 292 Irrecoverable losses See Losses
Isothermal flow 168
I Iteration history 310, 338
Icon size 242
ID numbers 15, 28, 98, 100, 123, 160, J
244
Jacobian matrix 276
ID Reduction - Scaling 164
Jet Pump junction
Impeller modifications See Pump
junction
Jump 104, 156, 179
Importing Excel Data 135
Junction icons
inflation rates See Cost Settings
window printing black and white 148
Initial guesses 74 Junction label position 245
flow guess 171 Junction Results table 71
generation 180 Junction Specifications window 174,
226
pressure guess 180
Area Change 183
temperature guess 180
Assigned Flow 184
using for troubleshooting models
338 Assigned Pressure 186
Inspection feature 31, 106, 176, 177 Bend 187
Showing only undefined items 362 Branch 189
Installation 367 changing junction icons 182
Network installations 369 Check Valve 191
special network installations 368 connected pipes 179
Insulation Control Valve 192
Adding custom insulation 258 Copy Data From Jct 179
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 391

Database list 179 Venturi 224
Dead End 196 Volume Balance 226
design factor 181 Junctions 43
displaying name 181 Base area 182
Elevation 177 comparison of types 174
format 174 connectivity 102
General Component 196 creating 100
Heat Exchanger 198 customizing icons 248
icons, changing 182 defining 104
Initial pressure guess 180 displaying data in Output window
75
Initial temperature guess 180
displaying in Model Data 68
Jet Pump 200
displaying in Visual Report 90
Jumping to next higher or lower
number junction 105 displaying on Workspace 61
Name 177 editing 56, 102
Notes 182 finding 142
Number 177 icons on Toolbox 56
Orifice 202 ID numbers 100
Pump 203 keyboard shortcuts 361
Relief Valve 211 loss factor 46
Reservoir 213 negative flow rates 175
Screen 216 placing on Workspace 100
Special Conditions 181 pressure losses 312
Spray Discharge 217 Special Conditions 144
Status 182 specifying data 104
Tee/Wye 219
Three-Way Valve 221 K
Valve 221 K for fire sprinklers 326
Keyboard modifiers 359

Index 393
CTRL 50, 97 showing selected pipes and junctions
68
SHIFT 50, 54, 57, 97, 101
using saved format files in Database
Manager 265
L
Model Data window 8, 47, 64, 65
Laminar flow 120, 288
customizing 66
Legend 89, 93
opening pipe and junction
Lock 57, 101 specifications windows from 104,
Loss factor 45, 46, 166, 175, 177, 183, 155
187, 189, 191, 197, 198, 202, 213, Pipe Detail Summary 65
216, 220, 221, 224, 313
Pipe Fittings & Losses 65
Loss models 313
Pipe table 65
Losses 45, 46, 275, 288, 312
print content 149
LU Decomposition 310
scenario display 68
M using for troubleshooting models

332
Matrix Method 310
Viewing scenario differences 128
Merging models 145
Model Status Light 108
with multiple scenarios 146
Momentum equation 274
Miller Turbulent Method 165, 292
Moody friction factor 288
minor losses See Losses
morph 100, 361
MIT Equation 165, 291
Mixtures 4, 27, 116, 117, 329 N
Model Data Control window 67 Network databases 179, See Database
database connections 69 Manager
Displaying junction curve data 68 Newton-Raphson method 3, 274, 276,
286
Displaying pipe elevation data 68
Nominal Efficiency 204
Scenario display 68
Nominal NPSH 204
showing junction data 68
Noncylindrical pipes 163, 164
showing pipe data 68
non-Newtonian 118, 119, 287, 293
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 393

Bingham Plastic 118, 295 Output Control window 24, 36, 71,
110, 112, 250, 286
Brecht & Heller method 294
database connections 76
Duffy method 293
Deltas Between Junctions 76
junction losses 296
Format and Action 74
Pipe Fittings & Losses 296
General Output Control 73
Power Law 118, 294
Pipe, Junction and Summary
pulp and paper 293, 294
parameters 72
NPSH 115, 205
scenario display 76
constant for variable speed 205
scenario logic 130
Nominal 204
Show Selected Pipes/Junctions 75
NPSHR 205
NPSP 115 Manager 265
NPSP See NPSH Output window 8, 47, 70
Nusselt Number 299 Cost Report 79, 122, 209
customizing 250
O number formatting 74
Object status 57, 106, 123, 173, 182 print content 149
One-dimensional flow 43 scenario display 76
Open Pipe/Jct Window 64, 104, 155 setting defaults 77
Orifice junction updates 79
discharge coefficient 318 Viewing scenario differences 128
loss factors 203, 317 Overall heat transfer coefficient See
round edged 317 Heat transfer coefficient overall
sharp edged 317 Overview of AFT Fathom 7
types 203
P
orthogonal drawing 52, 53, 99, 244, Parameter and Unit Preferences window
249, 360 235
tips on usage 54 Custom monetary units 238

Index 395
database connections 238 connected junctions 161
default roughness model 166 Copy Data From Pipe 161
Monetary units and currency Copy Previous pipe 161
conversion 79, 122, 238
Design Alerts 171
setting defaults 239
diameter 164
setting preferred units 238
diameter reduction from scaling 164
unit preferences 237
displaying name 172
displaying pipe size or schedule 172
Manager 265
Fittings & Losses 166
Paste 56, 57, 98, 100, 102
Fluid Properties 171
PDCV See Pressure Drop Control
Valve friction model 164
Piezometric head 273 geometry 163
Pipe Detail Summary graphical line size and color 173
Model Data window 65 ID Reduction - Scaling 164
Pipe Drawing tool 14, 50, 97, 360 initial flow 171
Pipe Fittings & Losses Intermediate elevations 172
customizing 252 jumping to next higher or lower
number pipe 105
in Solver 312
length 162
Model Data window 65
material 162
Non-Newtonian flow 296
name 160
specifying 46
Notes 173
window 166
number 160
Pipe flow direction 184
optional input 171
Pipe Material Database window 162,
255 Parallel pipes 172
Pipe Results table 71 roughness model 164
Pipe Specifications window 156 scaling 164
color 173 Status 173
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 395

Pipe table Splitting 100, 361
Model Data window 65 stretching 101
Pipes 43 Point loss 46
connectivity 102 Popup menu 57
creating 97 Power Law See non-Newtonian
defining 104 Pre-mixtures 117
Design factors 172 Pressure
displaying data in Output window defining system pressure 124, 343
75
Pressure drop
displaying in Model Data 68
using manufacturer data 339
displaying in Visual Report 90
Pressure Drop Control Valve 194, 350
displaying on Workspace 61
Pressure Reducing Valve 193, 340,
editing 101 354
finding 142 static and stagnation pressure
discussion 280
flow direction 21, 44, 98, 100, 143,
161, 174 Pressure relaxation See Solution
Control window
Global Editing 227
Pressure Sustaining Valve 194, 340,
handles 51, 101
354, 355
heat transfer 168
static and stagnation pressure
helical tubes 289 discussion 280
ID numbers 98 Primary Windows 7, 47
length on Workspace 98, 162 Print Content 66, 71, 149
loss factor 46 Print Preview 146
losses 45, 46, 288, 289, 312 Print Special 146
number of connections 98 PRV See Pressure Reducing Valve
Reverse direction 143 PSV See Pressure Sustaining Valve
segmenting 51 pulp and paper stock See non-
Special Conditions 144, 172 Newtonian
specifying data 104 Pump Curve 82

Index 397
Pump heat addition 210 R
Pump junction 349 README.TXT 5
controlled flow 327 Recirculating 213
controlled pressure 327 Reference Information 73, 150
efficiency and power usage 207 Reference positive flow direction See
energy cost calculations 209 Pipes: Flow direction
Heat addition 210 Reference Pressure 344
impeller modifications 204 Relative location 19
multiple pump representation 210 Relative roughness 46, 162, 165, 288
NPSHR 205 Relative tolerance See Solution
Control window
problems from poor curve fits 333
Relaxation See Solution Control
pump configurations 205 window
Pump Curve 82 using for troubleshooting models
sizing with flow control valves 349 337
Special Conditions 210 Relief Valve
Specifications window 203 Cv variable 212
variable speed 207, 326 Relief Valve junction
viscosity correction 210 loss factors 46, 212
Pumps 115, 326 Special Condition relief valve 212
efficiency 205, 207 Specifications window 211
energy cost calculations 209 Renumbering See Workspace window
impeller modifications 204, 326 Reservoir junction 44, 213
power usage 205, 207 as a reference pressure 344
Pump configurations 205 Balance energy at Reservoir feature
285
sizing method 341
energy balance 213
sizing with flow control valves 349
How pressure junctions work 340
viscosity correction 210
loss factors 46
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 397

the role of pressure junctions 343 same as parent pipe 161
use in open and closed systems 280 Screen junction
Resistance loss factors 216, 319
Hydraulic resistance friction model in Specifications window 216
pipe 46, 165, 291
types 216
Resistance Curve 192, 197, 198, 203,
Select Flow Path 57, 102
212, 216, 219, 223, 225
Select Graph Data window 82
problems with curve fits 336
Select Special 57, 143
Restricted Area 115, 192, 203, 212,
217, 224 Selection Drawing tool 14, 49, 57, 101,
359
Reverse Direction 143
Setup program 6
Reynolds number 46
SHIFT key See Keyboard modifiers,
transition 120, 289
See Keyboard modifiers, See
Keyboard modifiers
S Shortcut Button See Workspace
Scale/flip workspace See Workspace Show list box
window
in Output window 71
Scaling See ID Reduction - Scaling
Show Object Status 123
heat exchanger tubes 198
Solution Balance Summary table 286
Scenario Manager 126
Solution Control window 23, 109, 111
re-establishing broken links 135
absolute tolerance 305
Scenario logic 131
convergence 304
Viewing scenario differences 128
false convergence 309
Scenarios
flow rate relaxation 308
merging models with multiple
scenarios 146 Global mass and energy balanbce
310
Model Data window ancestor display
68 Matrix Method 310
Output window display 76 maximum iterations 309
same as parent junction 179 parameters 303

Index 399
pressure relaxation 309 discharge coefficient (CD) 325
relative tolerance 305 K for fire sprinklers 326
relaxation 307 Specifications window 217
relaxation example 308 sprinklers 326
scenario logic 130 Stagnation pressure
Temperature Limits 310 at pressure control valves 280
tolerance 304 explanation 277
tolerance example 306 Static pressure
Solution Progress window 70, 310 at pressure control valves 280
iteration history 310 explanation 277
View Output button 70 Status Bar 108
Solver 109, 273, 303 Steam Tables See ASME Steam Tables
verification 286 Submergence 302
Sort output feature 71 Suggest Pump window 151
using for troubleshooting models Support 375
336
Annual Support 375
Sparger 218
e-mail 376
Special Conditions 144, 339
System Curve 82
junctions 181
System pressure 124, 343
Workspace appearance 241
System Properties window 25, 27, 110,
Specific Heat 114 113
Specifications windows 64, 155 AFT Standard fluid database 116
accessing 155 atmospheric pressure 120
inspecting in 107 Chempak database 116
Jump feature 156 creating mixtures 116
Splitting pipes 100, 361 fluid list 253
Spray Discharge junction gravitational acceleration 120
as a reference pressure 344 Heat Transfer With Energy Balance -
Multiple Fluids 125
2/21/2008 9:56:55 AM Page 399

scenario logic 130 database connections 249
Transition Reynolds number 120 setting defaults 247
T Manager 265
Technical Support See Support ToolTips 56
Tee/Wye junction 176 Traditional pump vs. system curves 83
convergence problems and Transfer Results to Initial Guess 71,
recommendations 336 74, 148
loss factors 46, 220, 320 Transition flow 120, 289
Simple, no loss 220 Transition Reynolds number 120
Specifications window 219 Transport properties 330
Temperature Limits 310 Troubleshooting models 332
Thermal Conductivity 114 Turbulent flow 120, 288
thermal link 125, 200
Three-Way Valve junction
U
Undefined Objects window 28, 105,
124
Undo 57, 102
Title 73, 89
Unit Preferences See Parameter and
Tolerance Unit Preference window
balance verification 286 Unspecified fluid 26
using for troubleshooting models
337 V
Toolbars 94 Valve coefficient 325
Toolbox 48, 56, 97, 100 Valve junction 44
customizing See Toolbox as a reference pressure 344
Preferences window
Exit valve 221
shortcuts See Workspace
loss factors 46, 221, 317
Toolbox Preferences window 247
Current Toolbox/Unused Tools 248

Index 401
Vapor pressure 115 Visual Report Control 87
Variable fluid properties 113, 171 vortexing 302
variable frequency drive 207
Variable speed pumps 207 W
Venturi junction Walk Through Example 13
loss models 224 Web site 376
Specifications window 224 Wetted perimeter 297
Verification Workspace See Workspace window
Verification against published results grid 244

7 Keyboard modifiers 359
Verifying network solutions 286 orthogonal 244
VFD See variable frequency drive Panning 361
View Output button See Solution Reverse Direction 21
Progress window
shortcuts 49, 249, 359
Viscosity correction
symbols 244
Pumps 210
Workspace Preference window 53
Visual Report Control window 87, 251
Workspace Preferences window 54,
using saved format files in Database 101, 123, 144, 181, 240, 360
Manager 265
Action When Dragging Junctions
Visual Report window 8, 40, 47, 86, 242
251
Action When Drawing Selection
Color Map 90 Right To Left 242
Display Parameters 88 Allowable Workspace Label
General Display 88 Movements 245
input-only mode 90 Auto increment labels 242
legend 89, 93 Closed pipe/junction option 241
Save Options 93 colors and fonts 245
scenario logic 130 database connections 246
Show Selected Pipes and Junctions display options 243

90
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displaying name and/or ID numbers relative locations 19
244
Renumber Wizard 63
displaying pipe direction arrows 244
renumbering 62
grid 244
scaling 61
icon size 242
setting the junction label position
Icon source 242 See Workspace Preferences
window
orthogonal 244
size 60
Pipe endpoint adjustments 242
Special Conditions Graphics 245
Pipe endpoint adjustments 54
zoom feature 61
pipe line options 241
Workspace Window
Popup menu 245
Renumber Automatic 62
Sample Workspace 245
Renumber Increment 63
setting defaults 247
Special Conditions Graphics 245
X
symbols 244
XTS Module 5, 23, 28, 108, 205
Manager 265
Z
Workspace window 8, 14, 47, 48
Zoom feature 61, 86
changing junction icons 182
Zoom Select tool 14, 54, 361
colors and fonts 245
Zoom to Fit 61, 87
customizing 60, 240
Direction arrows on pipes 244
Displaying name and/or ID numbers
244
editing 56
finding pipes and junctions 142
flipping 61
pipe lengths on 162
Popup menu 245

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AFT Fathom™

AFT Fathom version 7.0

Applied Flow Technology

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© 2008 Applied Flow Technology Corporation. All rights reserved.

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2. A Walk Through AFT Fathom ...................................... 13

4. The Five Primary Windows.......................................... 47

5. Building and Running Models..................................... 97

6. Pipe and Junction Specifications Windows ............ 155

7. Customizing AFT Fathom .......................................... 235

8. Hydraulic Theory and Loss Models .......................... 273

9. Special Topics: Including Troubleshooting Models 331

Appendix A. Keyboard Modifiers and Shortcuts ......... 359

Appendix B. Limitations ................................................ 365

Appendix C. Installation Issues .................................... 367

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Appendix D. Chempak Technical Information ............. 373

Appendix E. Obtaining Technical Support................... 375

References ...................................................................... 377

Glossary .......................................................................... 379

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Nomenclature ................................................................ xxiii

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2. A Walk Through AFT Fathom ...................................... 13

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C. Define Pipe P1............................................................................. 32

4. The Five Primary Windows.......................................... 47

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Editing features ................................................................................ 56

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Deltas between junctions........................................................... 76

5. Building and Running Models..................................... 97

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Morphing junctions ................................................................. 100

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Gravitational acceleration .............................................................. 120

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Merging models with multiple scenarios................................. 146

6. Pipe and Junction Specifications Windows ............ 155

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Insulation data.......................................................................... 169

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Notes .............................................................................................. 182

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Variable speed................................................................................ 207

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7. Customizing AFT Fathom .......................................... 235

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Customizing Toolbox contents ...................................................... 248

8. Hydraulic Theory and Loss Models .......................... 273

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When to use static pressure ..................................................... 279

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External resistance................................................................... 301

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CD (discharge coefficient) at spray discharge ................................ 325

9. Special Topics and Troubleshooting Models .......... 331

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Using manufacturer pressure drop data ................................................ 339