MS Univ - Internet and Its Applications

INTERNET AND ITS APPLICATIONS
SYLLABUS
UNIT I
\7hat is Internet - History of Internet - How the l$7eb works? - \(/eb Servers and Clients - Looking at
connection as ISP - ISDN - Dial up or Leased Connection - Domain Naming System - Registering our
own Domain Name - Intranet - Overview of \7eb Browsers - hypertext - Hyper Text Markup
Language-Basic Components - Formatting the text HTML-URL-Protocol - Server name - Port - Relative
URLs Absolute URLs - Linking to other HTML Documents - Linking Inside the same Documenrs -
Linking to other internet servies - File Transfer Protocol (FTP)-Gopher.
TINIT II
List in HTML - Displaing Text in lists - Ordered List - Using Ordered Lists - Using Netscape Extensions
- IJnordered Lists - Using < UL > Tag - Directory Lists - Defintion Lists - Combining Lists Types -
Graphics and'Web Pages - Image Format and Drowsers - HTML Tables Aligning Table Elemenrs -
Row and Colum Spanning - Netscaps Table - Enhancements Frames in HTML - Frameser Container
- HTML Forms - The (Input> T.g - Dynamic Documents - Background Graphhics and colour -
Microsoft Internet Extensions - Font Tag Enhancements - Scrolling Marquees.
UNIT III
Data - Steps in Programming Process - Programming Specification - Problem Definition - Requirement
Analysis - Desing a Program Model - Determine or correctness of an Algorithm - Code Program - Test
and Debug - Debugging - Documentation - Structured Programming Techniques Program Tools -
Flow Chart - l$flhy Structured Programs? - Structures - Sequence Program Flow - Decision Srructure
- Iteration Structure - Tools for Structured Programming - Structure Charts - Pseudo Codes - Strucutred
Programming issues - Maintenance - Portability - Readability - Program verification - Modularity -
Problem solving - Apporaches - Top - Down Approach - Brute - Force Approach - Testing Methods
- Black-Box Approach - Glass Box Approach.
UNIT IV
Client - Side and Server-side Programming Languages n-Declaring variables Commenting - Adding
Data and Time Functions to Scripts - Using Mathematical Operators and Functions - Using Conditional
Statements.
LINIT V
String Functions - Creating Subroutines - Creating Functions - Using Logical Connectives and Operators
- Using Loops to Repeat Code - A Simple Page - VB Script and Forms - Hiding Errors.
UNITI
LESSON
1,
INTERNET
CONTENTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
L.2 Internet
t.z.t History of Internet
1.2.2 Internet Usages
t.3 \Torking of Veb
t.4 Veb Client & Veb Server
t.4.L Veb Server
1.4.2 l$flebClient/Browser
1.5 Tower of the Internet Hardware

L.S.t Modem
T.5,2 ISP
1.5.3 ISDN
1.5.4 Cable Modem
1.5.5 DSL
t.6 Domain Naming System (DNS)
1.6.1 Non-geographicalDomains
I.6.2 GeographicalDomains
t.7 Intranet
1.8 Let us Sum up
1.9 Keyvrords
1.10 Questions for Discussion
1.11 SuggestedReadings
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
. Understand the concept of internet]
o Discuss history of internet
8 Internet and its Applications
M.S. University - D.D.C.E.
. Discuss working of web

o Understand web servers and clients
. Discuss ISP, ISDN, etc.
. Understand domain naming system
o Define inrranet
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This lesson will provide an introduction to the various terms like web pages, web servers and
clients,
d?-T1i" naming system, intranet etc, you might have come across while surTing the Internet. Firsrly
we
will discuss about internet and history of internet.
1.2 INTERNET
'The Internet" is probably one of the most overused technical terms in common man's lingo today.
Though everyone seems to have some ideas and opinions about the Internet yet nor many.rrid.firr.i,
precisely. There is no single, generally agreed .rpor, ,rrr*.r ro the question "\fh", is
- the Inrernet?,' -
because the Internet is a different thing to diffeient people. Consider the following
few expressions in
this context.
Internet, the mega network connecting millions of people, is a tremendous phenomenon. The
' web, an offshoot of this global resource has revolutionizei the way information is passed
on.
It is the name given for a vast, worldwide system consisting of people, information, and
'' computers.
. It is a network of networks.
. It is an unlimited commercial opportunity.
It is a set of computers talking over fibre-optics, phone lines, satellite links, and
' other media.
. It is cyber space where data surfing can be done.
. It is an ocean of information.
o It is a gold mine of professionals from all fields sharing information about their work.
It is a world wide interconnected system of thousands of computer nerworks, each network in

' turn linking thousands of compurers rogether.
In short, we can say that the Internet is a vast collection of globally available information, which
can
be accessed electronically - information, which is of practilal r^rr. fo, business, research,
study, and
technical PurPoses. It is a means for electronic commerce marketing, buying, ,"*i..r,
- economic, and
financial data research. It is a collection of hundreds of librarie, ,rrd .r.Li.,rJ, thrt
wiil open ro your
fingenips. It is also a vast store of information relating ro your hobbies, rravel, health,
eni"rtrinm"ht,
games, software, etc.
Today the information can be in the form of Text, Images, Animation, Sound, Video erc.,
romorrow
it would probablybe in the form of smell, touch, t.rr. o1 some energ ized, f.orm.If information can be
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Internet 9
Put on computers, it can be digitized and can be made available on the Internet. The only carch is -
How fast? Even the future may nor be able ro tell.
To be technically correct, we can say that the Internet is "an ever growing wide area network of
millions of computers and computer networks across the globe, which can exchange information
through standard rules (protocols)". The same is illustrated in the following figure.
Ethernet Uluster
The lnternet
Campus Cable
Network
Etn
LocalArea Nework
Each computer panicipating in the Internet has a unique address. Information is divided into packets,
which may travel through different paths to the destination address where it is recombined inro its
original form.
A few computers can be interconnected to share resources and exchange information using a number
of network technologies. Further, such networks can be interconnected to form even larger nerworks.
The Internet is a similar network that connects millions of networks worldwide.
Note that we use "The Internet", with definite anicle "The" and not just "Internet". This is because
though there are many networks existing today the one we call "Inrerner" is a single network
consisting of all the participating nerworks.
1.2.1 History of Internet

How old is the Internet? Here is a short historical background. The concept, which gave birrh ro rhe
Internet, as it exists today, started with a project called the ARPANET (around late 1950s) which was
sponsored by the United States Department of Defence, Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA).
The Department of Defence (DOD) was interested in building a nerwork that could maintain itself
under adverse conditions. The original idea was to build a network capable of carrying military and
10 Internet and its Applications M.S. University - D.D.C.E.
government information during a "nuclear event". Thus, the predecessor of Internet, as often called
ARPANET, came into being.
Till late 1970s, ARPANET operated to provide connection facility ro around a d,ozenof research sites.
Later in 1982, ARPA established the Transmission Control Protocol (ICP) and Internet Protocol (Ip),
as the protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, which is a connection protocol b.t*."r, ,it.r,
which is still in use today and is the primary method of connecting ro rhe Interner.
This technique of information access, which started as a merhod of sharing files amongsr researchers
was slowly adopted by a wider clientele and after 7982 the network ,t..t.J expanding faster like the
big bang.
The credit remains with the National Science Foundation (NSF), USA, whose nerwork of strategically
located suPercomputers (I',lSFnet) allowed people to share information from home or their
institutions. The other networks which developed in parallel, like BITNET of IBM, X.25 based in
Europe and UUCP based in Bell Labs got slowly absorbed or gor conneced ro Inrerner, in order to
provide a unified information sharing medium. The network although started in US, slowly srarted
reaching other countries by connecring the networks of other countriei.
Internet in India started on an auspicious day, 15'h of Augusr, 1995. This in a way marks the beginning
of free information flow from every nook and corner of the world and thus could well be callled ai
"Independence day" for Information Age in the counrry. Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL)
started a service called GIAS (Gateway Internet Access Service) to allow the Indian users a bite of the
Internet.
l.2.2lnternet Usages
The Internet is an important tool for practically everybody. The applications are endless limited only
by our imagination. Vhatever information is required, it is either ilready available on rhe Inrernet or
it is soon going to be available. Here are some interesting application areas:
. Electronic mail, which was until recently considered only an internal mechanism of an enterprise,
is quickly becoming the most widely used application on the Internet. The most commol of th.
communication methods used by people on the Internet is the private letter, written by one
individual to another (on any subject and in any language), and sent betweenany rwo connecred
Internet sites or through an Internet E-Mail garcway ro or from a service which provides an
Interner gateway.
. The ability to exchange visual information in readable and reusable formats
figures, tables, images, databases, software code
- such as charrs,
opens up possibilities for collaboration at the
-
global as well as local levels. 'With the trend specialization, the abiliry not only ro communicare
but also to actually work with colleagues in the same field scattered ali orer the world makes long
distance collaboration feasible.
o The resources for online research are multiplying at an asrounding rate. Searchable databases
library holdings, alerting services, pre-prints, and other information ryrr.*, are all changing the
way research is done And it is not only the research community that is responsible i"r1tir.
Library shelves are overflowing with journals and proceeding, and with acquisitions budgets
receiving deep cuts, a likely scenario for the future is one in which libraries archive electronica-lly,
share holdings, and become information clearing houses instead of closers.
. Another very imporrant application of Internet is multimedia. Live music concerts' radio
broadcasts, live or recorded television shows, interactive audio and webphone, and video
conferencing are no more a dream on Internet, even for a desktop PC user.
Internet provides a variety of information to everybody ranging from entertainment to serious
business application to areas of daily life such as:
. Magazines and newspapers

. Household shopping items
. Ordering novelties from anywhere in the world
. Radio and TV broadcast schedules and sometimes the broadcast itself
. Tour and travel plan guides and bookings, etc'
. Health consultation
. Tips for doing various things
. Talking to friends and relatives in any part of the globe
o Games of various kinds
. Language interpreter
o OnJine education course material, examination conduction, advertising on popular information
sites, making payments on the net and getting an item, net banking
13'!$T/ORKING OF \T/EB
The \florld Vide \(eb or just the web is a collection of millions of files stored on the thousands of
compurers (\Ufleb servers) all over the world. \[eb is only a few years old, but it is growing afl
^tand
astounding rate. Its popularity has increased dramatically because it is so easy to use, colorful,
right in content. Basically, the \ileb is a series of interconnected documents stored on comPuter sites or
lffeb sites. On a trip through this \feb, you can visit colleges, companies, museums, government
departments, and other individuals like yourself. As you move through the'Web you can read data on
almost every imaginable topic. You can visit stores to buy things or transfer movies, pictures, games,
\Wide Veb is in its infancy, but it
and other software to your computer, much of it free. The Vorld
may soon become a pipeline for telephone, communication, entertainment, and news - challenging
existing technologies.
The \rorld Vide \7eb called'$f\f\7, or'W3, or simply the \7eb) is a tool that helps you to find
(also
and retrieve information, using links to the other W-W"Sfl pages. Veb links are stored within the page
itself and when you wish to "jump'l to the page that is linked, you select the "hotspot" or "anchor".
This technique is some times called hypermedia or hypertext. If you have used a \Tindows or
Macintosh based help system in which you click on an underlined phrase to jump to that topic, you
'$7eb,
are already familiar with hypermedia. On the a link can point anywhere else on the Internet.
Thus, it is possible to follow one link after another, jumping from one comPuter to another, all
around the Net.
The ttrr]Jilv Provides a network of interactive documents and rhe software

to access them. To navigate
the \[ww, you surf-froT otg page to another by pointing and clicking ,h.;;p"rlinks in rext or
graphics. The \7orld \fide \7eb and HTTp: ";
. Allow you ro create links from one piece of information to anorher.
Can incorporate references to text, graphics, sound, and movies (or multimedia).
'
. understand other Internet protocols, such as FTp, gopher, and telnet.
The \X/orld \(ride '$fleb is nonlinear with no top, or no bottom. The meaning of
non-linear is that you
do not have to follow a hibrarchical path to information resourc.r. so you cai,
. Jump from one link (resource) ro another.
Go directly to a resource if you know the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), i.e., its
' address.
. Even jump to specific parts of a document.
Since the\reb is not hierarchical and can handle graphics, it offers a greatdeal of flexibility in
the way
information resources can be organized,p..r"rrr.J, and described.
1.4 \TEB CLIENT S( \TEB SERVER

Client-server is a computing technology wherein there are two participating software
which may run
on the same comPuter or on different io-prt.r, connected through , ,r.t*irk. one
of the sofrware,s
is called server that while running waits toreceive a requesr from rhe other
software called client. on
of the-request the server carries out thexec.rr.ry compurarions to produce the response
:ecelPt *hici
is subsequently sent to the client that originated th. ,.qrr.rt.
Note carefully that web server is actually a software. People often use the term loosely for the machine
itself running the web server.
1.4.1 Veb Server

\tr(eb pages are created using HTML syntax. These pages musr be organized and stored ar a cenrral
comPuter.
The organization of web pages into directories and files stored on the HDD of a central
computer is
called'\Web Sire' crearion.
Computers which stores web pages in the form of directories and files and provide
these files to be
read, are called 'Servers'. They act like service providers that service the need
for information.
The Server Computer runs special software called'Veb Server' software that
allows:
. \Xieb Site Managemenr
. Accept a client's request for information

o Respond to client's request by providing the page with the required information.
Some of the most popular software, which Servers nrn ro allow them to respond to client request for
information, is Internet Information Server (IIS), Apache \7eb Server, N.tscrp. Server, and Microsoft
Personal \tr7eb Server.
'We
Server Software stores and manages web pages. '$7hen required, the'Web Server accepts requests
for these \i7eb Pages, retrieves these web pages from its HDD, and sends the page back to the client
who requested for it.
1.4.2 Veb Client/Bro\ilser

To information stored in the form of web pages, users must connect to a 'Web Server. Once
access
connected, an interface that displays the contents of the web page is required.
Computers that offer the facility to read information stored in web pages are called \7eb Clients.
'$7eb
Clients run special software called Browser that allows them to:
. Connect to an appropriate Server.
. Qrr"ry the Server for the information to be read.
. Provides an interface to read the informarion returned by the Server.
Some of the most popular Browser software that clients nrn to allow them to query 'Web Servers for
information is Netscape Communicator, Internet Explorer, etc.
1.5 TO\T/ER OF THE INTERNET HARD\T/ARE

The Internet hardware can be presented in a hierarchical manner forming a tower like structure as
shown below.
Internet Client Device
Internet Access Device
Internet Communication Link
Internet Communication Network
A typical hardware connection for accessing the Internet is shown below. Intercontinental networks
include communication backbone. Backbones are typically fiber optic trunk lines. The trunk line has
multiple fiber optic cables combined together to increase the capacity.
NSFNET was the first high-speed backbone created by National Science Foundation (NSF) in the year
1987.lt connected 170 smaller networks together and operated ar 1.544 Mbps (million bits per second).
IBM, MCI and Merit worked with NSF to create the backbone and developed 45 Mbps backbone rhe
following year.Today there are many companies that operate their own high-capacity backbones. The
entire Internet is a gigantic, sprawling agreement between companies ro intercommunicare freely.
The Internet interconnects multitude of electronic resources. These resources can be hardware,
software information or a combination of them. The end-users of the Internet are largely either an
individual like you and me or an organization.
From an end-user point of view, following are the required hardware and software infrastructure to
hook onto the Internet.
The first requirement is an Inrerner-access device, which could be a personal computer - desktop,
laptop etc., or a mobile device like PDA (Personal Dara Assistant).
Q*#-
* Ii.1""-".::ii..*gsxffi *
A Desktop PC A PDA A mobile phone
Next a communication line isneeded to allow communication between the participating devices.
Commonly available communication lines for public use are:
. Telephone lines
. Optical fiber lines
. Microwave links
. Radio links
Then one needs an NIC (Irletwork Interface Card), which connects the above devices ro the
communication line. The other devices required for Internet access are:
1.5.1 Modem
Modem, an acronym for Modulation - Demodulation, is a device that takes a digital signal from the
comPuter, converts it into an analog signal that the phone line and recognize and transmits the signal
through the phone line to another modem that is connecred ro anotler compurer. The receiiing
modem then converts t_he analog signal back to its original digital format th.r, ,"rrd, it to the .orrrprl,"i
for processing. Depending on the speed of the modem, the iransmission could be fast o. ,lo*. ^l\4ort
modems today transmit at speeds of up to 56Kbps.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Internet L5
Modems can be internal to rhe hardware or external attached as external device to the computer.
Internal Modem External Modem
1.s.2 ISP
Inrerner Service Provider is any company which provides Internet facility, either through dial-up or
through leased lines. In India, some leading ISPs are Satyam, BSNL, VSNL, Airtel, etc.
1.5.3 ISDN
ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. There are two versions of ISDN available. The
simplest one is Basic Rate Interface (BRD, which takes advantage of the copper twisted pair wiring that
is in homes and offices. Instead of a single analog signal, an ISDN line carries three digital channels:
two B @earer) channels that can carry any kind of data at 64,000 bps, and a D (or Delta) channel,
operaring at 16,000 bps, that can carry control signals and serve as a third data channel.
1.5.4 Cable Modem

The basic inrerface between the cable modem and your PC is an Ethernet link. The cable modem
plugs into an Ethernet host adapter in your PC. Then you just need to load the drivers to oPerate the
iabie modem. One problem with cable modems is with the current wiring of cable systems
themselves. They are designed for program distribution, not for two-way communications. The cable
itself does not limit the system to distribution, but mar:y cable companies put amplifiers in their
sysrems to allow their signals to reach for miles beyond their offices. A1l the bandwidth on the coaxial
cable running ro your home is not yours alone. The same signals travel to you and your neighbors'
This creates a problem with bandwidth. Divide the bandwidth by the number of subscribers and you
have little bandwidth available to them. To combat this, cable companies slice up the entire system
into sub-units.
Cable Modem
1.5.5 DSL
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line, is a very high*peed connection that uses the same wires as a
regular telephone line. DSL offers a number of advantages over other lines. You don't have to shut
down your Internet connection to talk on the phone. The speed taps off at 1.5 Mbps vs. 56 K.bps for a
regular modem. DSL doesn't require new wiring it can use the phone line you already have. However,
M.S. University _ D.D.C.E.
there are some disadvantages as well. your connection is better when you
are closer to the provider's
central office. The connection is faster for receiving data than it is for sendingdata.
You can'r get the
service every'where.
ADSL
ADSL is asymmetric DSL. ADSL divides up the available frequencies in a line based
on rhe fact users
do more downloading than uploading. The iwo pieces of equiiment includes:
for the cusromer, a DSL
transceiver, for the service provider, a DSL Access tvt,rltipl.r., (DSLAM)
ro receive cusromer
connections.
Connecting to the Inrernet is a simple process ourlined below.
1. Connect your device to the modem
2. Connect the modem ro rhe communication line
3. Run a modem driver program on your sysrem
4. subscribe the Internet service from an Interner Service provider.
5' Run the Internet Access software on your system to connect to the Internet server at the
Provider's end.
6' once connected - after proper authentication - run rhe Internet applications ro use the Internet
services.
1.6 DOMAIN NAMING SYSTEM (DNS

\7e have two-tyPes IP address in the form of decimal numbers and texr for the
same host. you know
that list of all IP addresses are maintained centrally by ICANN in the form of
distributed database
directory. There are several distributed servers, which'maintain this list of Ip
addresses. The reasons
behind the distributed server are yery logical and simple. It helps in disaster
management and in
diverting the load of the traffics in the form of requests from clienrs to other DNS
servers located at
different sites. DNS server maintains database in both the form that is rextual
as well as decimal
notations. For example, DNS server maintains the address of google site as
www.google.com and
2L6'23'9.53.99.In this manner, DNS is used to provide hosr-to-IP adJre*
mapping of remote hosts to
the local hosts and vice versa. It is now amply cl.r, thrt the DNS maintains
a distribured database to
map between hostnames and IP addresses. \trL.rr.rr.. a client requesrs a service
from a site, then both
the site runs DNS protocol to access the distributed database which is nothing
but Domain Name
Systems' Therefore, the DNS provides the protocol, which allows
clients ,rrd ,.i"., ro communicare
with each other. DNS enables a system to ,rr" a resolver, which resolves the host lla..ne
ro Ip address
understandable by server. IP address assigned to a compur., o, the Interner
is a 32-bit number unique
to each comPuter. It is not easy to remember such a ,rrmbe, specially when you have to deal with
many computers. Domain Name System (DNS) is a mechanism that assigns an easy
to remember
names to IP addresses.
You may be now thinking of how DNS is able to provide the quick translation of text of the IP
addresses within fraction of seconds from a directory of billions of such addresses. This could be made
possible by using Domain concepts, which uses hierarchical arrangemenrs of text addresses translation.
You can see from the Figure 1.1 that at the top level is the root server, which has null label. Below this
is another level domain or domain as com, edu, int and so on which are grouped rogether. Below this
different sub domains or groups have been created.
Figure 1.1: DNS Hierarchy

As we know that the seryers maintaining addresses are distributed and have locations rhroughour rhe
world. Then this question arises as to how text addresses are organized in hierarchical arrangement.
You may refer Figure 1.1 abnve. The hierarchy is represented into zones and each zones is a hilrarchy
of one or more nodes without any overlapping. Each zone is represenred by a server and undoubtedly
with one backup server. Root server as shown in Figure 1.1 is only one, which is just'indicative; there
may be several root servers at several locations in the world. Each root is aware of the location of each
DNS server of sp,ecific domains.
The process is now very simple to understand. \X/hen you need ro connecr with a particular site, you
first send your request to your local host. If your local host can provide the translation, your request is
completed. If not, your local host then sends your requesr one level above in the hierarchy. If the
server at one level above is able to handle the same, you ger your intended website ar your desktop
through your local server. If not, then the server at one level above from your local server either sends
your request again to another server or informs your local server that your requesr is failed and gives
the address of another server to process your request. This process continues till a server is found who
knows the address, otherwise, the request is filtered up ro rhe roor server. Depending upon rhe domain
address, root server forwards the request to the one of the domain servers r"pr.r.nt"d at the next level
of hierarchy. This process continues and the information of text address is reiurned to Root server and
then back to your local server.
Domain is a large group of computers on the Interner. Under this scheme each computer has an IP
address and a domain name. Domains have been made on the base of. organization type or geographic
locations, e.g., the domain name - ibm.com - where .com indicates rhat ibm is a commeicial
r:rganization.
In general, while typing Internet addresses it is better to use all lower case letters. There are basically
two types of topJevel domains:
. Non-geographical domains or those which indicate the type of organization, e.g., in
Iu)IDTD.yahoo.com,the.com indicates that it is a commercial organization.
. Geographical domains indicate the code for individual countries, e.g., www.vsnl.net.in. Here the
.in indicates that the network connection is in a country called India.
There are several computers in a network which can be grouped under a domain and can be given
friendly names for convenience. Thus if machines/resources are shifted, their names need not change.
Domain names are easy to remember.
The latest we have heard is that soon we will have .travel to indicate sites related to travel, .movies to
indicate sites related to movies and so on, i.e., extensions will be according to the functions the sites
perform.
1.6.1 Non-geographical Domains

Table 1.1 below corresponds to some commonly appearing domain names with their respective sites.
The DNS can accommodate almost all kinds of. organtzations by allowing each group to choose
between geographical or organizational naming hierarchies.
The Standard Non-Geographical Domains (Iop Domains) are:
Table 1.1: Internet Domains

Domain Description Example
com for commercial organisations yahoo.com

edu for higher educational institutions imt.edu
gov for Government organisations whitehouse.gov
mil for US military organisations army.mil
net for network organisations or resources pacific.net
org miscellaneous or non-profit organisations which do not farnet.org
form pan of either educational or commercial activities
a
int international orqanisations mt
1.6.2 Geographical Domains

The geographically based top level domains use two-letter country designations. Examples of
Geographic Domains:
af Afghanistan
bb Barbados
by Belarus
co Colombia (Republic of)
su Guam
kr Korea (Republic of)
kw Kuwait (State of)
ng Nigeria pederal Republic of)
Contd....
ua Ukraine
ye Yemen (Republic of)
zw Zimbabwe (Republic of)
Each domain corresponds to a unique numeric IP address. The user might be connecring ro an address
like www.sun.com but as far as the Internet is concerned it is connecting to the web server with the IP
address associated with that domain name. The Domain Name System (DNS) implemented as Domain
Name Server, automatically converts domain name addresses inro IP addresses. DNS is portable. Even
if IP addresses change, the domain name may remain the same.
Sub-domains can also be created within domains. They are represenred by period(.). The rightmost
part is the top level domain which can be a geographic/organisation rype domain till you reach the left
which could be the name of the individual host comptt€r, €.g.: asnl.net.in means in India there is a
networking organisation called vsnl.doc.cis.myunioersity.eda shows that this host/server is in the
documentation department called doc in the (CIS) Computer Information Services division ar My
University which is an educational organisation.
Rcgistering your own Doruain Narue (net)
Your Internet service provider may setup your domain name free of charge, excepr for the domain
name registration fees, or for a low fee, so contact them first. If you already have a web site and an
Internet service provider to add your domain name to their DNS servers (so that your name can be
translated into an IP address), the cheapest and the most straight forward way ro get a domain name
maybe by contacting the InterNIC yourself.
Although registering your domain name yourself through InterNIC could cut your co$ by
eliminating the middle rRafl, you can save some time by asking a third party to do the registering for
you. This type of service could come in handy, specially if you don't already have a web server
running to keep the new domain name acrive.
1.7 IN"TRANET
Intranet is a network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization, usually a
corPoration, accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization.
An intranet's \7eb sites look and act just like any other rWeb sites, but the firewall surrounding an
intranet fends off unauthorized access.
1. Define web server.

2. \7hat is Intranet?
1.8 LET US SUM UP

Tnternet, the mega network connecting millions of people, is a tremendous phenomenon. The web, an
oi{shoot of this global resource has revolutionized the way information is passed on. Today the
information can be in the form of Text, Images, Animation, Sound, Video etc., tomorrow it would
probably be in the form of smell, touch, taste or some energized form. If information can be put on
computers, it can be digitized and can be made available on the Internet. The Internet is an important
tool for practically everybody. The applications are endless limited only by our imagination. 'Whatever
information is required, it is either already available on the Internet or it is soon going to be available.
The \florld Vide Web (also called \fW"\tr7, or'W'3, or simply the Veb) is a tool that helps you to find
and retrieve information, using links to the other \f\ruf pages. \fleb links are stored within the page
itself and when you wish to "jr*p" to the page that is linked, you select the "hotspor" or "anchor".
This technique is some times called hypermedia or hypertext. The ttrf\ruf provides a network of
interactive documents and the software to access them. To navigate the \7\[W, you surf from one
page to another by pointing and clicking on the hyperlinks in text or graphics.
Computers which stores web pages in the form of directories and files and provide these files to be
read, are called 'servers'. They act like service providers that service the need for information.
Computers that offer the facility to read information stored in web pages are called \feb Clients.
Internet Service Provider is any company which provides Internet facility, either through dial-up or
through leased lines. In India, some leading ISPs are Satyam, BSNL, VSNL, Airtel, etc. ISDN stands
for Integrated Services Digital Network. There are two versions of ISDN available. The simplest one
is Basic Rate Interface @RI), which takes advantage of the copper twisted pair wiring that is in homes
and offices. DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line, is a very high-speed connection that uses the same
wires as a regular telephone line. ADSL is asymmetric DSL. ADSL divides up the available frequencies
in a line based on the fact users do more downloading than uploading. Domain is a large group of
computers on the Internet. Under this scheme each computer has an IP address and a domain name.
Domains have been made on the base of. organization type or geographic locations, e.g., rhe domain
name - ibm.com - where .com indicates that ibm is a commercial organization. Non-geographical
domains or those which indicate the type of. organrzation, e.g., in www.yahoo.com, the .com indicates
that it is a commercial organization. Geographical domains indicate the code for individual counrries,
e.g., www.vsnl.net.in. Here the .in indicates that the network connection is in a counrry called India.
1.9 KEY\T/ORDS
Intentet: Internet, the mega network connecting millions of people, is a tremendous phenomenon.
'World
Web:The \(ide \7eb (also called \f'W1U7, or'W3, or simply the \7eb) is a tool that helps you ro
find and retrieve information.
Web Senter: Computers which stores web pages in the form of directories and files and provide these
files to be read, are called'servers'.
Web Client: Computers that offer the facility to read information stored in web pages are called \(eb
Clients.
IJP.'Internet Service Provider is any company v'hich provides Internet facility, either through dial-up
or through leased lines.
ISDN.'ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network.
Domain: Domain is a large group of computers on the Internet.
1.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

'S7hat
l. is internet? Discuss evolurion of internet.
2. Describe the working of web.
3. Differentiate between web servers and web clients.

4. Differentiate between ISP and ISDN.
'What
5. is domain naming system? Differentiate between geographical and non-geographical domain
system.
6. Discuss the process of registering your own domain name.
7. Discuss the process of a typical hardware connection for accessing the Internet.
Check Your Progress: Model Answers

l. Computers which stores web pages in the form of directories and files and provide these
files to be read, are called'servers'.
2. Intranet is a network based on TCP/P protocols (an internet) belonging to an

organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the organization's members,
employees, or others with authorization.
1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Adolfo Rodriguez, John Gatrell, John Karas, and Roland Peschke, TCP/D Tutorial and Tecbnical Ooerpieu
(7th Edition/, Prentice Hall.
Martin $/. Murhammer and Eamon Murphy, TCP/D Tutorial €" Tecbnical Ooervieu, Prentice Hall.
Erik T R:ay, LearningXML,Secord Edition O'Reilly Media.
Michael Morrison, HTML and XML for Beginners, Microsoft Press.
Lisa Lopuck, Web Designfor Dummies, Bk&CD-Rom edition.

LESSON
\TEB BRO\T/SERS
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 \7eb Browsers
2.2.t Information Files Creation
2.2.2 Basic Features of Browsers
2.2.3 Understanding how a Browser communicates with a Web Server

2.3 Hypertext
2.4 Hyper Text Markup Language
2.4.t HTML Editors
2.4.2 HTML Tags
2.4.3 The Structure of an HTML Program

2.4.4 Titles and Footers
2.5 Formatting the Text HTML
2.5.L Paragraph Breaks
2.5.2 Line Breaks

2.5.3 Emphasizing Material in a Web Page
2.5.4 Heading Styles
2.5.5 Drawing Lines
2.5.6 Text Styles
2.5.7 Other Text Effects
2.5.8 Spacing (Indenting Text)
2.5.9 Controlling Font Size and Colour

2,6 URL
2.6.t Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
2.6.2 Absolute and Relative URLs (I.{et)
2.7 HTML Links
2.7.I Linking to other HTML Documents
2J.2 Linking inside the Same Documents
Contd....
'u7eb
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Browsers 23
I z.s Linking to other Interner Services
, 2.8.1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
| 2.8.2 Gopher Service

2.9 Let us Sum up
2.10 Keywords
2.tl Questions for Discussion
2.0 ArMS AND OBJECTTVES

. Discuss the concept of web browsers
. Discuss hypertext
. Understand hyper text markup language and its components
o Understand URL
o Discuss HTML links
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This lesson will provide an introduction to the various terms like web pages, web server, html,
browser etc., you might have come across while surfing the Internet. It will provide an easy but
comprehensive explanation of what web pages are and how they are created. It will give you an idea
of how communication takes place between web clients and a web server and how web pages are
transferred from the web server to the web clients. Further it will f.amrliarize you with hypertext
markup language, which is used to create web pages along with various tools, HTML editors and
HTML tags. This lesson will familiarize you with the structure of an HTML program which consist of
a head and body part, how to put title and footer and text formatting in a web page. For emphasizing
material in a web page heading styles and horizontal rules are given which will equip you with the
basic skills to write a simply HTML document.
This lesson will familiarize yoru with how HTML allows linking of one HTML document to other
HTML documents. It will provide you with details of how one can link to documents, which are
either present in the current working directory, or to a different location in the same document.
Images can also act as links and you will be introduced to the concept of images maps, which provides
a technique to link multiple documents to the same image.
2.2 ltriEB BRO\T/SERS

A web browser is the software program used to access the \7or1d Wide Veb that is the graphical
portion of the Internet. The first browser, called NCSA Mosaic, was developed at the National Centre
for Supercomputing Applications lab at Illinois in the early 1990s. The easy-to-use point-and-click
interface fuelled the growth of the \7eb. The web browser sqftware program facilitates a user to
display and interact with text, images, videos, music and other information typically located on a web
Page at a website on the www or a LAN. Text and images on a web prg" r,orrrr.ly iesigned to provide
hyperlinks to other web pages at the same or differeni website. Tlius web browser e|ables poirr, ,o
point click to reach directly to rhe targetted web pages.
S_ome.of the popular web browsers are Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, AOL Explorer, erc.
\reb browsers belong to. HTTP user agent category. Browsers also provide in accessing inforr.nation
provided by web seryers in privare networks or conrent in file sysrems.
'Web
browsers talk with web servers using HTTP (hypertexr rransfer protocol) ro retrieve web pages.
HTTP enables web browsers to provide information to web servers ro rerrieve web pages frorl ihJrrr.
Different web pages have a URL address starting with http:// for HTTP access. Th;r; may different
other-URL types and their corresponding proto.ol, arrd most of the browsers supports th.*. FTp (file
transfer protocol) is one_of the examples of such types. Other examples ,r. *rp, for RTSp (real-time
streaming protocol) and https: for HTTPS (an SSL encrypted version of HTTP).
The file format for a \Web page is normally HTML (hyper-texr markup language) and is identified in
the HTTP protocol with a MIME content type. Most oi the bro*rers srpplr, iin rent formars such
as the JPEG, PNG and GIF image formats including HTML. The combinrtior,
of HTTP conrenr rype
and URL protocol specification enables designers to embed images, animations, video, ,orrd ,rrd
streaming media into a web page or ro make them accessible through the web page.
To access information stored in the form of web pages, users musr connect to a \Web Server. Once
connected, an inrerface that displays rhe conrents of thl web page is required.
Computers that offer the facility to read information srored in web pages are called \reb Clients.
\7eb clients run special software called Browser that allows rhem to:
a Connect to an appropriate Server.
. Qrr.ry the Server for rhe information to be read
. Provides an interface to read the informarion returned by the Server.
Some of the most popular Browser software that clients nrn ro allow them to query \reb
Servers for
information is Netscape Communicator, Internet Explorer, etc.
2.2.1 lnformation Files Creation

If information has to be stored on a central computer, ir musr be created first. Vhile being created,
information can only be stored in the form of files on the computer. These files are crealed using
special software programs or programming environments.
Files that travel across, the largest network in the world, the Internet, and carry information
from a
'Server' to a 'Client' that requested them are called '\Web Pages'. The individual who
develops these
web pages is called'\7eb Developer'.
2.2.2 Basic Features of Browsers

Before we get involved in all the details, let is discuss some imponanr browser fearures.
1. The \7eb browser should be able to look at the \7eb pages throughout the Internet or ro connecr
to various sites to access information, explore resources, and have fun.
M.S. University \Web Browsers 25
- D.D.C.E.
2. The Veb browser must enable you to follow the hyperlinks on a ITeb page and also to type in a
URL for it to follow.
3. Another feature of browser is to have a number of other commands readily available through
menus, icons, and buttons.
4. Your browser ought to include an easy way to get on-line help as well as built-in links to other
'Web
resources on the that can give you help or answers to your questions.
5. You will definitely want a way to save links to the sites you have visited on the \trf\f\f so that
you can get back to them during other sessions. \7eb browsers take care of those in two ways,
through a history list, which keeps a record of some of the \7eb pages you've come across in the
current session, and a bookmark list, which you use to keep a list of \f\f!f pages you want to
access any time you use your browser. The name of the site and its URL are kept in these lists.
The bookmark list is particularly imponant and the browser will contain tools to manage and
arrange it.
6. One of the main features of a browser is to search the information on the current page as well
as search the \[\XAV itself.
7. Browsers give you the facility to save a \fleb page in a file on your computer, print a IUfleb
page on your computer, and send the contents of a \Web page by e-mail to others on the
Internet.
8. Few Web browsers (like Netscape Communicator) are complete Internet package, means
they come with components like e-mail client, newsgroup client, an HTML composer, telnet
client, ftp client, etc.
9. \fleb browser should be able to handle text, images of the \florld \Iflide Web, as well as the
hyperlinks to digital video, or other types of information.
10. To take advantage of some of the most exciting things on the \7orld \7ide '$7eb, your browser
'$7eb
needs to properly display and handle pages that contain animated or interactive items.
Netscape Navigator can incorporate these features through its ability to interpret programs
written in Java and Java Script.
1,t. \ileb browsers interact not just with the 'Web, but also with your computer's operating system
and with other programs, called plug-ins that gives the browser enhanced features.
1,2. Another important feature to insist on in your browser is caching. A browser that caches
keeps copies of the pages you visit so that it does not have to download them again if you
want to return to them. Reloading a page from the cache is much quicker than downloading
it again from the original source.
13. The most important feature of any browser is ease of use. \7hi1e all \ileb browsers are
fundamentally simple to use, the one you settle on should be very easy to work with; it
should function as a transparent window onto the \7eb.
14. If you will 'Web

be browsing the from within a secured nerwork, you may have to configure your
browser to work through a special computer on your network called a proxy server. Most
popular browsers let you configure them to work with a proxy server, brt ro-" don'r, so find
out if you will be working tlrough proxy before deciding on your browser. If you are, your ISp
or system administrator will tell you^ if you need to do anything special ro use yorr b.o*ser.
2.2.3 understanding how a Browser communicates with a veb Server

Before going into the detailed explanation of how a browser communicates with a \7eb Server there
are some technical terms you should be familiar with. TCP/IP means Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol which is the basic communication language or prorocol of the Internet. It
can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network either an intranet or an extranet.
HTTP means Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, the actual communicarions protocol that enables \Web
browsing. FTP refers to File Transfer Protocol which is the language used for file transfer from
comPuter to comPuter across the \7\XIW. Each machine connected to the Internet has an address
known as an Internet Protocol address (IP address). The IP address takes the form of four numbers
separated by dots, for example: 123.45.67.890
\7hen a Browser communicates with a'$7eb Server, it results into a four-step HTTP rransaction.
Figure 2.1
As seen in the Figure 2.1, a clrends Browser retrieves a web page from rhe server and displays the web
page in the Browser. The communication steps between the client and rhe server can be summarized as
follows:
Establish Connection
Before a client and server can exchange information, they mu$ firsr establish a connection. TCP/IP is
used to let computers establish a link between a'Web Server and a \feb Browser over rhe Internet.
To communicate with the \Web Server, the client machine must be given the IP address of the server
along with the sub protocol that must be used, i.e., HTTP, FTP, etc. The client browser will amempt
to locate the server based on the IP address supplied and establish a connection.
'Web
M.S. University - D.D.C.E Browsers 27
'Web Server may suPPort two

A web server supports multiple protocols. For example, a Protocols oiz.
'S7eb
HTTP, FTP. If the protocols are configured on default port numbers, the connection to a Server
can be established by:
Protocol:/ /IP address

The complete syntax to access and connect to any server would be:
P r otocol: / /servername:port number
Client Issues a Rcquest and Senter Sends a Response
\7hen a browser connects to a \Web Server using an appropriate protocol name, IP address and port
'Web 'Web
number, and the Server treats this connection to be a request for the 'Default Document'.
The Veb Server then dispatches the'Default'Web Document' to the client who connected.
If the client requires viewing any other web page then the client can specify the web page name (if
known) along with rhe connection information. Thus the complete connection and web page
information will now be specified as:
Protocol:/ /servername:port numb er/web Page name
A web from text and HTML tags can also include references to external obiects, like GIF's
page, apart
JPEG's, Audio files, Video files, etc.
Thus, the request for a web page can be two-fold:

. The web page itself.
. The request for the objects referenced by the web page, i.e., GIF's JPEG's, Audio Files, Video
Files, Executable programs, etc.
Seruer Terrninates the Connection
It is the Server's responsibility to terminate the TCPAP connection with the Browser after it responds
to the Browser's request. However, both the Browser and the'Web Server must manage an unexpected
closing of a connection as well. In other words, if the user clicks on the Browser's STOP button, the
Browser must close the connection.
Also a computer crash by either a Browser or a Web Server must be recognized by the surviving
computer, which, in turn, will close the connection.
2.3 HYPERTEXT
'$Tithin
Hypertext is mosr basically a way of constructing documents that reference other documents.
a hypertext document, a block of text can be tagged as a lrypertext link pointing to another document.
\(hen viewed with a hypenext browser, the link can be activated to view the other document. Of
course, if you're reading this document, you're already familiar with the concePt.
Hypertext's original idea was to take advantage of electronic data processing to organize large
quanriries of information that would otherwise overwhelm a reader. Two hundred years ago, the
printing press made possible a similar innovation - the encyclopedia. Hypertext's older cousin
iombined topical articles with an indexing system to afford the researcher one or perhaps two orders
of magnitude increase in the volume of accessible information. Early experience with hypertext
sugge:ls- that it may ultimately yield an additional order of magnitude increase, by making
directly
accessible information that would otherwise be relegated to a bibliog raphy, Hypen.*t's limitLg
f^ui,
aPPears not to be the physical size of some books, bur rarher tt.
atility ofth.
reader to n"avigate
increasingly complex search structures. Now, additional increases in human information pro..riirrg
ability seem tied to developing more sophisticated auromared search tools, rhough th. pr.r.rri
technology presenrs possibilities that remain far from fully explored.
Supplementing basic hypertext
.with graphics, more complex user input fields and dynamically
generated documents_ adds_ considerable power and
flexibility to this .orr..pt. Hypertext, thorrgh stiil
useful for its original goal o-f organizing large quantities of information, t..o*., a simple,
i..r.rrl
PurPose user interface that fits neatly into the increasingly popular client-server model. It dJ., ,rot
seem difficult to image a day when restaurant orders, for example, will be taken using a hand-held
hypenext terminal, relayed directly to the kitchen for preparation, arrd simultaneousl| logged to a
database for later analysis by management.
Characteristics of Good H1pertext
The flexibility of hypertext gives free range to the author's creativity, but good hypertext appears ro
have some common characteristics:
. Lots of doeuments: M":! of the hypertext's power comes from its ability to make large quantities
of information accessible. If all the text in your sysrem can be printed on ten p.g.r,1, would be
just as simple to read through it from beginning to end and forget all this hyp"ne*t
silliness. on
the other hand, if there are ten million pages of texr in yo.r. ,yrri*, rhen ,o*.orr" could follows a
link on atomic energy and ultimately hope to find a description of the TJ-238 decay process.
. Lots of links.'If each document has just one
link, then it is little more rhan normal, sequential text.
A hypertext document should present the reader with several links, offering a choice aborrt wher.
to go next. Ideally, a document should present as many relevanr links ai the reader can easily
comprehend and select among.
Range of futail: The great advantage of hypertext is that it permits readers to explore to a breadth
' and depth that is simply not feasible in print. To make this accessible, available hypertext
documents should range from the broadest possible overview of a subjecr, down to iis'gritty
details. Imagine the Encyclopedia Britannica, all thirty-odd volumes of ii, searchable onlinJ and
with each article possessing links to a half dozen reference documents with even more detailed
subject coverage. This is the potential of hypertext.
o Correct links: This may seem trivial, but it's amazing how many \Web links point nowhere. In
general, be careful linking to any hypertext document nor under your direct control. Can you
count on it to be there later?
2.4HYPER TEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE

HTML, or Hyper Text Markup Language is designed to specify the logical organrzation of a
document, with important hypenext extensions. It is not designid.to be the lrlg.r^g" of , WySnX.yC
word processor such as \7ord or rVordPerfect. This choice was made b..*r. the same HTML
document may be viewed by many different "browsers", of very different abilities. Thus, for example,
HTML allows you to mark selections of text as titles or paragraphs, and then leaves the interpretation
'Web
of these marked elements up to the browser. For example one browser may indent the beginning of a
paragraph, while another m y only leave a blank line.
HTML instructions divide the text of a document into blocks called elements. These can be divided
into two broad categories - those that define how the BODY of the document is to be displayed by
the browser, and those that define information 'about' the document, such as the title or relationships
to other documents. The vocabulary of these elements and a description of the overall design of
HTML documents are given in the rest of Section 2. The Last part of the section also describes
standard naming schemes for HTML documents and related files.
The detailed rules for HTML (the names of the tags/elements, how they can be used) are defined using
another language known as the standard generalized markup language, or SGML. SGML is wickedly
difficult, and was designed for massive document collections, such as repair manuals for F-16 fighters,
or maintenance plans for nuclear submarines. Fortunately, HTML is much simpler!
However, SGML has useful features that HTML lacks. For this reason, markup language and software
experts have developed a new language, called XML (the eXtensible markup language) which has most
of the most useful features of HTML and SGML.
How do you get a'$7eb page into a \7eb browser? All you have to do is to enter a HTML code into a
file, and then open that file in your \feb browser. To create that file, you can use common editors like
\findows \TordPad or Notepad if you save the page in text format. You can even use a word
'Word, but note that you cannot
processor like Microsoft save normal Veb pages in .doc format
(which includes many speciai formatting characters that \7eb browsers won't understand) - they must
be saved in text format from the Save As dialog box.
The name you give the \(eb page does not matter as long as you give it the extension .html to indicate
that it is an HTML document.
In fact, there are many tools called HTML editors to help you with the process * many of which will
even write the HTML for you.
2.4.1 HTML Editors

There are a number of HTML editors available for creating'$7eb pages.
. Adobe PageMill (hhtp://adobe.com)- An editor that helps automate the whole process of site design
and implementation.
. Allaire\ HomeSite (wwru.allaire.com)- A simple, but powerful editor.
. Amaya (raww.u3.org/Amaya/) - A \7YSI\7YG (what you see is what you get) HTML editor from
'W3
Corporation.
o American Cybernetics MultiEdit (utw.rw.amq,ber.com) - An HTML editor that works well for
Programmers.
. BBEdit (<uruw.barebones.com)- An easy-to-use Macintosh HTML editor.
. Claris Home Page (zazuu.clarilcom)- An editor with mostly \[YSN[YG for beginners with some
additional tools.
o ExpertTelligence's W'ebber (utzotu.uebbase.com)- An editor that includes good support for checking
your HTML.
o Hot Dog Express (wurp.sdusage.com) - An easy-ro-use ediror for beginners.

. Hot Dog Pro (wwwsausage.com) - A more powerful version of the Hot Dog Express editor
including many advanced features, such as site management.
. HoTMetaL Pro (wzaut.sofiquad.com) - An extensive, powerful and venerated HTML editor.

. MicroEdge\ Visual SlickEdir (uruw.slickedit.com) - An editor that works well for programmers. It
lets you work faster than many graphic-based editors.
. Microsofi FrontPage (utruw.microsoft.com) - An editor contained in a powerful package that
integrates directly with your \Web site.
. Netscape Composer (zaraw.netscape.com)- An editor that comes with the Netscape Communicator,
more or less \X/YSNflYG. It is easy ro use.
2.4.2 HTML Tags

Tags are instructions that are embedded directly into the text of the document. An HTML tag is a
signal to a browser that it should do something other than just throw texr up on rhe ,.r".r. By
convention all HTML tags begin with an open angle (<) and end with a close angle bracker (>).
HTML tags can be of two rypes:
Paired Tags
A tag is said to be paired tag if it along with a companion tag, flanks rhe texr. For example, the ( B )
tag is a paired tag with its companion tag </B> causes the rext contained between them to be
rendered in bold. The effect of other paired tag is applied only ro rhe rext they conrain.
Singular Tags
The second type of tag is the singular or stand-alone tag. They don't have a companion tag. For
example, < BR > tag will insert a line break. This tag does not require any companion tag.
2.4.3 The Structure of an HTML Program

HTML documents are structured into two parts, the HEAD, and the BODY. Both of rhese are
contained within the HTML element - this element simply denores this as an HTML documenr.
The head contains information about the document that is not generally displayed with the documenr,
such as its TITLE. The BODY contains the body of the text, and is where you place the document
material to be displayed. Elements allowed inside the HEAD, such as TITLE, are nor allowed inside
the BODY, and vice versa.
Ex amp le of D o cume n t S truct u re

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TfTLE> Environmental Change project </TITLE>
<,/HEAD>
<BODY>
<h1> Environmental Change project </h1_>
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. \feb Browsers 31
'S7'elcome
to the home page of the Environmental Change Project.
This project is different from other projects with similar names. In our .rr" *. actually wisb rc change
the climate. For example, we would like hot beaches in Northern Quebec, and deserts near Chicago.
<p>So how will we do this. Well we do the following
<u1>
<1i><A HREF="burn.htmI ">Burn</A>more forests.
<1i>Destroy the
<A HREF="http : / /who. zoo.do/ ozone.html ">
Ozone< / A> layer.
<li>Birth more r
<A HREF= " ftp : foo.do.do/cows. Sif '>cows</a>

</uL>
< /BODY>
< /HTML>
Document Head
Information placed in this section is essential to the inner workings of the document and has nothing
to do with the content of the document. Vith the exception of information contained within the
<TITLE> </TITLE) tags,allinformationplacedwithinthe (\IEAD> </HEAD> tagsisnot
displayed in the browser. The HTML tags used to indicate the start and end of the head section are:
<HEAD>
<TITLE> </TITLE>
< /HEAD>
Docurnent Bodjt
The tags used to indicate the start and end of the main body of textual information are:
<BODY>
< /BODY>
Page defaults like background color, text color, font size, font weight and so on can be specified as
attributes of the < BODY ) tag. The attributes that the ( BODY ) tag takes are:
BGCOLOR Changes the default background color to whatever color is specified with
this tag. The user can specify a color by name or its equivalent hexadecimal
number.
BACKGROUND Specifies the name of the Gif file that will be used as the background of the
document. This Gif tiles up across the page to give a background.
TEXT Changes the body text color from its default value to the color specified
with this attribute.
2,4.4 Titles and Footers

Title
A web page could have a title that describes what the page is about without being too wordy. This can
be achieved by using the TITLE tag. Text included b.i*!.r, the ( TITLE > ... </TITLE) tagshows
up in the title bar of the browser window.
Footer
Just as a title can be placed in the title bar of the browser window, cerrain information is commonly
placed at the foot of the web page. Copyright informarion, conract details of the crearor
of the wet
Page, etc' are the type of information traditionally placed at the foot of the web page. The HTML rags
arei
<ADDRESS > ... </ADDRESS >

This tag should ideally be placed immediately after the last line of the rexrual material of the web
page.
Frowever, it could also be placed anywhere in the body of the document. The text typed
within ihJse
tags always appears in italics.
2.5 FORMATTING THE TEXT HTML

2.5.7 Paragraph Breaks
A blank line always seParates paragraphs in textual material. The tag that provides this functionality is
<P>. On encountering l'ris tag, the browser moves onro a ne* lirre, skipping one line bet*eerih.
previous line and the new line.
2.5.2 Line Breaks

\rhen text needs to start from a new line and not conrinue on the same line (without skipping a blank
line), the < BR > tag should be used. This tag simply jumps to the start of the next line.
2.5.3 Emphasizing Material in a \[eb page

Document Pages are usually divided into sections and subsecrions (i.e., pages could have headings
and
sub headings), which need to be emphasized. HTML provides'..rr"irigpADING STyLES and
HORIZONTAL RULES, which helps break text into logical secions wirh visual appeal.
2.5.4 Heading Styles

HTML suPPorts six different levels of headings. The highest-level header for mar is <Hi)
and the
lowest level is < H6 >. All the styles appear in BOLDpaCg and the size of the heading depends on
the level chosen.
Section Headings
HTML allows for six levels of headings, marked by the element names Hl, H2... H6. There is no
forced hierarchy in these headings, but for consistency you should use the iop lerrel (H1) for main
headings, and lower levels for progressively less imponant ones. In general ^hyperrext documenrs
M.S. University - D.D,C.E. ![eb Browsers 33
should be broken up so that each page does not occupy much more than a single screen. In these cases
you can use the Hl heading to mark the main document heading, and the others to mark subheadings.
Heading Alignrnent: The ALIGN Attribute
HTML 3 proposed an ALIGN attribute to the heading element, which allows an author to "hint" at
the desired alignment of the heading on the display. The possible values are ALIGN:"left" (the
default) to left-align the heading, ALIGN="center" to center the heading, and ALIGN:"right" to
right-align the heading. Several browsers understand left and center alignment, while very few
understand right-alignment.
Some examples are shown below.
Examples ofHeadings
The following examples show the HTML coding for the six heading types, along with the results (note
that the results will vary from viewer to viewer)
(H1 align="left" ) Heading type Hl </HL>
Heading type Hl
<H2 align:"center" ) Heading typeH2 </H2>
Heading typeH2
( H3 align= "right" ) Heading type H3 < /H3>
Heading type H3
<H4> Headingtype H4 </H4>
Heading type H4
<H5 > Heading type H5 < /H5>
Heading type FI5
<H6> Heading type H6 </H6>
Heading type H5
2.5.5 Drawing Lines

The tag < HR > draws lines and horizontal rules. This tag draws a horizontal line across the whole
page, wherever specified. The attributes to the ( HR > t^g are:
Attributes Descriptions
ALIGN Aligns the line on the Browser screen, which is by default, aligned to the center of the screen.
ALIGN : LEFT will align the line to the left of the screen
ALIGN : RIGHT will align rhe line to the right of the screen
ALIGN = CENTER will align the line to the center of the screen
SIZE Changes the size of the rule
\(/IDTH Sets the width of the de. It can be set to affixed number of pixels, or to the percentage of the
available screen width.
,
2.5.6 Text Styles

Bold
Displays text in BOLDFACE style. The tags used are < B > ... < /B>
Example: (B) \ilelcome ro HTML Programming </B>
'Welcome
Output: to HTML Programming
Italics
Displays text in ITALICS. The tags used are between <I> ... </I>
Example: (I) \Telcome to HTML Programming </I>
'Welcome
Unfurline
Displays text as UNDERLINED. The tags used are <U> ... </IJ>
Example: <U> \(elcome to HTML Programming 1/TJ>
'Welcome
2.5.7 Other Text Effects

Centering (Text, Images, etc.)
images, rules, tables ) or any other page element,
Exatnple: < CENTER) \Welcome to HTML Programming </CENTER>

Output: \Welcome to HTML Programming
2.5.8 Spacing (Indenting Text)

The tags used for inserting blank spaces in an HTML documenr is < SPACER ) . its attributes are:
TYPE To specify whether space has to be left horizontally or vertically.
TYPE : "HOzuZONTAL" indicates that horizontal space has to be left.
TYPE : "VERTICAL" indicates that venical space has to be left.
SIZE Indicates the amount of space to be ieft. Size accepts any integer.
Example:
'Welcome (BR>
to HTML Programming
<SPACER TYPE : "HORIZONTAL" SIZE : 90) Hope you enjoy it
Output:
lVelcome to HTML Programming
Hope you enjoy it
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Veb Browsers 35
2.5.9 Controlling Font Size and Colour

All text specified within the tags < FONT )
and < /FONT > will appear in the fonr, size and color
as specified as attributes of the tag < FONT > . The arrribures are:
FACE Sets the font to the specified font name

SIZE Sets the size of the text.
SIZE can take values between I and7. The default size used is 3.
SIZE can also be set relative to the default size, i.e., SIZE - +x, where x is any
integer value and will add up to the default size. For example, SIZE - + 3 will display
a size of 6.
COLOR Sets the color of the text. COLOR can be ser to an English language color name or ro
a hexadecimal triplet.
Example:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> TRYING AT WRITING HTML <,/TITLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR=LIGHTGREEN TEXT=RED>
THIS IS .JUST A TRIAL TO CHECK OUT ALL THE HTML TAGS.
YOU CAN CREATE YOUR OWN EXA},IPLES TO TRY OUT FOR YOURSELF.<BR>
<P>
THE HEADING SECT]ON

<H1>FIRST HEADTNG < /TI,L>
<H2>SECOND }IEADING </H2>

<H3>THIRD HEADING </H3>
<H4>FOURTH HEADTNG </H4>
<Hs>FIFTH HEADING </H5>
<H6>SIXTH HEADING < /H6>.
<P>THE PARAGRAPH TAG: ON ENCOI]NTERTNG THIS TAG THE BROWSER MOVES TO A NEW
LINE SKIPPING ONE LINE.<BR>
<BR> THE LINE BREAK TAG SIMPLY JT'MPS TO THE START OF THE NEXT LfNE<BR>
<B> THIS TAG IS USED TO MAKE THE TEXT BOLD </B><BR>
<I> THTS TAG IS USED TO MAKE THE TEXT ITALTCS </I><BR>
<U> THTS TAG DISPLAYS TEXT AS UNDERLINED </U><BR>
<CENTER> THIS TAG fS USED TO CENTER TEXT, LISTS, IMAGES, RULES, TABLES AND
ANY OTHER PAGE ELEMENTS
< TCENTER>
<;r>
TRYING AT INDENTING TEXT <BR>
<SPACER TYPE="HORIZONTAL" SIZE =90> THIS IS USED TO INSERT BLANK SPACES

rN AN HTML DOCUMENT
<P>
DRAW]NG HORIZONTAL LINE

<HR ALIGN=CENTER SIZE=80 WIDTH=IO>
< / BoDY>
<HTML>
2.6 URL
Uniform (or Universal) Resource Locator: Though TCP/P serves its role very well, it won'r be easy
remembering the TCP/iP address of every website. To simplify this, we have an English equivalent of
each web site's address. This English address is also unique and yet, it is easy to remember. This is
known as the URL. h includes the protocol, the web server's address and the domain name, such as -
hup: / / www.raj bhavanmp.ind.in
2.6.1Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

In order to the web browsers are used which are assisted by the URL that uses the
access any website,
hmp scheme. is the URL or the port number that assists the browser to link with a \Web site. The
It
server indicates a computer connected to the Internet while the porr number indicates atype of socket
to which the browser plugs in to link with the 'W'eb server. The web server not only provides the
requisite web pages but also describes a computer program that runs on a computer ro provide web
pages. \7hen a browser receives an URL will attempt to connect with the server compurer having the
required web pages by connecting to the specified pon number. The URL can be provided ro the
browser either by typing it at its specified location or by clickinB on the link available on some already
displayed web page or document.
It is the role of the browser to connect with the server where the requisite requests from client or user
'$7hen
is stored or available. the web server receives the request from browser it replies back ro the
browser, which is client in this case. The information basically conrains the HTTP protocol version,
name of the server, the media type of the document and date etc. The media type of the document is
quite important information because the browser is required to know what kind of document rhis is
before it can process it. HTML is the most common media type transferred over the \7eb. Other
media types are GIF image and JPEG image. Several times when a response like "HTTP 404 Not
Found" is displayed which means that the request document is not available ar rhe link. There are
different responses defined in HTTP. Briefly, in order to access a web page, HTTP involves browser
that issues a request followed by a few headers. In response, the server replies back with a few headers
and a document.
The web server basically maps the URLs to files on its hard disks. The web server interprets the path
tn arry URL to map it with a filename on its hard disk. In order to make it work ro map with the
requisite file, the web server is configured to contain a "document root" directory relative to which all
URLs are resolved as filenames. Let us take an example, suppose the URL is hup://myspace.
tutorial.in, and the document root is D:\W\7\flFiles\. \ilhen a user rypes the URL http://myspace.
tutortal.in/ lessonl/networking.htm into browser, the browser requests the server for the document
lVeb Browsers 37
/lesson1/networking.htm. The web server begins searching in the directory D:W\flVFiles\lessonl

for a file called networking.htm. If the requisite file is available it responds with a header followed by
the document. If it is not available, it responds a 404 Not Found followed by a helpful error message
telling the user to search elsewhere.
2.6.2 Absolute and Relative URLs (net)

An URL contains more information than a relative URL does. Relative URLs are more
absolute
convenient because they are shorter and often more portable. However, you can use them only to
reference links on the same server as the page that contains them.
2.7 IJTM.L LINKS

'S7orld
Links that are the mosr fundamental part of the \X/ide \7eb provides the facility to navigate
from one web page to another web page. Links can be classified in three categories. These are links to
anchors on the current page, links to other pages within the current site and links to pages outside the
current site. Links could be provided for both texts and images.
HTML allows linking to other HTML documents as well'as images. Clicking on a section of text or an
image in one web page will open an entire web page or an image. The text or an image that provides
such linkages is called Hypertext, Hyperlinh, or Hotspot.
Links available with HTML are hyperlinks that enables user to link to another document on the \7eb.
To facilitate hyperlinks there are the anchor tag (a) and 1/a) and the Href attribute, which are
used by HTML. An anchor can be used to point to any resource on the'Web such as an HTML page,
an image, a sound file, a movie, etc. The syntax for creating an anchor is: ( a href : "url" > Text to be
displayed 1/a). For example - ( a href : "http: / /www.hotmail.com" ) 1/a)
The href attribute is used to address the document to link to and the words between the open and
close of the anchor tag will be displayed as a hyperlink. Target attribute is used to define where the
'When using
linked document will be opened. The name attribute is used to create a named anchor.
named anchors, links can be created that can jump directly into a specific section on a page, instead of
letting the user scroll around to find the needed document. Below is the syntax of a named anchor: ( a
name: "label" ) Text to be displayed< /a> .
Defining colorsfor the HTML links - \7ith the use of a few settings, colors for all links could be defined
on rhe \flebPages. The general color of text links which is blue before the click is given in the
<body> tag as: <body link:"#C0COCO" vlink:"#800080" alink-"#FF0000'). vlink, indicates
that the link has been visited by the user and standard color is purple. alink specifies active link which
means the color of the link when the mouse is on it. Its standard color is red.
In order to define more links to have different colors than the rest of the page, we can either place the
font tags between the (a href > and the 1/a) tag: (a href:"httpt//www.hotmail.com"> (font
color="FFOOCC')here</font)1/a) or using a style setting in the (a) tag: (a
href : "httpt/ /www.hotmail.com" sryle: "color: rgb(o,zss,O)" ) here 1/a) .
Defining link targets - It is evident that a link is usually open in the current window or frame by
default. However, in some cases it is required to be opened in another window or frame. It is
accomplished by adding a rarget:"" to the <a href>. For example: (a href:"http://www.
hotmail.com" rarget: "_blank" > . The *blank loads the page into a new browser window.
Other targets are jarent; and that load the web page inro the currenr window, the frame
that is suPerior to-self; -top
the frame the hyperlink is in and cancels all frames, and loads in full browser
window respectively
Defining link within a page - It is required to create a link pointing to the anchor. As it has already
been mentioned that an anchor is created using the <, > trg. For example, if an anchor is created for
TOYS in an online shopping mall, this word Toys is simply added *h.ie it is anchored. The HTML
cod is: (a name-'TOYS') 1/a) and then a link pointing ro the anchor using rhe normal <a
href > tag,like this: (a href:'#TOYS')here 1/a).
Yh-." is required to create a link to anchors on exrernal \TebPages, rhe syntax is: <a
: _it
href "htrp;/ /www.hotmail.com#HotmailAnchor" > blabla 1/a)
D"rt"kg linksfor aframeset - A link in a frameset may provide link to a web page rhar is loaded in the
other frame window. Take an example website having tutorials in a frames., LU.a Contents where
different links such as Lesson 1, Lesson 2, and Lesson 3 erc are created.'The HTML code to go at
Lesson3willbelike: (ahref:"Lesson2.htm"target-"Lesson2")Lesson 21/a) of thetutoriai.
Defining image link - A technique called image mapping is used to link one image ro several pages by
simply specifying which of the areas of the image should link ro where. In other iords it .*plririr thrt
an user can go to different websites by simply clicking at different porrions of an image. For example,
<img src="rainbow.g'if ,, usemap = #example border=0>
<map name=exampfe>
<area shape=circle coords=0, 0,29,29 Href="http : / /www.hotmail.com">
<area shape=circle coords=30,30,59,59 Href=,,http;//www.goog1e.co.in,,>
</maP>
In the example above, if mouse is clicked at the upper left corner it links to hotmail website and if it is
clicked at the lower righr corner, it links to Google *ebsite.
For other shapes we can use:
<area shape=rect coords= x1 ,y1 ,x2,y2 Href="ht.tp://www.domain.com"> for Rect,angles
<area shape=circle coords= xl ,y1 ,x2,y2 Href="ht.tp: //www.domain.com,'> for Circl_es
<area shape=polygon coords= xi_,y1,x2,y2, ,xn,yn Href="http: / /www.
domain.com"> for polygons
Defining link to the neu windop - in order to open a page in a new window use the rarget : "_blank" in
<a href ) tag.It simply opens a new browser window that will load the linked page. Fol example
Ih:
linking to the hotmail, the link will be like this: (a href:"hup://www.hotmail.com,,)Go ro
Hotmail l/a).
Defining links to send an ernail - In order to send email, links are created almost in a similar manner as
it is done to link other pages: (a href) tag. The HTML code for the email link is: 4a
href : "mailto:emailaddress" ) Email Me 1/a) .
If a special subject is needed to be added in the email, it can be done using subjecr: serring: <a
href : "mailto:email@lessonnnn.org?subjecr:HTML Tags" ) Send Email 1/a) .
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Veb Browsers 39
An email link for specific text in the body of the message can be accomplished by simply adding
6cbody:: (a href:"mailto:email@lessonnnn.org?body:Please send me a list of HTML Text
Tags!" )Send Email I/a)
All the above options can be combined in a single emaii. It will look like: 4a
href:"mailto:email@lessonnnn.org?subject:HTML Tags8cbody:Please send me a list of HTML
Text Tags!" )Email Mel/a)
The browser distinguished Hyperlinks from normal text. Every Hyperlink,
o Appears blue in color
.l The default color setting in a browser for Hyperlink text or image
* The color can be set dynamically via an HTML program, if required.
. The hyperlink textlimage is underlined
. When the mouse cursor is placed over it, the standard arrow shaped mouse cursor changes to the
shape of a hand.
The blue color, which appears by default, can be over-ridden. To change these link colors, there are
three attributes that can be specified with the < BODY > tag. These are:
LINK Changes the defauit color of a hyperlink to whatever coior is specified with this tag.
The cursor can specify the coior name or an equivalent hexadecimal number'
ALINK Changes the default color of a hyperlink that is activated to whatever color is
specified with this tag. The user can specify the color name or an equivalent
hexadecimal number.
VLINK Changes the default color of a hyperlink that is already visited to whatever color is
specified with this tag. The user can specify the color name or an equivalent
hexadecimal number.
Links are created in a web page by using the < A > < / A> tags. Anything written between the
<A> </A> tags becomes a hyperlink/hotspot. By clicking on the hyperlink navigation to a
different web page or image takes place.
The document to be navigated to needs to be specified. By using the HREH attribute of the (A) tag
the next navigable web page or image can be specified.
Syntax
<A HREF = "filename.htm">
Hyperlinks can be of two types:
. Links to an external document
. Links (umps)to a specific place within the same document
2.7.1Linking to other html documents

Example
< A HREF : "details.htm" ) Visit my Home Page < / A,>

Here Visit rny Home Page becomes a hyperlink, and links to anorher document, detaik.htm, which is
Present in the current working directory. If the file is not present in the current directory, a relative or
absolute path can be specified.
2.7.2Linking inside the same documents

Sometimes, a jump is required ro a different location in the same documenr.
Syntax
<A NAME = "locarion_name")
<AHREF - "#location_name") </A>
Internal links behave identical to external links with one exceprion - you can use relative URLs for
internal links. A relative URL simply drops the common parr from the URL and lets the browsers
automatically figure out the part that is missing. For example, instead of specifying < A HREF
=
'-http:/ /www.myserver.com/history.hrm" > MyPage < / A> just specify it.
from the currenr page's URL:
irrr that's different
<AHREF - "history.htm"> MyPage </A>

Tag: (BASE> ... </BASE>
Tag Name: Relative Addressing base
references in < LINK > or anchor srarements in the document body.

Attributes:
o HREF: "IJRL'
States the absolute or relative URL for the currenr documenr.
o TARGET = "window"
There are four pre'defined names that can be targeted by an anchor. They all starr with an underscore
0.
<A HREF : "document.hrm" Target - "_blank,'> My document </A>
Clicking on My documenr would cause a new browser window to appear, containing the
document.htm file.
For example:
<AHREF : "document.htm', Target : ,,jarent") Mydocument </A>
Clicking on My document would cause the document.htm file ro appear in the parenr frameset.
<AHREF = "documenr.htm" Target - '_top > Mydocument </A>
Clicking on My document would cancel all of the frames and replace the entire frameser with the
document.htm file.
Tag Name: Link

'Web
The link element indicates relationships between your documents and other documents or URLS.
Attributes:
. HREF = "IJRL"
The address of the current link destination, accessible through normal web linkage mechanisms.
. MEDIA = SCREEN IPRINT IPROJECTION IBRAILLE ISPEECH IALL
Identifies the ideal environment for the web page to be conveyed in. The default is ALL.
o REL = "text"
It indicates a normal relationship to the document specified in the URL.
e.g.: <LINK REL = 'INDEX'HREF : "index.htm" )

This tag would let browsers know where they can find the main index for your \0[eb site.
a REV = "text"
It indicates a reverse relationship. The referenced document has the indicated relationship to the
current document.
e.g.: < LINK REV : "Index" HREF : "history.htm" )
This tag would let browsers know that there is a two-way relationship between history.htm and
index.htm - that index. htm is the index of history.htm, and simultaneously, history.htm is
indexed by index.htm.
a Target = "window"
Specifies loading the link into the targeted window.
a Type = "text"
Specifies the Internet media type of linked resource. For example, the type for CSSI sheets is
,TEXT/CSS'.
2.8 LINKING TO OTHER INTERNET SERVICES

2.8.1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The File Transfer protocol is among the oldest protocols still used in the Internet. FTP is widely
available on almost all-browsers indicating that all computing platforms, including DOS, OS/2,
UNIX, and up to the mainframe level have this service available. You can very well understand from
its name that it facilitates the majority of file transfers across the Internet. In other word, FTP is a file
server access protocol that enables a user to transfer files between two hosts across the network or
Internet using TCP. You may see the versatility of this application layer protocol, it accomplishes its
job even intended hosts at separate locations could potentially be running different operating systems,
using different file storage systems, and using different character sets. Accessing FTP sites over the
Internet requires that the user must have the knowledge of the location and the name of the desired
files.
42 lnternet and its Applications M.S. University - D.D.C.E.
Unlike Telnet, FTP does not require any familiarity with rhe remore operaring sysrem. The user is
still required, however, to be familiar with the FTP command set built inlo the protocol itself so rhar
he or she can productively manage the session.
Modern FTP servers known as ftpd support two differenr TCP connections, namely conrrol and data
connections. First control connection is invoked for the enrire duration of transier of file or FTp
session. It facilitates the exchange of commands issued by the client, and replies originating from
server' Data connection is established as and when it is required. Its main function ii to facilitate
transfer of files and directory listings to and from the clienr at the client's requesr.
'Whenever
you wish to do FTP, you need to invoke a few commands. These commands basically are
related to transfer a file from remote computer to your computer or from your computer to the
remote comPuter. There are anonymous as well as authorized privileges with regard to iransfer of a
file from a server. In case of anonymous FTP servers, you cardo fip withouiauthorization you
need to login with a username, which is anonymous, and a password that is your e-mail address. Apart
from this, there are authorized servers for which yor, ,r""J to register befoie yot are permitted to do
FTP. After registration, you will get a password.
Tiuial Fih Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
TFTP, like FTP, is also an Internet service intended for the rransfer of files between from one
comPuter to another over a network. It does not provide password protection or user directory
capability' Unlike FTP, however, TFTP does not rely on TCP for trrriport services. Instead, TFTi,
uses UDP to shuttle the requested file to the TFTP client. Furthermore, diskless devices that keep
software in ROM to use it to boot themselves can use it. It is simpler than the File Transfer Protocol
Ffp) but less capable. FTFTP facilitates to quickly send files ".ros rhe nerwork with fewer security
features than FTP.
2.8.2 Gopher Service

Gopher is client/server-oriented software that uses a simple set of rules to hunt for and retrieve files
from Gopher servers on the Internet. The Gopher service was developed by the University of
Minnesota in l99l to conquer some limitations of the FTP service. Gopher has an easier-ro-use
interface and also allows administrators to create links to other compurers or services, ro gloss files and
directories, and to create custom menus.
Gopher is not just an Internet tool. Many organizarions use Gopher on their local area nerwork ro
help people within the organization find the information they need quickly and efficiently.
The user of the Gopher client can download files, switch direcrories, or link to other Gopher servers
by using a sequence of menus. The Gopher server generates menus, links, and annotations by using a
series of tag files.
Gopher Presents information in a hierarchical structure. Relying on which client software is used and
what choices are obtainable on the Gopher server) the user .rn opt how to vision information-for
instance, as a text file, as a Microsoft 'Word for \Windows documenr, or in a particular language.
A Gop_her client presents the individual user with directory lists. If the user chooses a subdirectory
from the displayed list, the listing for that subdirectory is displayed. If the user selecrs a file, it is
downloaded. Each directory and file can be on a different Gopher server.
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E \tr7eb Browsers 43
You can also organize a Gopher server to search local lUfide Area Information Server (WAIS)
databases.
Gopher uses TCP as its transport protocol for all communication and data exchanges between the
client and the server. Internet Information Server communicates with \Tindows Sockets, then
'Windows
Sockets interacts with TCP.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol (that is, the communications session is established between the
client and the server before data is transmitted). However, unlike FTP, Gopher does not maintain the
connection between requests; this is also called as a stateless connection.
Gop her S entiee C onfiguration
Administrators use Internet Service Manager to configure the following Internet Information Server
Gopher Service components:
. Gopher tlser Access
Manages user access to Gopher Service
. Gopher IP Access
Manages computer access to Gopher Service
. Gopher Connection Parameters
Manages connections to the Gopher Service
. Gopher Resource Location
Manages location and view of Gopher Service resources
. Gopher Logging
Manages Gopher Service logs
Gopher Service user access mentions which \ilindows NT Server logon account the Internet
Information Server uses. Most Internet sites use anonymous Gopher logons.
Gopher Service IP access controls which computers can use the Gopher Service. It uses rhe customer
computers IP address to control access.
Gopher Service connection parameters control connection time-out periods, maximum number of
Gopher Seivice connections, and anonymous logons to rhe Gopher Service.
A Gopher Service URL resource location is an a.k.a. for an absolute path name on a \Tindows NT
Server.
An example of a Gopher URL is
gopher: / / www.infomax.com/ gopher /
Gopher Service information is logged to a database, file, or not at all. A new log file is produced at
specified intervals.
The assigned protocol port number for Internet Information Server Gopher service is 70.
heck Your
1. Define URL.
2. \flhat are html tags?
2.9 LET US SUM UP

Files travel across the Internet and carry information from the Server ro rhe Client in the form of web
pages. Computers called Servers store web pages in the form of directories and files and provide these
files to be read. To access web pages users connect to a'S7eb Server and computers called \7eb Clients
provide the facility to read the information stored in web pages. \7eb Clients run special software called
Browser, which helps connect web clients to appropriate web Server that takes place in four steps
namely establishing connection, requesting from the client and reply from the server and finally the last
step in which the server terminates connection. Hyper Text Markup Language FITML) along with
standard generalized markup language (SGML) and XML are used to specify the logical organization of a
document with imponant hypertext extensions. HTML editors like Adobe PageMill and Amaya help to
write these languages or even write them. HTML tags are instructions embedded directly into the text of
the document and are of two types, paired tags and singular tags. HTML documents are srrucrured into
head and body parts. Head contains information about the document such as its TITLE and the body
contains the body of the text and where the document material is displayed. Veb pages could have a title
and a footer which is done with the TITLE tag and <ADDRESS>..</ADDRESS) tag. For text
formatting paragraph breaks and line breaks are provided with the tags ( P ) and < BR > respecrively.
For emphasizing material in a web page horizontal styles and horizontal rules help break text into logical
sections with visual appeal. Various text styles like Bold, Italics and Underline, Cenrering can be done
with tags along with controlling font size and colour.
HTML links allow linking of HTML documents and to images. Hypertext, Hyperlink or Hotspor are
the text or image providing the linkages. Hyperlinks are distinguished from normal rexr by rhe
browser. Hyperlinks can be of two types. Links maybe to an external documenr or ro a specific place
within the same document. Images can also act as hyperlinks. Clicking on any part of the image will
lead to opening of the document specified in the link attribute. Image maps provide links to multiple
documents. Linked regions of an image map are called hot region. A two-step process in which the
image is first divided into various areas and secondly the image map is applied to particular images
creates image map.
2.10 KEY\T/ORDS
Wcb Pages: Files, which carry information across the Internet.
HTMI; Hyper Text Markup Language, which are designed to specify the logical organization of a
document along with imponant hypertext exrensions.
HTMLEditors: Tools, which help to write HTML.
HTMLTags:They are instructions embedded directly into the text of a documenr.
Struciure: Parts of the HTML document.
Illtperlinks: Image that provides linkages of one HTML documenr ro anorher.
M.S. University 'Web
- D.D.C.E. Browsers 45
Hypertext: Text that provides linkages of one HTML document ro anorher.

HTML Link:}{TML links allow linking of HTML documenrs and ro images
2.11 QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSTON

'Sflrite
l. about the lVeb browsers.
'$[hat
2. is Hyper Text Markup language? \fhat are rhe various HTML Tags?
'Write
3. a HTML code having some meaningful text, using the italics, center, paragraph, breah, and
font tags.
4. Explain how to get a web page into a web browser.
5. 'What is HTTP?
6. Differentiate between paired and singular tags.

7. Create a simple HTML file named Trial.htm with a title'\Telcome to HTML Programming'.
8. Experiment with different attributes of the <BODY> tag such as BGCOLOR by changing the
color of the page and the text color and also by using a Gif file as background by using the
BACKGROUND attribute.
9. Use the paragraph breaks and line breaks for text formatting and see the difference with and
without these formatting.
10. Experiment with drawing lines and aligning them at different positions on rhe browser with
different sizes and widths.
n. Create a HTML code in which hyperlinks are there and experiment with the various attributes
for changing the link colors.
12. Create a HTML code, which has images acting as links to another image and so on.
13. Create two files named linkfrom.htm and linkto.htm and link these two files together, by putting
the two files in the same current directory.
14. Create a document with two links to an external documenr. The first link should lead to the
beginning of the external document. The second link should lead to a parricular secrion in the
external document.
1.5. Differentiate between HTTP and FTP? Give some advantages of both protocols.

1. Though TCP/IP serves its role very well, it won't be easy remembering the TCP/P
address of every website. To simplify this, we have an English equivalent of each web
site's address. This English address is also unique and yet, it is easy ro remember. This is
known as the URL.
2. Tags are instructions that'are embedded directly into the text of the documenr. An
HTML tag is a signal to a browser that it should do something orher than just rhrow text
up on the screen. By convention all HTML tags begin with an open angle (<) and end
with a close angle bracket (>).
46 Internet and its Applications M.S, University - D.D.C.E.

Adolfo Rodriguez, John Gatrell, John Karas, and Roland Peschke, TCPfiP Tutorinl and Technical Oaertsiew (7th
Edition), Prentice Hall.
Martin V. Murhammer and Eamon Murpb, TCP/IP Tutorial & Tecbnical Oaervieto,Prentice Hall.
Erik T R:ay, LearningXML,SecondEdition O'Reilly Media.
Michael Morrison, I{TML and XMLfor Beginners,Microsoft Press.
Lisa Lopuck, \Veb Design for Dummies, Bk&CD-Rom edition.
Danny Goodman, Dynamic I{TML: Tlte Definitiae Reference (2nd Edition), O'Reilly Media; 2nd edition.
Ed Tittel, Stephen J. James, HTMLfor Dummies @aperback), For Dummies; 3rd edition.
UNITII
LESSON
3
HTML LISTS
CONTENTS
3.0 Aims and Obiectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Lists
3.3 Regular Lists
3.3.1 Netscape Extensions to List Elements
3.3.2 Unordered List @ullets)

3.3.3 Ordered Lists ${umbering)
3.3.4 List Examples
3.4 Definition Lists
3.5 Directory Lists
3.6 Menu List
3.7 Combining List Types
3.8 Let us Sum up
3.9 Ke)"words
3.IL SuggestedReadings
3.0 AIMS AND OBJECTM,S

. Define lists
. Discuss Types of lists such as unordered list, ordered list, etc.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
HTML provided several elements for making lists. This lesson will provide an introduction to the
types of lists namely the regular list under which comes the ordered and unordered list and the
definition list or the glossary list. In this lesson we will show displaying text in lists through various
iist tvpes.
3.2 LISTS
HTML suPPorts several elements for making lists. They can be divided inro rwo types: glossary lists,
and regular lists. Glossary Lists are denoted by the element < DL > , while regular iirrr ,r". denoied by
the elements (UL>, <OL>, <MENU) and <DIR). Lists can be nestld. Thus you.rr, hrrr.
regular list within a regular list, a regular list within a glossary list, and so on. "
3.3 REGULAR LISTS

A regular list is a sequence of paragraphs, each of which may be preceded by a special mark, sequence
number, or nothing at all. The syntax is:
<UL>
<LI> listelement </Ll>
< LI > another list element ... < /Ll>
</UL>
where the opening element defining the list rype can be one of
o uL'A list of multi-line paragraphs, listed separately and usually marked by a bullet or similar
symbol (Unordereil List)
o O-t . A list of multiline paragraphs, listed separately and ordered numerically in some way
(Ordered List)
o MENU: An Unordered List of smaller paragraphs, this is similar to UL but is formatted (if
possible) in a more compact manner. Nore; MENIJ was dropped from the language as of HTML
4.0 - you should use UL instead.
' DrR'A list of short elements, typically less than 20 characters in length. These may be arranged in
columns across the page, as opposed to one above the other. This is bro*r., dependent. iVoa OtR
was dropped from the language as of HTML 4.0 - you should use uL instead.
Here_are four examples, showing the rendering for the four differenr types. The text we will format is
as follows:
Hi. The following is an example list.
<UL>
< LI > list element. The quick brown fox jumped over the
lazy dog. The quick brown fox jumped over rhe lazy dog.
The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.
< LI> another list element ...
< /UL>
M.S. Uoiversity - D.D.C.E HTML Lists 51
3.3.1 Netscape Extensions to List Elements

Netscape introduced several "extension" attributes for list elemenrs, all of which were subsequently
integrated into standard HTML. Essentially all browsers now supporr these attributes.
OL Element - START and TYPE Attributes

These attributes control the numbering of ordered lists.
. START - specifies the starting number for a numbered list. Thus START:"4" means that the list
will start with the number 4.
o TYPE : "A", "a", "I", "i" or "1" - specifies hoat the items are numbered. "A" or "a" indicate lefter
ordering (upper or lower case), while "I" or "i" indicate roman numerals (upper or lower case). "1"
is the default, and indicates numerical ordering.
UL Elcment - WPE Anribute

The Netscape browser supports a TYPE attribute to rhe UL element for specifying rhe type of. bullet
tobe used with the list items. Possible values are "disc" (filled disc), "circle" (open circle) and "square"
(open square).
LI Ehment - TYPE and VALUE Anributes

The Netscape browser supports TYPE and VALUE attributes for the LI element. VALUE is valid
only inside an OL list, and specifies the item number for the given list item. All subsequent irems are
ordered from this number. The TYPE attribute specifies the type of numbering ('A", etc.) or bulleting
("circle", etc.) depending on whether the LI is inside an OL or UL list.
3.3.2 Unordered List (Bullets)

An unordered list starts with the tag < UL > and ends with < /UL ) . Each list item starrs with the
tag ( LI > . The attributes that can be specified with ( LI ) are:
TYPE Specifies the type of the bullet.

TYPE : FILLROLIND will give a solid round black bullet
TYPE = SQUARE will give a solid square black bullet.
3.3.3 Ordered Lists (Numbering)

An ordered list starts with the tag (OL) and ends with </OL>. Each list items start with the tag
< LI > . The attributes that can be specified with < LI ) are:
TYPE Controls the numbering scheme to be used.

TYPE : "1" will give counting numbers (1,2, ....)
TYPE - "A" will give Uppercase letters (A, B, C, ....)
TYPE :."a" will give Lowercase letters (a, b, c, ...,)
TYPE = "I" will give Uppercase Roman Numerals (I, II, m, ...)
TYPE : "i" will give Lowercase Roman Numerals (i, ii, iii, ....)
START Alters the numbering sequence. Can be set to any numeric value.
VALUE Changes the numbering sequence in the middle of an ordered list. It is to be specified
withthe <LI> tag.
3.3.4 List Examples

Here are some examples.
( ol start:4 type: "i" )
<li>First item
< li > Second item
( li value:2 > Third item; value:2
< li type: "A" > Second iteml type: "A"
</ol>
which is rendered as:
(i) Firstitem
(ii) Second item
(iii) Third itemi value=2
(iv) Second item; tJrye="A"
3.4 DEFINITION LISTS

Definition list values appear within tags ( DL ) and < /DL> . Definition lists consists of two parts.
Definition term Appears after the tag < DT >
Definition description Appears after rhe tag < DD >
DL Element: Glossaty Lists

This list type, also known as a definition list, is used ro presenr a list of items along with descriptive
paragraphs. This can be used for glossaries, but is also useful for presenting a named list of items and
their meanings. The items within the list are introduced by the rwo elements:
<DT> - The 'Term' (a single line)
< DD > - The 'Definition' (^ y be multiple lines)
DL can take a single attribute, COMPACT, to signify that the list is small (or large) and should be
rendered in a physically compact way. This attribute is ignored by several browsers.
Example of DL Lists
Here is an example from the Paragraphs section of this manual (with a small addition ro show a nested
regular list:)
<d1>
<dt> Things to Avoid: </dt>
<dd> You shoul-d NOT use elements Ehat define paragraph
formatting within the PRE element. This means you should
not use <code> <P>, &1t;ADDRESS>, <Hn>
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. HTML Lists 53
</code>and so
on. You should avoid the use of t.ab characters - use single
blank characters to space text apart. </dd>
<dt> Things That are OK: <,/dt>
<dd>You <em> can </em> use Anchor. A tlped
carriage return will cause a new line in the presenEed text.
People you should never let format lists include:
<u1>
<1i> Bozo Ehe Clown </li>
<1i> Uncle Fester </Li>
<1i> Knights who say nii </li>
< /uI>
which would be downrigrhE si11y in the first place. </dd>

</dl>
Example
<DL>
<DT> Keyboard
<DD> An input device
<DT> Printer
<DD> An output device
</DL>
Output
Keyboard
An input device
Printer
An output device
In addition ro rhe above types of lists, HTML also allows two other types of lists that are not very
commonly used:
. Directory lists
. Menu lists
3.5 DIRECTORY LISTS

Tag: (DIR> ... </DIR>
Tag Name: Directory List
This block-level element marks unbulleted list of short elements, such as filenames.
e.g.: <DfR>
<LI>. It.em 1
<LI> Item 2
<LI> Item 3
<,/Df R>
3.6 MENU LIST

Tag: <MENU> ... </MENU>
Tag Name: Menu List
It encloses a menu list in which each element is typically a word or shon phrase that fits
on a single line.
This list is rendered more compactly than mosr other list types.
Attributes: COMPACT
u Renders the list as compacdy as possible by reducing line leading and spacing.
e.g.: < MENU >
<LI> Sourdough
<LI> Butter milk
<LI> Rolls
</MENU>
3.7 COMBINING LIST TYPES

'We can also use a new list within
itself or even one type of list inside anorher type of list. Each time
you use a list within another list, you are nesting lists. Perhaps the best .*r-pl. to, ,.rt.d lists
is an
outline like those formed for a term paper.
I. Introduction
II. Part 1
A. Description
B. Examples
1. Reference One
2. Reference Two
lII. Part 2
IV..Summary
Can you visualize what the HTML code would appear like for the preceding outline? The finest solution
would be to use a sequence of nested ordered lists as shown in the follo-inglllusrrarion and
code.
<o1 type="1,>
<1 i>Introduction< / 1i>
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. HTML Lists 55
<1i>Part, I
<oI tlpe="A">
< l- i>Description< / 1 i>
<1i>Examples
<o1 type= " 1- " >
<1i>Ref erence One< / 1i>
<Ii->Reference Two< / l-i>
</ oL>
</li>
</ol>
</Li>
<Ii>Part 2</l-i>
<1 i>Summary< / Li>
</ol>
As we discussed before, you can also shell one type of list within anorher type. For insrance, you
could comprise a bulleted list inside a definition list to provide additional clarification to a definition
description. Look at the following illustration and code to observe what I mean.
<dl->
<dt><b>Morning< /b>< /dt>
<dd>Corinna wakes up around 7:00.</dd>
<dd>Change her diaper and dress her.</dd>
<dd>Feed her breakfast. Some of her favorites are:
<u1>
< I i >Waf f 1es<,/ 1i >
<l-i>Oatmeal< / 1i>
<1i>Cereal< / 1i>
<1i>Fruit < / Li>
</uf>
</dd>
</dL>
heck Your P
1. Define regular list.
2. r$(hat is glossary listl
3.8 LET US SUM UP

The various types of list are unordered list and ordered lism. Unordered list starts with the tag <UL>
and ends with </UL> and ordered list starrs with the tag (oL)
and ends with ( /OL>.
( )
Definition list starts with the tag DL and ends with < /DL> and consists of two parts, definition
term and definition description.
3.9 KEY\UTIORDS
Unordcred Lrsr..Regular list provided for making list of items.
Ordcred Le'sr.'Regular list provided for making list of 8 items and provides control of the numbering
scheme to be used.
Definition Lrr; List used to present a list of items along with descriptive paragraphs.
Directory List:It marks unbulleted list of short elemenrs, such as filenames.
Menu List:It encloses a menu list in which each element is typically a word or short phrase that fits on
a single line.
3.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSTON

l. \flrite about the various types of lists.
2. \(hat is Netscape Extension to List Elements?
3. Create a HMTL code to show an ordered list of 8 items using the <OL> </OL) tag and
experiment with the various types of numbering schemes that can be used with the attribute
TYPE of (LI> tag.
4. Create a HTML code which will show the given below list on the web page:
G) Apple
(b) Mango
(.) Orange
'
(d) Grapes ,
5. Differentiate between ordered and unordered list.
6. Create a HTML code to show an unordered list of 8 items using the rwo rypes of bullet
(fillground and square)
7. Change the numbering sequence so that apple starts with C instead of A.
8. 'S7hat
are the parts of the definition list and the tags used for them?
9. \flhat are definition list used for?
'Write
10. a HTML code which will give a list of 5 terms with their definition description using the
< DL > < /DL) tag.
11. Give an example of combining list types.

1. A regular list is a sequence of paragraphs, each of which may be preceded by a special
mark, sequence number, or nothing at all.
2. Glossary also known as a definition list, is used to present a list of items along wirh
descriptive paragraphs. This can be used for glossaries, but is also useful for presenting a
named list of items and their meanings.
HTML Lists 57
M.S. University - D.D.C.E'

Steven Holzner, HTML Black Book: The Programmer's Complete HTML Refermce BooA, Paraglyph Press.
Natanya Pitts-Moultis, Dynamic HTML Black Book: The Vkb Profesional's Guide to Using and Interacting uitb
Dynamic HTML, Coriolis Group Books; Bk&CD-Rom edition.
Lisa Lopuck ,lYeb Design for Dummies: For Dummie-s; Bk&CD-Rom edition'
LESSON
GRAPHICS AND \TEB PAGES

CONTENTS
4.1, Introduction
4.2 Image Format and Browsers
- 4.2.1 Using the Border Attribute
4.2.2 Using the \7idth and Height Attribute
4.2.3 Using the Align Attribute
4.2.4 Using the ALT Attribute
4.3 Adding Graphics to the HTML Documents
4.4 Images as Hyperlinks
4.4.1 Image Maps

4.5 Let us Sum up
4.6 Keywords
4.8 Suggested Readings

o Discuss image format and browsers
o Understand graphics and HTML documents
. Discuss image and hyperlink anchors
o Understand image maps
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This lesson will introduce to how you can add graphics
ro HTML documenrs. one can add static as
y:l:]'uil::::1fl.::l:':-I._y witLlearn the usJof Border ,ii.;;;."
attrib,,,., *ii.r, to specify the
learn"*.^r_dl1.ll.:
::::: ,"y.are placing on rhe html docum.r,,r. Alorg with
other attributes like the r$7idth and. Height attribute, Al[n attribute
a;rJ*'";;i;;#;;,;
the
with which ;.; ;";
manipulate your pictures according to the rh.p. -you wanr as "as
w"ll using the Aii- att.ibute enables
you to place some rexr in case a particular browser is unable to display
yo,ri i-rg*
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Graphics and Sfleb Pages 59
4.2 IMAGE FORMAT AND BRO\TSERS

To display an image on a page, you need to use the SRC attribute. SRC stands for "source". The value
of the src attribute is the URL of the image you want to display on your page.
The syntax of defining an image i.e. Here's the format for placing an image:
<img src="ur!">
The URL points to the location where the image is stored..
SRC give the URL of the image document - this attribute must be present. The naming scheme is the
same as for hypertext links: thus relative URLs such as SRC="foo.gif'or SRC="../foo.gif" are
commonly used. At present you can only inline GIF images and X-bitmaps (standard extensions are
.gif, .xbm, .xpm), although many (but not all) browsers also support inline JPEG (standard extensions
.jpeg or .jpg) images as well.
ALT : "alternative text"
Some browsers cannot display images, while users connecting via phone lines often turn off image
loading. The ALT attribute lets you specify a text alternative to the image, for use in these
circumstances. You should aluays include an ALT alternative, particularly if the image is a button
linked to some other resource. If the image is unimportant, you can always put ALT': ".
ALIGN: "bottom", "middle", "top"
ALIGN tells the browser how to align the image with the neighbouring text. "Bottom" aligns the
bottom of the image with the baseline of the text, and is the default. "Middle" aligns the middle of
the image with the baseline of teyt, and "top" aligns the top of the image w-ith the top of the tallest
item in the line. This attribute is optional. "left", "right" (HTML 3.2) HTML 3.2 supports left and
right-aligned images. In this case, the image "floats" to the left or right margin, with the text
following the image element flowing around the image. This attribute value is supported by all
current browsers. "absmiddle", "absbottom", "texttop", "baseline" (HTML 3.2) Netscape introduced
these extra attributes, which work like "top", "middle" and "bottom" but which give additional
vertical control of image placement, when the image flows with the text. These are illustrated in the
example document.
HEIGHT="n", WIDTH-"n" (HTML 3.2)
HEIGHT and WDTH specify the display height and width (in pixels) for the image - if the picture
does not fit, the browser should rescale the image to fit in the specified box. An example is
HEIGHT:'30''!ilIDTH:"50" This is supported by most current browsers. Some also support
percent values (a percentage of page size, or sometimes a percentage of available size inside a table cell)
- but you had better test percentage values, to make sure things work as expected.
4.2.1 Using the Border Attribute
Example 1:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Working with Images </TITLE>

</HEAD>
<BODY NACKGROUND = ..images/texturel .gif ,,>
<B> Controlling fmage Borders ! </B>
<CENTER>
<I> fmage without a Border</f> <BR><BR>

<IMG SRC = '.images /corp.gif,><BR><BR>
<I> rmage wit.h BoRDER = 3</I><BR><BR>
<IMG BORDER = 3 SRC = ,,images/corp.gif ,,><BR>
</CENTER>
< /BODY>
< /HTML>
4.2.2Using the Vidth and Heighr Attribure

Example 2:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Working with Images <,/TITLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BACKGROUND = ..imagfes/texturel .gif ,,>
<B>Controlling Images Sizes </B>

<CENTER>
<I> Normal Image Size <,/I><BR><BR>

<IMG SRC=,, J.mages / computer. gi f ,, ><BR>
<r>fmage With Size (Height and Width) Set To 200</I>
<BR><BR>
<IMG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=200 SRC=,,images/computer.GIF,,><BR>
< /CENTER>
</BODY>
</HTML>
4.2.3 Using the Align Attribute

Example 1:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Working with images </TfTLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BACKGROUND = ..images/texturel .gif ,,>
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Graphics and Veb Pages 61
<B><I> Image Aligned LefL</I></B>

<rMG SRc = "imagtes/scton1y2.sif" ALrGN=1eft.><BR><BR>
<B><I> Image Aligned Right</I><B>
<IMG SRC=" images/scron1y2 . gif" ALIGN=right><BR><BR>
< /BODY>
< /HTML>
4.2.4Using the ALT Attribute

Examplc 4:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> V,Iorking with Images </TITLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BACKGROUND= " images / texturel .gi f " >
of ALT aEtribute</B><BR>
<B> Use
<CENTER><f> Available Tmage : rTavacup .gif< / I><BR><BR>
<IMG SRC=" images/ javacup . gif ' ><BR><BR>
<I>Unavailable Image: .Tavac . gif - Without t.he ALT Attribute
< / I><BR><BR>
<fMG SRC=,, gif ,,><BR><BR>
images/ j avac.
<r>Unavailable Image: Javac.gif - With the ALT AEtribute set to
"rJava"< / I><BR><BR>
<rMG SRC="images/javac.gif " ALT="The rTava Cup"><BR>
< /CENTER>
< /BODY>
</HTML>
4.3 ADDING GRAPHICS TO THE HTML DOCUMENTS

Other than text, HTML allows placing of static and/or animated images in an HTML page. HTML
accepts two picture file formats .gif and .jpg. Using tools such as Gif Constructor or Adobe
PhotoShop, images can be created to suit the requirements of a web page and saved in these file
formats.
Once an image is ready and stored in the above-mentioned formats, it into a web page
can be inserted
using the tag <IMG>, which takes the name of the image file (filename.gif, filename.jpg or
fi.lename.jpeg) as an attribute. In addition, HTML also allows control of the height, width, border, etc.
of every image placed on the web page. The < IMG > tag takes the following attributes.
ALIGN Controls alignment of the text following the image

ALIGN : TOP indicates the text after the image to be written ar rhe top, next to the image.
ALIGN : MIDDLE indicates the text after the image to be written at the middle, next ro rhe
image
ALIGN : BOTTOM indicates the text after the image to be written at rhe borrom, nexr ro rhe
image
CONTROLS ALIGNMENT OF THE IMAGE WTTH RESPECT TO THE SCREEN
ALIGN : LEFT indicates the image is aligned to the left with respect to the screen
ALIGN : CENTER indicates the image is aligned to the center with respect to the screen
ALIGN : RIGHT indicates the image is aligned to the right with respect ro rhe screen.
BORDER Specifies the size of the border to place around the image
\TIDTH Specifies the width of rhe image in pixels
HEIGHT Specifies the height of the image in pixels
HSPACE Indicates the amount of space to the left and right of the image
VSPACE Indicates the amount of space to the top and bottom of the image
ALT Indicates the text to be displayed in case the Browser is unable to display the image specified in
the SRC attribute
Example
<fMG wfDTH = 441 HETGHT = 57 BORDER - 0 HSPACE - 0 sRC
=*rMAGE1.crF"
ALIGN=CENTER>
The attributes taken by the < IMG... ) are explained in the following examples:
4.4 IMAGES AS HYPERLINKS

Just as text can act as a hyperlink, so also images can acr as hyperlinks.
Example
<A HREF = .,details.htm,,><IMG SRC = *micky.gif,,> </A>
4.4.1Image Maps
\7hen a hyperlink is created on an image, clicking on any parr of the image will lead ro opening of the
docurrlent specified in the < A HREF ... > tag. If the image is a large i-rge and there is a needlo [nk
multiple documents to_ the same image, there has to be a techniqr" th.t divides the image into multiple
sections and allows linking of each secrion to a differenr document.
The technique that is implemented to achieve this is an Image Map.Image maps can be created and
applied to an image so specific portions of the image can be [nled to a different filelimage.
Linked regions of an image map are called hot region and each hot region is associated with a
filename.btm document that will be loaded into the browser (navigated to) when the hot region is
clicked.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Graphics and \X/eb Pages 63
Creating an image map is rwo-srep process:

Step One
Create an image map, i.e., divide the image into various areas. This is done using the <MAP)
< /MAP > tags. The < MAP > tag takes an attribute, NAME, via which the map ...r1. referenced in
an HTML file.
Syntax
<MAP NAME - "-rp name" )

\(rithin the (MAP> </MAP> tags the <AREA) tag is specified. This tag defines the specific
region within the image. The < AREA ) tag takes certain attributes.
The attributes are:
SHAPE The shape of a region can be one of the following:
Rect, circle, polygon, default
COORDS Each of the above shapes takes differenr coordinate parameters.
A rectangle will take four coordinat es: xl, yl, x2, y2
A circle will take three coordinares: cenrerx, cerrrery, and radius
A polygon will take three or more pairs of coordinates denoting a polygon region.
A default shape will not take any parameter and it indicates the portion of the image not specified under
any Area tag.
HREF Takes the name of the .htm file that is linked to the particul ar are ot the image.
Step Two
Deals with applying the image map to a particular image. For this purpose, the < IMG > rag takes an
attribute called USEMAP that takes the name of the image map as a value, and applies the map
specification to the respective image. The value is always preceded with the # sign.
Syntax
<IMG USEMAP : "'t#ma?_ndFne">

ISMAP
Most browsers also support the ISMAP attribute. This attribure marks the image as an active image
map.Th\ allows the user to click the mouse over the image and have different"regions of the imaie
cause different actions.
BORDER:"n" (FITML 3.2)

If ISMAP is used, then the image is a hypertext link, and will be surrounded by a border to indicate
this. BORDER specifies the width of this border. In particular, BORDER:6 specifies no border,
which is rather cute.
HSPACE:"n", VSPACE:"n" (HTML 3.2)
These attributes specify the horizontal and vertical space, in pixels, ro leave between the image and the
surrounding elements.
LO\7SRC :'URL' (lt{etscape only)
Specifies a low-resolution image file. A netscape browser will first load the smaller, low-resolution file
specified by Lo\7SRC and will then load the larger SRC-specified image file.
USEMAP:'url'(I{TML 4)
Specifies a URL pointing to a client side imagemap

- that is, a MAP element. For example, if the map
element starts with <MAP NAME:"foo"), then the map would be referenced as <IMG
USEMAP:"#foo"... ). smaller, low-resolution file specified by LO\7SRC and will then load the
larger SRC-specified image file.
Example:
As example, the following image is used as a client-side image map uitb alt text on all the areas. As one
moves the mouse over areas of the map, the tool top shows the alt tem for the area
heck Your
1. Define SRC attribute.
2. Define image maps.
4.5 LET US SUM UP

One can add static as well as animated images along with text in an HTML page. Images in the file
format .jpg and .gif are inserted into web pages using the tag < IMG ) . For manipulating the layout of
the image, the tag < IMG ) provides various attributes. The BORDER attribute specifies the size of
the border to place around the image. The \7idth and height attribute specifies the width and height of
the image respectively in pixels. The ALT attribute indicates the text to be displayed when the
browser used by the users is unable to display the required image.
4.6 KEY\T/ORDS
Graphics: Static or animated images.
Align Anribute: Controls alignment of text following the image.

BordrrAaribute: Size of the border around the image.
Width: \fidth of the image in pixels.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Graphics and Web Pages 65
Height: Height of the image in pixels.

Alt: Gives alternate text to be displayed in case the image to be displayed is not available to the viewer.
4.7 QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSTON

1. Design a web page using the image files 'House.gif, 'Javacup.gif', and 'Computer.gif' according to
the following specifications:
(a) Use a Border for'House.gif'
(b) Resize the \flidth and Height of 'Javacup.gif' and 'Computer.gif' to 200 pixel each.
(c) Align the text with respect to the images.

2. What are SRC attributes? Explain with example.
3. \7hat type of picture file formats does HTML accept?
4. Name some tools, other than the one given in the book, with which images can be created for
adding to web pages.
5. Discuss the steps for creating image maps.

L. To display an image on a page, you need to use the SRC attribute. SRC stands for
"source". The value of the src attribute is the URL of the image you want to display on
your Page.
The syntax of defining an image i.e. Here's the format for placing an image:
<i*g src:"url" )
'When
2. a hyperlink is created on an image, clicking on any part of. the image will lead to
opening of the document specified in the <A HREF ... ) tag. If the image is a large image
and there is a need to link multiple documents to the same image, there has to be a
technique that divides the image into multiple sections and allows linking of each section to
a different document. The technique that is implemented to achieve this is an Image Map.

Bud E. Smith, Peter Frazier, and Bud Smith, Creating lVeb Graphics for Dummiu, For Dummies; Bk&CD-Rom
edition.
Lisa Lopuck, Wbb Design for Dummies,For Dummies; Bk&CD-Rom edition.
LESSON
5
HTML TABLES AND FRAMES
CONTENTS
5.0 Aims and Ob.iectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Tables
5.3 Aligning Table Elements

5.4 Using the \(TIDTH and BORDER Attribute
5.5 Using the CELLPADDING Attribute
5.6 Using the CELLSPACING Attribute
5.7 Using the BGCOLOR Attribute
5.8 Using the COLSPAN and ROVSPAN Attributes
5.9 Netscape Table Enhancements
5.10 The <FRAME) Tag
5.11 The <FRAMESET> Tag
5.t2 Targeting Named Frames
5.13 Using Nested Frameset
5.14 Let us Sum up
5.1.5 Keywords
5.t7 SuggestedReadings
s.o ArMS AND OBJECTTVES

. Discuss HTML tables
. Understand aligning table elements
o Discuss row and column spanning
-
M-S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. HTML Tables and Frames 67
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A table is a two dimensional maffix, consisting of rows and columns. Tables are intended for displaying
data in columns on a web page. All table related tags are included between the < TABLE > < /TABLE >
tags. Each row of a table is described between the (TR) </TR> tags. Each column of a table is
described between the <TD > </TD > tags. HTML tables are discussed in this lesson in detail.
The HTML tags that divide a browser screen into two or more HTML recognizable unique regions is
the ( FRAMESET > < /FRAMESET > tags. Each unique region is called a frame. Each frame can be
loaded with a different document and hence, allow multiple HTML documents to be seen concurrently.
The HTML frame is a powerful feature that enables a web page to be broken into different unique
sections that, although related, operated independently of each other. \Ve will discuss frames in this
lesson in detail.
5.2 TABLES
Table rows can be of two types:
. Header rows (A row) thdt spans across columns of a table)
A table header row is defined using ( TH > < /T}{) tags. The content of a table header row is
automatically centered and appears in boldface.
. Data rows (Indioidual data celk placed in tbe borizontal plane creates a data row)
There could be a single centered data cell (i.e., a single column table) or multiple data cells (i.e., a multi
column table).
Data cells hold data that must be displayed in the table. A data row is defined using ( TR > < /TR >
tags. Text matter displayed in a data row is left justified by default. Any special formatting like
boldface or italics is done by including appropriate formatting tags inside the ( TR > < /TR ) tags.
An image can also be displayed in a data cell.
The attributes that can be included in the < TABLE ) tag are
ALIGN Horizontal alignment is controlled by the ALIGN attribute. It can be set to LEFT, CENTER, or
zuGHT.
VALIGN Controls the vertical alignment of cell contents. It accepts the values TOP, MIDDLE, or BOTTOM.
'$rIDTH Sets the IfiDTH to a specific number of pixels or to a percentage of the available screen width. If
width is not specified, the data cell is adjusted based on the cell data value.
BORDER Controls the border to be placed around the table. The border thickness is specified in pixels.
CELLPADDING This attributes controls the distance between the data in a cell and the boundaries of the cell.
CELLSPACING Controls the spacing between adjacent cells.
COLSPAN The COLSPAN attribute inside a < TH > or < TD > tag instructs the browser to make the cell
defined by the tag to take up more than one column. The COLSPAN attribute can be set equal to
the number of columns the cell is to occupy. This attribute is useful when one row of the table needs
to be a cenain number of columns wide.
RO\7SPAN The RO\(SPAN attribute works in the same way as the COLSPAN attribute except that it allows a
cell to take up more than one row. The attribute can be set by giving a numeric value. For example,
RO\flSPAN - 3
5.3 ALIGNING TABLE ELEMENTS

Often tables need to be given a heading, which gives the reader a conrexr for the information in the
tables. Table Headings are called Captions. Captions can be provided to a table by using the
< CAPTION > < /CAPTION > tags. This paired tag appears within the ( TABLE > < /TABLE >
tags. The table caption can be made to appear above or below the table strucrure with the help of the
attribute ALIGN.
ALIGN I It controls placing of the caption v,ith respect to the table.
ALIGN = BOTTOM x'il1 place the caption immediately below the table.
ALIGN : TOP will place the caption immediately above the table.
By passing a row's < TR >
tag the VALIGN and ALIGN attributes, verrical or rhe horizontal
alignment can be made identical for every cell in a given row.
By passing the ( TlH> and/or ( TD ) tags, VALIGN or ALIGN attribures, vertical or horizontal
alignments in both header and data cells can be done. Any alignment specified at the cell level
overrides any default alignments and any alignments specified in a ( TR > tag.
An opening table tag, < TABLE ), may have several attributes in the tag but some attribures are
optional or not needed, depending upon the type of table you are making. The value for each attribute
inside the tag is enclosed in quotation marks, only around the value and not around the attribute.
<TABLE attribute= "value" >.
The ALIGN attribute of the table element defines the horizontal alignment of the table element (in
relationship to the next outer "container", usually the body "container", but a table may be made
inside another table. Example: ALIGN:"center" would center a table inside the next outer container.
If the next outer container is the page BODY itself, then the table is centered horizontally within the
body of the page. I still use this attribute when editing code using Inrernet Explorer 7.0, even though
this attribute is said to have been deprecated in HTML 4.0. Test your code in more than one browser.
If the align attribute is not working the newer fix is to use rhe <DIV align:"center"> and the
< /DIV > tags before and after your table. I am also currenrly using the ALIGN attribute inside the
<TD ALIGN:"right") to align the cell contents to the right side of the cell. Values for ALIGN
may be left, right, or cenrer.
The ALIGN attribute has been used in HTML 3.2 specification and "Transitional HTML" before
HTML 4.0, but was officially deprecated in the HTML 4 specification to be supplanted by attributes
of style sheets, a planned topic in the DHTML section of this site.
Future browser versions may eventually drop supporr of the ALIGN attribute and supplant it with
afiributes of style sheets and positioning with style sheets.
Let me repeat before we go further that several attributes of the < TABLE ) element may be used at
the same time but many of these attributes are optional. 'When working with tables and page layout
you will want to set values for CELLPADDING and CELLSPACING for each of your tables. Here is
an example of several attributes coded for some fictitious table elemenr (nor for the table containing
the code):
<TABLE wrDTH="250 " BoRDER= "2 " BORDERCOLoR="blue' CELLpADDTNG="7 "
CELLSPACING="3 " VALIGN="top" ALIGN="right">
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. HTML Tables and Frames 69
Quotation marks were used for each value. Line breaks when you are writing HTML code in the text
editor are acceptable and white spaces between your lines or par^graphs are also acceptable and will
'Web
not show up in the complete \7eb page. (\flhite space in the HTML code of the document does
not get into the \7eb page.)
ALIGN values o{ left I center I rigbt have been defined by the HTML 3.2 specification. The default
value is "left". If you do not code the align attribute the browser will assume that the table is aligned to
theleft. If youcode (DIVALIGN:"center") beforeatableand </DiV> afteratableanddonot
code an align attribute, the table will still be centered.
Note:
The <CENTER> element has been deprecated by HTML 4.0 to be supplanted by coding <DiV
ALIGN: "center" ) and < /DIV >.
<TABLE ALIGN= "center " >
Text wrapping did not occur. You do not see text on either side of the table aligned in the center.
Advanced techniques of style can force the issue but advanced techniques are not covered in this
tutorial. The important thing to remember is that when a table is aligned in the center using only
HTML coding that the text will not appear on either side of the table.
ALIGN was not mentioned when this table was coded.
Align was not specified for this table. ALIGN:"left" is the default value so the browser aligned this
table to the far left, even avoiding any margin settings. The text did not wrap to the right of the table
because the attribute ALIGN was not coded. Do not assume that if you need a left aligned table and
left is the default, then you will not have to code the ALIGN: "left" to get text wrap. (See next table).
< TABLE ALIGN = "left" STYLE= "margin-right:15px;" >
\ilhen ALIGN: "left" is coded text will wrap to the right of the table.
5.4 USING THE \T/IDTH AND BORDER ATTRIBUTE

Example
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Table Attributes </TfTLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR=LIGHTGREY>
<B> Specifying the BORDER and WIDTH of Lhe Table<,/B>
<BR><BR><BR><BR>
<CENTER>
<TABLE BORDER=5 WIDTH=50%>

<CAPTION ALIGN=bot tom>
<B>PersonaI Inf ormat.ion< /B>
< /CAPTION>
70 Internet and its Applications M.S. University - D.D.C.E
<TR>
<TH>NAME</TH>
<TH>AGE</TH>
</TR>
<TR ALfGN=CENTER>
<TD Tapas</TD>
<TD>21</rD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN=CENTER>
<TD>pradeep< /TD>
<TD>25</TD>
</TR>
< /TABLE>
< /CENTER>
< /BODY>
< /HTML>
5.5 USING THE CELLPADDING ATTRIBUTE

Example:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Working with Table</TTTLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR=LIGHTGREY>
<B>Spec i fyingr CELLPADDING< / B><BR>
<HR>
<I> Without Cellpadding</I>

<CENTER>
<TABLE BORDER=1 WIDTH=258 ALfGN=CENTER>

<TR>
<TH>NAME</TH>
<TH>AGE</TH>
< /TR>
<TR ALIGN=CENTER>
<TD>Tapas<</TD>
<TD>2L</TD>
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. HTML Tables and Frames Zl
< /TR>
<TR ALIGN=CENTER>
<TD>Pradeep< /TD>
<TD>2 5< /TD>
< /TR>
< /TABLE>
</CENTER>
<HR>
<I> With Cellpadding of 10</a>

<CENTER>
<TABLE BORDER=1 WfDTH=25? CELLPADDING=1O ALIGN=CENTER>

<TR>
<TH>NAME</TH>
<TH>AGE</TH>
<,/TR>
<TR ALIGN=CENTER>
<TD>Tapas</TD>
<TD>21,< /TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN=CENTER>
<TD>Pradeep<,/TD>
<TD>25</TD>
< /TR>
</TABLE>
</CENTER>
</BODY>
< /HTML>
5.6 USING THE CELLSPACING ATTRIBUTE

The program can be written in the same manner as above. Instead of CELLPADDING use
CELLSPACING.
5.7 USING THE BGCOLOR ATTRIBUTE

The program can be written in the same manner as above. Introduce the following changes :.^
between.
72 lnterner and its Applications M.S. University - D.D.C.E.
<TABLE BORDER=1 WfDTH=508 ALIGN=CENTER>

<TR>
<TH Bgcolor=gray>NAME< /TH>

<TH Bgcolor-gray>AcE< /TH>
< /TR>
5.8 USING THE COLSPAN AND RO\$T/SPAN ATTRIBUTES

Example:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TfTLE>Working wit.h Table <,/TITLE>

< /HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR=LIGHTGRAY>
<B>Specifying ROWSpAN and COLSPAN Attributes</B>
<BR><BR><BR>
<CENTER>
<TABLE BORDER=1 WIDTH=S08 ALIGN=CENTER>

<TR>
<TH ROWSPAN=2>NAIvIE
<TH COLSPAN=3>MARKS
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>PowerBuilder
<TH>VisualBasic
<TH>Oracle
< /TR>
<TR ALIGN=CENTER>
<TD>Tapas
<TD>2 5
<TD>3 5
<TD>4 5
< /TR>
<TR AI,IGN=CENTER>
<TD>Pradeep
<TD>26
<TD>3 6
<TD>46
< /TR>
<CAPTION ALIGN=bot t om><B><BR> Mark SheeL </B> < /CAPTfON>

< /TABLE>
< /CENTER>
< / BODY>
< /HTML>
5.9 NETSCAPE TABLE ENHANCEMENTS

After being conrenred with standard HTML tagging, you may choose that you are required more
advanced techniques to express your information more efficiently and enhance the look of your web
site. Netscape offers two useful HTML extensions which can complete both of these goals: tables and
frames. Neither tables nor frames have become part of the "official" HTML standard language, but
their high utility value and extreme popularity among page designers will likely earn them a standard
specification in HTML 3.0 or later.
In the intervening time, use discretion when selecting either extension for your page. Netscape L.1 or
later will support tables, but frames are evident only on Netscape 2.0 or higher. Both are outstanding
features for streamlining the organization of your sites, but as with any other HTML enhancement,
knowing when and how often to use them is the key to victorious page design.
5.10 THE <FRAME> TAG

Once the browser screen is divided into rows (Horizontal Sections) and columns (Vertical Sections),
each unique section defined can be loaded with different HTML documents. This is achieved by using
the (FRAME> tag, which takes the following attributes:
SRC-"url" Indicates the URL o{ the document to be loaded into the frame
MARGINHEIGHT=''N" Specifies the amount of white space to be le{t at the top and bottom of the frame
MARGIN'INDTH-"N" Specifies the amount of white space to be left along the sides of the frame
NAME:"name Gives the frame a unique name so it can be targeted by other documents. The
name given must begin with an alphanumeric character
NORESIZE Disables the frames resizing capability
SCROLLING Controls the appearance of horizontal and venical scrollbars in a frame. This takes
the values YES / NO /AUTO.
74 lnternet and its Applications
5.11THE <FRAMESET> TAG

The splitting of a browser screen into frames is accompanied wirh the <FRAMESET< and
</FRAMESET tags embedded into the HTML documenr.'ih. <FRAMESET> </FRAMESET>
tags require one of the fullowing two attributes relying on whether rhe screen has to
be separated inro
rows or columns.
ROTUTS This attribute is used to divide the screen into multiple rows. It can be set equal to a list of values.
Depending on the required size of each row, the values can be:
A number of pixels
Expressed as a percentages of the screen resolution.
The symbol *, which indicates the remaining space.
COLS This attribute is used to divide the screen into multiple columns. It can be set equal to a list of lr.1*"
Depending on the required size of each column, the values can be:
A number of pixels
Expressed as a percentage of the screen resolution
The symbol *, which indicates the remaining apce.
5.12 TARGETING NAMED FRAMES

'Whenever
a hyperlink which loads a document in a frame is created, the file referenced in the
hyperlink will be opened and will replace the current document that is in the frame.
In a situation where the new document
needs to be opened in a different frame while keeping the
document from which the new document was navigated open in a different frame, a simple Htrr4r
coding technique musr be used.
Since the hyperlink must open in HTML file in another frame, the frame in which the HTML file is
to be opened needs to be named. This is done by using NAME attribute of the < FRAME >
</FRAME> rags. The NAME rakes one paramerer, vrhichls its frame name.
The hyperlink tag will have to be supplied with the following information:
. The filename.htm file that has to be opened (navigated to).
. The name of the frame where the filename.htm file has to be opened.
. The attribute, via which the frame name is specified is the TARGET attribure, which is a parr of
the ( A > ... < / A> rag. This information ii given as:
..Framename,,
TARGET =
o The attribute, via which the HTML file name is specified is the HREF attribute which is a pan of
the ( A > < / A> rag. This information is given as,
<A HREF : :index.htm" TARGET - "Main"> Visit us (/A)
Example:
Frame Identification:
<FRAMESET Cols=30t, 708>
<FRAME NAME = ..part,,>
<FRAME NAME = "Main">

</FRAMESET>
The above command will divide the browser screeninto two vertical frames, the first frame called Part
that will occupy 3Oo/o of the browser area and the second frame called Main will occupy 70/o of.rhe
browser area.
Hyperlink Specification:
<A HREF = "Index.htm" TARGET = "AMIN") Visit us </A>
Here an HTML file called Index.htm is loaded into the frame named Main when the hyperlink 'Visit
us'is clicked.
5.13 USING NESTED FRAMESET

To create both horizontal and vertical frames in a document, you can use nested < FRAMESET >
In one tag, you set up the rows, and in the other tag, you set up the columns.
tags.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Row and Column Frames </TITLE>

<,/HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS = "508, 50t">

<NOFRAMES>
Your browser does not support frames.

</NOFRAMES>
<FRAMESET ROWS = "258, 50t, 252">
<FRAME SRC="framel.htm">
<FRAME SRC=" frame2 . htm">
<.FRAME SRC=" frame3 . htm">
<,/FRAMESET>
<FRAMESET ROVTIS = "25*, 252, 508">

<FRAME SRC=" framel . htm">
<FRAME SRC=" frame2 .htm">
<FRAME SRC=" frame3 .htm">
</FRAMESET>
</FRAMESET>
<,/HTML>
1.. Define ALIGN atrribure.

2. Vhat is frameset tag?
5.14 LET US SUM UP

Tables in HTML are intended for displaying data in columns on a web page. HTML tables are
contained within a TABLE element. The TABLE element denotes the range of ,h. table and uses
attribute to define properties of it. Header rows and Data rows are the two iypes of table rows. The
table layout can be manipulated using attributes like Align,Valign,\(idt'h, Border cellpadding,
cellspacing, colspan and rowspan. Table Headings are called Captio"s, which are provided to , trbl""
by using the CAPTIoN element. CAPTIoN provides information for what is
iiren in the tables.
Using the Width and BORDER attribute, the width and the border of the table can be manipulated.
Using the Cellpadding attribute, the distance between the data in a cell and the boundaries ofthe cell
can be controlled. Using the Cellspacing attribute, the spacing berween the adjacent cells can be
cont'rolled. The Colspan and Rowspan attributes allow the cell io take up more rhan one column or
row respectively.
HTML tag FRAMESET divides a browser screen into two or more HTML recognizable unique
regions called frames. Frames allow multiple documents to be seen concurrenrly. tt. Frrmer"t
element provides two attributes depending on whether rhe screen has to be diviied inro rows or
columns. \7hen a new document is to be opened in a different frame while still keeping the document
from which the new document was navigated open, the NAME attribute is used to'nr-" the frame in
which the HTML file is to be opened. The attribute via which the frame name is specified is the
TARGET attribute.
5.15 KEY\T/ORDS
Table: A two dimensional matrix, used for displaying date in columns on a web page.
Header Row: Row, which spans across the columns of a table.
Data Rows: Individual data cells placed in ahortzontal plane.

Caption Tag: Used for providing table caption, which gives the reader a conrexr for the information in
the tables.
CellpadclingAnribute: It controls the distance between the date in a cell and the boundaries of the cell.
celkpacingAttnbute: It controls the spacing berween adjacent cells.
ColspanAttibute: It instructs the browser to make the cell to take up more than one column.
Rowspan: It instructs the browser to make the cell to take up more than one row.
Frames: Unique HTML recognizable regions into which the browser screen is divided.
Named Frames: The frame in which a new document is opened while still keeping the one from which
the new documenr was linked.
Target Attribute: Attribute via which the frame name is specified.
M.S. Universitv - D-D.C.E. HTML'Iables and Frames Z7
s.16 QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSTON

1.. Create a web page giving the following plane (flighQ details:
(r) Flight (plane) name
(b) Starting Place
G) Destination
(d) Arrival and Departure Time
G) Fare
Place a border for the table and use cell padding to present the cell data with clarity. Align the
table in the center of the screen. You should enter, at ieast, details of 5 flights.
2. \7hat are the types of table rows?
3. Create a simple table with 3 columns and 5 rows. Name each column heading as column 1,
column 2 and column 3 and enter some random numbers in each cell.
4. Create a simple table with 3 columns and 5 rows. The table should have a border of 6 with
cellpadding of 6 and cellspacing of 6 and width o{ 60o/o.
5. Create a specimen of a corporate web page. Divide the browser screen into two frames. The frame
on the left will be a menu consisting of hyperlinks. Clicking on any one of these links will lead to
a new page, which must open in the target frame, which is on the right hand side.
'What
6. are the advantages and disadvantages of using frames in designing web pages and the care
one should take while using frames in web pages?
'STrite
7. the HTML code for creating two vertical frames named frameone and frametwo and in
which frameone should occupy l/3rd of the browser and the rest by frametwo.
8. \7rite an HTML code for loading a file named load.htm into a frame named framename when
you click on a hyperlink named "click here".
9. Create a web page of a travel agency. You can divide the browser window into two frames, in
which one frame shows navigation buttons that allow the visitor to the site to move through a set
of related pages that are displayed in separate frame.

t. The table caption can be made to appear above or below the table structure with the help
of the attribute ALIGN.
ALIGN I It controls placing of the caption with respect to the table.

ALIGN : BOTTOM will place the caption immediately below the table.
ALIGN : TOP will place the caption immediately above the table.
2. The splitting of a browser screen into frames is accompanied with the ( FRAMESET >
and </FRAMESET tags embedded into the HTML document. The <FRAMESET>
< /FRAMESET > tags require one of the following two attributes depending on whether
the screen has to be divided into rows or columns.

Lisa Lopuck, Web Designfor Dummies (Paperback), For Dummies; Bk&cD-Rom edition
Danny Goodman, Dynamic HTML: Tlte Definitive Reference (2nd Edition), O'Reilly Media.
Ed Tittel, Stephen J. James, HTML for Dummies (Paperback), For Dummies; 3rd edition.
LESSON
6
HTML FORMS AND DYNAMIC DOCUMENTS
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Information Issues
6.3 Usability Issues
6.4 Creating Forms

6.4.t Setting the ( Form ) Environment
6.4.2 Understanding\Tidgets
6.4.3 Submit and Reset Buttons
6.5 The (Input) Tag
6.5.1 Text Fields
6.5.2 Text Fields
6.5.3 Radio Buttons
6.5.4 Checkboxes
6.5.5 Password Fields
6.6 Dynamic Documents
6.7 Background Graphics and Colour
6.8 Microsoft Interner Extensions
6.8.1 Adding a Background Sound
6.8.2 Creatinga'S(atermark
6.8.3 Controlling Your Margins
6.8.4 Adding Colour
6.8.5 Table Backgrounds and Borders
6.8.5 Font Tag Enhancements
6.8.7 ScrollingMarquees
6.9 Let us Sum up
6.10 Keywords
6.tt Questions for Discussion
6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

o Discuss html forms
o Understand < input tag )
o Discuss the concept of dynamic documents such as background graphics and colors, Microsoft
internet extensions, etc.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Forms are the only method of two-way communication between Veb pages and 'Web sites. Getting
feedback is where HTML forms come into play. HTML supports a rich variety of input capabilities to
let you solicit feedback.
Most new browsers - Netscape Navigator or Communicator 4.0 (and higher) and Microsoft Internet
Explorer (Silindows 95 version 3.0.3 and higher), plus NCSA Mosaic and its varianrs - already include
HTML 4.0level forms supporr, but other browsers do not.
The first step in developing a form is determining which information to include and how ro present ir,
that is, how to break it down into manageable pieces. You then need to ensure that visitors can easily
provide the information you want from them, which means that your form needs to be both
functional and visually appealing.
Also we will discuss the concept of dynamic documents in this lesson.
6.2 INFORMATION ISSUES

When deciding which information to include and how to break it down, consider your purposes for
creating the form. Begin by answering the following quesrions:
o lVhat information do I want? Cusromer conracr information?
. \(hy will visitors access the form? To order something online? To request information?
. \7hat information can visitors readily provide? Contact information) Previous purchases?
o How much time will visitors be willing to spend filling our the form?
After determining what information you want and what information your visitors can provide, break
the information into the smallest chunks possible.
6.3 USABILITY ISSUES

Usability refers to how easily your visitors can answer your quesrions. Some usability guidelines to
consider when you are creating forms are as follows:
Group S iruilar Categorie s
Vhen you group similar categories, the form appears less daunting, and visitors are more likely to fill
it out and submit it.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. HTML Forms and Dynrmic Documents 81
Make the Form Easg

. 'Whenever
possible, provide a list from which visitors can choose one or more irems. Lists are easy
to use, and they result in easy-ro-process information.
. Ask visitors to fill in only a small amount of text. This takes minimal time, and it provides you
with data that is fairly easy to process.
Many visitors are likely to ignore a request that requires them ro enrer lots of text.
Prcuifu Incentiues
Provide visitors with incentives to fill out the form and submit it. Studies show that a penny or a
stamp included in mailed surveys often significantly improves the response rate. Considei offering a
chance in a drawing for a free product, an e-mailed list of tips and tricks, or a discounr on services.
Design Issues
A well designed form, helps and encourages visitors to give you rhe information you wanr. A good
form is visually appealing, graphically helpful, and consistent with the remainde, oi th. site. HerI are
some guidelines:
o Use headings to announce each new group of information. This helps visitor's move easily
through the form.
a Be sureto visually separate groups. This makes the forms easier to use because sections become
shoner and easier to read through.
. IJse text emphases to draw rhe audience to important information.
. Specify how visitors are to move through the form. Do not make your visitors scroll horizontally
to access information. Consider making a narrow, longer form rather than a wider, shorter form
to accommodate those who have lower monitor resolution.
. IJse arrows to direct visitors through the page. This can help visitors move through the page in a
specified order.
o Be sure that it is clear which check boxes and fields go with the associated descriptive information.
Use line breaks and spacing to clearly differentiate.
o Specify which fields are optional.
. Use a background image. Be sure, that the image does not outweigh the content and that the text
adequately conrrasrs with the image.
. Make all the text entry fields the same width and put them on the left if you have a verrical column
of name and address information; this way all the text will align vertically and look much better.
6.4 CREATING FORMS

Forms have two basic parts:
o The part you can see (that a visitor fills out).
. The part you can not see (that specifies how the server should process the information).
. \7hen adding forms suppoft to a \7eb page, you must include special tags to solicit input from users.
You also include tags to gather input and ship it to your'$0eb server. Here is how this works:
. On a particular \7eb page, you include tags to set up a form and solicit input from users. This
essentially amounts to filling out the form that you supply.
. After users fill out your form, they can then direct their input to the program running on the \7eb
server that delivered the form.
. The in{ormation collected from a form can be:
\Written to
0 a file.
(ir) Submitted to a database, such as Informix or Oracle.
(iii) E-mailed to someone in particular.
6.4.1 Setting the (Form)Environment

The two key attributes within the (FORM> t^g are METHOD and ACTION. Together, these
attributes control how your browser sends information to the web server and which input-handling
program receives the form's contents.
ACTION : "..." Indicates the program on the HTTP server that will process the output from the
form.
METHOD :
"..." Tells the browser how to send the data to the server, with either the POST method
or the GET method.
e.g.: <FORM METHOD 'POST' ACTION "http://www.myserver.com/cgi-
binlmyperlone.egi"
The line points to the program itself.
6.4.2 U nderstanding Vidgets

. Forms consist of several types of widgets (they are also called controls), which are fields you can
use to collect data:
. Submit and Reset buffions send the form information to the server for processing and return the
form to its original settings.
. Text fields are areas for brief text input. Use these for several word responses, such as names,
search terms, or addresses.
o Select lists are lists from which visitors can choose one or more items. Use them to present a long
but finite list of choices.
. Checkboxes allow visitors to select none, one, or several items from a list. Use them to elicit
multiple answers.
o Radio buttons give visitors an opportunity to choose only one item.
. Textareas are areas for lengthy text input, as in open-ended comments.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. HTML Forms and Dynamic Documents 83
In general, radio buttons, checkboxes, and select lists are all better choices for accepting input than
textareas.
6.4.3 Submit and Reset Buttons

The first step in creating a form is to insert the ( FORM > tags and add Submit and Reset buttons.
Submit and Reset buttons allow visitors to submit information and clear selections.
Basic Form Tags
TaglAttribute IJse
<FORM> Marks a form within an HTML document.
<INPUT TYPE : 'SUBMIT'
Value : attribute produces text on the button.
<INPUTTYPE: "IMAGE' Provides a graphical submit button. The attribute
indicates the image source file, and the BORDER =
Name -'POINT' SRC - "...' attribute turns off the image border.
SRC-BORDER=O>
<INPUT TYPE - 'RESET' Provides a reset button for a form. The Vaiue -
attribute VALUE - "..." )produces text on the button.
6.5 THE <INPUT> TAG

Traditionally, the Submit and Reset buttons go at the bottom of the form immediately above the
closing < /FORM > tag. The following example creates a Submit and Reset button by using the
< INPUT ) tag, the TYPE : attribute, and the VALUE : attribute.
<HR WIDTH = 80* SIZE = 8 NOSHADE>
<FORM>
<INPUT TYPE = ,SUBMIT'. VALUE = '' SubmiL''>

<INPUT TYPE = 'RESET" VALUE = "Start Over">
< /FORM>
If you want to use an image for your submit bufton, substitute the following code for the submit
button.
<INPUT TYPE = 'IMAGE' NAME = *POINT' SRC = "Submitbutton.gif"
BORDER = 0>
The TYPE :
"IMAGE" attribute specifies that an image will be used to click on and submit the form.
The NAME :
"POINT" attribute specifies that the x, y coordinates where the mouse is located will
't
e returned to the server when rhe image is clicked. Finally, the SRC : and BORDER : attributes
u'ork just as they do with regular images - they specify the URL of the image and turn off the border.
6.5.1 Text Fields

A text field is a blank area within a form and is the place for visitor supplied information.
lnput Field Tag and Attibutes
TaelAttribute Use
<INPUT> Sets an area in a form for visitor input.

TYPE : "... Sets the type of input field. Possible values are TEXT,
PASSITORD, CHECKBOX, RADIO, FILE, HIDDEN,
IMAGE, SUBMIT, AND RESET.

NAME:'...' Processes form results.
VALUE -'... Use this attribute with radio buttons and checkboxes
because it does not accept any other input. You can also
use this attribute with text fields to provide initial input.

SIZE : "n" Sets the visible size for a field. Use this attribute with
text input fields.
MAXLENGTH: Sets the longest set of characters that can be submitted.
Traditionally, the Submit and Reset buttons go at the bottom of the form immediately above the
closing </FORM> tag.The following example creates a Submit and Reset button by using the
<INPUT> tag, the TYPE : attribute: and the VALUE : attribute.
<HR W]DTH = 80% SIZE = 8 NOSHADE>
<FORM>
<INPUT TYPE = "SUBMIT" VALUE = " Submit',>

<INPUT TYPE = "RESET" VALUE = "Start Over">
< / FORM>
If you want to use an image for your submit bufion, substitute the following code for the submit
button.
<INPUT TYPE : "IMAGE'NAME - "POINT" SRC : "Submitbutton.gif"
BORDER : O>
The TYPE : "IMAGE" attribute specifies that an image will be used to click on and submit the form.
The NAME : "POINT" attribute specifies that the x, y coordinates where the mouse is located will
be returned to the server when the image is clicked. Finally, the SRC : and BORDER : atrributes
work just as they do with regular images - they specify the URL of the image and rurn off the border.
6.5.2 Text Fields

A text field is a blank area v/ithin a form and is the place for visitor supplied information.
Input Field Tag and Anibutes
TaglAttribute Use
<INPUT> Sets an area in a form for visitor input.

TYPE:'... Sets the type of input field. Possible values are TEXT,
PASS'ITORD, CHECKBOX, RADIO, FILE, HIDDEN,
IMAGE, SUBMIT, AND RESET.
NAME = Processes form results.

VALUE: Use this attribute with radio butrons and checkboxes
because it does not accepr any other input. You can also
use this attribute with text fields to provide initial input.
SIZE: Sets the visible size for a field. Use this attribute with text
input fieids.
MAXLENGTH - Sets the longest set of characters that can be subuitted.
Consider the following html script.

<FORM>
<fNPUT TYPE = .TEXT'NAME = ,,firstname', SIZE = "30" MAXLENGTH = "30il>

< / FORM>
Cuidclinesfor Including Muhiple Text Fiek*

1. As a rule, forms are much more amractive if the fields are aligned.
2. Here are some guidelines to follow when you include multiple text fields in your form:
(, Place the fields at the left margin of your page, followed by the descriptive text.
(ir) Set the text fields ro rhe same size, when appropriate.
(iii) As you add descriptive labels, remember to also add line breaks (<BR) or (P>) in
appropriate places.
(iv) Optionally, add a VALUE : attribute to the text input rag ro "seed" the field with a value or
to provide an example of the conrent you wanr.
6.5.3 Radio Buttons

A radio button is a type of input field that allows visitors to choose one oprion from a list. Each choice
is mutually exclusive - choosing one excludes the remainder. For example:
<P>
Please choose the most appropriate statement.
86 Internet and its Applications M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E.
<BR> <INPUT TYPE - "RADIO'NAME : "one" VALUE - "text book" )

I regularly purchase items on-line.
<BR> <INPUT TYPE = "RADIO" NAME : ore" VALUE : "novel" )
I have on occasion purchased items onJine.
<BR> <INPUTTYPE : 'RADIO'NAME : "one" VALUE : "magazine' CHECKED>
I have not purchased anything on-line, but I would consider it.
<BR> <INPUT TYPE : "RADIO" NAME : one,'VALUE : "journal" )
Use the same NAME = attribute for all radio buttons in a set. Browsers use the name attribute on
radio buttons to specify which buttons are related and therefore which ones are set and unset as a
group. Add the attribute CHECKED to one of the items to indicate the default selection.
5.5.4 Checkboxes
Each checkbox works independently from others; visitors can select or deselect any combination of
checkboxes. Using checkboxes is appropriate for open questions or questions that have more than one
" right" answer. In most browsers, checkboxes appear as little squares that contain a checkmark when
selected. For example:
( P ) I'm interested in (choose all that apply):
<BR> <INPUT TYPE = "CHECKBOX'NAME : "reading"
VALUE : "reading" ) Reading
<BR> <INPUT TYPE : "CHECKBOX'NAME : "writing"

VALUE : "writing" ) \Triting
<BR> <INPUT TYPE : "CHECKBOX'NAME : "editing"
VALUE-"editing" > Editing
<BR> <INPUT TYPE : "CHECKBOX'NAME : "collecting"
VALUE : "collecting" ) Colleting
6.5.5 Password Fields

Password fields are similar to text fields, except the contents of the field are not visible on the screen.
Password fields are appropriate whenever the content of the field might be confidential - as in
passwords. Example to establish a password field:
<INPUT TYPE : "password" NAME : "newpass" SIZE - "10" MAXLENGTH : "10" >
\7hen viewed in the browser, each typed character appears as an asterisk ('l).
6.6 DYNAMIC DOCUMENTS

The standard HTML/XHTML document model is motionless. After displaying on the browser, a
document does not modify until the user begin some activity, like choosing a hyperlink with the
M.S. University - D.D.C.E HTML Forms and Dynamic Documents 87
mouse. The Netscape developers found that limitation intolerable and built in some special features to
their browser that let you change HTML document content vigorously. Actually they provide two
different mechanisms for dynamic documents.. Internet Explorer supports some of these mechanisms,
which we'll discuss as well.
Certainly you could implant animated GIFs or applets that animatedly update the display, but the
primary HTML document itself doesn't change.
\7e should declare that many of the features of dynamic documents have been showed by plug-in
browser accessories and, in specific, applets. However, Netscape and Internet Explorer carry on to
support dynamic documents, and we suppose the technology has virtues you should be aware of, if not
take advantage of, in your HTML documents.
6,7 BACKGROLTND GRAPHICS AND COLOUR

Displo!,ing Wallpaper in the Baekground
The background of your page can be either an image or a particular colour. To place an image as the
background of your page, use the BACKGROUND attribute and position the name of your image file
within quotes:
<BODY BACKGROLIND= " image. Sif " >
Like tags, attribute names can emerge in upper or lowercase. For the filename, be sure to use the same
capitalization that is used in the actual filename. \fhen a browser displays the page, the image in the
file that you mention is cemented to fill the background of the Veb page, that is, it is repetitive across
and down the page.
Choosing a Background Colour
As an alternative of using wallpaper, you can state a solid background colour for your \7eb page. Use
the BGCOLOR attribute in the < BODY > tag. For the colour, you can enter either a hexadecimal
value that represents the colour, or one of 16 standard colour names. The colour names are the
following: aqua, black, blue, fuchsia, gray, green, lime, maroon, na\ry, oliye, purple, red, silver, teal,
white, and yellow. To specify a standard colour, use this tag:
< BODY BGCOLOR:''BLIJE'' )
Using a hexadecimal value is safer, if you want your colours to be read by a broad variety of browsers.
The hexadecimal value is six characters that signify the amount of red, green, and blue in the colour.
The first two characters specify the amount of red, the next two characters the amount of green, and
the final two characters the amount of blue. For example, this code specifies light aqua:
< BODY BGCOLOR:''#99FFFF" )
6.8 MICROSOFT INTERNET EXTENSIONS

Not to be defeated by Netscape, Microsoft has introduced its own browser-specific extensions to
HTML. Like Netscape, Microsoft has presented most of these extensions to the 'World Vide \7eb
Consortium for deliberation in future versions of the HTML standard. Don't be too astonished if you
see some of the tags and attributes showing up as standard HTML .
M.S. University - D.D.C.E
In the intervening time, if you're designing pages for guests that are principally using Internet Explorer
3, you can make use of the HTML extensions mentioned h.re to enrich yo* p"g., ,rri yorr
spectator's experience.
6.8.1 Adding a Background Sound

You can have a background sound play when your \fleb pages are open by using the <BGSOUND
>
tag in your document. <BGSOUND) takes the SRC ,rriibrrr., whichi, ,"t lqrd ro rhe
URL of a
file containing the sound. The file can be in .\[av, .Au, or .Mid (MIDD format.
<BGSOUND > also takes the LOOP attribute, which lets you menrion how many times to play the
sound. LOOP can be set to a particular number of times to duplicate the sound or to INFINITE
to
play the sound as long as the page is open. For instance:
<BGSOLIND SRC: "greering.wav,' LOOp:3 )
PromPts Internet Explorer to deliver your greeting three times when the page is opened. The
following HTML:
< BGSOLTND SRC :,' greering.wav" Loop : INFINITE >
causes Inrerner Explorer to deliver your greeting as long as the page is open.
6.8.2 Creating a r$/atermark

You can use an image as the background of your documents by means of the BACKGROI-IND
attribute of the < BODY > tag. BACKGROUND is set identical to the URL of the image to
be used.
If the lmage is not big sufficient to fit the entire screen, it will be tiled (both horlontally and
venically) to fill the available space.
If youusetheBACKGROLINDattributeof the <BODY> ragrotileagraphicasyourdocumenr
background, the background scroll as you scroll through the dJcumerrt. Iit.i".t E*plorer provides
you superior control_over scrolling by supponing a BGPROPERTIES attribuie. If you set
BGPROPERTIES to FIXED, the background image will not scroll as you move through
the
document, creating a "watermark" effect.
6.8.3 Controlling Your Margins

LEFTMARGIN and TOPMARGIN attributes of the <BODY> tag are supported by internet
explorer. You can set either one to the number of pixels of white ,pr.. yJ, desire'Inter.,et f*plor., to
leave along the left and top edges of the browser window. Addini some space at the margins
frequently improves the readability of your documenrs.
6.8.4 Adding Colour

Internet Explorer 3 supports all of the usual attributes having to do with color
LINK,
VLINK, and ALINK), plus a few others that are oft.r, ,rr"fJ Specifically, with @GCOLOR,
Internet Explorer 3,
you can paint table borders, table cells, and horizontal rule with tle color of your choice
6.8.5 Table Backgrounds and Borders

In the <TABLE) tag, you can mention the BORDERCOLOR attribute to manage which color
Inrernet Explorer uses when depicting table borders. BORDERCOLOR should be set equal to the
hexadecimal RGB triplet or an English language color name that explains the desired color.
BORDERCOLOR is functional when depicting a table on a light background. Frequently, there is not a
sharp contra$ between the background and the table border when the background is white or a light
shade of gray.By darkening the border, you produce greater contrast and make the table easier to read.
If you would like to use the shaded rule to achieve a three-dimensional effect, then you can manage the two
colors used to generate the shading with BORDERCOLORDARK and BORDERCOLORLIGHT. Each
can be set to an RGB hexadecimal triplet or to an English language color name.
You can also use the BGCOLOR attribute in a <TABLE>, <TD>, <TH), or <TR> tag to
modify the background color of a table, table cell, or table row, correspondingly. BGCOLOR is also
set identical to a hexadecimal RGB triplet or an English language color name.
Microsoft makes good use of colored table cells on its site. By turning off the borders in the table, the
cell looks like a colored, rectangular block floating on the page, and content in the floating block
stands out nicely.
6.8.6 Font Tag Enhancements

IE inserts two attributes to Netscape's <FONT> tag: COLOR and FACE. In fact, you may
memorize that you were able to alter the on the whole text color in Netscape. In IE, you can alter the
color for a single word (or even individual letters, if you've got a lot of time on your hands).
To modify the color of a font in the middle of your document's text, use the <FoNT> container with
the cor,on attribute, like this:
<FONT COLOR=" #rrggbb/ col-or name">new col-or text</FONT>
The COLOR attribute can admit either three two-digit hex numbers to explain a color, or a color
name itself. For example, both of the following result in red text:
<FONT COLOR='#FF0000">This is red text</FONT>
< FONT COLOR: "Red" > This is also red text < /FONT >
The FACE attribute can be used to modify the actual typeface used in the IE browser window.
Because different systems can offer different fonts, this attribute permits you to propose a list of font
names. Each name will be tried in succession until a matching font name is found. The FACE attribute
takes the following format:
<FONT FACE="name, name2, name3, ... ">
Look at the following example:
<FONT FACE="Ari-al-, Helvetica, Times Roman">
Your browser will effort to use the font Arial, and then go back to Helvetica and Times Roman until
it locate a font match on the user's computer system. If none of the fonts are found, a default font is
used.
5.8.7 Scrolling Marquees

The <uangunE> and </MAReuEE> tag pair locates a scrolling texr marquee on your \7eb page. The
text that scrolls is the text found between the two tags. .
The <uanQuEE> tag can take a number of attributes that give you very well control over the look and
behavior of the marquee. These attributes are summarizedin Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Attributes of the <MAReUEE> Tag
Attribute Purpose
BGCOLOR= "RGB triplet" Specifies the background color of the marquee window
BEHAVIOR:SCROLL I
SLIDE I ALTERNATE Specifies how the text should move in the marquee window
DIRECTION-LEFT IRIGHT Controls the direction in which the marquee text moves
SCROLLAMOIINT:Z Sets the number of pixels of space between successive presentations of marquee text
SCROLLDELAY:Z Sets the number of milliseconds to wait before repeating the marquee text
HEIGHT:plxels I percent Specifies the height of the marquee window in either pixels or a percentage of the
browser window height
riTIDTH:prxels width of the marquee window in either pixels or a percentage of the
I percent Specifies the
browser window width
HSPACE:Z specifies how many pixels to make the left and righr margins of the marquee window
VSPACE=z Specifies how many pixels to make the top and bottom margins of the marquee
window
LOOP=z IINFINITE Controls how many times the marquee text should scroll
ALIGN=TOP IMIDDLE Specifies how text outside the marquee window should be aligned with the window
IBOTTOM
Notice in Table 6.1 that many of the attributes are the same as for the <rMG> tag and that those
attributes work in a comparable way. HETGHT and wrorH define the dimensions of the marquee,
HSPACE and vspacE administer the space around the marquee, and ALrcN controls where ,.rbr.q.,ent
text appears comparative to the marquee window.
of the enduring attributes, BEHAVToR requires some explanation. Setting BEHAVToR ro scRoLL makes
the marquee text scroll on, and then off, the -"rqrr"" window in the direction mentioned by the
DTRECTTON attribute. If erHavroR is set to sLrDE, the text will slide into the window and stay ih".".
If epHavroR is set to ALTERNATE, the text will rebound back and forth in the window.
Marquee text is a nice \fleb page effect that you can complete on other browsers only by using something
more advanced, like Java or Shockwave. Figure 6.1 shows some marquee text sliding onro a page.
USA Boxer Standard with l.{arquee Text - l,{icrosolt lnlernet Exploler
Official Standard for the BOXER - USA
Boxers are great! !|
General Appearance -- The ideal Boxer is a medium-sized, square built dcg of good substance with short back, sfong
limbs; and short, tghffitbng coat. IIis well developed muscles are cleaq hard and appear smooth uoder taut skin I[s
movements denote energr. The gart is firm, yet elashr, the stide frea and ground-covenng, the carriage proud. Developed to
seflrE as guard, wofking and companion dog, he combures rtrength and agilrf wrth elegance and style. IIis expressionrs alert
and trrnperament steadfast and bactable.
The chiseled head imparts to ihe Boxer a uaique rndrvidual stamp. It must be m corract proporiion to dre body. The broad,
blunt muzzle is the distinctive feahye" and great value is placed upon its being of proper fonn and balance with the skull.
Inludging the Boxer, first consideration is gven to general appearance to which atkactive cqlor and arresting style contnbute.
Next is overall balance wrth special attention devoted to the head, after wbich the rndrvidual body components are exanined
for their correct consfuction, and efficiency ofgait rs evaluated
Size, hoportion, Substance Height-Adult males 22 712 to 25 inches, females 21 lo 23 1/2 inches at the vrithers.
-
Preferably, males should not be under ttre minimum nor females over the maximum: however, proper balance and quality in the
Figure 5.1
it to stand out from

Sometimes you desire to get a simple message across to your readers and you want
the rest of the document. Internet Explorer lets you generate flashy text messages with scrolling
marquees.
Marquees functions as electronic billboards. The text is vigorous and it scrolls across the marquee,
where it simply carches the eye. You can manage the speed, style, and direction of the text.
l. Texr marquees can be used for visual effect in your HTML document, but the only browser that
supporrs marquees is Internet Explorer. Most other browsers will display the text, but it will not
scroll, so be careful with the length of your scrolling image.
You can surround the <MARQUEE> tag pair with the (CENTER> tag Pair to center the
marquee on the screen.
92 lnternet and its Applications
tisor &a Up[

r*1Y",+r--:+;"f,nroril.g+-:+;.,- n,-*.
{ ,1 r:}
Sc'*Iling Text Marqu+es

T+u ran create scrolli')g tEHt rnffquees for use r+rth latrmet E:,plorer These
ar:rmated te:,1 drsplays re pelfect for sendurg an mrportmt bnef message to your
readers.
2. To place a scrolling text marquee in your HTML documenr, type < MAReUEE > followed by
,
the text and a closing < /MARQUEE > tag. This will cause tlre text inside ih" ,rg to scroll ,.ro5
the screen. For example, to scroll the words Sale! 50% Offl, type (MAnqfief)Sale! 50o/o
off</MARQUEE>.
(l,lHRQLlEE>Sa1e! 5ffi 0ff{/HftEQUEE>l
3. There are several attributes that you can add ro the < MARQUEE ) tag that will allow you to
control its appearance. First, you can control the style of the marquee usiig the BEHAVIC;R tag.
You can make the text scroll, slide, or alternate (bounce back andfonh) inside the marquee. Th"e
default style is scrolling text. To change this to sliding text, r)rpe BEHAVIOR=SLIDE inside
the
< MARQUEE ) tag.
<rrAFquEE EEHAUT0R=SLroEF
4. By default, text in a <MARQUEE> tag moves from the right side of the marquee to the left.
You can reverse the direction by typing DIRECTION:RIGHT inside the ( MAReUEE > rag.
{HABQUEE EEHAUI[H=SLIDE DIBECTI0H=RIGHTF
5. You can specify the height and width of the marquee by placing HEIGHT and \trIDTH
.attributes inside the <MARQUEE) tag. The height and width can be expressed as either
specific pixel values or a percentage of the screen. For example, to set the marquee to be exactly
40 pixels high wirh a width of 50 percent of the visible screen, you would type HEIGHT=40
\$ilDTH=SOolo inside the (MAReUEE
> rag.
<HEEQUEE BEHRUIOB=SLIDE DIEECTIOH=EIGHT
HEIGHT=48 trlDTH=s0?+
6. You can specify how many times the marquee text will loop by using the LOOP attribute inside
the < MARQUEE > tag. For example, to set the marquee text to loop five times, type
LOOP=5. If you do not use the LOOP attribute, the marquee text will cycle infinitely.
{HAfiqUEE EEHHUIOF=SLIDE DIREITIIIH=EIGHT

HEIGHT=48 lIIDTH=Sffi" LiltlP=5h
7. The SCROLLAMOUNT attribute allows you to specify how many pixels the marquee moves
each time it is redrawn. This directly affects the smoothness of the scroiling text as well as the
speed with which it moves across the screen. For example, to get the text to scroll slowly and
smoothly across the screen one pixel at a time, type SCROLLAMOUNT:I inside the
< MARQUEE ) tag.
<]4fiBQUEE BEHfiUIOE=SLIDE DIBECTIOH=BIGHT

HE I GHT=46 tll DTH=S fz" lggp=5 SC80LLfill0UHT=1h
8. You can also control the speed of the marquee text display using the SCROLLDELAY attribute.
This attribute specifies the number of milliseconds that will elapse between each redraw of the
marquee text. For example, to set the delay to 100 milliseconds, type SCROLLDELAY=100
inside the (MARQUEE> tag.
(tffiRQUEE EEHHU I0E=51I DE D I HECT I tlH=E I GHT

HEIGHT=46 tIIDTH=58?" L00P=5 SCB0LLfiI'l0UHT=1
s[EoLLDELAY=1 o+
9. If you want to change the background color of the marquee, use the BGCOLOR attribute inside
the <MARQUEE> tag.The color must be specified using an RGB hexadecimal code and
preceded with a pound sign. For exarrrple, to set the background color of the marquee to light
green, type BGCOLOR: #008800.
<}IHRQUEE BEHfiUIOB=SLIDE DIREITIOH=RIGHT

HEIGHT=48 tllDTH=SBE LU0P=5 SGBOLLfiiI0UHT=1
SER0LLDELRY=1 {l{l BGC0LUR=*0BBS B+
'What
1,. are submit and reset buttons?
'W'hat
2. are dynamic documents?
6.9 LET US SUM UP

Forms are the only method of two-way communication between \(eb pages and \7eb sites. Getting
feedback is where HTML forms come into play. HTML supports a rich variety of input capabilities to
let you solicit feedback. The two key attributes ri,ithin the ( FORM > tag are METHOD and
ACTION. Together, these attributes control how your browser sends information to the web server
and which input-handling program receives the form's contents.
94 Internet and its Applications M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E.
The standard HTML/XHTML document model is static. Once displayed on the browser, a documenr
does not change until the user initiates some activiry, like selecting a hyperlink with rhe mouse.i'l The
Netscape developers found that limitation unacceptable and built in some special features to their
bro-wser that let you change HTML document conrenr dynamically. In fact, they provide rwo
different mechanisms for dynamic documents, which we describe in detail in this chapier. Inrernet
Explorer supports some of these mechanisms, which we'll discuss as well. The <uaneuEE> and
</MARQUEE> tag pair places a scrolling text marquee on your \7eb page. The text that scrolls is the
text found between the two tags.
6.10 KEY\$TORDS
Forms: Forms are the only method of two-way communication berween \7eb pages and \fleb sites.
Serclling Marquees: The <manquEE> and < /MAReuEE> tag pair places a scrolling rexr marquee on your
'Web
page. The text that scrolls is the text found between the two tags.
6.11 QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSION

1. Discuss the process of creating forms.
2. Discuss how ( input tag ) is used in the following:
(, Text fields
(i,) Radio bumons
(iii) Check boxes
(iv) Password fields
3. \7hat are Microsoft internet extensions?
4. lWhat are scrolling marquees? Discuss
various uses of marquee rag.
5. Create a page that plays a background sound three times, while displaying a background image as
a watermark.

1. The first step in creating a form is to insert the <FORM) tags and add Submit and Reset
buftons. Submit and Reset buttons allow visitors to submit information and clear selections.
2. The standard HTML/XHTML document model is static. Once displayed on rhe browser,
a document does not change until the user initiates some activiry, like selecting a
hyperlink with the mouse. The Netscape developers found that limitation unacceptable
and built in some special features to their browser that let you change HTML document
content dynamically

Bud E. Smith, Peter Frazier, and Bud Smith, Creating lVeb Graphics for Dummies, For f)umrnies; Bk&CD-Rom
edition.
Lisa Lopuck , Veb Designfor Dummies, For Dummies; Bk&CD-Rom edition.
UNIT III
LESSON
7
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Steps in Programming
7.3 UnderstandingProgramSpecification
7.3.1 Problem-definition
7.3.2 RequirementAnalysis
7.4 Design a Program Model
7.5 Determine Correctness of Algorithm
7.6 Code Program
7.7 Test and Debug the Program
7.8 Documentation
7.9 ProgrammingTechniques
7.9.t LinearProgramming
7.9.2 StructuredProgramming
7.9.|t Example of Structured Programming
7.9.4 Advantages of Structured Programming
7.9.5 StructuredProgrammingTechniques
7.t0 Let us Sum up
7.ll Keywords
7.I3 SuggestedReadings
7.0 AIMS AND OBTECTIVES

. Discuss steps in programming
* Discuss design a program model
* Determine correctness of algorithm
o Understand code program

. Discuss tesr and debug the program
a Discussdocumentation
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A program is a set of instructions to be executed by the computer to accomplish a parcicular task. In
this lesson we will discuss Steps in Programming Discuss, Design a Program Model, Determine
Correctness of Algorithm, I-Inderstand Code Program, Discuss Test and Debug the Program, Discuss
Documentation.
7.2 STEPS IN PROGRAMMING

The programming process is a set of activities that are carried our ro develop and implement a
comPuter Program. \Triting a program comprises of the six activities listed below:
1. UnderstandProgram Specificarion
2. Design a program model
3. Determine correctness of the program
4. Code the Program
5. Test and debug the program

6. Document the program
Now let's discuss these steps in detail:
7.3 LINDERSTANDING PROGRAM SPECIFICATION

Program specification includes rwo acriviries:
. Problem-definition
. Requirement Analysis
7 .3.1 P r oblem-definition
The first prerequisite you need to fulfill before designing the program model is a clear sraremenr of the
problem that the program is supposed to solve. A problem definition defines what the problem is
without any reference to the possible solutions. It's a simple srarement, may be one ro r*o prg., and it
should sound like a problem.
The problem definition comes before the requirement analysis, which is a more detailed analysis of the
problem.
The problem definition should be in user language and the problem should be described from the
user's point of view. It usually should not be stated in technical compurer rerms.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Program Development 99
7.3.2 Requirement Analysis

Requirements describe in detail, whata program is supposed to do and they are the first step towards a
solution. The requirements activity is also known as "functional specification". An explicit set of
requirements, is important for several reasons. Explicit requirements help to ensure that the user
rather than the programmer drives the program's functionality. If the requirements are explicit, the
user can review them and agree to them. Explicit requirements keep you from guessing what the user
wants. Specifying requirements adequately is a key to the program's success.
Essentially, we must look for three main components which are:
. IThat is given as input
. \7hat is expected as output and
. How to arrive at the solution
You are already familiar with the above three items i.e., input (data) process and output (information).
Hence, while determining program requirements, we have to discern from the problem statement
what exactly constitutes input, what is expected as output and how the processing is to be done. It will
not be out of place to mention here, that a given problem or business solution may be solved in a
particular way manually and we may or may not choose to adopt the same processing logic while
developing a solution to be computerised.
7.4 DESIGN A PROGRAM MODEL

Once the problem is clearly defined, an algorithm, another term for processing logic, can be
developed. This is the most creative pan of programming. At this stage, the algorithm may be
constructed, in broad terms to help visualise possible alternatives.
An algorithm is a forrnula, a recipe, a step-by-step procedure to be followed, in order to obtain the
solution to a problem. To be useful as a basis for writing a program the algorithm must:
o Arrive at a,correct solution within a finite time
. Be clear, precise unambiguous and
. Be in a format which lends itself to an elegant implementation in a programming language.

The important tools used in developing a solution and in the preparation of an algorithm are
flowcharts and pseudocodes. Among others, flowcharts provide a visual and graphical representation
of the solution while pseudocodes mean writing the program logic in a simple English like language.
The Logic depicted using these tools can then be written using any programming language. In other
words, these are gynoecii tools. \[e shall look at them in detail through the course of this book.
2.5 DETERMINE CORRECTNESS OF ALGORITHM

One of the most difficult and sometimes most tedious step in the development of an algorithm is
ensuring and providing that the algorithm is correct.
Correctness of an algorithm or a program means that it gives the correct output and it does what it is
supposed to do.
Correctness of an algorithm or a program can be checked by any one of the following merhods
1. Dry Run
2. Independentinspection
3. Structuredwalk-through
7.6 CODE PROGRAM

This is the process of converting the solution i.e., the algorithm (flowcharr/pseudocode) into an actual
comPuter Program. Here, we choose a programming language and using the syntax and semantics of
that language, convert the algorithm thus far expressed, in the form of a flowchart/pseudocode.
Syntax means the correct way or "grammar" of writing a command or series of commands, including
all the proper options and command-line starements.
Semantics means the logical meaning of a statement, separate from the grammatical structure.
7.7 TEST AND DEBUG THE PROGRAM

Once coding is complete, you will enter the program into the compurer. The computer will then
compile the program into machine code.
Compilation means converting the source code i.e. the user's program which is written using a high
level language, into machine code which is machine understandable language.
Compilation results in certain kinds of errors which are indicated by the computer after the process is
over. These errors have to be corrected and then the program recompiled. The process continues until
the program is error free. Next, we must verify that our program does everFthing that it is supposed to
do. Invariably, computer programs do not work properly the first time. The three types of errors rhat
are normally encountered are:
l. Sintax Enors: Syntax errors occur when a computer language compiler cannot understand a
command entered by the programmer. lVhen such an error is encountered, the computer rejects
the program and prints out an error message. These errors are encountered during compilation
and are very easy to correct. In many cases, these errors arise due to spelling mistakes, missing
commas, etc. and incorrect syntax. For example, in FoxPro if we type APPEND instead of
APPEND this causes a synrax error.
2. Execution Enors: These errors are encountered after error-free compilation, at the time of
execution of the program. Execution errors are also called runtime errors. Typical examples are:
(i) infinite loops
(ir) correct ourpurs only for selected data
(iii) data incorrecr or in wrong order
3. Logical Errors: Logical errors are due to mistakes made by the programmer while coding the
program. The computer does not detect logical errors.
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E Program Development 101
For example, for calculating the ner salary of an employee rhe formula is
Net Salary : Basic Salary + Allowances - Deductions
But through oversight, while coding, the formula is written as
Net Salary : Basic Salary -Allowance + Deductions

This will obviously produce a wrong result. Such errors can be detected only by a dry run.
Debugging
Debugging is the process of identifying the root cause of an error and correcring it. It contrasts with
testing, which is the process of detecting rhe error initially.
7.8 DOCUMENTATION
Once the Program has been written and debugged, it is ready for use and hence, requires
documentation or a written procedure of how to run the program, enter data, what problems to
exPect, how to handle them, etc. Documentation of a program will consist of flowcharts/
pseudocodes, Program listings and detailed written statements of algorithms and procedures involved.
Documentation is necessary for program maintenance. \Tithout proper documenrarion, it will be
difficult to change a program ar a later date.
It is a mis-held notion that documentation is the last step in the algorithm developmenr srage. In fact,
it should be interwoven with the entire phase of the programming procerr, .rp..Lily with ihe design
and implementation, because documentation is supposed to enable individuals-ro unierstand the lojic
of programs.
7.9 PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES

7 .9.1 Linear Programming
Linear Program is a method for straightforward programming in a sequenrial manner. This type of
programming does not involve any decision making. General model of these linear programs is:
1. Read a data value.
2. Compute an intermediate result.

3. Use the intermediate resuk ro compure the desired answer.
4. Print the answer.
5. Stop.
7 .9.2 Structured Programming

One of the most versatile properties of a digital compurer is that it can make a decision, thus creating
a branching point. There are also times when it becomes necessary for aprogramto Look, Back overi
set of statements, a number of times. If branching and looping can be used, then much more complex
iterative algorithms can be written, which in turn result in more complex programs. There are
procedures that can be used for writing these complex programs that make thero much less error
prone and much easier to debug. The techniques for writing such programs are referred to as
structured programming.
7.9.3 Example of Structured Programming
Structured programming refers to the process in which we break the overall job down into separate
piece of modules. Figure 7.1 shows how a salary program is broken down into a number of small
modules. These modules, in turn, are broken down into smaller pieces which can also be further
subdivided. Modules mu$ be chosen in such a w^y that we can specify how they are to interact. In
effect, there is a contact between each pair of modules. This contact specifies two things:
Conveyance
Allowance
Figure 7.1: Example of Structured Programming

1. N7hat the module will do?
2. What assumptions is it making about the behaviour of the other modules? In particular, we must
specify explicitly what inputs a particular module is to receive from the various orher modules
and what outputs it is required to provide for them.
7.9.4 Advantages of Structured Programming

l. Decreases the complexity of the program by breaking it down into smaller logical units.
2. Allows several programmers to code simultaneously.
, 3. Allows common functions to be written once and then used in all the programs needing them.
4. Decreases debugging time because modules make it easier to isolate errors.
5. Amendments to single modules do not affect the rest of the program.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Program Development 103
6. It saves time to use modular stnrctures rather than using self-made stnrctures. If a job can be done
well by using what is already available and known to be well tried and te$ed then trying out
something new for the sake of trying is a wasre of effort.
7. Structured programming is a standard method; so, less time is required in writing programs.
8. It is easier to name modules in such a way that they are easy to locate in the documentation, and
consistent.
7.9.5 Structured Programming Techniques

There are three widely used programming constnrcts:
1. Sequence
2. Selection
3. Repetition (iteration)
Now let us discuss each in detail.
Sequence
Sequence structure consists of an action followed by another, and so on, till the desired result is obtained.
Statement 1
Statement 2
Statement n
Seledion
In conditional execution, there is a need to carry out a logical test and then take some particular action
which depends upon the result of that test.
The selection stnrcture consists of a text for a condition followed by two alternative paths for the
program to follow. The program selects one of the program control paths, depending upon rhe
outcome of the test condition. After performing one of the two paths, the program control returns ro
a single point. This pattern can be termed as if. . . else because of the logic.
If (condition is true) then
sequence of statements
else
another sequence of statements

endif
lol Internet and its Applications M.S. University - D.D.C.E.
Itcration
In most cases, programs require that a group of consecutive instructions be executed repeatedly until
some logical condition has been satisfied. Such an iteration is called conditional looping.
Another type of repetition is unconditional looping. In such a looping the instructions are repeated for
a specified number of times.
The control structures are easy to use because of the following reasons:
1. They are easy to recognize.
2. They are simple to deal with as they have just one entry and one exir point.
3. They are free of the complications of any particular programming language.
1. Define code program.

2. \(hat are logical errors?
T.IOLET US SUM UP
A program is a set of instructions to be executed by the computer to accomplish a particular task. A problem
definition defines what the problem is without any reference to the possible solutions. It's a simple $atement,
may be one to two paBes and it should sound like a problem. Requirements describe in detail, what a program
is supposed to do and they are the fint step towards a solution. The requirements activity is also known as
"funaional specification". An explicit set of requirements, is important for several reasons. Explicit
requirements help to ensure that the rxer rather than the prograrnmer drives the program's funaionaliry.
Once the problem is clearly defined, an algorithm, another term for processing logic, can be developed. This
is the most creative part of programming. Correctness of an algorithm or a program means that it gives the
correct output and it does what it is supposed to do. Syntax means the correct way or "grammar' of writing a
command or series of commands, including all the proper options and command-line statements. Semantics
means the logical meaning of a $atement, separate from the grammatical struchrre. Once coding is complete,
you will enter the program into the computer. The computer will then compile the program into machine
code. Debugging is the process of identifying the root cause of an error and correcting it. Once the program
has been written and debuggd it is ready for use and hence, requires documentation or a written procedure
of how to nrn the program, enter data, what problems to expect, how to handle them, etc. Documentation of
a program will consist of flowcharts/pseudocodes, program listings and detailed written sraremenrs of
dgorithms and procedures involved.
Structured programming refers to the process in which we break the overall job down inro separare
piece of modules. Sequence stnrcture consists of an action followed by another, and so on, till the
desired result is obtained. The selection structure consists of a text for a condition followed by. two
alternative paths for the program to follow. In most cases, programs require that a group of
consecutive instructions be executed repeatedly until some logical condition has been satisfied. Such an
iteration is called conditional looping.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E Program Development 105
7.tt l<EY\roRDS
prcgram;A program is a set of instructions to be executed by the computer to accomPlish a particular task.
Requirements Analysis: Requirements describe in detail, what a program is supposed to do and they are
the first step towards a solution
Sjtntax: It means the correct way or 'grammar" of writing a command or series of commands,
including all the proper options and command-line statements.
Semantics:It means the logical meaning of a shtement, separate from the grammatical structure.
Debugging: It is the process of identifying the root cause of an error and correcting it.
Structured.Programming: It refers to the process in which we break the overall job down into separate
piece of modules.

l. Describe the steps in programming.
2. Describe activities included for program specification.

3. How will you determine the correctness of an algorithm?
4. How would you test and debug the program?
5. \flhat is srruoured programming? Discuss the techniques of structured programming.
'\tr7hat
6. is documentation?

1. Code program is the process of converting the solution i.e., the algorithm (fTowchan/
pseudocode) into an actual computer program. Here, we choose a programming language
and ,sing the syntax and semantics of that language, convert the algorithm thus far
expressed, in the form of a flowchart/pseudocode'
2. Logical errors are due to mistakes made by the programmer while coding the program.
The computer does not detect logical errors.

Kenneth Leroy Busbe e, Programming Fundamentals: A Modular Structured Approaclt,TJniversity Press of Florida
Byron S. Gottfried, Scbaum's outline of theory and problems of programm.ingwith Baslc, McGraw-Hill
C. Joseph Sass, 8,4SlCprogrammingand applicatioas, Allyn and Bacon
LESSON
8
PROGRAM TOOLS
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Program Flowcharts
8.2.1 The Input/Ourput Symbol
8.2.2 The Process Symbol
8.2.3 The Terminal Symbol
8.2.4 The Connector Symbol
8.2.5 The Flowline Symbol
8.3 Pseudocodes
8.3.1 Functional Procedural Layers
8.3.2 The Input Statemenr
8.3.3 The Output Statement
8.4 Decision Tables
8.4.1 DecisionTableCharacteristics
8.4.2 Building Decision Tables
8.4.3 Checking Decision Tables
8.4.4 Developing Decision Tables
8.4.5 Type of Table Entries
'Structure
8.5 Charts
8.6 I.et us Sum up
8.7 Keywords
8.0 AIMS AND OBIECTIVES

After studying rhis lesson, you will be able to:
. Discuss program tools
. Discuss flowchans
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Program Tools 107
. Discuss Pseudocodes
. Understand decision stnrcture
o Discuss structure charts
8.1 INTRODUCTION
As programming is yery typical, and mind crushing work, some aids are required to make the task
simpler and perform it in an efficient way. Some of the aids, or tools are required to develop a
Program are:
1. Program Flowchams
2. Pseudocodes
3. Decision Tables
8.2 PROGRAM FLO\T/ CHARTS

A program flowchart is a piciorial representation of the logic required to accomplish a task. It includes
all necessary steps of a program. It is called a flowchart because it charts the flow of a program. It is a
symbolic representation of each input, output and processing step. Besides, being a good method of
writing down the algorithm, it is also a part of protram documentation and helps in understanding,
debugging and maintaining programs.
In the flowcharting technique, operations are represented by drawing appropriate symbols for the
actions.
These flowchart symbols are connected by arrows to illustrate the sequence of operations.
The basic symbols used in a program flowchart are represented in Figure 8.1.
t-l Process lnput/Outpul o

o cll
Decision
Connector Terminol =
f lowline
Figure 8.1
8.2.1 The Input/Output Symbol

This symbol is used to represent the Input/Output operations (I/O operations) such as read and write.
This is illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Read Ernpno Write Empno
Figure 8.2
8,2.2 The Process Symbol

This symbol is used to rePresent process like_ assigning a value to a variable
or adding a number. It has
one arrow going inside to denote the input data to the process and another
arrow leaving it to denote
the processed data leaving this process. In oth., *orir, it has one enrry and
one exit. Figure g.3
illustrate this:
In Figure 8'3, "Sum = N1 + N2" is a process which adds the rwo numbers and srores
the result in Sum.
For this Process, the input is numbers flowing in (represented by in-going arrow from
the process).
ACCEPT Nl. I.,iz

input
Prc*e*s
0utpui
sTop
Figure 8.3
8.2.3 The Terminal Symbol

This symbol indicates the beginning or the end of a flowchart as shown in Figure g.4.
Figure 8.4
8.2.4 The Connector Symbol

The connector symbol, is used to maintain links between rv/o or more flowcharts
when the flowchan
runs longer than one Page or when the same diagram is continued at different
locations of the same
page' If the same flowchan.is continuing o.n
$e ,r.*, prg., then at the end of the first page this symbol
is used with a marker yhigh can be an alphabet or, ,rrrtb"r. The same symbol is used, with the same
marker as was used in the first page, beginning of the second prg.. Figrrre 8.5 illustrares rhis.
^tthi
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. Program Tools 109
@+
o
yes
t
-T*"
?
Figure 8.5
8.2.5 The Flowline Symbol

This symbol represents the direction of the flow of data in a flowchart. These are straight lines with
arrow heads. They are normally drawn from top to bottom and left to right to left.
Examples ofFloweharts
Example 1:
A student appears for a test in 3 subjects. Each test is out of 100 marks. The percentage of each student
has to be calculated and depending on the percentage calculated, grades are given as nexr page.
Percentage Grade
: >90 E+
80-90 E
70-79 A+
60-69 A
50-59 B+
<50 FAIL
Flowchart for the same is given in Figure 8.6.
ACCEPT M t,M2,M3
DI$PTAY GRADT
PERffi{MI +h42+M3}/?
5T0r
l*
PER >*90 GRADE*'E'
t5
FER >=80 AND G&AE[='['
PER >*70 AND GRADE= A+'

< 80 --"-
Ff;R p:60 AND GRAD[='A'
PER >.'.5* AND

Yes
PER q 60
GRAilE*'B+'
Figure 8.6
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. program Tools 111
Example 2:
The flowchart to find the factorial for any given number is shown in Figure 8.7. Factorial means the
product of the positive integers l, 2, 3 up"to and including a given irtl.g.r. Factorial is derived by
applying the following equarion:
n! (factorial of n) : n* (n-1)* (n-2)* (n-3). .......*3*2*l
DTSPLAY 'Enler o
vqlue ior N'
ACCEPT N
FAC*l
FAC=FACTNN
DI$PLAY 'The factorisf

volue is", FACT
Figure 8.7
Examplc 1:
Generate the first 20 numbers in the Fibonacci series.
Fibonacci series is a series of integers in which each integer is equal to the sum of the two
preceding integers in the series. The series is formulated mathemarically by Xi = Xi-1 + Xi-z,
where X0 : 0 and X1= 1; that is 0,1,2,3,5,8....
The series looks like,
0+ 1 : 7,1+1, : 2,7+2 :3,2+3 : 5, 3+5 =8, etc.
DISPI-AY 'fnter o
numhar:' ACCEPT N
TWOBACK=0
ONEEACK= 1
Oi5PLAY TWOBACK,
ONEBACK
N:N-2
CURRENI =1
IS
N>0
Yes
CufREhlT = TWOBACK+ONEBACK
TWOBAC(=ONEBACK
ONEBACK=CU*RENT
DISPIAY CI.JR&EN?
Figure 8.8
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. ProgramTools 113
Exanple 4:
The sum of all odd numbers in the range 1 to 10 (i.e. 1+3+5+7 +9:25).
The flowchart to solve ibolre problem is shown in Figure 8.9.
SUM=SUM+N
l5 Nr" l0
O|SF|"AY ''The rum ir:",

SUM
Figure 8.9
8.3 PSEUDOCODES
An alternative method.of program logic is a pseudocode Instead of using symbols to
.representing
rePresent the program logic steps, a pseudocode uses statements which are a bridge belween actual
programming and ordinary English. In a pseudocode, each step is written using a simple English
phrase which is also called a consrnrcr.
Pseudocode notation can be used both at the preliminary srage as well as the advanced stage. It can be
used at any abstraction level. In a Pseudocode, a designer deicribes system characteristics"using shon
English language phrases-with the help of keywords like while, if..the..else, End, etc. Ketsworl, ,rrd
indentation describe the flow of control while the English phrases describe the processing action that is
being_ taken. Using the top-down strategy, each English phrase is expanded into a more detailed
Pseudocode till the point it reaches the level of implemertrttrr.
8.3.1 Functional Procedural Layers

Functions are built in layers. Layers are used to depict additional information.
I*ael 0:
. Function or procedure name
. Relationship with other sysrems
. Description of the function purpose
o Author, date
Leuel 1:
a Functionalparameters
. Global variables
. Routines called by functions
. Side effects
. Input/outputassertions
Izuel 2:
a Local data structures, variables, etc
. Timing constrainrs
. Exception handling
. Any other limitations
Ituel 1:
. Body including Pseudocode, srrucrure charr, decision tables, etc.

Some of the conventions which are used while writing pseudocodes are as follows.
L. All statements in a loop should be indented.
2. All alphanumeric values should be enclosed in single or double quores.

M.S. University - D.D.C.E. program Tools 115
3. The beginning and end of a pseudocode is marhed with keywords like 'start' and 'end'
respectively.
4. All statements must include cenain key words which denote an operation.
Some books follow the convention of ending each statement with a semicolon.
8.3.2 The Input Statement

The following verbs can be used to accept or input data from the keyboard or from an existing
form like a file.
Accept or Read
For example
Accept Name
Read Name
8.3.3 The Output Statement

The following verbs can be used to output data
'Write
or Display
For example
'Write
Grosspay
Display Grosspay
Now let us take few examples and write pseudocodes and then draw flowcharts for the same.
Example 1:
Accept two numbers, add them and display the result.
The steps for the above problem starement are:
START
ACCEPT Nl
ACCEPT N2
SUM:N1 +N2
DISPLAY SUM
ENI)
The above is a simple pseudocode for our problem. It may be noted here, that whether we input Nl
first or N2 first is immaterial here. However, the statement SUM : Nl + N2 cannot come before the
turo numbers have been input. rUflhat will happen if the DISPLAY SUM sraremenr was put before
SUM:N1 +N2?
Let us now draw the flowchart for the same example as shown in Figure 8.10:
@
J
Y
@
Y
-r-(m Y
Figure 8.10
In Figure'1 "ACCEPT Nl, N2" denotes that two numbers are accepted from the user and stored in
variables N1 and N2. "SUM : N1+ N2" denotes that a process is taking place, which is adding the
numbers N1 and N2 and the resultant output stored in the variable SUM. "DISPLAY SUM" denotes
that the resultant SUM is displayed on the screen.
Example 2:
Mohan's monthly salary consists of Basic salary, travelling allowances and a l5o/o commission on sales
made. At the end of the month, we need to calculate his salary which is done in the following
pseudocode.
START
ACCEPT BAS_SAL, TCL_ALL, SALE_AMT

COMM = SALE_AMT * 0.15
NET_SAL = BAS _ SAL + TVL * ALL + COMM

DTSPLAY NET-SAL
END
It may BAS_SAL, TVL_ALL, SALE_AMT with one

be noted here, that we are accepting 3 variables -
accept statement. This is valid. Alternatively, three ACCEPT statements could have been written -
one for each of the three variables, as in Example 1.
Here BAS_SAL, TVL_ALL, SALE_AMT, NET_SAL are variables which hold the value for basic
salary, travelling allowance, sales amount and net salary respectively.
The flowchart{ror this example would be as shown in Figure 8.11.
t
Aec[PT BAS*SAI", TVL-ALL, SALE AMT
COMM * 0.]5 . SALE AMT
NfT_SAL * BAS-SAL + WL, ALL + COMM
SISPLAY NET-SAL
STOP
Figure 8.11
Example ):
SAGA, a grocery store gives discount to its regular customers. The discounts are given irrespective of
the amourit of purchase. Th. ,ror" gives two types of discounts. A trade discount of" 20o/o on total value
of purchase arrd , cash discount of.5o/o on the value of the purchase less trade discount.
Let us calculate and display the gross amount due, the net amount due, the value of the quantity
discount, the value of the cash discount and the total discount along with the product code.
Pseudocode
START
ACCEPT PR _ CODE, PR + RATE, PR _ QTY

AMT = PR * PR RATE
GROSS
- - QTY -
TRADE DIS = 20 / 100 * GROSS - AMT
-
CASH DIS = 5 / 100 * (GROSS - AMT - TRADE - DIS)
-
NET _ AMT = GROSS _ AMT = (TRADE DIS + CASH _ DIS
-
TOT DfS = TRADE - DIS + CASH DTS
-
DISPLAY PR_CODE, GROSS_AMT, NET_AMT, TRADE_D]S,
CASH_DIS, TOT_DIS
END
118 Internet and its Applications M.S. University _ D.D.C.E.
Note.the use of Parenthesis (brackets). This is to give precedence ro rhe arithmetic operarions given
therein. Hence, in the $atement.
CASH _ DIS = 5/100 * (cRoss_AMT _ TRADE_DIS)
TRADE-DIS will be subtracted from GROSS-AMT first then the operarions outside the bracket
will
take place.
Here PR_CODE = product Code
PR_RATE = product rate
pR_eTy = product guantity
GROSS_AI,IT = Gross amount
TRADE_DIS = Trade discount
CASH_DIS = Cash discount
NET_AMT = Net amount
TOT_DfS = Tota1 discount
The flowchanf.or the above example in shown Figure g.12.
Figure 8.12
Example s of P seudocodes
Exatnplc 1:
A student appears for a test in 3 subjects. Each test is out of 100 marks. The percentage of each student
has to be calculated and depending on the percentage calculated, grades are given as under:
Percentage Grade
: >90 E+
80-90 E
70-79 A+
60-69 A
50-59 B+
< 50 FAIL
The pseudocode for the same is given below:
start
accept m1, m2, m3
pr=(m1 +m2+m3) /3
ifper>=90
grad = 'E+'
else
if p€r >= 80 and per < 90
grade = 'e'
else
if per > = 50 and per < 70
grade = 'a'
else
if per > = 50 and per < 50
grade - 'b+'
else
qrade = 'fail'
endif
endif
endi f
endif
endif
display grade
end
120 Internet and its Applications M.S. Universitv _ D.D.C.E.
Example 2:
The pseudocode to find the factorial for any given number is given below. Factorial means the product
positive integers l, 2, 3 up to and including a given intiger. Factorial is derived by applying the
9f-]h.
following equation:
n! (factorial of n) = n* (n-1)* (n-2;* (n-3). ,.*3*2*!
Pseudocode:
starE
display 'Enter a value for n'
Accept n
fact, = 1
while n ! = 0 ** ! = is a symbol for not.
equal to
DO
fact = fact *n
N=N-1
enddo
display 'The factorial value is i ,, FacT
end
Example 1:
Generate the first 20 numbers in rhe Fibonacci series.
Fibonacci series is a series of integers in which each integer is equal ro the sum of the two preceding
integers in the series. The series is formulated mathematically by Xi : Xi-1 + Xi-2,where Xd : o anJ
X1= 1; that is 0,I,2,3,5,8....
The series looks like:
0+1 - 1, 1+1 :2,1+2:3,2+3 :5,3+5 -8, etc.
If we were required to generate 5 numbers then the series would look like: O l2 3 5...
The pseudocode for the above problem is given below:
Pseudocode:
starE
display 'Enter how many numbers to generate:,
accept n
twoback = 0
oneback = 1
display twoback, oneback

t'r=t7-2
current = 1
while n > 0
do
current = Ewoback + onebcak
twoback = oneback
oneback = current
display currenL
n=n-1
enddo
end
Examph 4:
The sum of all odd numbers in the range I to 10 (i.e. l+3+5+7 +9=25).
The pseudocode to solve above problem is given below:
Pseudocode:
start
n=1
sum=0
repeat
sum=sum+N
N=N+2
until N > 10
display 'The sum is | ' , SLIM
END
8.4 DECISION TABLES

A Decision Table is a table of rows and columns that shows conditions and actions. 'Decision Rules',
include a decision table, states what procedure to follow when certain conditions exist.
8.4.1 Decision Table Characteristics

The Decision Table is made up of four sections:
. Condition Statements
o ConditionEntries(Alternatives)
. Action Statements
. Action Entries.
The condition statement identifies the relevant conditions.
Condition Entries (alternatives) tell which value, if any, applies for a particular condition.
Action Statement lists the set of all steps that can be taken when a certain condition occurs.
Action Entries show what specific actions in a set to take, when selected conditions or combinations
of conditions are rnre.
You can enter a note below the table to help state when ro use the table or to distinguish it from other
tables. The columns on the right, linking conditions and actions form decision rules.
These state the conditions that must be satisfied for a particular ser of actions to be taken. For Decision
Tables unlike decision trees, there is no order sequence. The decision rule incorporated 'all' the
conditions that must be rrue, not jusr one condition ar a rime.
8.4.2 Building Decision Tables

To develop Decision Tables the following sreps should be used:
l. Determine the most relevant factors to be considered in making a decision. This identifies the
conditions in the decision. Each condition selected should have ihe porential to either occur or
not occur. Partial occurrence is not possible.
2. Determine the most feasible steps or activities under varying conditions, nor just rhe current
conditions. This identifies rhe acrions.
3. Study the combinations of conditions that are possible. For every N number of conditions, rhere
are 2N combinations to be considered. For example, for rhree conditions, rhere are eight possible
combinations; 2r : 8. For f.our,2a : 16 combinations are possible and can be included in the table.
4. Fill in the table with decision rules. There are two ways to fill in rhe table.
(, In a longer method, here you have a fill in condition rows with a yes or no value for each
possible combination of conditions.
(i0 The other method of completing the table deals with one condition at a time and for each
possible combination of conditions.
(iii) The other method of completing the table deals with one condition ar a rime and adds ro rhe
table for each additional condition but does not add duplicate combination of conditions and
actions as discussed.
G) State the first condition and permissible acrions.

(b) Add the second condition by duplicating the first half of the matrix and filing in the
different Y and N values from the new condition in both halves of the expandedtatrix.
G) Repeat ser b for each additional condition.
5' Mark action entries with X to signal action(s) to take; leave cells blank or mark with a dash to
show that no acrion applies to that row.
6. Examine the table for redundant rules or for contradictions u'ithin rules (discussed below).
Following the above simple guidelines will help to:
(r) save time in building a decision table from collected information
(i0 point out where information is missing
(iii) show where conditions do not matter in a process
(iv) indicate vhere there are imponant relations or results that others were not aware of, in other
words, not considered.
Thus, using decision tables can produce more complete and accurate analysis.
8.4.3 Checking Decision Tables

After constructing a table, analysts verify it for correctness and completeness to ensure that the table
includes all the conditions, along with the decision rules that relate them to actions. Analysts should
also examine the table for redundancy and contradictions.
E lirninating Re dundancy
Decision Tables are likely to get too large if allowed to grow in an uncontrolled way. Removing
redundant entries help to manage table size. Redundancy occurs when:
1. Two decision rules are identical except for one condition row
2. The actions for two rules are identical
Remouing C ontradidions
Decision rules contradict each other when, two or more rules have the same set of conditions and the
actiolls are different. This could occur when either there is an error in constructing the table or when
the analysts receive discrepant information from different individuals about how decisions are made.
Impossiblc Situations
When building decision tables, it is possible to set up impossible situations. Now let us see an example
for impossible situations. One thing we have to make sure is to see that accuracy is maintained and
redundancy is avoided. In Table 8.1 below, rule I is not possible as a person who is earning more than
< 50, 000 per year cannot earn less than { 2,000 per month at the same time.
Table 8.1 Decision table checking for impossible situations
Conditions and Actions Rules

I lz
I li l+
Salary ) <50, 000 per year Y Y N N
Salary < 2,000 per month Y N Y N
Action 1
Action 2
8.4.4 Developing Decision Tables

In order to build decision tables, the analyst needs to determine the maximum size of table, eliminate
any impossible situations, inconsistencies or redundancies and simplify the table as much as possible.
1. Determine the number of conditions that may affect the decision. Combine the rows that
overlap. For example, conditions that are mutually exclusive. The number of conditions becomes
the number of rows in the top half of the decision table.
124 ln'r.emet and its Applications M,S. University - D.D.C.E.
2. Determine the number of possible actions that can be taken. This becomes rhe number of rows in
the lower half of the decision table.
3. Determine the number of conditions, alternatives for each condition (rules).
4. Calculate the maximum number of columns in the decision table by multiplying the number of
alternatives for each condition.
5. Fill in the condition alternatives. Start with the first condition and divide the number of columns
by the number of alternatives for that condition. For e.g., for 2 conditions, rhere are 8 rules.
Divide 8by 2 (2.). So write Y in four columns and N in remaining 4 columns as follows:
Conditionl: Y Y Y Y N N N N
Condition2: Y Y N N Y Y N N
Condition3: Y N Y N Y N Y N
According to the decision tree example let us see the decision table given below:
Actions
Conditions and Rules
12345678
Gradebetweenl0-l9 Y Y Y Y N N N N
Gradebetween2}-29 Y Y N N Y Y N N
Gradebetween3O-19 Y N Y N Y N Y N
Actions
Note:It is assumed that all employees exist.
6. Complete the table by inseming an X where rules suggest certain actions.
7. Combine rules where it is apparent that an alternative does not make a difference in the ourcome.
For e.9.,
Condition 1: Y Y
Condition 2: Y N
Action 1 X X
This can be expressed as:
Condition 1: Y
Condition 1:
Action 1 X
The dash () signifies that condition 2 can be either Y or N and the acrion will still be taken.
8. Check the table for any impossible situations, contradictions and any redundancies. According to
the earlier example, there are certain impossible situations and redundancies. Take rule 1, 2, 3
and 5. In all these rules, there are two Y's, actually speakinB a person cannot have two grades, he
has to be in a particular grade, so these rules have to be eliminated as it is an impossible situation.
The last rule says that an employee exists but then there is no grade given to that employee, here
there isa contradiction, so again this has to be eliminated.
9. Rearrange the conditions and actions (or even rules) if this makes the decision table more
understandable.
Note: The decision table for the example above has been explained in the limited entry table after
eliminating all impossible situations.
8.4.5 Type of Table Entries

There are three types of table forms:
. Limited-Entry Form
. Extended-Entry Form
. Mixed-Entry Form
Limited-Entryt Forrn
The basic table structure consists only of 'Y', 'N', and blank entries. This is a limited-entry form. It is
the most commonly used format.
'We
This decision table is made according to the example given in decision tree. have arrived at this
table after eliminating all the impossible situations, contradictions and redundancies. This has already
been explained.
Decision Table with Limited Entry form:

Table 8.2
1 2 3 4 5
Employee Exists Y Y Y Y N
Grade between 10-19 Y N N N
Grade between20-29 N Y N N
Grade between 30-39 N N Y N
Grade greater than 39 N N N Y
DA20o/o of Basit, HRA : 600 x

DA.2Q1o of Basic,HRA = 400 X
DA 0, : 40olo of Basic
HRA x
DA 0 HRA : 50o/o of Basic x
No Calculation x
In a limited entry decision table, the conditions are expressed as simple Yes or No questions, whereas
in an Extended Entry table, conditions have more rhar-rwo possible ,rr,"r.
Extended-Entry Form
The extended-entry form replaces Y and N with adion enrries, telling the reader how to decide. Here,
the condition and action statements themselves are not complete, th"erefore, the entries contain more
than one Yes and No.
In the extended entry form the condition is that,
if an employee exists and if he is in the marketing
department fMKT"i, he is eligible for commission. The commission is based on the total sales made
for the monrh and is calculated as follows:
If >:
sales 10OOO then commission is 20olo
If sales > : 5000 and < 10000 then commission is 10olo
If sales < 5000, commission is 0
The table is shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3
1 2 3 4 5
Employee Exists Y Y Y Y N
Departmeirt MKT MKT ADM MKT
Total sales 10,000 2000 5000
Commission applicable 20o/" 0 n.a. l0o/o n.a.
The decision table above, explains how the commission is given according to the sales per month.
According to these conditions, the actions have to be taken. In the, first rule, the person exists, he is in
the "MKT" department and his total sales is upto 1OOOO, so he is eligible for commission, he will get
commission 20o/o of sales amount.
In rule 3 the person is in "ADM" depanmenr, so he does not have any sales figure, so he is not eligible
for any commission as such.
Mixed-Entry Form
This form consists of combined features of limited and extended-entry forms. Generally, only one
form should be used in each section of the table, but between the condiiion and action ,..riorrr, .i h.,
form may be used.
Now, let us see an example of the mixed entry form, where there are various combination of
conditions and actions taken.
According to the company's rules and policies, following are rhe conditions and acrions to be taken:
For all employee in the grade 10-19 and those in marketing deparcment commission is calculated as follows:
If >:
sales 10000 rhen commission is 20olo
If sales > : 5000 and < 10000 then commission is 10olo
If sales < 5000, commission is 0

If the person is in any other department then he is not entitled for commission
Second condition is to check, if the employee is supposed to pay income tax. This is done as follows:
If the employee's salary ) : 50,000 - Tax applicable
If salary < 50000 - Tax not applicable
Tax is calculated for employees of all departments.
Table 8.4

I 2 3 4 5
Pepartment MKT MKT FIN FIN MKT

Grade 10 -19 Y Y Y Y Y
Salary 50, 000 p.a. Y N Y N N
Salary 50, 000 p.a. Y N Y Y
Total sales 20000 10000 3000
Commission applicable 20o/" l0o/" n.a. 11.a. 0
Income Tax applicable x X
Income Tax exempted X x x
INSERT table 6.4 FROM PAGE-127- PF-CRC-U-6
The decision table in Table 8.4 explains the following:

In the first rule, the person is in "MKT" department, the grade is between 10 and 19 andthe salary per
annum is more than 50,000 and sales is { 20,000. The action taken for this rule is - 2Oo/o commission is
given because he is in the marketing department and is applicable for income tax.
In rule 4, the employee is in Finance ("FIN") department, grade is between 10-19 and salary less than
50,000 per annum, so he is exempted from income tax and he is not given any commission as he is not
in the marketing department.
In rule 5, he is in the marketing department, his grade is between 10-19, he need nor pay income rax as
salary is less than 50,000, he is not given commission as his sales is only < 3OOO.
All these tables are made while design specifications are made. Each table is made according to a
required module and you can see how each table is designed and how actions are raken.
ELSE Form
This form aims at omitting repetition by using ELSE rules.
To build an ELSE form decision table:
o Specify the rules with condition entries, to cover all sets of actions except for one.
. This will be the rule to follow when none of the other explicit conditions are rnre.
. This rule is the final column on rhe right, rhe ELSE column.
. If none of the other conditions are true, then the ELSE decision rule is followed.
The ELSE rule eliminates the need to repeat condition that lead to the same acrions.
The conditions for the ELSE form is that the employees of marketing department are given
commission according to the total sales done.
The commission is given as follows:
If Sales : > 10000 then20o/o commission
If sales ) : 8000 and sales < 10000 then 15olo commission

If sales > = 5000 and sales < 8000 then 10olo commission
Else
If sales < 5000 thenlo/o commission

Table 8.5
1 2 3 4
Sales ) = 10000 N Y N E
Sales ) :8000and < 10000 Y N L
Sales>-5000and<8000 N Y S
E
Commission t5o/o 207o L?o/o 2o/o
The Else form decision table shown below, has an extra ELSE column. The ELSE is applicable for all
the marketing department employees who have made sales less than 5000.
The first rule tells us that the employee is in the marketing department, his sales amount is between
8000 and less than 10000, so he gets 15olo commission.
8.5 STRUCTURE CHARTS

Another structured programming tool is structure Charts that is discussed below.
A structure chart is a diagram consisting of rectangular boxes representing modules and connecting
arrows. Structure charts encourage top-down structured design and modularity. Top-down structured
design deals with the size and complexity of an application by breaking it up into a hierarchy of
modules that resuit in an application that is easier to implement and maintain.
Top-down design allows the systems analyst to judge the overall organizational objectives and how
they can be met in an overall system. Then, the analyst moves to dividing that system into subsystems
and their requirements. The modular programming concept is useful for the top-down approach: once
the top-down approach is taken, the whole system is broken into logical, manageable-sized modules,
or subprograms.
Modular design is the decomposition of a program or application into modules. A module is a group
of executable instructions (code) with a single point of entry and a single point of exit. A module could
be a subroutine, subprogram, or main program. It also could be a smaller unit of measure such as a
paragraph in a COBOL program.
Data passed between stnrcrure charr modules has either Data Coupling where only the data required
by the module is passed or Stamp Coupling where more data than necessary is passed between
modules.
The modules in a srructure chan fall into three categories:

. Control modules, determining the overall program logic
. Transformational modules, changing input into output
. Specialized modules, performing detailed, functional work
A lower level module should not be required to perform any function of the calling, higher level
module. This would be "improper subordination."
Modules are represented by rectangles or boxes that include the name of the module. The highest level
module is called the system, root, supervisor, or executive module. It calls the modules directly
beneath it which in turn call the modules beneath them.
A connection is represented by an arrow and denotes the calling of one module by another. The arrow
points from the calling (higher) module ro rhe called (subordinate) module.
Nore.'The stnrcture charts drawn in the Kendall and Kendall text book do not include the arrowhead
on the connections between modules. Kendall and Kendall draw plain lines between module boxes.
A data couple indicates that a data field is passed from one module ro another for operation and is
depicted by an arrow with an open circle at the end.
A flag, or control couple, is a data field (message, control parameter) that is passed from one module to
another and tested to determine some condition. Control flags are depicted by an arrow with a
darkened circle at the end. Sometimes a distinction is made between a conirol switch (which may have
two values, e.g., yes-no, on-off, one-zero, etc.) and a control flag (which may have more than two
values).
Modules that per:form input are referred to as afferent while those that produce ourpur are called
efferent.
A structure chart is a graphic tool that shows the hierarchy of program modules and interfaces
between them. Structure charts include annotations for data flowing between modules. An arrow from
a module P to module Q represents that module P invokes module
Q. Q ir called the subordinate of P
and P is called the super ordinate of Q. The arrow is labeled by the paramerers receives as inpurs by
e
and the parameters ret.rrned ,, o.rrpr, by Q with the appropriate diiection of flow. F. o
void main ()
{
avg-calculate_average ( a, n) ;
product=calculatejroduct (x, y) ;
)
fl.oaL calculat.e_average( float *x, int size)
t
130 Internet and its Applications M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E
float sum=0.0;
ant l-;
for ( i=0 ; i<size; i++ )
sum = sum + xlil;
return (sum,/size) ;
)
int cal-culatejroduct( int a, int b)
{
return(a * b) ;
)
Structure Chan of the Program Above is as follow:
calculate_average Calculate3roduct
Fill in the blanks:

G) A program flowchart is a ............
(b) An alternative method of representing program logic is a .......................
G) Mixed entry form consist of ..............
8.6 LET US SUM UP

A program flowchart is a pictorial representation of the logic required to accomplish a task. It includes
all necessary steps of a program. It is called a flowchart because it charts the flow of a program. It is a
symbolic representation of each input, orltput and processing step. An alternative method of
representing program logic is a pseudocode Instead of using symbols to represent the program logic
steps, a pseudocode uses statements which are a bridge between actual programming and ordinary
English. In a pseudocode, each step is written using a simple English phrase which is also called a
construct. A Decision Table is a table of rows and columns that shows conditions and actions.
'Decision Rules', include a decision table, states what procedure to follow when certain conditions
exist. After constructing a table, analysts verify it for correctness and completeness to ensure that the
table includes all the conditions, along with the decision rules that relate them to actions. A structure
chart is a diagram consisting of rectangular boxes representing modules and connecting arrows.
Structure charts encourage top-down stnrctured design and modularity. Top-down structured design
deals with the size and complexity of an application by breaking it up into a hierarchy of modules that
result in an application that is easier to implement and maintain.
8.7 KEY'$T/ORDS
Flowchart: A program flowchart is a pictorial representation of the logic required to accomplish a task
Pseudacodc..An alternative method of representing program logic is a pseudocode.
Decision Table: A Decision Table is a table of rows and columns that shows conditions and actions.
Structure Chart.. A structure chart is a diagram consisting of rectangular boxes representing modules
and connecting arrows.

L. Discuss the role of various programming tools with suitable examples.
2. A student for a test in 5 subjects. Each test is out of 100 marks. You have to calculate the
appears
percenrage of each student. Finally, issue grades depending upon the student's percentage. The
grades are given as under:
Percentage Grade
>:90 E
80-90 A+
70-79 A
60-69 B+
50-59 B
< 50 Fail
\7rite down the pseudo code and draw the flow chart for the above problem.
'Write a pseudo code that generates the first 20 numbers in the Fibonacci series.
3.
4. Draw the flowchart to find the factorial of a number given by the user.
5. '\7rite the pseudo code to calculate sum of all odd numbers in the range 20 to 50.
'What
6. are decision tables? Draw the decision table to calculate commission on sales.
The commission is given as follows:
If sales > :50000 rhen 25o/o commission
If sales > :30000 and sales < 50000 r.hen 20o/o commission
If sales > :10000 and sales < 30000 then 10o/o commission
else
If sales < 10000 then 5olo commission.

'What
7. are structure charts? Discuss the modules available in structure chan.
G) pictorial represenration of the logic required ro accomplish a task.

(b) pseudocode
G) combined features of limited and extended-entry forms.

Kenneth Leroy Busbee, Programming Fundamentak: A Modukr Structared Approacb,lJniversity press of Florida
Byron S. Gottfried, Scbaum's outline of theory and problems of programminguith Basic,McGraw-Hill
C. Joseph Sass, BASIC programming and applications, Lllynand Bacon
LESSON
9
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING ISSUES
CONTENTS
9.t Introduction
9.2 Criteria for a Good Program
9.2.1 Correctness
9.2.2 Reliability
9.2.3 Robustness
9.2.4 ExecutionEfficiency
9.2.5 Ease of Use
9.2.6 Maintainability
9.2.7 Ponability
9.2.8 VerificationwithValidation
9.2.9 Modularity
9.3 Let us Sum up
9.4 Keywords
9.0 AIMS AND OBIECTIVES

. Discuss strucrured programming issues
. Discuss correctness, reliability, etc.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Structured programming techniques imply, that the program development and coding must follow
a
top-down approach and structured programming constructs.
In this lesson we will discuss some crireria used for a good program.
9.2 CRITERIA FOR A GOOD PROGRAM

Following are some of the questions which can be asked to judge if a program is good:
. Does it solve the problem stated in the specification?
. Does it worh correctly under all conditions?
. Does it have proper documentation?
. Is it written using a modular approach?
. Does it make efficient use of computer time and memory?
These criteria's can be met automatically if sufficient thought and effort is invested in every stage of
program design.
Following are the objectives that must be keep in mind while writing a program:
9.2.1 Correctness
A program should produce output as per specification. It should conform to end user requirements i.e.
the user mu$ be satisfied with the output that is produced from the program. Hence correctness is a
very subjective term.
9.2.2 Reliability
A program should function accurately for a long period of time. It must also functions correctly over
all ranges and combination of data.
9.2.3 Robustness
A program must be developed in such a way that it can handle out of range data or exceptional data
without crashing. That is to say that if a program finds some piece of data which is not being handled
by the application than such data should be recognised and an error message should be flashed.
9.2.4 Execution Efficiency
A program should execute in small core memory and should process data fast.
9.2.5 Ease of Use
A program should be user friendly i.e. supported by menu options, good user documentation and
on-line help facility.
g.2.6Maintainability
There should be a sensible program stnrcture and use of standard language features so that it is easy to
understand, make changes and enhance.
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. Structured Programming Issues 135
9.2.7 Portability
A program should use standard features of an operating system, language compliers and separate
components dealing with data, peripherals and processing, so that the program can be executed on
different machines. However, some minor changes may have to be made, which are essentially
language dependent and cannot be avoided.
9.2.8 Verification with Validation

Like testing, verification is also intended to find errors. Executing a program in a simulated
environment to find errors performs it.
\7hen commercial systems are developed with the main aim of distributing them to dealers for sale
purposes, they first go through verification, sometimes called alpha testing. The feedback from the
validation phase generally brings some changes in the software to deal with errors and failure that are
uncovered. Then a set of user sites is selected for putting the system into use on a live basis.
9.2.9 Modularity
Modularity refers to the division of software into separate modules which are differently named and
addressed and are integrated later on in order to obtain the completely functional software. It is the
only property that allows a program to be intellectually manageable. Single large programs are difficult
to understand and read due to large number of reference variables, control paths, global variables, etc.
The desirable properties of a modular system are:
. Each module is a well defined system that can be used with other applications.
. Each module has a single specific purpose.
o Modules can be separately compiled and stored in a library.
. Modules can use other modules.
. Modules should be easier to use than to build.
. Modules are simpler from outside than inside.
Modularity thus enhances the clarity of design which in turn eases coding, testing, debugging,
documenting and maintenance of the software product.
It might seem to you that on dividing a problem into sub problems indefinitely, the effort required to
develop it becomes negligibly small. However, the fact is that on dividing the program into numerous
small modules, the effort associated with the integration of these modules grows. Thus, there is a
number N of modules that result in the minimum development cost. However, there is no defined
way to predict the value of this N.
In order to define a proper size of the modules, we need to define an effective design method to
develop a modular system. Following are some of the criteria defined by Meyer for the same:
. Modular Decornposabilit!: The overall complexity of the program will get reduced if the design
provides a systematic mechanism to decompose the problem into sub-problems and will also lead
to an efficient modular design.
. Modular Composabilitit; If a design method involves using the existing design componenrs while
creating a new system it will lead to a solution that does not re-invent the wheel.
. Modular Unfurstandabilig: lf a module can be understood as a separare standalone unit without
referring to other modules it will be easier to build and edit.
o Modular ContinuitTt: If a change made in one module does nor require changing all the modules
involved in the system, the impact of change-induced side effects gets minimized.
. Modul.ar Prctection: If an unusual event occurs affecting a module and it does not affect other
modules, the impact of error-induced side effects will be minimized.
One of the key concepts in the application of programming discipline is the design of a program as a
set of units referred to as blocks or modules. A'program module is defined as rhe part of a program
that performs a separate function, e.g., input, input validarion, processing of one type of inpu1. A
Program module may be quite large, so that it may be further divided into logical sub modules. The
Process of subdivision continues until all modules are of manageable size in terms of complexity of
logic and numbers of instructions.
Programs can be logically separated into the following functional modules:
1. Initialization
2. Input
3. Input data validation
4. Processing
5. Outpur
6. Error handling
7. Closing procedure
The modules reflect a logical flow for a computer program. After initialization, processing proceeds
logically with input, input validation, various processing modules, and output. Error handling may be
required during execution of any module.
Basic Attributes
A module is a collection of program srarements with five basic artribures:
. Input
o Output
. Function
. Mechanism
. Internal data
Control Rel.ationship between Modules
The structure charts show the interrelationships of modules by arranging them at different levels and
connecting modules in those levels by arrows. An arrow between two modules means the program
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Structured Programming Issues 137
conrrol is passed from one module to the other at execution time. The first module is said to call or
invoke the lower level modules.
There are three rules for controlling the relationship between modules:
l. There is only one module at the top of the structure. This is called the root or boss module.
2. The root passes control down the structure chart to the lower level modules. However, control is
always returned to the invoking module and a finished module should always terminate at the
root.
3. There can be no more than one control relationship between any two modules on the structure
chart, thus, if module A invokes module B, then B cannot invoke module A.
C ommunication b e tp e en Mo du le s
Two types of informations are passed between modules:

l. Data : Shown by an arrow with empty circle at its tail.
2. Control : Shown by a filled-in circle at the end of the tail of arrow.
Mo dule D e s ign Rc q aire ments
A hierarchical (or modular) stnrcture should present many advantages in management, developing,
resting, and maintenance. However, such advantages will occur only if modules fulfill the following
requirements.
I. Coupling: Coupling means the strength of relation between the modules in a system so that
change in one module has limited effect on any other module. It means that coupling should be
minimized.
2. Cohesion: Cohesion means stren$h of relations within the module. It means cohesion should be
maximized.
3. Span of Control: It means number of modules subordinate to calling module. Limit of span of
control may vary from 5 to 7 modules.
4. Siry: The number of instructions contained in a module should be limited as that module size is
small.
5. Shared Use.. Functions should not be duplicated in separated modules, but established in a single
module that can be invoked by any other module when needed.
Your P
t. Define communications between modules.

2. Define verification.
9.3 LET US SUM UP

Structured programming techniques imply, that the program development and coding must follow a
top-down approach and structured programming constructs. Sequence indicates that if there is no
intervening control structure, the flow of control normally passes from one instruction to the next, in
sequence. Selection indicates a decision, from among several oprions Repetition or looping consrrucrs
occur, when a set of instructions are to be repeated several times.
A.program should produce output as per specification. A program should function accurately for
a long period of time. There should be a sensible program structure and use of standard lrrrj.r"g.
features so that it is easy to understand, make-changes and enhance. A program shorrli rrl.
standard features of_ an operating system, language compliers and separar. .oriporrents dealing
with data, peripherals and processing, so that the program can be execrrted on difftrent machineJ
Like testing, verification is also intended to find eirors. Executing a program in a simulated
environment to find errors performs it. Modularity refers to the division of
-fr*r.. into separate
modules which are differently named and addressed and are inregrated later on in order to obta^in the
completely functional software. It is the only prope rty that .ilo*, a program to be intellectually
manageable.
9.4 KEY\TORDS
Modularity: Modularity refers to the division of software into separate modules which are differently
named and addressed and are integrated later on in order to obtain the completely functional soft*are.
Veification: Verification is intended to find errors.

Coupling: Coupling m9ans, the strength of relation berween the modules in a system so rhar change in
one module has limited effect on any other module. It means that coupling should be minim^zed.
Cohesion: Cohesion means strength of relations within the module. It means cohesion should be
maximized.
e.s QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSTON

1. Discuss the criteria for a good program.
2. lwhat are the differenr types of objectives

considered while writing the program?
3. \7hat is modularity? Discuss some criteria's relared to modularity.
4. \What are Module Design Requirements?
Discuss.
5. Differentiate berween cohesion and coupling.

1. Two types of informations are passed between modules:
i.. Data : Shown by an arrow with empty circle at its tail.

ii. Control : Shown by a filled-in circle ar the end of the tail of arrow.
2. Like testing, verification is also intended to find errors. Executing a program in a
simulated environment to find errors performs it. \fhen .o^-"r.iri ,yrr"-,
"r.
developed with the main aim of distributing them to dealers for sale p.rrpor"r, they first
go through verification, somerimes called alpha testing.
Structured Programming Issues 139

of Florida
Kenneth Leroy Busbe e, Prograrnrning Fundamentak: A Modular Structured Approdcb,IJniversity Press
Byron S. Gottfried, Schaum's outline of tbeory and problems of programminguith Basic,McGraw-Hill

C. Joseph Sass, Br{S/Cprogramming and applications, Allyn and Bacon
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Problem Solving Approaches and Testing Methods 141
10.1 INTRODUCTION
To solve a computation problem, its solution mu$ be specified in terms of sequence of computational
stePs such that they are effectively solved by a human agenr or by a digital compurer. -o-prrt.,
understandable notation for the specification of such a sequence of computational steps is referredto as
programming language.
Software testing is a critical element of software quality assurance and resenrs the final review of
specification, design, and code. The source-code once generated needs to be tested for bugs and defects
to get rid of maximum errors before the software is sent to the cusromer. Tesr cases are designed with
an aim to find errors.
During initial stages of testing, a software engineer performs all the resrs. However, ar later stages a
specialist may be involved. Tests must be conducted to find the highest possible number of errors,
must be done systematically and in a disciplined way. Testing involves checking both the internal
program logic and the software requiremenrs.
10.2 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACHES

The specification of the sequence of computational steps in a parricular programming language is
termed as a program. The task of developing programs is called programming and the person engaged
in programming activity is called programmer.
Algoithm
Every problem has some given information and some results are ro be obtained. But the quesrion is
that what procedure should be applied to the given information so that we can get the required result;
The develoPment of a proper procedure is called Algorithm. The following examples would explain
algorithm more effectively.
e.g.: obtain the percentage of marks obtained by a student in an examination.
Solution: In the problem maximum marks and marks obtained is given. The required result is
percentage of marks and the formula used is
o/o
of marks
An approximate algorithm for the problem can be as follows:
Step 1 Read name, marks obtained, and maximum marks.
Step 2 Divide marks obtained by maximum marks and store it in Per.

Step 3 Multiply Per. by 100 to ger percenrage.
Step 4 \7rite name and percentage.
Step 5 Stop.
Rules for Deoeloping Algoritbm
There are no set rules for developing algorithms. \7hile writing an efficient algorithm, the following
points must be kept in mind:
L. Every procedure should carefully specify the input and ourpur requiremenrs.
2. Meaning of variables should be clearly defined.
3. The flow of program should generally be forward except for normal looping and unavoidable
instance.
10.2.1Top-down Design
The top-down design approach is based on the fact that large problems become more manageable if
they are divided into a number of smaller and simpler tasks which can be tackled separately. What is
really required is that each of these parts have the properries of a module.
Top-down design approach is performed in a special way. The main program is written firsr. Ir is
tested before sub programs are written. To do this, the actual sub programs are replaced with stubs.
The stubs simply test to see if the data is passed correctly. After the main program is written and
checked, each module is written and tested in turn. This should first be done without rhe main
Program in order to isolate a stub if an error occurs. A simple main program is written to resr the sub
Programs. U the modules run properly, then it is tested with the main program. If the module and the
main program run properly, then the next module is written and checked and so on. To describe the
Program at its highest level, we use something called the universal program. The proces s of. stepuise
refi.nement work out the details of each part of the program.
Aduantages
L. At each stage, the sub programs are tested by themselves and then the main program is tested.
'tVhenever
modules are added, they are tested with the main program, hence, if. any error occurs ir
will probably be in a module only and this will be easy to debug.
2. It is desirable for modules to be kept small in general. As far as possible a module should be less
than 100lines long.
10.2.2 Bottom-up Design

A bottom-up approach would be to write the most basic subrourines in rhe hierarchy first and then
use them to make more sophisticated subroutines. The pure bottom-up approach is generally not
recommended because it is difficult to anticipate which low level subroutines will be needed f.or any
particular program. It can often be a useful first step to produce a library of basic functions and
procedures before embarking on a major project.
In the bottom-up approach it is usually assumed that the basic routines creared will be general enough
to be used more than once. Using the subroutines, to construct a program, save yourself repeating the
same lines of code by reusing it. A routine that is used many times has a very difficult srarus ro rhose
higher in the hierarchy. It is more like a basic instruction in the programming language than a large
scale program component.
10.2.3 Brute Force Approach

Brute force approach is a straight forward approach.to solve the problem. It is directly based on the
problem statement and the conceprs.
. It is one of the simplest algorithm design to implement and covers a wide range of problems under
its gamut
. Brute force is a simple but a very costly technique
o Example: Breaking Password.
One approach in optimization is straightforward and requires considerable computation power: brute
force methods which try to calculate all possible solutions and decide afterwards which one is the best.
These methods are feasible only for small problems (in terms of the dimensionality of the phase space),
since the number of possible states of the system increases exponentially with the number of
dimensions. In the case of continuous predictor variables, the number of states is infinite. Despite these
drawbacks, brute force methods do have a few benefits: they are simple to implement, and in the case
of discrete systems, all possible states are checked.
As a consequence, brute force methods are often seen as reference methods for calculating the number
of stares, or the number of calculations necessary to find the optimum with a probability of 100o/o.
Hence, it can be used for the estimation of the effort to solve a problem.
The implemenration of brute force algorithms is rather simple. In fact, one only has to try out all
possible sratesof a system. If this is not possible, because the system is described by continuous
variables, one has to try all possibilities according to a certain definition of precision for each
continuous variable.
Example:
Consider a system which is controlled by 3 continuous predictor variables: x1 to xr: if x,, and xr need a
resolurion of ZOO intervals, and r has to be discretized using 1,000 steps, the resulting number of
calculations in a brute force approach will be 200 times 1,000 times 200 = 40,000,000.
10.3 TESTING FUNDAMENTALS

Testing software can be considered the only destructive (psychologically) step in the entire life cycle
as
of software production. Although all the initial activities aimed at building a product, the testing is
done to find errors in software.
10.3.1 Obiectives of Testing

o Executingaprogram in order to find errors.
. A good resr case is the one that has a high probability of finding an undiscovered error.
o A successful test is the one that reports an as-vet undiscovered error.
. The objective while designing tests is to come up with the test cases that systematically uncover
different classes of errors in minimum possible time and effort.
1,0.3.2 Benefits of Testing

. It reveals the errors in the software.
o It ensures rhat software is functioning as per specifications and it meets all the behavioral
requirements as well.
The data obtained during testing is indicative of software reliability and

' quality as a whole.
It indicates presence of errors and not absence of errors.
'
I 0.3.3 Testing Principles
Before coming up with ways to design efficient test cases, one musr
understand the basic principles of
testing:
t' Test must be traeeable to requirements, Becaus" ,of,*r.. testing reveals errors, so,
cases
the severe
defects will
be those that prevent the program from acting as per rh"e cusromer's
expecrations and
requirements.
2' Test
.planning
must be done before beginning testing. Test planning can begin soon after
the
requirements specification is complete and the detailed t.rt .ri", .rn
b" develoied after the d"sig,
has been fixed.
3' Pareto pinciple applies to solfttaare testing. Pareto principle smres rhat 80 percent
of the uncovered
errors during testing will likely be traceable to 26 p.r.ent of all th. p.ogrr-
components. Thus,
the main aim is to thoroughly test these 20 percenr .o-porr.rr,s after ia.irifyirrg
the*.
4' Testing should begin with small and end in targe. The initial tests planned
and carried our are
usually individual comPonents and as testing p-gr.rr", the aim shifts to find
errors i" irrr.grri.J
components of the system as whole rather than individual componenrs.
5' Exhaustiae testing is impossible. For.a
.normal sized program the number of permutations of
execution paths is very huge. Thus, it is impossibl" to all the combinations possible. Thus,
while designing a test case it should be keft in minds"*...rt"
that it musr cover the maximum logic anj
the componenrJevel design.
6' Eficient testing can be conducted only bit a third pany. The highest probability
of finding errors
exists when the tesring is not carriedly th. p.nf*hi.h J"r.lo!,
th. ,yrt"-.
A program developed should be testable i.e. it should be possible ro resr the program.
The testability of
a Program can be measured in terms of few proglqjes like, operability,
observ"ability, controllabiiity,
decomposability, simplicity, stability, rnd"rsianiability, etc.
The test also, must also comply with the characteristics of a good test case. These characteristics are
mentioned here:
The probability of finding error should be high. In order to achieve rhis, tesrer
' the actual functionality of the software and thirk of a suitable condition ,irr,
must undersrand
.r., lead to failure of
the software.
A test case must be non-redundant. Because the testing time and resources are limired,
' a lot of time to conduct the same test again and again. ivery
it will waste
resr musr have a distinct purpose.
o A test case must-be of the best quality. In a group of similar tesr cases, the one that coyers
the
maximum scenarios to uncover maximum should only be used.
"rro^
A good test case should neither be too simple nor roo complex. A complex
' several other tests can lead to masking of
resr rhar includes
Thus, each t.ri.rr. should L" e*"c,rted separately.
"rro.r.
10.4 TEST CASE DESIGN

The designing of tests for software can be as challenging as the initial design of the product itself. Thus,
software engineers must design test cases that have highest probability of finding defects within
minimum time and effort.
A lot of methods exist to design test cases. These methods ensure systematic developmenr of test cases,
completeness and highest likelihood of finding errors.
A product can be tested in two ways: (1) Knowing the specified function that a product has been
designed to perform; tests can be done to ensure that these functions are existing and that too without
errors; (2) Knowing the internal workings of a product the tests can be performed ro ensure that all the
internal operations are being performed as per specifications and all internal components have been
adequately built. The fi'rst approach is called black-box testinB and the second, white-box testing.
Black-box testing of software refers to tests that are conducted at the software interfaces. These kinds
of tests ensure that software functions are operational, input is accepted properly and output is
correctly produced and that the external information e.g., database is maintained. It does not deal in
depth with the internal logic of the program.
'\tr7hite-box
testing works on the principle of closely monitoring the procedural details of the software.
All the logical paths of the software are tested using test cases for specific conditions and loops. The
actual results are compared with the expected results to ensure that rhe correct results are produced as
a result of the functions being performed.
Test Case ID
Purpose
Pre-conditions
Inputs
Expected outputs
Post-conditions
Execution History
Date
Result
Version
Run by
Figure 10.1: Typical Test Case Information
10.5 \UTIHITE.BOX TESTING

'White-box
testing or glass-box testing is a test case design method rhar uses the control srnrcture of the
procedural design to obtain test cases. Using this methodology, a sofrware engineer can come up with
test cases that:
1. Guarantee that all independent paths within a module have been exercised ar least once;
2" Exercise all the logical decisions based on their true and false sides;
3. Executing all loops at their boundaries and within them; and

4. Exercise internal data structures to ensure their validity.
The reason of conducting white-box testing largely depends upon rhe narure of defects in software:
o Logic errors and incorrect assumptions are inversely proportional ro rhe probability that a
program path will be executed.
o \We often believe that a logical path is not likely to be executed when, in fact, it may be executed
on a regular basis.
. Typographical errors are random
Each of these reasons provides an argument for conducting white-box resrs. Black-box resring might
miss out these kinds of errors.
10.6 BLACK.BOX TESTING

Black"box testing or behavioral testing, mainly focuses on the functional requirements of the sofrware.
It enables the software engineer to develop a set of inputs rhat can fully involve all the functional
requirements for a program. It is not an alternative approach to white-box testing. Rather, it completes
the testing by uncovering differenr rypes of errors than the white-box approach.
Input test data Output test data
Figure 10.2: Black Box Testing

This approach attempts to find errors in the following categories:
1,. Incorrect or missing functions
2. Interface related errors
3. Errors in data structures or database accesses
4. Performance related errors

5. Initialization and terminarion errors.
This technique is applied at a later stage unlikely to the white-box resting approach. Using this
technique, we can arrive at tesr cases thar satisfy the following criteria:
1. test cases that reduce the total test cases by a large quantity to achieve reasonable resting and
2. test cases that tell us something about the presence or absence of a variety of errors rather than a
particular kind of error.
The techniques are as below:
70.6.1, Boundary Value Analysis

The art of testing is to come up with a small set of test cases such that the chances of detecting an error
are maximized while minimizing the chances'of creating redundant tesr cases that uncover similar
errors. It has been observed that the probability of finding errors increases if the test cases are designed
to check boundary values.
Consider a function F with x and y as two input variables. These inputs will have some boundaries:
a(:x(:b
P<:y<:q
Hence, inputs x and y are bounded by two intervals [a,b] and [p,q] respectively. For x, we can design
test cases with values a and b, just above a and b and just below a and b which will have higher chances
to detect errors. Similar is the case for y. This is represented in the Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3: Input Domain of a Function of Two Variables

Boundary value test cases are obtained by keeping one variable ar irs exrreme and the other at its
nominal value' At times we might want to check the behavior when the value of one variable exceeds
its maximum. This is called robustness testing. Ve may also include tesr cases to check what happens
when more than one variable have maximum values. This is called worst case analysis. Using-prior
testing knowledge and experience to test similar programs is called ad-boc testing.
10,6.2 Equivalence Class Testing

In this method of testing, input domain of a program is divided into a finite number of equivalence
classes such that the test of a representative value of each class is equivalent ro a rest of any other value.
i.e. if a test in a class detects one error all other test cases belonging ro rhe same class musr derect the
same error. Also, if a test case in a class did not detect an error the other test cases of the same class also
should not detect the error. This method of testing is implemented using the following rwo sreps:
l. The equivalence class is identified by taking each input condition and dividing it into valid and
invalid classes.
2. Developing test cases using the classes identified. This is done by writing rest cases covering all the
valid equivalence classes and a single case for invalid equivalence class.
Again good test cases will be those that check for boundary value condition.
148 Internet and its Applications M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E
10.6.3 Decision Table based Testing

Decision tables are useful for describing situations in which a number of combinations of actions are
taken under varying sets of conditions. There are four parts of a decision table namely, Condition
stub, Action stub, Condition entries and Action entries. These are described in Figure 10.4.
Condition Stub Entry

C1 True False
C2
True False True False
C3
True False True False True False
Action Stub A1 x x x
A2 x x x
A3
x X
A4
x x x
Figure 10.4: Decision Table Terminology
To develop test cases from decision tables, we treat conditions as input and actions as outputs.
Sometimes conditions end up referring to equivalence classes of inputs, and actions refers to major
functional processing portions of the item being tested.
70.5.4 Cause Effect Graphing Technique

One drawback of boundary value analysis and equivalence partitioning is that these they do not
explore combinations of input circumstances which may result in interesting conditions. These
situations must be tested. If we consider all possible valid combinations of equivalence classes, then it
results in a large number of test cases, many of which may not uncover any undiscovered errors.
This technique helps in selecting, in a systematic approach, a high-yield set of test cases. It is also useful
in pointing out incompleteness and ambiguities in the specifications. The following steps are used to
derive test cases:
t. The causes and effects are identified. A cause is a distinct input condition and effects are output
conditions or a system transformation. These are identified by reading the specification and
identifying the words or phrases that describe causes and effects. Each cause and effect is assigned a
unique number.
2. The semantic content of specification is studied and transformed into a Boolean graph linking the
This is the cause effect graph.
causes and effects.
3. The graph is annotated with constraints describing combinations of causes and/or effects that are
impossible because of syntactic or environmental constraints.
4. By methodically tracing state.conditions in the graph, the graph is converted into a limited entry
decision table. Each column in the graph represents a test case.
5. The columns in the decision table are converted into test cases. The basic notation for the graph is
shown in Figure 10.5.
ffi ffi
Figure 10.5: Basic Cause Effect Graph Symbols

Think of each node as having values either 0 or 1, where 0 represents the 'absent state' and 1 represents
the 'present state'. The identity function states that if cr is 1, er is 1; else er is 0. The NOT function
states that if c, is 1, er is 0 and vice versa. The OR function states that if c1 or c2 or cs is 1, er is 1 else er
is 0. The AND function states that if both c, and cz are !, er is 1 else e, is 0. The AND and OR
functions can have any number of inputs.
Your
t. 'What is Cause Effect Graphing Technique?
2. Define Decision Table based Testing.
1,0.7 LET US SUM UP

Every problem has some given information and some resulm are to be obtained. But the question is that
what procedure should be applied to the given information so that we can get the required result. The
development of a proper procedure is called Algorithm. The top-down design approach is based on the fact
that large problems become more manageable if they are divided into a number of smaller and simpler
tasks which can be tackled separately. Vhat is really required is that each of these pans have the properties
of a module. A bottom-up approach would be to write the most basic subroutines in the hierarchy first and
then use them to make more sophisticated subroutines. The pure bottom-up approach is generally not
recommended because it is difficult to anticipate which low level subroutines will be needed for any
particular program. Brute force approach is a straight forward approach to solve the problem. One
approach in optimization is straightforward and requires considerable computation power: brute force
methods which try to calculate all possible solutions and decide afterwards which one is the best.
Testing software can be considered as the only destructive (psychologically) step in the entire life cycle
of software production. Although all the initial activities aimed at building a product, the testing is
done to find errors in software. \7hite-box testing or glass-box testing is a test case design method that
uses the control structure of the procedural design to obtain test cases. Black-box testing or behavioral
testing, mainly focuses on the functional requirements of the software. It enables the software engineer
to develop a set of inputs that can fully involve all the functional requirements for a program.
10.8 KEY\TORDS
white-box Testing: \7hite-box resring or glass-box resring is a resr case design method
that uses the
control srructure of the procedural design io obtain t.rt .r-r.r.
Black-box Testing: Black-box resring or behavioral testing, mainly focuses on the
functional
requirements of the software.
Top'down Design: The design approach is based on rhe fact that large problems become more
.top-down
manageable if they are divided into a number of smaller and simpler tasks which".."
U. tackled separately.
BVA: The art of testing is to come up with a small set of test cases such that the chances
of deteaing an error
are maximized while minimizing the chances of creating redundant resr
ciles that uncover similar errors.
Brute Force Approach: It is a straight forward approach to solve the problem.
Equiaalence Cl.ass Testing: In this method of testing, input domain of a program
is divided into a finite
number of equivalence classes such that the test of , ,.ir"r.ntative ,alrre of-each class
is equivalent to a
test of any other value.
Deeision Tables: These are useful for describing situations in which a number of combinations of
actions are raken under varyingsets of conditioni.
10.e QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSION

l' \rhat is an algorithm? Give example. Discuss the rules for developing an algorithm.
2. Vhat is top design approach? Give its advantages.
3. \7hat is brute force approach? How ir is used as a problem solving approach?

4. Vhat is testing? Discuss the objectives of testing.
5. Discuss the basic principles of testing used to design efficient resr cases.
6. Differentiate between white box testing and black box tesring.
7. Differentiate between Boundary Value Analysis and Equivalence class resring.

1' This technique helPs in selecting, in a systematic approach, a high-yield set of test cases.
Ir
is also useful in pointing out incompleteness ,rrd ,rrriigrrities in t"he'specifications.
2. Decision tables are useful for describing situations in which a number of combinations
of
actions are taken under varying sets of conditions. There are four parts of a decision
table
namely, Condition stub, Action stub, Condition entries and Action enrries.

Kenneth Leroy Busbe e, Programming Fundamentals: A Modular Structured Approach,lJniversrty press
of Florida
Byron S. Gottfried, Schaum's outline of theory and problems of programmingwith Basic,McGraw-Hill
C. Joseph Sass, BlSlCprogramming and applications, Allynand Bacon.

UNIT IV
LESSON
tt
CLIENT.SIDE AND SERVER.SIDE PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
CONTENTS
11.1 Introduction
It.2 Client-side Scripting Languages and Server-side Scripting Languages
ll.2.l Client-sideLanguages
tL.2.2 Server-side Languages
It.3 Variable Declaration and "Dim" Statement

It.4 \florking with Date and Time
tl.4.t Creating and Initializing a Date
It.4.2 Accessing the Date and Time in a Date Variable
t1.4.3 Formatting Dates and Times

t1.4.4 Adjusting a Date or Time
11.4.5 Retrieving Pans of a Date or Time
It.4.6 Finding the Interval between Two Dates or Times
11.4.7 Accessing the System Date and Time
11.4.8 Checking if a Value is a Valid Date
11.5 Using Mathematical Operators

11.5.1 Addition
t1.5.2 Subtraction and Negation
11.5.3 Multiplication
11.5.4 Division
11.5.5 Exponentiation
11.5.6 Remainder Operator
11.5.7 AssignmentOperator
It.6 Using Mathematical Functions
It.7 Using Conditional Statements
tt.7.t rf - Then
11.7.2 If - Then - Else
11.7.3 Multiple (Nested) If - Then Statements
Contd..
11.7.4 If - Then - Elseif Statement

I1.7.5 Select..Case Statement
11,.7.6 Nested Select-case
11.7.7 Select-case with Multiple Options (OR)
11.7.8 Select-case with Multiple Options (AND)
11.8 Let us Sum up
Ll.9 Keywords
11.0 AIMS AND OB ECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you q/ill be able to:
Discuss the concepr of client-side and server-side programming
languages
Discuss declaring variables
Understand working with date and time

Discuss using mathematical operarors and functions
Discuss using conditional staremenrs
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the computer networking environment client server model
is used. server compurer (also called a
host computer) .o-prt., orl
is 4 LUurPuLsr
LUrl rJ on rnethe nerworK
network that provtdes
provides information and services to client
rnformation
' manages network resources.
computers' Server also For example, a file server is a computer and
storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on
the network can srore files on rhe server. A print
server is a computer that manages one or more printers,
and a network seryer is a computer that
manages network traffic. A database server is a comp.rter
sysrem that process", drirb.r" queries.
The client comPuters- are the systems who needs the services
of server computer. The term ,,client,,
was first applied to devices that were not capable of running
their own stand-alone programs, but
could interact with remote computers ,i, a network. These "dumb"
terminals were clients of the
time-sharing mainframe computer. The clienr-server model
distinguisher .li;;-ryrrems from seryer
systems, which communicate over a computer network.
A clieniserv* ,ppli;r;ion is a distributed
system comprising both client and server software.
A client rofr*rr"-ffi"r, -ry initiate a
commuriication session, while the server waits for requests
from any client.
The client/server model has become one of the central ideas
of network computing. Most business
applications being written- today use the client/serve,
-od.l. so does the Interner's main program,
TCP/P' In marketin8, the term has bee.n used_to distinguish distributed computing by smaller
dispersed computers from the "monolithicu. centralized
.o-fr.rtirg of mainframe computers. But this
distinction has largely. disappeared as mainframes and their
applications have also turned to the
client/server model and become part of network .o-prrtirrg.---
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Client-side and Server-side Programming Languages 155
In the usual networking environment, one server, sometimes called a daemon, is activated and awaits
client requests. Typically, multiple client programs share the services of a common server program.
Both client programs and server programs are often part of alarger program or application.
'tVe
propose that all client/server systems have the following distinguishing characteristics:
. primarily a relationship between processes running on separate machines.
Sentice: Client/server is
The server process is a provider of services. The client is a consumer of services. In essence,
client/server provides a clean separation of function based on the idea of service.
a Shared resources: A server can service m^ny clients at the same, time and regulate their access to
shared resources.
o Asymmetrical protocol: There is a many-to-one relationship between clients and server. Clients
always initiate the dialog by requesting a, service. Servers are passively awaiting requests from the
clients.
. Transparenclt of location: The server is a process that can reside on the same machine as the client
or on a different machine across a network. Client/server software usually masks the location of
the server from the clients by redirecting the service calls when needed. A program can be a client,
a server, or both.
o Mix-and-match: The ideal client/server software is independent of hardware or operating system

software platforms. You should be able to mix-and-match client and server platforms.
o Message-based exchanges: Clients and servers-are loosely coupled systems that interact through a
message-passing mechanism. The message is the delivery mechanism for the service requests and replies.
. Eneapsulation of seraices; The server is a "specialist." A message tells a server what service is
requested; it is then up to the server to determine how to get the job done. Servers can be upgraded
without affecting the clients as long as the published message interface is not changed.
o Scalabilitjt; Client-server systems can be scaled horizontally or vertically. Horizontal scaling means
adding or removing client workstations with only a slight performance impact. Vertical scaling
means migrating to a larger and faster server machine or multi servers.
o Integitg; The server code and server data is centrally maintained, which results in cheaper
maintenance and tile guarding of shared data integrity. At the same time, the clients remain
personal and independent.
11.2 CLIENT.SIDE SCRIPTING LANGUAGES AND SERVER.SIDE

SCRIPTING LANGUAGES
Sflhen a user requests a website by typing URL in address bar of browser, the request is admitted by
the web server which hosts that site. 'Web Server performs some code to complete client request and
produce output. The code which is implemented at server end is called server-side script and computer
languages used to write this script are called server-side scripting languages. Examples of server-side
scripting languages are CGI, ASP and PHP.
The reaction or output of web server is send to requesting client. This'response consists of HTML and
some other script. The HTML is provided by browser. Browser also performs the script received from
server. This script or small program implanted in HTML is called Client-side script and we can write
this script in client-side scripting languages. Client-side scripr is used for client-side validarion and other
oPerations such as drop down menus, moving fonts. For example when user fills in an entry form,. ro
ensure that user has typed all necessary fields we require to write code to verrfy this before saving it in
database. This validation code can be written to execure on server-side or client*ide. If we wriie this
code in client-side scripting language this will save time and traffic load between server and client.
Examples of client-side scripting language are JavaScript and VB Script.
11.2.1 Client-side Languages

All web pages (well, almost) are printed with HTML. HTML is a markup language, which
fundamentally permits you to format content, place images, rables, etc. In mod.rr, y-.rrr, ,r.*
languages are coming up, which harmonize HTML:
. CJJ. CSS is a language that assists you separate conrenr and formatting. It's not a programming
language, but it helps you classify text and imaging formatting for your io.rt.rrt mor. simply than
HTML does.
. Jauasdpi: A script language that assists you make your pages more vibrant. Simple uses involve
dynamic menus and effects. You can write complicated sofrware using Javascript, see the
'Asynchronous web' part below.
. Other sctipting languages: There are more options for client-side scripting, such as VBScript. But
these are less common then Javascript
All of these languages are actually part of the HTML page, they just make it better. \ile'll discuss them
later on.
11.2.2 Server-side Languages

There are many server-side languages. Most of them are used to the similar purpose - ro generare
software (an executable, or script) that runs on the server-side, and produce a HTtvtt page
foerhaps
with CSS and Javascript, too). Common languages include:
o PHP; An oPen source language, which seems to be the most popular server-side scripting language
today.
. ,4JP; Active Server Pages, Microsoft own language.
. ,AJP.NEII'The new generation of ASP. It will run as a Dot Net runrime, on the server machine.
. JJP; Java server pages - like ASP, but written in Java.
These are the type of languages that permit you to build complicated web sites, such as Amazon.com.
Typically they will interact with a Database to save and retrieve data. Common databases are MySeL
for the oPen source world, SQLServer from Microsoft, and of course Oracle and all rhe rest.
11.3 VARIABLE DECLARATION AND ''DIM'' STATEMENT

This section offers a quick foreword of what is a variable and how variable can be declared explicitly
with a Dim statement and implicidy with an assignment sraremenr.
Like many other programming languages, VBScript uses variables to ser aside memory to store data
and to name that memory location.
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Client*ide and Server-side Programming Languages 157
A variable must be declared with a name and a particular data type. Since VBScript supports only one
datatype, Variant, all variables will be declared as Variant by default. Here are some rules on variable
declaration:
1. Explicit Declaration - A variable is declared with the "Dim" statement in the following syntax:
Dim variable_name, ...
where "variable_name" is a text label to recognize this variable. Multiple variables can be declared
with single "Dim" statement. The data type of this variable will be Variant.
Note that, in Visual Basic, you are permitted to identify a panicular data type in the Dim
sratement, because multiple data types are supported in Visual Basic. So the subsequent statement
is valid in Visual Basic:
Dim author As String ' Allowed in Visual Basic

But in VBScript, you are not permitted to identify the data type in a Dim statement. So
statements below are not valid in VBScript:
Dim author As String ' Not allowed in VBScript
Dim buffer As Variant ' Not allowed in VBScript
2. Impticit Decl.aration - A variable name is used on the left side of an assignment statement without
being declared before. The data type of an implicitly declared variable is "Variant". Here are some
examples of variable implicit declaration:
author - "Herong" ' Implicit declaration of "author"
buffer : I/3'Implicit declaration of "buffer"
Just in case you want to know, "Dim" stands for "Dimension".
Some rules about variable names:
. A variable name must begin with an alphabetic character. For example, "price" is a valid variable
name. But "$price" is not a valid variable name.
o The dot character (.) can not be used in a variable name. For example, "my.price" is not a valid
variable name.
a Variable names are case insensitive. For example, "author" and "Author" are the same variable name.
. VBScript reserved keywords can not be used as variable names. For example, "empty" can not be
used as a variable name.
11.4 \T/ORKING \TITH DATE AND TIME

Applications need to be able to access and work with date and time values. Many applications are
*iiit.r, for business and scientific purposes, where recording the date and time of the program run is
vital to the success of the project. Visual Basic includes the date and time functions described below.
VBScript supports the following normally used date and time functions:
. CDate(vVariant) - Converts a valid date and time expression to the variant of subtype Date
. Date$ - Returns the current system date
158 Internet and its Applications M.s. University _ D.D.C.E.
o DateAdd(sTyPe, ilnterval, tDate) - Returns a date to which a specified time interval has been
added
o DateDiff(tD atel, tDate2) - Returns the number of intervals between rwo

dares
. DatePart(sType, tDate) - Returns the specified part of a given date
o DateSerial(iYear, iMonth, iDate) - Returns the date for a specifi ed, year,month, and. day
. DateValue(vVariant) - Rerurns a date
Day(tDate) - Returns a number that represents the day ofthe month (between
' L and,3L,inclusive)
o FormatDateTime(tDate, iType) - Returns an expression formatted as a date
or time
o Hour(tDate) - Returns a number that represents the hour of the day (between
o and23,inclusive)
o IsDate(vvariant) - Returns a Boolean value that indicates if the evaluated expression can be
converted to a date
o Minute(tDate) - Returns a number that represents the minure of the hour (between 0
and 59,
inclusive)
o Month(tDate) - Returns a number that represents the month of the year (betwe en r and. L2,
inclusive)
. MonthName(iMonth) - Rerurns the name of a specified month
I NowQ - Returns the current system date and time
o Second(tDateo - Returns a number that represents the second of rhe minute (between
inclusive)
o and, 59,
o TimeQ - Returns the current system time

o TimerQ - Returns the number of seconds since 12:00 AM
o TimeSerial(iHour, iMinute, iSecond) - Returns the time for a specific
hour, minure, and second
e TimeValue(tDate) Returns a time
'
\x/eekday(tDate) - Returns a number that represenrs rhe day of the week (between
I and 7,
inclusive)
\VeekdayName(i\TeekDay) - Returns the weekday name of a specified d,ay o{the week
'
o Year(tDate) - Returns
a number that represents the year
Date data type not only provides a place to store a date but
also performs many tasks on a Date variable,
such as adding or subtracting time, comparing dates and obtaining
the System date and time.
11.4.7 Creating and Initializing a Date

A visual Basic Date can be created in the same way any other variable
is created. For example the
following visual Basic code excerpr creares a Date variable:
Dim dteAppointment As Date
The Date value is initialized using a date string in the from mmld
d/ywy encapsulated in hash (#)
characters. For example to ser the date to Augusi2
,2007:
M.S. University - D.D.C,E. Client-side and Server-side Programming Languages 159
Dim dteAppointment As Date : #8/2/2007#

A Date variable may be set to a specific time using the format hh:mm:ss AM/PM. For example, to set
the time to 1:02 PM:
Dim dteAppoinrmenr As Date : #l:02:00PM#
To set both the date and time:
Dim dteAppointment As Date : #8/2/2007 l:02:00PM#
11.4.2 Accessing the Date and Time in a Date Variable

The simplest way to obtain the current setting of a Date variable is simply to reference the Date as you
would any other variable, using the variable name. For example, the following Visual Basic code
excerpt will display the current setting of the Date variable in a MessageBox:
Dim dteAppointment As Date : #8/2/2007 1:02:00PM#

MsgBox (dteAppointment)
11.4,3 Formatting Dates and Times

The default format of the Date and Time in Visual Basic is not always acceptable. For this reason,
Visual Basic provides the FormatQ function to allow the format of the date to be controlled. The
FormatQ function is actually a diverse function that can be used to format various types of data (such
as string, monetary values and numbers). The FormatQ function uses the following syntax:
Format( value, style )

The value represents the data to be formatted. The style parameter defines how the data is to be
formatted. In terms of formatting dates, a number of pre-defined styles are available.
The month can be formatted using sequences of 'M' characters. For example:
Format(#8/2/2007#, 'MM') - returns Month as 2 digits (i.e. 08)

Format(#8/2/2007#, 'MMM") - rerurns abbreviated Month name (i.e. Aug)
Rormat(#8/2/2007#, 'MMMM') - returns full Month name (i.e. August)
Similarly the day of the month may be formatted using the 'd' character:
Format(#8/2/2007#, "d") -returnsdayof monthas 1(day < 10) or2digits (d^y > 9) (i.e.2or1.2)
Format(#8/2/2007#, 'dd')- returns day of. month as 2 digits (i.e.02 or 72)
Format(#8/2/2007#, "ddd') - rerurns abbreviated day of. week (i.e Tue)
Format(#8/2/2007#,'dddd") - rerurns unabbreviated day of week (i.e Tuesday)
The 'y' character is used to control the formatting of the year:
Format(#8/2/2007#, "y") - returns year as 1 digit (i.e.7)
Format(#8/2/2007#, "yy") - returns year as 2 digits (i.e. 07)
Format(#8/2/2007#, "yyw") - returns year as 4 digits (i.e. 2OO7)
160 Internet and its Applications M.S. Universitv _ D.D.C.E.
The format of the time may be formatted using 'h', 'm', 's' and 'tt' characters:
Format(#1:02:00PM#, "hh:mm:ss tt") - rerurns as 01:02:00 pM
Format(#1:02:00 PM#, "hh:mm:ss") - returns as 01:02:00
Format(#1:02:00 PM#, "hh:mm") - returns as 01:02
Format(#1:02:00PM#, "h:mm") - rerurns as 1:02

The format styles may be combined in any order to creare the desired format. For exarirple:
Format (#8/2/2007 1:02:00 PM#, 'MMMM, d, yyyy,hh:mm") - Rerurns August, 2,2oo7,ol:02
11.4.4 Adiusting a Dare or Time

The value of a Date variable can be adjusted either backwards or forwards using the Visual Basic
DateAddQ function. The Syntax of DateAdd$ is as follows:
DateAdd( interval, number, date) As Date
The interval parameter specifies the unit of time to be added or subrracred (such as day, year,
hour,
minute etc). The allowable values for this paramerer are as follows:
Value Unit of Time to Add/Subtract
Datelnterval.Day Day
Datelnterval.DayofYea r D ay
Datelnterval.Hour Hour
Datelnterval.Minute Minute
Datelnterval.Month Month
Datelnterval. Quarter Quarter
Datelnterval.Second Second
Datelnterval.\fleekday Day
D atelnterval. VeekOfyear l$(/eek
Datelnterval.Year Year
For example, the following code will remrn a dare one monrh inro the future from the specified date:
DateAdd@atelnterval.Monrh, 1, #8 / 2/ 2006#)
The following code excerpt returns a date one week previous to the specified date:
DateAdd(Datelnterval.rffeek, - 1, # 8 / Z / 2006#)
11.4.5 Retrieving Parts of a Date or Time

The interval types listed in the DateAddQ section above can be used with the Visual Basic DatepartQ
function to extract parts of a date or tiJne. The syntax for the DatePartQ function is as follows:
DatePart( interval, date) As Integer
For example:
D atePart (D atelnterval.M otrh, #8 / 2 / 2007 #)' Returns 8
DatePart(Datelnterval.D ay, #8 / 2/ 2007#)' Returns 2
11.4.6 Finding the Interval between Two Dates or Times

The difference between to dates or times can be determined using the Visual Basic DateDiffQ function,
the syntax for which is:
DateDiff( interval, Date1, Date2 )
The interval parameter specifies the unit of time to use when measuring the difference between two
date and using the sa*e ,r*l.res as those outlined for the DateAdd$ function covered previously in this
lesson. The two date values the represent the dates to compared. The function returns the difference as
the number of specified units. For example, if the interval is defined as Datelnterval.Day and the two
dates are a week apart, DateDiffQ will return 7.
The following examples demonstrate possible uses of the DateDiffQ function:

DateDiff(Datelnterval.Year, #08/02/2006#, #08/02/2007#)' oneyear diff.erence so returns 1
DateDiff(Datelnterval.Month, #08/0 2/20A7#, #Og/02/2007# ) ' one month difference so returns 1
DateDiff@atelnterval.Month, #08/02/2006#, #08/02/2007# )' one year difference so returns 12
(months)
11.4.7 Accessing the System Date and Time

One of the most common tasks related to dates and times in a Visual Basic application irivolves getting
the currenr system date and time. This is achieved using the Visual basic DateTime obiect. The
DateTime object contains a number of properties, the most imponant of which are Now and Today.
The Today propefty returns the current date held by the system. For example:
Dim objCurrentDate As Date : DateTime.Today
The Now propefty of the Visual Basic DateTime object contains both the date and the current system
time. For example:
Dim objCurrentDate As Date : DateTime.Now
11.4.8 Checking if a Value is a Valid Date

Visual Basic provides rhe IsDate$ function to ascertain whether a value is a valid date or not. This can
be useful for checking rhat a user has entered a valid date into TextBox control. The IsDateQ function
takes a value as , prrr-.t., and returns True or False depending on whether the value is a valid date
or not.
11.5 USING MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS

Arithmetic operators work on numeric operands and produce numeric result. Following are the
arithmetic operators.
162 Internet and its Applications M.S, University _ D.D,C.E.
11.5.1 Addition
Addition is performed in Visual Basic using the plus (+) operator.
Purpose: To add rwo numeric rype data values.
Syntax: result = expressionl+expression2
The + operator synrax has these parts:
Part Description
Result A required numeric variable. k cannot be constant.
expression 1 A required expression evaluating to a numeric value.
expression2 A required expression evaluating to a numeric value.
For exatnple:
Dim intValue As Integer
intValue:10+5+5
Variables may also be used as operands:
Dim intValue, intOperatorl, intOp erator2 As Integer

intOperatorl : 10
intOperator2 : 5
intValue = 10 + intOperatorl + intOperator2

Symbol:+
11.5.2 Subtraction and Negation

The subtraction (-) is used to perform subtraction in visual Basic:
Purpose: To find the difference between two numbers or ro indicate the negative value of a numeric
expression.
Syntaxl: result = numberl - number2
Syntax2: - number
The - operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Result A required numeric variable.
number A required numeric expression.
Numberl A required numeric expression.
Number2 A required numeric expression.
For example:
Dim intValue, intOperarorl, intOperator2 As Integer

intOperatorl : 10
intOperator2 : 5
intValue : 10 - intOperatorl - intOperator2
A negative number is denoted by prefixing the number with the (-) sign:
intOperator2 : - 67
11.5.3 Multiplication
Visual Basic, like most other programming languages, use the (") operator (rather than the x we all use
when writing mathematical expressions) to perform multiplications.
Purpose: To multiply two numbers.
Syntax: result = numberL x number2

The 'r'operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Resuh A required numeric variable.
For example:
Dim intValue, intOperatorl, intOperator2 As Integer

intOperatorl : 10
intOperator2 : 5
intValue : intOperatorL 'r intOperator2
71..5.4 Division
Division is achieved in Visual Basic using the / operator. In division, the left hand operand is divided
by the right hand operand. For example, the following example returns 5 (20 divided by a):
Dim intValue, intOperatorl, intOperator2 As Integer
intOperatorl : 20
intOperator2 : 5
intValue : intOperatorl 'f intOperator2
Diaision-1
Symbol: /
Purpose: To divide two numbers and return a floating-point result.
Syntax: result = numberl/ number2

The / operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Result A iequired numeric variable.
Diaision-2
Symbol: \
Purpose: To divide two numbers and return an integer result.
Syntax: result = numberl \ number2

The \ operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Result Required; any numeric variable.
Numberl Required; any numeric expression.
Number2 Required; any numeriJ expression.
11.5.5 Exponentiation
Exponentiation involves raising a number to a parricular power. For example 103 which would
evaluate to 1000. The carat (^) character is used to represenr exponenriarion in Visual Basic:
Dim intValue As Integer

intValue: 10^3
Purpose: To raise a number to the power of an exponent.
Syntax: result = number ^ exponent

The ^ operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Resub Required; any numeric variable.
Number Required; any numeric expression.
Exponent Required; any numeric expression.
11.5.6 Remainder Operator

Modulus involves the division of two numbers and obtaining rhe remainder of that division. Modulus
calculations are performed in Visual Basic using the Mod ke1,word.
For example:
10 Mod 2 - returns O
10 Mod 4 - rerurns 2
12 Mod 5 - returns 2
Symbol: Mod
Purpose: To obtain remainder by divide rwo numbers.
Syntax: result = numberl Mod number2

The Mod operator syntax has these parts:

Part Description
Resub A required numeric variable.
11.5.7 Assignment Operator

Purpose: To assign/store a value to a variable (or property).
Syntax: variable = value

The = operator syntax has two parts:
Part Description
Variable Any variable or any writable property.
Value Any numeric or string literal, constant, or expression.
The name on the left side of the equal sign can be a simple scalar variable or an element of an array.
Properties on the left side of the equal sign can only be those properties that are writable at runtime.
11.6 USING MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS

Similar to other programming languages, VBScript offers a rich library of incorporated functions to
deal with including strings, dates, typecasting, basic math, etc. W'hen you consider generating
functions in any programming language, it is useful to publicize yourself with the obtainable built-in
functions of that language. The thought is if the programming language already provides a built-in
function for a specific task, as a programmer, you do not have to create your own function for that
task. The incorporated function is likely to be more efficient so shun reinventing-the-wheel!
In this section, we will discuss some of the built-in mathematical functions available in VBScript. Most
o{ those functions ere very simple to use. Table 11.1 provides a reference to mathematical functions
available in VBScript.
Tablel 1.1: Built-in Math Functions
Built-in math function Meaning

Abs (number) Absolute value
Exp (number) e^ number; e : 2.71828L82845905
Fix (number) Returns integer portion

Int (number) Returns integer portion
Hex (number) Coverts base 10 to hexadecimal
Oct (number) Coverts base 10 to octal
Round (number) Rounds to an integer
Round (number, dec) Rounds to dec decimal places.
Sgn (number) Sign
Sqr(number) (number > 0) Square root

Here is a swift review of some of the incorporated math function available in VBScript:
o Abs (number) returns the absolute value of a number. In other words, if the number is greater than
or equal T.o zero, the number is returned. If, however, the number is less than zero, thelegation of
the number is returned. For instance, Abs (5) would rerurn 5 and Abs (1) would rerurn 1.
. Exp (number) raises e (approximarcly 2.71828) to the power number. For example, Exp (5) says
e^5, which is approximately 148.41315.
. Fix (number) returns integer portion, greater than or equal to the number. For insrance, Fix (-5.80)
returns -5.
. Int (number) is different from Fix(number) because Int (number) rerurns integer porrion less than
or equal ro number. For example, Int (5.80) rerurns -5.
. Hex (number) returns strings consisting of the number converted to hexadecimal base. For
example, Hex (10) rerurns A, Hex (11) returns B, Hex (12) returns C, erc.
o Oct (number) returns strings consisting of the number converred to octal base. For instance Oct
(8) returns 10, Oct (9) returns 11, Oct (10) returns 12,etc.
o Round (number) rounds a number to the nearesr integer; for example, Round (5.+5) rounds 5.45 to
6 and Round (5.01) returns 5.
o Round (number, dec) rounds a number to dec decimal places. Round (5.45, 1) rounds 5.45 to 1
decimal place: 5.4. Round (100.67899,3) returns LOO.679.
. Sgn (number) returns -1 if number is less than 0, 0 if number is O, and 1 if number is greater than 0.
Consider the following as examples: Sgn(5.9) rerurns -1, Sgn(O) rerurns O; and Sgn(s)ieturns 1.
o Sqr (number) (number > 0) provides a square root of number, provided the number is positive.
For example, sqr (4) returns 2, sqr (100) returns 10.
11.2 USING CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
11.7.1If - Then
Life is full of choices (isn't it so nice??). \We look around and what do we observe? -il/e are constantly
making decisions every day. rVe leave home and if it is raining, we take our raincoats along. Our
mother might say, go to the market and buy 5 kg potatoes if potaioes cost less than 10 rupees a k"ilo.
In programming terms, we can say this: 'if it is raining, 'then' put on the raincoat. Similarly, 'if' potatoes
are ( Rs. 10/kg, 'then' buy 5 kgs. The underlying concepr is this: 'if' a condition is 'rrue' 'theniwe will
take some action. The same approach can also be applied io progrr-ming. \(e can specify a condition to
VB. 'If' the condition given by us is true, 'then' all of the sratemenrs foltwing thelif'will be execured,
otherwise VB will jump over those statements. For example, the following lines of code
Code Listing if.l
IF textl . TEXT - ,'Shreyas,, THEN
MSGBOX " Hello " & " Shreyas
END IF
will display with the message "Hello Shreyas" printed on it, 'if' Textl contains the text
a message box
'shreyas'. If Textl does not contain the text Shreyas, the message box will NOT be displayed. Take
another example. Suppose there are two integer variables, named int_a and int_b. Analyze the code
segment that follows.
Code Listing if.2

IF int-a > int-b THEN
Text2.TEXT = int-a
END IF
The value of variable int_a will be printed in Text2, only if the value of variable int_a is greater than
variable int_b. Otherwise, 'fext 2 will stay as it is.
Gcneral Slntax of lf-Then
This brings us to the general syntax of the If - Then statement, which is as follows:
If condition Then
'execute all of these statements if the condition is true
..'..'
'if condition is false none of these statements will be executed
End If
11.7.2If-Then-Else
In our discussion of if-then, we have so far considered only one option. That is,
if int_a ) int_b, then print int_a
But what if we want to print int_b if int_a ) int_b' is not true? The simple if-then does not offer
another option, i.e., it does something if the condition is true, but does nothing if the condition is
false. This extra option is offered by if-then-else, a modification of the simple if-then we have just seen.
To see this in action, we will modify the Code List if.1 as follows:
Code Listing if.3
IF textl.Text = "Shreyas" THEN
MSGBOX "Hel1o" & "Shreyas"
ELSE
MSGBOX "Hello" & "Mr/MissNoName"
END ]F
In this code, VB will check for the contents of Textl. If the text enrered in "Texrl" is "Shreyas", the
message box "Hello Shreyas" will be displayed. If the text enrered is not "Shreyas" but anphing else,
the message box "Hello MrlMiss No Name" will be displayed. Modifying the Code List if.|
Code Listing if.4
rF int_a > int_b THEN
textl.TEXT = int a
ELSE
textl.TEXT = int b
END IF
this will display value of the variable int a in Textl if the condition [int_a > int_b] is true. Otherwise,
it will display value of the variable int_bln Text1.
General Syntax andWorking of lf-Then-Eke
This code segment shown below will work this way, depending on whether the condition following
'if is true or false:
. Condition is true: All of the statements following 'then' will be executed, unril VB comes across the
i
keyword 'else'. Once 'else' is reached, VB will 'jump over' all of the sratements berween 'else' and
'end if' and come out of the 'if - then - else' block. It will then continue the normal.
Program
execution after the 'end if' statement.
. Condition isfalse: None of the $atements following'then'will be executed. However, all of the
statements following 'else' will be executed, until the time VB comes across the keywords 'end if'.
After 'end if is read, the 'if - then - else' block will rerminate. VB will then continue rhe normal
execution of the program after the 'end if' statement.
The general syntax of if-then-else srarement is as follows:
If condition Then
'execute all of these statements
'starting from "then"

'ending at "else"
'if the condition is true
Else ------
l.r..rr. all of these staremenrs

'starting from "else"

'ending at "end if"
'if the condition is false
End If
11.7.3 Multiple (Nested) If - Then Statements
The code segment we have used in discussing if - then - else works fine if one of the numbers is greater
than the other one. But what if both the numbers are equal? Suppose we gave the value of
int_a : 10
and
int_b : 10
what will be the output of Code List if.4? The result will be ..... you guessed it right, 10! The Code List
if.4 checks for [int_a > int_b] , i.e. 10 ) 10. Since this condition is not true, i.e. false, the $atements
following 'else' will be executed, which print the value of int_b which, in the Present case, is 10. As is
obvious, if..then..else is most effective when there are only two v/ays to go. In the Code Listing rf..4,
the possible outcomes are -
int_a ) int_b or int-a < int-b or int-a - int-b
As we can clearly see now, a simple if..then..else will be ineffective in the case just mentioned above,
'\tr7e
since, this situation has three possible outcomes. therefore need three blocks to effectively deal
with the three different outcomes. Hence, we need another block in addition to the 'then' and 'else'
'We
block that 'if..then..else' offers. can get this option by adding another if..then block 'inside' the
existing if..then..else block., like this:
Code Listing if.5
IF int-a > int-b THEN
textl.TExT = int-a 'printed when a > b --- 1
ELSE
IF int-a < int-b THEN \ --- 2
texEl.TEXT = B'printed when a < b --- 3
ELSE
textl.TEXT = "both are egualu '--- 4
END ]F
END IF
Observe from Code Listing if.5 that for every end if has to be used. The 'inner'
if, a corresponding
if..then is represented by block 'I', the 'outer' if..then by 'O'. The code nrns as follows:
o This code will first check for fint-a > int-bl. If the condition is true, rhe program goes
to line
number '1',, prints the value of inf a' in Textl, and ships over all of the other lines. It
then comes
out of the if-then blocks.
If int a ) int-b is false, the program goes ro line '2' and checks for fint_a < int_b]. If this
' condition is true, the program goes to line'3'and prints the value of 'Lt b'in T.itt. It then
comes out of the if-then blocks.
However, if this condition fint-a < int-b] is also false, then it is obvious that both the numbers
' are equal' Hence, the program switches to line number 4 and prints the message 'both
are equal' in
Textl.
It is imponant to realize the fact that the inner block 'I' musr be completely inside the outer block
'O'. If this is nor done, we will ger wrong results.
General Sy ntax of Muhip le lf-T hen-E ts e
The general synrax for multiple if-then-else srarements is as follows:-
IF conditionl THEN
].r...rr. all of these ,,else,,

sraremenrs, ending ar
ELSE
IF condition2 THEN
'execute all of these lines, ending at "else,,
'if the condition2 is true
ELSE
l.r..rrr" all of these sraremenrs

'ending ar "end if"
'if the condition2 is false
END IF 'inner if-then-else block ends
END IF 'ourer if-then-else block ends
As explained above, the inner block must be completely contained by the outer block. In well-
designed nested if-then blocks, if we draw lines showing the boundaries of the various
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M.S. University - D,D.C.E Client-side and Server-side Programming Languages 171
Outer if block start
Middlc if block starl Nliddlc ii block:ta11
lnner if block start lnner iI block strrl
Inner il block cnd inner ii block cnd
It4iddle il block end Outcr il block end
Outer il block cnd
Proocrlv nested if hlocks lmoroncrlv nested i[
As seen in the figure above, all of the block lines are complete and none of the block lines are
intersecting one another. However, in the figure on the right, the outer and middle block lines are
intersecting towards the bottom-right of the figure. In this situation, we get run-time errors that are
difficult to handle.
11.7.4If - Then - Elseif Statement

If - then performs fine, but as the levels of nesting increase, the number of. if keywords and the
associated end if keywords also increases. Whiie the increase in tf..end z/keywords is not a problem for
the computer, it is a bit tough for us as programmers, We irave to keep a close rack of the number of
times we have used if sothat we close with an equal number of end y'statements. VB offers a useful
feature ro overcome this problem. Instead of adopting this approach where we have three'end ' if
commands (since we have three 'if commands too), w.e can combine the two statements of block'a'
and also of block 'b' into a single statement, like this
If conditionl Then
Elseif condition2 Then 'Else and Ii of block "a" combined
Elseif condition3 Then 'Else and If of block "b" combined
;;,.
End If
The advantages of this approach are obvious. It makes our code look neater. \7e can more easily foilow the
flow of logic in the program. At the sarne time, we have the benefit of typing 'end..if' only once, even
though we have checked for multiple conditions in the code. This saves time spent on typing.
Having come this far, we will now modify our earlier Code Listing if.5 as follows, using the Elseif kelword:
Code Listing if.5

IF int_a > int_b THEN
text1. TEXT = int-a 'printed when int-a > int-b
L72 Internet and its Applications M.S. University _ D.D.C.E.
ELSETF int-a < int-b THEN - rr

textl.TEXT = int_b 'printed when int_a < int_b
ELSE
textl.TExr = "BorH ARE EeuAL,' ,printed when both numbers are equal
END IF
You can see in the code that we have used 'If' twice (on lines marked as I and II), but 'End If' has been
usedonly once.
Let us make another piece of code. \7e will accepr rhe name of a colour in a textbox (Txt_col) and
then click on a command button (Cmd-col) to change the background colour of the VB form as
follows:
a If the user enters 'green', we change the colour to green.
. If the user enters 'red' we change the colour to red.
. If there is any other value, we change the colour to blue.
Code Listing if.7
PRIVATE SUB cmd_col_CLTCK( )
IF txt_col . TEXT - ', green, THEN
foTm1.BACKCOLOR = VBGREEN
ELSEIF txt_col.TEXT = "red" THEN
foTm1.BACKCOLOR = VBRED
ELSE
form1. BACKCOLOR = VBBLUE
END IF
END SUB
11.7 .5 Select..Case Statement

Apart from If.'then statements, another programming construct performs the task of conditional
branching as good - maybe even better. This is the selec-t..case srarement. \7e'll now re-make the Code
listing if'3 using the same logic, but with select..case. \7e will write the code as follows:
Code Listing select.l
2. CASE = ,,Shreyas " ' IF textl IS ,,Shreyas,,
3. MSGBOX " He1lo ', & "Shreyas,,
4. CASE ELSE ,IF textl IS NOT "Shreyas,,
5. MSGBOX ', Hello MrlMiss No Name"
6. END SELECT
This code stans by reading the value of textl.Texr, as per the line no.1. It then checks the value of
textl' matching it with "Shreyas", as per line no. 2. The program will now take two different routes,
depending on whether fTextl - "Shreyas"] or nor:
(r) If the value matches "Shreyas", line no.3 is executed, displaying a message box with the given
message. The program then skips over line nos. 4 and 5, and comes to line no. 6. This line
terminates the select..case block. Thus, line no. 3 acts
as the then option of if..then..else.
(b) If the value does NOT match "Shreyas", line no.3 is skipped and program continues at line no. 4.
This line acts as the else of if..then..else. Line no. 5 tells what to do when the else part - case else -
is to be executed.
thus, offers a choice of multiple branching, depending on which condition happens to be

Select,.case,
true. The condition is checked whenever the 'Case = ..' statement is encountered. If the condition is
found to be true, the program executes all of the statements following the current 'Case : ..' upto the
next 'Case' statement.
General Sgntax of Seled-Case
A general syntax for the Select - Case statement, thus, is as follows:
Select Case variable name/control name
Case : valuel 'check for conditionl
statements
.... o."r;.rrTthese
Case : value2 'check for condition2
.... execute these statements

if condition2 is true
Case : value3 'check for condition3
.... execute these statements

if condition3 is true
Case Else
.... execute these statements when

all other conditions are false
End Select
Select..Case is the same as'switch'in'C++'. Unlike C++, VB has no'break'ke1'word. There is no

'default' in VB: 'Case Else' does same job.
124 Internet and its Appiications M.S. Universiry - D.D.C.E.
Ve will now use Select..Case to modify our Code Listing if .7 we have made earlier.
Code Listing select.2

1. SELECT CASE varl ' reacl the val.ue of r.-he var:iab1e varl
2. CASE = "9reen" ' if varl is g.t een
3 . forml. BACKCOLOR = VBGREEN
4. MSGBOX "Green Colour"
5. CASE = if va::1 is ::ed
6. for:m1 .BACKCOLOR = VBRED
7 " MSGBOX "Red Colour"
8. CASE ELSE ' if varl is neither sreen nor red
9 . form1. BACKCOLOR = VBBLUE
10, MSGBOX ''DEPAULT COLOUR Blue,,
].1. END SELtrCT
This code selects the value of a variable'\,i1r1'at line 1 [Select Case varl] and then checks it at the
following line numbers:
o line 2 [Case : "green"J
o line 5 [Case = "red"] and
o line 8 fCase Else]
The program then executes one of the three paths depending on the vaiue of varl:
(-) 'Varf is "green": This value becomes true at line no.2 resulting in execution of line nos.3 and 4
only, i.e. all lines between [Case : "green"] and fCase : "red"]. The form's backcolor changes to
green. An appropri:1te message box is aisc displayed. The program then skips over ail lines from
line no.5 up to line no. 1C. Line no. 11ends the Select..Case block.
(b) 'Varl.' is "red": This value becomes true at line no. 5 resulting in execution of line nos. 6 and Z
only, i.e., ali lines between [Case : "red"] and [Case Else]. The form's backcolor changes to red.
An appropriate message box is also displayed. The program then skips over all lines from line no.
B up to line no. 10. Line no. 11 ends the Select..Case block.
(.) 'Varf NOT "red" or "green": This value becomes true at line no. 8 resulting in execution of
is
line nos. 9 and 10 only, i.e., all the lines between [Case Eise] and [End Select]. The form's
backcolor changes to blue. An appropriate message box is also displayed. The program rhen
encounters Line no. 1i. which ends the Select..Case block.
Compared to nested if..then code. a select..case code looks near. Also, select..case runs faster than
multiple if..then..else starements"
1,1,.7 .6 Nested Select-case

Similar to the concept. of nesting N,e have seen in if..rhen..else. Selecr..Case can also be nested. An
exampie r.vill make this ciear to us. Suppose u.e have a program which accepts a student's category and
status. The program checks the category and then mentions the government grant for the students
based on the follovring criteria:
M.S, University - D.D.C,E. Client-side and Server-side programming Languages 175
. General Category - No grant

. OBC category - < 1,500
. SC/ST category - < 2,500 if status = 'bpl'
. SC/ST category - < 2,OOO if status : 'ric'
Code Listing select.3
1. SELECT CASE txt_categ. TEXT
2, CASE IS - 'GEN"
3. MSGBOX "Sorry, no granL for you.,, ,if the code is gren
4. CASE IS = "OBC"
5. MSGBOX "Your government grant is Rs. 1500.,, ,if the code is obc
6. CASE fS = "SC", if case is either sc or st
7. SELECT CASE txt_status.TEXT
8. CASE IS - ilbpl"
9. MsGBox "Your grant is Rs. 2500." 'if the values are sclstand bpl
10. CASE IS = "f istt
11. MSGBox " Your grant is Rs. 2000.' 'if the values are sc/st and ric
12. END SELECT
13. CASE ELSE
14. MSGBOX "Sorry, the category code is invalid"
15. END SELECT
Here, the code runs as follows:
1. The line nos. from 7 to t2 mark rhe 'nested block'.
2. Line no. L selects the text in Txt_categ rexr box.
3. Line no.2 checks if the text is'gen'. If true, line no. 3 is executed, and the remaining lines are all
skipped.
4. Line no. 4 checks if the text is 'obc'. If true, line no. 5 is executed, and the remaining lines are all
skipped.
5. The line no. 5 checks if the text is'sc'or'st'.If true, the'nested'select-Case block is started.
(") Line no. 7 selects the text in Txt_status rextbox.
(b) Line no. 8 checks if 'text' in Txt_status is 'bpl'. If true, line no. 9 is executed. Remaining
lines of inner and outer block are skipped.
G) Line no. 10 checks if 'text'in Txt status is'ric'. If true, line no. 11 is execured, and the
remaining lines are all skipped.
(d) Line no. 1,2 terminates the inner select...case block.
6. Line no. 13 is reached if the user has entered a wrong category, i.e., the condition at line r7o.2,4,
and 6 is 'false'.
7. Line no. 14 prints a message for wrong category entry.

8. Line no. 15 terminates the outer select...case block.
To save time, just type the line [Case : 'po'] or [Case ='sc'] etc., and press enter VB will automatically
insert the I Is ] ke1'word.
That is, we just type
uase : tt
po
and press enter. VB will automatically convert this line to
Case Is : 'po'
This way, we will type less and avoid any possible spelling errors.
11.7.7 Select-case Vith Multiple Options (OR)

\We will see another aspect of the 'Select-Case' statement, if we observe the line no. 6 above, i.e.
CASE IS : 'sc','st'
this line checks for two possible values of Txt-Categ, 'sc' or 'st'. This line is just like saying
IF txt_categ.TEXT : 'sc' or txt_categ.TExT - 'st' THEN
Thus, if we have to check for one out of tvro or more values, we just type (Case Is - ) and then put all
the values one after the other, separated by a comma. For example, the code list given below checks
for city names given in a text box fixt_city) and then prints the state to which the city belongs.
Code List select.4
L. CASE txt_city.TEXT
SELECT
2. CASE IS = "BHOPAL" , "ujjain", "gwalior"
3. MSGBOX UM.P. STATE'
5. MSGBOX -MAHARASHTRA STATE

6. CASE15 = "LUCKNOW" , 'ALLAHABAD' , 'MEERUT'
7. MSGBOX ''U.P. STATE'
8. CASE ELSE
9. MSGBOX "The state is NOT known"
10, END SELECT
1. Line no. L selects the text in txt_city textbox.
2. Line no. 2 checks text of txt_city. If it is either 'bhopal' or 'ujjain' or 'gwalior', line no. 3 is
executed. The other lines are by-passed.
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. Client-side and Server-side Programming Langtages 777
3. Line no. 4 checks the text of txt city. If the value is 'mumbai' or 'thane' or 'nasik', line no. 5 is
executed, by-passing all other lines oi code.
4. Line no. 6 checks text of txt_city. If it is 'lucknow' or 'allahabad' or 'meerut', line no. Z is
executed. Remaining code lines are by-passed.
5. Line no. 8 is reached only if the line nos. 2, 4, and 6 don't match the value of txt_city, and then
line no. 9 is executed.
6. Line no. 9 prints an error message for the user.
7. Line no. L0, of course, terminares the Select..Case block.
11.7.8 Select-case with Multiple Options (AND)

\7e will now see another aspect of the 'Select-Case' statement. Consider the situation where we are
preparing a marksheet and we need to calculate the division. As is expecred, the criteria will be:
. 80o/o upto 1O0o/o - honours
. 50olo upto 79.9o/o - 1st division

. 45o/o lpto 59.9o/o - 2nd division
. 33o/o lpto 44.9o/o - 3rd division
. any other value - fail

The code for the problem will be as follows:
Code List select.S

1. SELECT CASE CTNT(txtJerc.TEXT) 'convert. into nearest integer value
2. ' CASE 80 Lo 100 'if perc is between 80 and 100
3. MSGBOX -HONOURS DIVTSION"
4. CASE 60 TO 79 'if perc is between 60 and 79
5. MSGBOX '' 1ST DIVISION'
6. CASE 45 TO 59 'if perc j-s between 45 and 59
7. MSGBOX '2ND DIV]S]ON"
8. CASE 33 TO 44 'if perc is between 33 and 44
9. '3RD DIVISION'
MSGBOX
10. CASE ELSE 'if perc is not in any range mentioned above
1l-. MSGBOX
12. END SELECT
F{ere, the code runs as follows:
L. Line no. 1 selects the text in txtjerc textbox and converts it to rhe nearest integer vah:e (e.g.79.6
to 80, 79.4 to 79, andso on.).
2. Line no. 2 checks text of txtjerc. If between 80 and 100, line no. 3 is executed. The other lines
are by-passed.
3. Line no. 4 checks tefi of txtjerc. If between 60 and 79,line no. 5 is execured, by-passing all other
lines of code.
4. Line no.6 checks text of txtjerc. If between 45 and 59, line no.7 is execured. Remaining code
lines are by-passed.
5. Line no. 8 checks text of ffitjerc. If between 33 and 44,line no. 9 is executed. Other lines are by-
passed.
6. Line no. 10 is reached if all other criteria of 'percenrage' are not fulfilled.
7. Line no. 11 prints a messagebox with the message 'Fail'.
8. Line no. 12 terminates the Select..Case block.
This is a situation similar to the "and" in "if..then..else", i.e,
. If the percentage is between 80 and 1OO, then give the message "honours".
. If the percentage is between 60 and Tg,thengive the message "1st division", and so on.
The "to" option in select..case should be in ascending order (80 to 1OO, 50 to 79). k won'r work in
descending order (100 to80,79 to 60).
1. Define variables.
2. Define Creating and initializing Date.
11.8 LET US SUM UP

Vhen by typing URL in address bar of browser, the request is accept by the
a user requests a website
web server which hosts that site. Veb Server executes some code to fulfill client request and generare
output. The code which is executed at server end is called server-side script and computer languages
used to write this script are called server-side scripting languages. Examples of server-side scripting
languages are CGI, ASP and PHP. Client-side script is used for client-side validation and other
operations like drop down menus, moving fonts If we write the code in client-side scripting language
this will save time and traffic load between server and client. Examples of client-side scripting language
are JavaScript and VB Script.
A variable must be declared with a name and a specific datatype. Since VBScript supports only one
datatype, Variant, all variables will be declared as Variant by default. Applications need to be able
to access and work with date and time values. Many applications are written for business and
scientific purposes, where recording the date and time of the program run is vital to the success of
the project.. Arithmetic operators work on numeric operands and produce numeric result. Just like
other programming languages, VBScript provides a rich library of built-in functions to deal with
including strings, dates, typecasting, basic math. etc. When you consider crearing functions in any
programming language, it is useful to familiarize yourself with the available built-in functions of that
language.
11.9 KEY\TORDS
Seruersidescripr.' The code which is executed at server end is called server-side script.
Clientsidcscripr.'The code which is executed at client end is called client-side script.

CJ$ CSS is a language that helps you separate content and formatting.
lauascript: A script language that helps you make your pages more 'dynamic'.
Date): Returns the current system date.
DateAdd.(sType, ilnterual, tDate): Returns a date to which a specified time interval has been added.
DateDff(tDatel, tDate2): Returns the number of intervals between two dates.
DatePa*(sT7tpe, tDate): Returns the specified part of a given date.
DateSerial(iYear iMonth,iDate): Returns the date for a specifiedyear, month, and day.
DateValue(aVariant) : Returns a date.
Dalt (tDate).'Returns a number that represenm the day of the month (between 1 and 31, inclusive).
ForrnatDateTime(tDate, r-\tp")t Returns an expression formatted as a date or time.
Hour(tDate)..Returns a number that represents the hour of the day (between 0 and23, inclusive).
IsDate(uVariant): Returns a Boolean value that indicates if the evaluated expression can be converted
to a date.
Minute(tDaty'..Returns a number that represents the minute of the hour (between 0 and 59, inclusive).
Month(tDare,/.'Returns a number that represenm the month of the year (between 1 and 12, inclusive).
MonthName (iMonth): Returns the name of a specified month.
Now): Returns the current system date and time.
Tirne0: Returns the current system time.

Timer): Returns the number of seconds since 12:00 AM.
TimeSeial(iHour,iMinute,isecond):P.e:;urns the time for a specific hour, minute, and second.
TimcValue (tDate): Returns a time.
Weekdalt(tDate): Returns a number that represenm the day of the week (between t and7, inclusive).
WeekdaltName (iWeekDay).'Returns the weekday name of a specified day of the week.
Year(tDate).'Returns a number that represenm the year.
Abs (number): It returns the absolute value of a number. In other words, if the number is greater than
or equal to zero, the number is returned. If, however, the number is less than zero, the negation of the
number is returned. For instance, Abs (5) would return 5 and Abs (1) would return 1.
Exp (nuruber):It raises e (approximately 2.7t828) to the power number. For example, Exp (5) says e^5,
which is approximately 148.41315.
Fix (number):Tt rettrns integer portion, greater than or equal to the number. For instance, Fix (-5.80)
returns -5.
Int (number); It is different from Fix(number) because Int (number) rerurns integer porrion less than or
equal to number. For example, Inr (-5.80) rerurns -6.
Hex (number):It rettsrns strings consisting of the number converted to hexadecimal base. For example,
Hex (10) returns A, Hex (11) returns B, Hex (12) returns C, erc.
Oct (number):It returns strings consisting of the number converted to octal base. For instance Oct (8)
returns 10, Oct (9) returns 11, Oct (10) returns 12, etc.
Round (number): It rounds a number to the nearest integer; for example, Round (S.+S) rounds 5.45 to 6
and Round (5.01) returns 5.
Round Qruntber, fuc): It rounds a number to dec decimal places. Round (5.45, 1) rounds 5.45 to 1
decimal place: 5.4. Round (100.67899,3) returns 100.679.
Sgn (number):It rettrnsl if number is less than 0, 0 if number is 0, and 1 if number is greater than 0.
Consider the following as examples: Sgn(5.9) returns -1, Sgn(O) rerurns 0; and Sgn(5) returns 1.
Sqr(number)(number> 0):It provides a square root of number, provided the number is positive. For
example, sqr (a) returns 2, sqr {t0O) returns 10.
11.10 QUESTTONS FOR DTSCUSSION

l. Differentiate berween client-side languages and server-side languages.
2. Discuss the declaration of variables. Differentiate between explicit variables and implicit variables.
3. Discuss how date and time works in scripts.
4. Discuss adding date and time in scripts.
5. Discuss the mathematical functions available in vbscript.
6. Differentiate berween If-then and If-then-else sratemenrs.

1. VBScript uses variables to reserve memory to store data and to name that memory location.
2. A Visual Basic Date can be created in the same way any orher variable is created.
For example the following Visual Basic code excerpt creares a Date variable:
Dim dteAppointment As Date
The Date value is initialized using a date string in the from mmldd/yyW encapsulated in
hash (#) characters. For example ro ser the date to August 2,2007:
Dim dteAppointmenr As Date : #8/2/2007#
II.1,1, SUGGESTED READINGS

Pratt, Programming Languages, Pearson Education India
K. L. James, The Internet: A User's Guide, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd

Steven M. Schafer, HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible, John Viley and Sons,
UNITV
LESSON
t2
PROCEDURES, LOGICAL OPERATORS AND LOOPS
CONTENTS
t2.0 Aims and Obiectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sub-routines
12.3 Functions
t2.3.1 StringFunctions
12.4 Using Logical Connectives and Operators
t2.4.1 And
12.4.2 Or
t2.4.3 Not
t2.4.4 XOR @xclusive Or)
12.5 Loop Structure
I2.5.t For-next Loop
t2.5.2 Nested Loops
t2.5.3 Do Loops
12.6 Let us Sum up
12.7 Keywords
L29 SuggestedReadings
12.0 ArMS AND OBJECTIVES

. Discuss creating functions and string functions
. Discuss creating sub-routines
. Understand logical connectives and operators
. Discuss using loops
12.1 INTRODUCTION
As we have been observing for some time now, a project in VB is not a 'monolithic', i.e., single-stone
structure. It is made up of a number of sm_all code segmenrs rhar are linked in some way. For Jrr*pI",
the code for the click event of a Command Button commandl is written within the stub:
PRIVATE SUB commandl_CllCK( )
END SUB
As is very obvious, we might be having another command button 'command2' and the code for its
click event will be wrirten within
PRIVATE SUB command2 CLICK$
END SUB
Here is a sample picture of the code window of a VB project.
Private Sub Comandl I
Dir var(5) Is Inregei

llsgBox LBound (var)
I{5gBox UEound(var)
Etrd S*
'$7'e
can clearly see that we have code written for the click event of different command bunons. The
different code_segments are self-contained and are separared from one anorher by the lines running
across the code window. These code segments perform a particular task. These are what
we call
procedures. Thus, a procedure is a code ,"f-..r, that performs a parricular task and is self-contained.
A procedure offers the advantage of better management of code. For example, a code might be
required at multiple locations in a project. It can be pasted ar multiple locarions, and the ourpur i,itt
U"
the same. Now, any change in the code means all the copies hrrr" tL be updated. A procedrrre will help
avoid this rePetitive work. 'We can write the code for the procedure ar ;ly o.r" pL.. and we .rr,
.ril
on this procedure through code. Thus, any changes to be made will be limited to jrrt one location.
The kind of procedures we have used so far are known as 'event procedures'. This is because they are
procedures that are related to an event, and will be executed when a certain event is raised. Thus,
we
primarily code through event procedures in VB.
In addition ro evenr procedures, vB offers the following rypes of procedures:
. Sub-procedures
. Functions
. Property
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. Procedures, Logical Operators and Loops 185
12.2 SUB-ROUTINES
A_sub-routine is a pro_cedure that performs a task but does nor return a value. The general synrax of a
sub-procedure is as follows:
PUBLIC/PRIVATE procedure name 0
END SUB
An alternative method for the synrax involves the use of parameters. The parameters are an optional,
though a very powerful fearure of procedures. Multiple parameters are separated by commas. The
syntax is shown here:
PUBLIC/PRIVATE procedure name (parameter list)
END SUB
VB offers a number of in-built procedures and also allows us ro create our own procedures. This is
how we create our own procedure in VB:
t. Switch to rhe code window.
2. Click on the tools menu.
3. From the sub-menus, click on add procedure, as shown in the picture.
fra?*. i6,:!I!e{l_{tickll
*tu vqt | 3t l, Ir!€?t!
kfl;sx r*aeivryl
kgpsr Sauhdrrtrl
4' From the dialog box that appears now, type a name for the procedure in the rextbox appearing at
the top (we have typed 'mypro').The dialog box is shown in-the figure that follows:
5. Click on the 'Sub' oprion (it is the default selection, anyway).

6. Click on the 'OK' button. The dialog box will disappear and the code window will be fully
visible once again.
7. Observe the appearance of our own procedure's stub in the code window ('mypro') as
PUBLIC SUB myproQ

END SUB
The code window has been shown in the picture that follows
- l.{icrosoft Visual Basic [design] ,

[Form2 [Code]l
Private Sub Comandl_C1icko

Dim var(5) As Integer
IIsgBox LBound(var)
l{3gBox UEound (var )
End sub
PubIi.c Sub nypro{)
End Sub
8. 'Sfl'e
can now type some code into our own sub-procedure. Our procedure is ready to be used.
Suppose we have typed the following code for our sub procedure.
Code Listing sub.l
PUBLIC SUB mypro ()
PRINT 'HELLO everyone ! ! f have come from the mlpro procedure"

END SUB
This procedure can now be called from anywhere in our Form. To see it in action, draw two
command buttons on the form (with default names of commandl and command2). Now come ro rhe
code window and code for the event procedure of both Command Burtons, as follows:
Code Listing sub.2

PRIVATE SUB commandl_ClIcK( )
PRINT " inside commandl click,'

CALL mtpro
PRINT " now back inside commandl click"
END SUB
Code Listing sub.3
PRIVATE SUB command2_CLICK( )
PRINT " inside command2 click"
CALL mlpro
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. Procedures, Logical Operators and Loops 187
PRINT " now back inside command2 click"

END SUB
Once we have coded everFhing, our code window might appear like this:
{Generall
Privace Sub tronrnandl_CllcH o

Princ rr lnside corrrrandl click'?
Call mypro
Pr inc ?' nor^r hack inside sormandl click'?
End Sub
Private suh tronmandz_CllcH(l

PrinE r? inside cor8randz c I ick'r
CaII mypro
Prints ?r nor{r back inside confiiandz click'?
End Suh
Pr$Ilc Suh mypro{}

PrinE "HELLO everyone I have eome from EhE mypro procedure?'
End Sulc
'When we run the program and click on the command button 'commandl', we see an output as
follows:
UEM
inside commandl click
ELLO everyorre ll I ha{e come frCIm the mypro procedure
no!/ hack inside cGmmandl click
ffi]"il i
!l*Y I
A similar output will

be displayed when we click next on the command button command2. Note that
commandl in the output message has been replaced with command2.Everything else is the same.
r Forml ErErrE
inside commandl diok
ELLO everyone !l f halde Dome from the mypro procedure
now bacrk inside commandl click
inside commandz click
IELLO everyone l! I hare come from the mypro procedure ^
--J, I
co*'"Y.."i
now back in'side command2 click
The line no. 2 of. code listing sub.2 is 'calling' the sub-procedure mypro. Thus, the program conrrol
'shifts to'the Procedure mypro and the procedure is executed from'tire 1st line to the last. Once the
procedure is completely executed, the program conrrol shifts back ro rhe calling sub.
Now, if a change is required in the procedure mypro, it will be confined ro rhe procedure itself. The
code that is calling mypro, need not necessarily be changed. In fact, if the method of calling the
procedure does not change, the calling block will never know that the internal working oi th.
procedure has changed. For example, if we change the declaration of mypro from
PUBLIC SUB myproQ
To
PLELIC SUB mypro (intjarl AS INTEGER)
\7e will have to change the way of calling mypro from CALL mypro
to
CALL mypro (int_var1)
where int-varl refers to an integer variable. Since we have changed the declaration of the procedure
from no-parameter mode to a single-parameter mode, *e h"lre to change the way of calling it.
Anytime we change the number of parameters or the type of paramerers in a procedure declaratlon,
we have to change the style of calling on rhe procedure.
If we don't make the change in the mode of calling from the upper sratemenr ro rhe lower sratement,
we will get an error of 'type mismatch' at runtime.
A procedure call should match in 'quality and quantity'. The number and datatype of argumenrs musr
match the parameters in the procedure.
As long as the number of parameters or the type of paramerers for calling the procedure do not
change, the procedure call will remain unchanged.
12.3 FUNCTIONS
Functions are a tyPe of procedure, which return a value. This is what separates a function from a sub-
procedure. Otherwise, the function and sub-procedure are the same. rvien we wanr a self-contained
code, executing a particular task and also 'returning a value' to the calling program, we use a function.
If a value is not to be returned, we use a procedure.
The general syntax of a function is:
PUBLIC/PRIVATE function name (parameter list) AS DATATYPE
As the syntax shows, a function declaration is not much different from that of a procedure. The only
difference is the presence of a return datatype, ar rhe end of the declaration. Since a function h* tl
return a value, the declaration of a function will include the datatype as rhe lasr two words of the
function declaration. For example, if a function area accepts an integer parameter and rerurns an
integer to the calling program, the syntax will be:
PUBLIC/PRIVATE FUNCTION area (intjarl AS INTEGER) AS INTEGER
For a function join_name that accepts two strings as parameters and returns a string, the syntax could
be:
PUBLIC/PRIVATE FUNCTION join_name (strjarl AS STRING,stl J'ar2
AS STRING) AS STRING
Once again, the return datatype of the function has been given as the last word.
Here is an example of a function. This function will accept the length of a side of a square and calculate
the area of the square based on that number. The code will be as follows:
Code Listing function.l
PRIVATE FUNCTfON SquATE_ATEA (iNL3 AS INTEGER) AS INTEGER
square_area = intj ^ 2 'the ^ function (exponentiat.ion) raises
a no. to any power.
END SUB
Here, the procedure has only one executable line of code. This line of the procedure does two things:
o Raises the parameter for the function intj to the 2nd power through the use of the
'exponentiation' function [ ^ ].
o Assigns this value to the function name square_area. This value is then returned to the calling
Program.
Here is some code to use the function created above. For this, create a form with 2 textboxes textl and
text2 and a single Command Button commandl. The textbox textl will be used to type the value of
the argument for the function square_area. Textbox text2 will display the result of the function call.
Now come to the code window and rype the following code:
Code Listing function.2
PRIVATE SUB commandl_ClfcK()
1. DIM int_var1 AS INTEGER
2. DfM int_return AS INTEGER
3. int_var1 = CINT (textl.TEXT)
4. int_return = square_area (int-var1)
5. text2.TEXT = int return
END SUB
In the code given above, the function square_area has already been created under the code listing
function.l. Analyzing the code further,
1. Line nos. l and2 declare 2integer variables by the name int_varl and int_return, respectively.
This int_varl will be the input (argument) we give to the function square_area. The int_return is
the return value we will get from the function square_area.
2. Line no. 3 converts the contents of textl into an integer, through the use of the in-built 'cint'
function [cint(textl.text)]. This value is stored in the variable int var1.
3. Line no. 4 shifts the program control to the function square_area. It calls this functioh, sending it
int-var1 as an argument. Inside square_area, the argument int_varl becomes the parameter intj.
Once the function completes execution, the return value of the function is stored in rhe variable
int_return.
4. Line no. 5 displays the value of int_return in text2. This is the value returned from the function
square_afea.
As we can see, a function call takes the program from one code segment to another. The program
control shifts from the currently executing procedure or function to the function called by us through
code. Once the called procedure or function is executed, the program control shifts to the line after the
line which had called the code. To represent this clearly, consider our code listing function.l and code
listing function.2
Code Listing function.l
PRIVATE FUNCTTON square_area (int__p AS INTEGER)AS INTEGER
Square_area = intJ^2
'the '^'function(exponentiation)raises a number to any power
END SUB

PRIVATE SUB commandl_Cl,ICK( )
1. DTM int_var1 AS INTEGER

2. DTM int_return AS INTEGER
3. int_var1 = CINT (text1. TEXT)
4. int_return = square_area (int_var1)
5. 'prog'ram shifts from line no. 4 to code listing function.l
6. 'program resumes from li-ne no. 7
END SUB
In this code, line no. 4 of code listing function.2 shifts the program conrrol ro square_a reaby calling it.
Once squar e_area is completely executed, the program control shifts back to line no. 7 of code listing
function.2. This line is the first executable line of code listing function.2, after the function has been
called.
This scheme of calling a function can be represented inside rhe computer as:
PRMTE SUB commandl_CllCK( )

1. DIM int_var1 AS INTEGER
2. DIM int_return AS INTEGER
3. int_var1 = CINT(textl.TEXT)
4. int_return = square_area (int_var1)
5. PRIVATE FUNCTION square_area (int_p AS INTEGER) AS INTEGER
6. square_area = intJ ^ 2
7. 'the r r function(exponentiation) raises a number to any power

8. END SUB
END SUB
Thus, the called function behaves as if it is a part of the normal execution of the calling block, though
the two procedures are physically different.
The call to a procedure is a complete statement by itself. A function call is always a part of an expression.
Here is another function. This function accepts the first and last name and joins them to give the full
name. The code is as follows:
join_name(strj1 AS STRING,strJ2 AS STRING)AS
PRIVATE FUNCTION STRING
join_name = str_!1 & " " & strj2
END FUNCTION
To make this code work, make a form with three textboxes text1, text2 text3 and a command
^nd
button commandl. The user will enter the first name and last name in textl and text2, respectively.
'When the user clicks on commandl, the function join_name will be called and result will be displayed
in text3. The code is:
PUBLIC SUB commandl_CLICKQ
1.. DIM sIr_fname AS STRING
2 - DIM str_lname AS STRING
3. DIM str_fuflname AS STRING
4. str_fname = textl.TEXT
5. str_1name = text2.TEXT
6. str_fullnanne = join_name(str_fname, str_lname)
'7. texE3.TEXT = str fullname
END SUB
Now we run the program, type the first name in textl and the lasi name in text2, and then click on
commandl. The following happens:
1. Line nos. 1 to 3 declare three string type of variables to hold our data and the results.
2. Line no. 4 assigns the contents of textl to str_fname.
3. Line no. 5 assigns the contents of text2 to str_lname.
4. Line no. 6 now calls the function join_name with 2 arguments. The program control shifts to the
first line of join_name. Once the function is fully executed, the program control shifts back to
code listing function,4. The return value of join_name is stored in the variable str_fullname.
5. Line no. 7 displays the contents of str_fullname in text3. This text, as we know, shows the
complete (oined) name typed by the user.
72.3.7 String Functions

As the name suggests, these functions work on srring type of data. They help perform a number
of
useful activities that are of immense help in validating and-manipulating our daia.
Suppose we have a string variable named str-name with the data 'Mamra Puri', we can perform
the
following oPerations on it. observe the syntax and the ourpur given to exafily unjerstand the
working of these functions.
The following string functions rerurn a numeric ourput:
TRIM can be used to remove leading and trailing spaces from string data before saving it into the
' database.
a
TRIM can be used to remove leading and trailing spaces when accepting an input from the user
' searching a record in the database.
for
Of these functions, srtreverse, replace and instr are new to VB 6. Instr returns a value of '0' if the
string to be searched is not found in the given string.
12.4 USING LOGICAL CONNECTIVES AND OPERATORS

Logical operators work on logical type of operands to produce a logical type result (True or False).
Anl Orand Nolare three logical operators.
72.4.1 And
Purpose: To perform a logical conjunction on two logical expressions.
Syntax: result = expressionl And expression2

The And operaror synrax has these parts:
Part Description
Result A required boolean variable.
Expressionl A required boolean expression.
Expression2 A required boolean expression.
If both expressions evaluate to True, result is True. If either expression evaluares to False, result is
False. The following table illustrares how result is determined:
expression 1 expression2 Expressionl And Expression2
True True True
True False False
True Nuil Null
False True False
False False False
False Null False
Null True Null
Null False False
Null Null Null
The And oPerator also performs a bitwise comparison of identically positioned bits in two numeric
exPressions and sets the corresponding bit in result according ro rhe following table:
bit in expressionl Bit expression2 And

0 0 0
0 7 0
I 0
L 1 I
12.4.2 Or
Purpose: To perform a logical disjunction on rwo expressions.
Syntax: result = expressionl Or expression2

The Or operator synrax has these pans:
Part Description
Resub A required boolean variable.
Expressionl A required boolean expression.
If either or both expressions evaluate to True, result is True. The following table illustrares how resull
is determined:
expressionl expression2 expressionl Or expression2
I rLle True True
'frue False True
True Null True
False True True
False False False
False Null Null
Null True True
Null False Null
Null Null Null
The Or operator also performs a bitwise comparison of idenrically positioned bits in two numeric
exPressions and sets the corresponding bit in resuh according to rhe following table:
bit in expressionl bit in expression2 Or

0 0 U
0 1 1
I 0 I
1 I 1
12.4.3 Not
Purpose: To perform logical negation on an expression.
Syntax: result : Not expression

The Not operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Resub Required; any boolean variable.
Expression Required; any boolean expression.
The following table illustrates how result is determined:

expression NOT
True False
False True
Null Null
In addition, the Not operaror,inverts the bit values of any variable and sets the corresponding bit in
resuh according to the following table:
Bit it expression NOT

U 1
1 U
12,4.4 XOR (Exclusive Or)

Purpose: To perform logical negation on an expressions.
Syntax: result = expressionl Xor expression2

The Xor operator syntax has these parts:
Part Description
Resuh An optional boolean variable.
Expressionl A Required boolean expression.
If one, and only one, of the expressions evaluates to True, result is True. However, if either expression
is Null, result is also Null. \7hen neither expression is Null, result is determined according to the
following table:
expressionl expression2 Xor
True True False
True False True

False True True
False False False
The Xor operator performs both a logical and bitwise operations. A bit-wise comparison of two
expressions using exclusive-or logic to form the result, as shown in the following table:
Bit in expressionl bitin cxprcsion2 Xor

0 0 0
0 I I
I U I
1 I 0
12.5 LOOP STRUCTURE

Visual Basic provides loop structures to perform iterative operations. Repeating actions can be
implemented in two ways
1. Detertninate Loops: Repeats the operation a fixed number of time.
2. lnfuterminate Loops: Continues until you reach a specific predetermined goal, or continue until
certain initial conditions have changed.
At times, we might need to execute a group of statements repeatedly. That is, we want to execute them
over and over again. To consider some simple examples:
. Preparing the results of an exam: we start from the first student and continue with the same set of
rules upto the last student.
. Preparation of bills in a telephone company: we take the first customer and continue with the
billing process upto the last customer in our list.
. Preparing a bill in a shop: we start processing the order from the first product to the last.
. On the popular TV game show KBC: questions are repeatedly asked till the time the participant
oPts out or gives a wrong answer.
As is obvious, we are repeating a group of statements, applying similar conditions and rules at every
stage. This repeated execution of statements can be achieved through what we call as 'looping' or
'iterative' statements. \7e will now see all of these statements.
12.5.1For-next Loop
The general syntax of the For-Next Loop is as follows:
FOR i : initial value TO final value 'line 1
'All of these statements
'will be repeated as long
'as the numeric value
'of the variable 'i' is

'between the initial value
'and the final value
NEXT i 'line 8
where i can be any integer variable. In For-Next terminologl, 'i' is known as an index variable.
The
[-For i : initial value ro final value]. All of
code starts by initializing the value of i, as given in the line
the statemenrs upto line no. 8 (Next i) are then execured.
At line number 8, rwo important things happen:
1. The value of i is incremented by 1.
2. "Next i" then checks if the value of i falls in the given range on linel (initial ,rlrr. ,rrd final value)
If the incremented value of i falls within the range, all the lines between 1 and 8 are executed once
again. Once again, the program comes to line 8. Once again the process happening at line
number g is
repeated, as we have just discussed.
If the incremented value falls between the range, all of the lines between 1 and 8 are again execured.
This process continues till the time the ,alre of i is between the initial and the final valui. That
is, the
lines between 1 and 8 are repeatedly executed. This is what we call as the 'loop'.
Once incremented value of i' does NOT fall in the given range, execution of lines berween
1 and g is
stopped. Thus, the For-Next loop is terminated. The progrrin will then starr processing
statements
written after "Next i" statement
Let us say we want to print a sequence of numbers from 1 to 3. Our program will look like this:
Code Listing for.l
1-. i = l_ TO 3'define initial and final values
FOR
2. PRTNT i
3. NEXT i ,check if loop is to be repeated
4. MSGBOX " For - Next loop has ended"
1. Line no. 1 stans the loop, assigning initial of 1 for i and a final value of 3.
2. Line no. 2 prints the value of i on rhe screen, i.e., 1.
3. Line no. 3 "Next i" increments the value of i' by 1: 'i' becomes 2.
4' The line "Next i" checks if i' falls in the range 1 ro 3 as specified in line no. 1. The
currenr value
of i', i.e., 2, is between 1 and 3. Hence, line no. 2 is repeated.
5. Line no. 2 again prints the valueof i, on rhe screen, i.e.,2.
6' Line no. 3 is reached again. "Next i" again increments 'i' by 1. So, 'i' now becomes 3. The
current
value is then checked at line no.1. Since the currenr valul of i is berween 1 and
3, line no. 2 is
repeated.
7. Line no. 2 again prints the value of i' on the screen, i.e., 3.
8. Line no. 3 is reached again. "Next i" again increments 'i' by 1. So, 'i' now becomes
4. The current
value of i' is 4, but 4 is NOT between 1 and 3. Thus, line no. 2 is nor repeared. The For..Next
loop is terminated, and further printing of the value of i' is stopped. Nowihe program
comes ro
line 4.
9. Line no. 4 gives a message box indicating that the loop has terminated. The program stops.
M's' university - D'D'C'E' Procedures, Logical operators and Loops 192
Take,another examPle. This time we will print a name on the screen four times. The
code segmenr is
as tollows:
Code Listing for.2

1. FOR i = 1 TO 4 'define iniEial and final values
2, PRINT "Mamta puri,'
3. NEXT i 'check if J_oop is to be repeated
4. MSGBOX "Name printing t.ask is over,,
1' Line no. the for loop. It assigns an initial of 1 for the index variable i and a final value of 4.
1 stans
2. Line no. 2 prints 'Mamta puri, on the screen (1st rime).

3' Line no. 3 "Next i" increments the value of i' by 1: 'i' becomes 2. The line "Next i',
then chechs if
'i'falls in the range 1to 4 as given in line no. t. The currenr value of i,i.e.,2,is between L and,4.
Hence, line no. 2 is repeared.
4. Line no. 2 again prints 'Mamra puri, on the screen (2nd time).
5. Line no. 3 is reached again. "Next i" again increments 'i' by 1. So, 'i' now becomes 3.
The current value is
then checked at line no.1. Since the current value of i' is blrween 1 and 4, line no. 2 is repeated.
6. Line no. 2 again prints 'Mamra puri, on rhe screen (3rd time).
7. Line no.3 is reached again. "Next i" again increments'i'by 1. So,'i'now becomes
4. The current
valueof i' is 4 and 4 is between L and 4. Thus, line no. 2 is'repeated.
8. Line no. 2 againprints 'Mamra puri' on rhe screen (4th time).
9' Line no. 3 is reached again. "Next i" again increments 'i' by 1. So, 'i' now becomes 5.
The current
value of i' is 5, but 5 is NoT betwien t and 4. Thus, iine ,ro. z i, nor repeared.
The loop is
terminated. The program shifts to line no. 4.
10. Line no. 4 gives a message box on the screen. The program then stops.
For-Next with Step
far, we have always increased the value of the index variable by 1. But what if we want
.So to increase it
by 2, or by 5? 'S7hat if we v/ant to decrease it by 1, or by 5? This oprion is provided Uy rfr. ir.p
keyword. The general synrax of For..Nexr now beiome,
FOR i = initial value TO final value STEP j
'everytime the statement
'NEXT I is reached
'i will change by
'the value given in
'STEP j
NEXT i
198 Internet and its Applications M.S. University - D'D'C'E'
where 'j' is an integer variable, either positive or negative. If we want to decrease the value of " i " at
every step, 'j' should be a negative integer.
Let us now use Step to make a program that generates the multiples of 2 upto the number 10, i'e., the
output should bez 2,4,6,8,10.
Code Listing for.3
1. FORi =2TO 10 STEP 2 'increase iby2 at everyiteration
2, PRINT i
3. NEXT i 'check if loop is Lo be repeated
4. MSGBOX "looP is over"
l. Line no. 1 gives 'i' the initial value of 2.
2. Line no. 2 prints '2' on the screen.
3. Line no. 3 increases the value of i' by 2, because the value of Step is 2. This changes the value of i
to 4 . Line no. 3 then checks if the current value of i, i.e., 4 is between2 and 10. Since it is, the
program shifts to line no. 2 and prints the value of i.
4. As long as rhe value of i is betwe en 2 tnd 10, the program will keep shifting to line no.2 from line
no. 3. Once 'i' comes out of the range (2 to 10) the for-next loop will terminate.
5. Now line no. 4 will run, informing the user that the loop has terminated.
Thus, after giving the output as a sequence, i'e',
10
the loop terminates.

'We can make the current code do the reverse thing - printing even numbers from 10 to 2, in
descending order. The output expected, thus, becomes - 10,8,6,4,2.The code is going to be as follows:
Code Listing for.4

1. FOR i = 10 TO 2 STEP -2 ', decrease i by 2 at every iteration
'compare line above with line no. 1 of Code Listing for.3
2. PRfNT i
3. NEXT i 'check if loop is to be repeated
4. MSGBOX "loop is over"
1. Line no. 1 gives 'i' the initial value of 10.
2. Line no. 2 prints '10' on the screen.

3. Line no. 3 decreases the value of i' by 2, because the value of Step is [-2]. This changes the value of
'i' ro 8. Line no. 3 then checks if the current value of i' 181 is between 10 and 2. Since it is, the
program shifts to line no. 2 and prints the value of i'.
As long asthe value of i' is between 10 and 2, the program will keep shifting to line no.2 from line no.
Once 'i' comes out of the range [10 to 2] the for-next loop will terminate. Then line no. 4 will be
executed.
If we compare Code Listing for.3 and Code Listing for.4, we will nodce that only line t has been
changed. Thus, after giving the output
108642
Here is another program, which accepts five names, one by one, and displays them on a message box.
The code is like this:
Code Listing for.5
1. DIM nam AS STRING
2. FOR i = 1 TO 5 'define initial and final values
3. nam = INPUTBOX ("Please enter a name")
4, MSGBOX nam & "is a nice name indeed"
5. NEXT i 'check if loop is to be repeated
6. MSGBOX "1oop is over"
l. Line no. 1 declares a String type of variable 'nam' at line 1.
2. Line no. 2 begins the for-next loop, initializing 'i' to the value 1.
3. Line no. 3 accepts a name and stores it in the variable 'nam'.

4. Line no. 4 displays this name in a message box alongwith a message that should please any user!
5. Line no. 5 increases 'i' by 1 and then checks if i' falls between 1 and 5. Since the present value of
'i' does fall in the range, line nos. 3 and 4 are re-executed, again asking for a name and displaying it
in a message box.
As long as the value of i' stays between 1 and 5, the For..Next loop will continue to accept a name and
display it in a message box. Once the value of i' goes beyond 5, the loop is ended and line no. 6 is executed.
72.5.2 Nested Loops

For..Next loops can be 'nested', with the same rules for nesting as for others: no crossing-over of the
inner and outer loops. Thus, the following loop is valid as it does not have any intersection of the
outer and inner For..Next loop.
FORi:1TO5
FORi:1TOs
'some processing
'done here
NEXT j
NEXT i
'W"hereas,
the following loop is invalid, since nrro loops intersect:
FORi = 1 TO 5
FORj=1TO5
'some processing
'done here
NEXT i
NEXT i
To minimize risk of wrong nesting, just type 'Nexr' instead of 'Nexr i', 'Next j', etc. This way, VB
will follow a proper nesdng by itself.
FORi- 1TO4
FOR,-1TO4
'sorne processing
'done here
NEXT
NEXT
By the w1\ ca! you guess how many times the inner 'j' loop will run? A total of 16 times! This is
because of the following reason:
1. 'i' is 1: \trflhile 'i'stays at
L,'j'will change in value from 1 to 4. Thus, the 'j' loop will run a total of
4 times when [i=1]. The variable'i'does.not change in value ar presenr bec..rre the'i'loop's
[Next I] statement is not reached in this duration. [h. progr.- k..p, looping between 'ro,
Next j' statements.) Once 'j' becomes 5, the.'j' loop .rrdr *d th. piogrrrn comes to
1-
[Next i]
statement. Now, the value of i' becomes 2 and the control shifts backio the
[For j] statement.
2. 'i' is 2: The 'j' lo_opxill again change in value from 1 to 4. Thus, the 'j' loop will run a total of 4
times while [i=2). The variable'i'does not change in value ar presenr 6..r.rr. the'i, loop's
fNext
Il statement is not reached in this duration. (The program keeps looping between 'For'j-IrLxt j'
statements.) Once 'j' becomes 5, the 'j' loop ends anJthe program comes to
[Next I] statemeni.
Now, the value of i' becomes 3 and the control shifts back to the
[For j] sraremenr.
3. 'i' is 3: The 'j' loop will again change in value from 1 to 4. The 'j' loop will run a total of four
times while [i:3]: Once 'j' becomes 5, the 'j' loop ends and the program comes to
[Next I]
statement. Now, the value of i' becornes 4 and the control shifts backto i-h. j] staternent.
;Fo,
4. 'i' is 4: The 'j' loop will again change in value from 1 to 4. The 'j' loop will run a total of four times
while [i=4]. Once 'j' becomes 5, the 'j' loop ends and the program comes to
[Next I] statement.
Now, the value of i' becomes 5. Since the value of i' is rro lorrgJr between the 'i' loop condition
to 4], the 'i' loop is terminated. The program comes out of the 'i loop and stops after
[i
fNext I].
As just explained, for every single value of i, j changes value from 1 to 4. Thus, the j loop runs ,4,
times
for every single run of the i loop. The i loop will change from 1 to 4 and then terminate. This means
that the i loop will run a total of '4' times. Thus, the program will run a total of 4 'F 4= 16 times.
(tlo. of iterations of i' loop '$ No. of iterations of 'j' loop for each single value of i').
12.5.3 Do Loops
Apart from the For-Next loop, VB provides the Do loop as Inother iterative mechanism. Needless to
say, rhe need of this loop is the same as that of the For-Next loop. This loop is, broadly speaking, of
two tyPes:
. Do-\(hile-Loop
. Do-Until-Loop
In both the types, we provide a condition after the keyword "Do-\7hile" or "Do-lJntil". The
repetition of the loop depends on whether the condition is true or false at any given point of time.
Do-While-Loop
In this loop, the loop lines are repeated as long as the given condition is true. Once the condition
becomes false, the loop is terminated and the program continues with the statements that appear after
the Do-Vhile loop.
The general syntax for the Do-Vhile loop is
DO \(HILE some condition
'execute some
'statements repeatedly
'while the condition

'is true
LOOP
All of rhe statements written between 'Do-\7hile' and 'Loop' are repeatedly executed till the time
the
condition mentioned after Do-\ilhile is true. That is, the 'Loop' statement shifts the control back to
'Do-\(hile' and the condition is then checked. If the condition is true, the loop is re-executed. Once
the condition becomes false, the program stops the repeated loop execution and begins to execute the
statements after'Loop'.
As an example, we will remake our Code Listing for.1 using Do-\X/hile along with a command
button's click event:
Code Listing do.1
il-1
a. a r
-
2. Do WHILE i < 4 'check if i is fess Ehan 4
3. PRINT i
4. i = i + l-
5. LOOP 'check if J-oop is to be repeated
6. MSGBOX u Do - While loop over"

1. Line no. 1 assigns the initial value for the variable 'i'.
2. Line no. 2 will check the condition [i < 4]. If the condition is rrue, the program will execute all
lines upto line no. 5.
3. of i' [1].
Line no. 3 will print the value
4. Line no. 4 increases the value of i' by 1: 'i' now becomes 2.
5. Line no. 5 shifts the control back to line 2, where the condition [i < a] will be checked again.
\7ith the current value of i'l2), this condition is true. Thus, line no. 3 is execured, printing the
value of i' [2] on the screen. Line no. 4 again increases value of i' by 1..So, 'i' is now 3. Line no. 5
shifts the control back to line 1, where the condition ti < 4l will be checked again. As long as the
value of i' is less than 4, the program will keep on printing and incremenri{rg rhe value of i' and
checking whether ,h. l"op sbuld be continued or not.
Once'i'_becomes equal to 4, the loop is terminated. The program shifts to line no.5, displaying a
message box on the screen and then stops.
Take another example. As done in Code Listing for.2, we will print a name on rhe screen four times.
This time we'll use Do-\flhile to get the same result, using a command bufton's Click event:
Code Listing do.2
1. i =1
2. DOWHILE i < 5 'check if i is less than 5
3. PRINT " Taranya Gupta,,

4. i =i +1
5. LOOP 'check if loop is to be repeated
6. MSGBOX " Name printing is over,,
1. Line no. 1 assigns a value of 1 to the variable 'i'.
2. Line no. 2 compares the value of i' with 5. If it is less than 5, the remaining lines are executed.
Otherwise, the loop is not executed.
3. Line no. 3 prints 'Taranya Gupta' on the screen.
4. Line no. 4 increases 'i' by 1.
5. Line 5 takes the control back to line 2 and here the condition ti < 5l is checked again. If it is true,
line nos. 3 and 4 are repeatedly executed. Once the condition [i ( 5] becomes false, further
execution of the loop is stopped. The program now shifts to line no. 6.
6. Line no. 6 displays a message box on rhe screen. The program srops.
lWe'Il now get the same results as from Code Listing
for.3 seen earlier in the chapter. This time,
though, we'll be using Do-\flhile. Again, use a command button's Click as rhe evenr for the code. The
code is as follows:
Code Listing do.3

-L- 1= Z
2. DO WHILE i < 11 'check if i is less than 11
3. PRINT i
4. ! = i + 2
6. MSGBOX "do whil-e ended"
1. Line no. 1 assigns the number 2 to the variable 'i'.
2. Line no. 2 checks if ti < 111. If it is true, line 3 is executd. If it is not true, all the loop lines are
skipped over, and program control shifts to line no.6.
3. Line no. 3 prints the value of i' on the screen.
4. Line no. 4 increases the value of.'1' by 2.
5. Lineno.5takestheprogrambacktoline2,wherethecondition[i < 11]isagainchecked. If the
condition is rrue, lini nos. 3 and 4 are re-executed. This means that the program continues with
the repetition of the loop as long as the condition [i < 11] is true. Once the condition [i < 11]
becornes false, the loop is terminated, and control shifts to the line following line 5.
6. Line no. 6 displays a messagebox and the program ends.

Thus, after giving the output
10

Now we will generate the same output in reverse order, i.e., 10,8,6,4,2, with the following code
Code Listing do.4
1. i = 10
2. DO WHILE i > 1'check if i is greater than 1
3. PRINT i
4. i = i - 2
5. LOOP 'check if loop i-s to be repeated
6. MSGBOX "looP over"
1. Line no. 1 assigns 10 to 'i'.
2. Line 2 checks the condition [i > 1]. Since i is initially 10, this condition is true. Thus, line nos. 3
and 4 are run. After line 4, 'i' decreases by 2, i.e.,'i' drops to 8.
3. Line no. 5 takes the control back to line 2 and again checks for the condition [i > 1]. Since 'i' is
still greater than 1, lines 3 and 4 are again executed. This process of repetition continues while 'i'
M.S. University - D.D.C,E.
is greaterthan 1' once'i'becomes 0, the condition

loop is stopped' The program then continues with
[i ) 1] becomes false, andthe reperirion of the
*y *ri.*.nrs written after line 5 (Loop).
4' Line no. 6 terminates the program after displaying
a messagebox.
The output produced by Code List do.4 is
10
2
Do-Until l-oop
rwith the Do-\flhile
loop, the repetitions continue as far as the given condition ,,rrue,,.
is That is, the
loop will continue "while" the condition is "rrue". The
Do-until loop is just rhe reverse of this. In a
Do-Until loop, the repetitions take place as far as the giuerr-condition
is ',false,,. In other words, the
loop will continue "until" the condition becomes "true".
once the condition becomes true, the loop is
terminated and the Program continues with the staremenrs
mentioned after Do-until loop. The
general synrax for the Do-Until loop is:
DO UNTIL some condition

'execute some
'statements repeatedly
'until the condition
'becomes true
LOOP
All of the statements written between Do-until and Loop are repearedly
executed as far as the
condition mentioned after Do-Until is not true. That
is, the f,oop ,rrr.*ent shifts the control back to
Do-until and the condition is then checked. If the condiri""I
nor rrue, the loop is re-execured. once
the condition becomes true, the program stops the ,.p.rr.J
loop .*..rrion and begins ro execure rhe
statemenrc after Loop.
As.an example, we will remake our code Listing do.1
using Do-until, ro ger rhe same result as from
code listing do.1 using a butron,s click event:
Code Listing do.5
1. DO UNTIL i > 4,continue if i is NOT greater than 4
2. PRrNT i
.:_:
J-J.+J_

5. ,
MSGBOX Do - Until loop over,,

1. Line no 1 will check the condition [i > 4]. If the condition is not true, the program will execute
all lines upto line no. 4. If the condition is true, the loop will not be executed.
2. Line no. 2 will print the value of i'.
3. Line no. 3 will increase the value of i' by 1, which now becomes 2.
4' Line no. 4 will shift control back to line 1, where the condition [i > a] will be evaluated again.
Vith the current value of i' l2f, this condition is still nor rnre. Thus, line no. 2 is re-executed,
printing the value of i' [2] on the screen. Line no. 3 increases value of i' by 1 again. This process
of repeating the statements (from line no. 1 upto line no. a) will conrinue unril [i > 4]. Once 'i'
becomes greater than 4, the loop will terminate.
5. Line no. 5 displays a message box and the program rerminares.
Take another example. This time we will print a name on rhe screen four times, exacrly as we have
done in Code Listingf.or.2 and Code Listing do.2. Now we will use Do-UNTIL ro get rhe same result.
Code Listing do.6
f . f 1
-
2. DO UNTfL i > 4 'continue if i is NOT greater than 5

3. PRINT "Sam"
4. i = i- + 1
5. LOOP 'check j-f loop is to be repeated
6. MSGBOX " Name print.ing is over,,
1. Line no. 1 initializes 'i'to 1.
2. Line no. 2 checks if the current value of i' is greater than 5. As the condition is nor rrue, line no.
3 is executed.
3. Line no. 4 now increases 'i' by 1.
4. Line 5 takes the control back to line 2 and here the condition ti > 5l is checked again. If it is not
true, the Process of repeating the loop continues. Once the condition ti > 5] becomes rrue,
further execution of the loop is stopped. The program now shifts to line no. 6.
5. Line no. 6 displays a message box on rhe screen and the program srops.
Now we will generate a series of numbers - 2,4,6,8,10. You might recollect that we have already done
this using For-Next and Do-\7hile. Now we will be using Do-Until ro ger the same resuh. Ure the
click event of a button for the code:
Code Listing do.7
1. 1 = 2
2. Do UNTIL i > 11 'continue loop if i is Nor greater than 11
3. PRINT i
4. i = i + 2

1. At line no. f i' is assigned vahte of 2.
2. Line 2 checks whether [i > 11]. Since it is not, Line 3 is executed, printing the value of i' on the
screen.
3. Line 4 increases the value of.'i' by 2.

4. Line 5 takes the program back to line2, where the condirion [i > 11] is again evaluated. If the
condition is true, line nos. 2 and 3 are re-executed. This means that the'program continues with
the repetition of the loop as long as the condition [i > 11] is not rrue. Once the condition
becomes true, the loop is terminated, and control shifts to the line following line 5.
after giving the output

.Thus,
2
4
6
8
l0
Here is another program, which accepts five names, one by one, and displays them in a message box,
on the click of a button. The code, using Do-Until, is:
Code List do.8
1. DIM nam AS STRING
2. i =1
3. DO ITNTIL i > 5'continue loop if i is NOT greater than 5
4. na[l = INPUTBOX ("P1ease enEer a name',)

5. MSGBOX nam & "is a very nice name',
6. i =i +1
l. Line 1 declares a string type of a variable.
2. Line2 initializes 'i'to 1.
3. Line 3 checks the condition [i ) 5]. Since the current value of i' [1] does nor sarisfy rhis
condition, line 4 is executed.
4. Line no. 4 asks for a name through an Input box.
5. Line no. 5 displays rhe name in a message box.
6. Line no. 6 increments 'i' by 1 (i now becomes 2).
7 . Line 7 rransfers control back to line 3. Line 3 again checks for [i > 5]. This process of continuing
with the loop will go on until [i > 5], i.e., 'i' becomes greater than 5. Once [i ) 5] becomes true,
further re-execution of the loop is stopped.
k Your
1. Define indeterminate loops.
2. Define Do-while loop.
I2.6LET US SUM UP
A sub-routine is a procedure that performs a task but does not return a value. Functions are a type of
procedure, which return a value. This is what separates a function from a sub-procedure. As the name
suggests, string functions work on string type of data. They help perform a number of useful activities
that are of immense help in validating and manipulating our data.
A logical expression is a combination of constants, variables and operators, which evaluates to either
TRUE or FALSE values. Logical expressions are formed using logical and relational operators. A
logical operator compares two values (constants, expressions, variables etc.) and produces either true or
false when used in an expression. Visual Basic provides many looping constnrcts such as do-while,
while-wend and their variants.
72.7 KEY\T/ORDS
Looping: Repeated execution of statements.
Logical Expression: A combination of constants, variables and operators, which evaluates to either
TRUE or FALSE values.
Logical Operator: A logical operator compares two values (consants, expressions, variables etc.) and
produces either true or false when used in an expression.
Functions: Functions are a type of procedure, which return a value.

Sting Functions: String functions work on string type of data
Sub Routines: A sub-routine is a procedure that performs a task but does not return a value.
12.8 QUESTTONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Discuss the creation of sub routines.
2. How are functions created?
3. '$7hat are sting functions? Discuss.
4. \7hat are logical operators? Discuss different logical operators with examples.
5. Differentiate between determinate loops and indeterminate loops.
6. \[hat are do loops. Discuss with example.
7. ]tr7hat will be the ourput of the following code?

Forj='5to5
MsgBox Str( + 1)
If 0 > 4)Then
Exit For
End If
Next j
8. How many times will the staremenrl execure in the following loop?
. For j : 1to 10
Fork=jto10
Statementl
Next k
Next k

L' Indeterminate Loops: Continues until you reach a specific predetermined
goal, or continue
until cenain initial conditions have changed.
2' In this loop, the loop lines are repeated as long as rhe given condition is true.
once the
condition becomes false-, the loop is terminated arrd tf,. program conrinues
with the
statemenrs that appear after the Do-\tr7hile loop.

Paul Lomax, Learning IIB Script, Volume 1, O,Reilly Media, Inc.
lerry LeeFord, Learn VB Script in a weekend, premier press

Adrian Kingsley-Hughes, Kathie Kingsley-Hughes, Daniel Read,, W
Scriptprogrammer's referelce,Nflrox/ryiley pub.
LESSON
t3
VB SCRIPT AND FORMS
CONTENTS
13.t Introduction
13.2 A Simple Page
13.3 Using VB Script with Forms
t3.3.1 Validadng your Forms
13.3.2 Checking Form Input
t3.3.3 How It Works
13.3.4 Submitting Your Forms
13.4 Error Hiding
13.5 Let us Sum up
t3.6 Kel"words

. Understand vbscript
. Discuss working of vbscript with forms.
. Understand error hiding
13.1 INTRODUCTION
VB Script is defined as a scripting language developed by Microsoft. You can make your web pages
more vibrant and interactive with the help of this scripting language. VB Script is a light edition of
Visual basic and it has a simple syntax.
VB Script is extensively used and most accepted as a client side scripting language. In html language
r"ou use ( and ) around the tags. But you can use many tags inside one pair of < o/, and o/o ). For
Printing a variable you can use ( Yo : o/o ).
Scripting languages like Javascript and Vbscript are intended as an expansion to html language. The
'Web
browsers such as Microsoft Internet Explorer obtain the scripts along with the remaining *eb
page document. It is the browser accountability to parse and process the scripts. These scripis are
extensively used as a client side scripting languages. Now we will starr learning how the Script
language works and we will show you step by step . So just focus on the further topics.
13.2 A SIMPLE PAGE

'$7hen
you want to insen scripts in your web pages you are organizing you have ro use ( script )
starting r.ag and ( / script ) ending tag where the script is going to close. The following example
exemplifies how to add functionality to a \7eb page by counring VBScript code. The .*r-pl. of this
simple page is shown below:
< html >
< head >
( title )vbscript example< /ride >
(script language:"vbscript' >
Msgbox "Hello"
( ,/script )
< /head >
< body >
< /body >
< /html >
\7e have used the example with a simple going "Hello" as there is a inclination that when a new
learner is learning a new language we always welcome him.
\7ell, in the above example you have seen the language qualiry. \7e have used VbScript as the scripting
language. This quarrel is needed as there are more than one scripting language. Vithout the languagl
argument, browser would not able to understand if the rexr beffi/een rhe rags was vbscript or javascript
or any other scripting language.
As the Script is fully dependent on the browser so next question rhar occur is " How to handle Non
Supporting browsers". If the client browser has hindered the script than your web page might now
function properly. so for your benefir you can also the server side language
13.3 USING VB SCRIPT \TITH FORMS

As the rePutation of web page forms raises, so does the requiremenr ro be able rclegalize data before
the client browser proposes it to the web server. As a scripting language, VBScript is well matched for
this task. After the validation of the form, the same script can be used to forward the data on ro rhe
server. In this lesson we will look at both the process of validating and submitting forms.
13.3.1 Validating Your Forms

The process of validating forms entails checking the form to see if:
o All of the required data is proved
. The data provided is valid

Meticulous data validation scripts can be monotonous to code but are well worth their return in
validating the quality of the data.
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. VB Script and Forms 211
The validation example that we will be probing does not enclose anything new in the way of VBScript
Before reading any further you may find if favorable to consider how you would legalize an HTML
form using the VBScript techniques.
Let's see an example to give you a thought of what is possible when it comes to validating forms.
13.3.2 Checking Form Input

This example is quite easy. It has a single field in which the user can enter their age and a single
command button that is used to submit their age to the server. <HTML>
< HEAD >
< TITLE )'Working Vith VBScript: Example 5a ( /TITLE>
< SCRIPT LANGUAGE : "VBScript" )
( !- Instruct non-IE browsers to skip over VBScript modules.
Option Explicit
Sub cmdSubmit_OnClick
' Check to see if the user entered anything.

If (I-en(document.frmExample5a.txtAge.value) - 0) Then
MsgBox "You must enter your age before submitting."

Exit Sub
End If
' Check to see if the user entered a number.
If (Not(IsNumeric(document.frmExample5a.txtAge.value))) Then
MsgBox "You must enter a number for your age."
Exit Sub
End If
' Check to see if the age entered is valid.
If (document.frmExample5a.txtAge.value < 0) Or _
(document.frmExample5a.txtAge.value ) 100) Then
MsgBox "The age you entered is invalid."

Exit Sub
End If
' Data looks okay so submit it.
MsgBox "Thanks for providing your age."
document.frmExample5a. submit
End Sub
272 lnterner and its Applications
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD >
<BODY>
<Hl>A VBScript Example on Variables</H1>
< P > This example demonsrrates validation techniques in vBScript . < /p >
< FORM NAME : "frmExample5a" )
< TABLE >
< TR>
< TD > Enter your age: ( /TD )
< TD > < INPUT TYPE= "Texr" NAME: "rxrAge" SIZE=,,2,,)
< TR>
< TD > < INPUT TYPE: "Burron" NAME = "cmdSubmit" vALUE: "Submir" > < /TD >
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
< /FORM >
</BODY>
< /HTML >
13.3.3 How It Vorks
The empathy of this validation script is established in the click event procedure for the cmdSubmit
command button. \ile begi-n by inspecting if the user entered anything at all into the field using
VBScript's Len function. This function returns the length of a stri.rg. Ii the length is 0, rhe data ii
invalid. \7e inform the user and exit the submit procedrrr. via the Exit-Sub ,rrr.-.ir,
' Check to see if the user enrered anything.
If (Len(documenr.frmExample5a.txtAge.value) : O) Then
MsgBox "You must enrer your age before submitting."
Exit Sub
End If
Next we test out to see if what the user entered is a numeric value. The VBScript function IsNumeric
returns a true value when it is a number. If not, we tell the user and exit:
'Check to see if rhe user entered a number.
If (I.,Iot$sNumeric(documenr.frmExample5a.txtAge.value))) Then
MsgBox "You must enter a number for your age."
Exit Sub
End If
M.S. Universitv - D.D.C.E. VB Script and Forms 213
Our concluding check involves verifying that the age they entered appears to be sensible for our
environment. I have determined that no age less than 0 or greater than 100 is accepiable. Using an
If..Then statement we can check the value of the input field in opposition to this criteria:
'Check to see if the age entered is valid.
If (document.frmExample5a.txtAge.value < 0) Or _
(document.frmExample5a.txtAge.value > 100) Then
MsgBox "The age you entered is invalid."

Exit Sub
End If
That's it. \7hile this example is by no means the most thorough validation script you will come across
it provides you with a basis of what is possible wirh VBScript.
13.3.4 Submitting Your Forms
Judged against to validation, the procedure of submitting a form is simple. In our example we've used a
normal HTML button with the Submit caption that is joined to an event procedure that both validates
and at the same time submits the form. The code that we would have to add to our previous example
to submit the form is shown below:
'Data looks okay so submit it.
MsgBox "Thanks for providing your age."
document.frmExample5a.submit
The MsgBox statement lets the user know that their data has been processed. The form is then
submitted by invoking the Submlr method of the form object. As we saw in lesson 3 on objects,
methods cause an object to perform a task. Here we are using the submit method of our form ro cause
the form to submit its data, just as if we had used a subrnit conrrol.
13.4 ERROR HIDING

Error hiding is defined as an anti-pattern, in computer programming. The programmer conceals error
messages by overriding them with exception handling. Consequently the root error message is
concealed from the user (hence 'error hiding') and so they will not be told what the real error is. Error
hiding is a curse of support engineers' jobs as it frequently delays the declaration of the problem by
hiding information needed to identify what is going wrong.
A common argument for error hiding is the wish to hide intricacy from the user. Often best practice is
to lift an exception to the user to conceal a complex error message but to save the full error message to
an error log which a support engineer can access to resolve the problem.
Example:
try
ImponFile(filename);
excePt
/ / an exception with almosr no information

raise Exception.Create('import failed');
end;
This code fragment tries to open a file and read it into memory. If it fails (for whatever reason) the
only gets a message telling them that the import failed, not why or indeed which file failed to imporc.
/ / bener approach
try
ImportFile(filename) ;
except
on E:Exception do
begin
/ / build an informative message
E.Message ::'Imporr of file <'+filename+' ) failed.' +#lj#lO +
E.Message;
/ / re-raise the exception
raise;
end;
end;
In this example the user at least gets a message rhar tells them which file was unsuccessful to import;
this gives them a start at identifying the problem. A more absolute solution would comprise additional
information on why the impon failed and write the information ro a log file, perhaps (for very
complex or enterprise level applications) also producing extra 'rrace' files containing detailed records of
the state of the application when the error appeared.
Sometimes error hiding is a applicable activity, for example accessing the conrents of a file that does
not exist in Java version 1.3 or older would result in an IOException message without any reference to
the misplaced file. In this case is would be sensible to veil the error and raise ,r, based on
what the application was trying to do at the time, giving what extra information can"*..piion
be tbtained.
Another reason for Error Hiding is to shun componenr crashing in case of failure. In spite of the error,
the component carry on its job. The user (and the testers) never see the crash, even ifsome anomalies
canbe discovered, as the results are not those predictable.
This is completed either with a try/catchwith an empry catch clause, or by execuring code depending
on the returning error status:
Example of try/ catch error hiding (C + + code):
try
{
doSomethingQ ;
doSomethingElseQ ;
M.S. University - D.D.C.E. VB Script and Forms 215
anotherDoSomethingQ ;
)
carch(...)
{
\I
As it is this code is tremendously difficult to correct (and is even more, in case of nested "empty
try/catch" Error Hiding code), and any variance is extremely difficult to trace to its origin, increasing
maintenance costs, only to keep up an appearance of robustness.
Example of error returning error hiding (VBScript code):
If doSomethingQ Then
If doSomethingElseQ Then
If anotherDoSomething$ Then
anotherOtherD oSomethingQ
End If
End If
End If
The outcome is that when some error happens, it is secreted by the code (because it's error prone or
simply verbose to add an Else clause) until someone notices something is muddled.
A tricky outcome is that when some similar code is written, but without the IflEnd If clauses, and is
executed after the first code, the second code will fail, but no one will know the failure happened
before and was hidden.
Thus one can aggravate the appearance of a bug months after the bug was first introduced (but hidden
and thus, never discovered).
Define Checking Form Input.
13.5 LET US SUM UP

There are scripting languages like Javascript and Vbscript and they are designed as an extension ro
html language. The'Web browsers like Microsoft Internet Explorer receives the scripts along with the
rest of the web page document. 'S7hen ever you want to add scripts in your web pages you are
preparing you have to use ( script ) starting tag and ( / script ) ending tag where the script is
going to close. As the popularity of web page forms increase, so does the need to be able to validate
data before the client browser submits it to the web server. As a scripting language, VBScript is well
suited for this task. Error hiding is an anti-pattern, in computer programming. The programmer hides
error messages by overriding them with exception handling. As a result of this the root error message
is hidden from the user (hence 'error hiding') and so they will not be told what the actual error is.
13.6 KEY\TORDS
w script: It is widely used and mosr popular as a client side scripting language.
Eror Hiding: It is an anti-pattern, in computer programming. The programmer hides error messages
by overriding rhem with exception handling.
13.7 QUESTTONS FOR DISCUSSION

t. \7hat is vbscript? Discuss how a simple page is created using vbscript.
2" Discuss how vbscript is used with forms.
3. \7hat is error hiding? Discuss it with example.

'$7rite
4. the ourput of the following code:
(r) Dim z As Integer
DoUntilz)70
z:z+l
' Print z
Loop
(b) Dim y
Do
y:y+2
Print y
Loop Vhile y >: 2A
G) Dim d As Form
For Each d In Forms
d.Hide
Next

It in which the user can enter their age and a single command burton that
has a single field is
used to submit their age to the server.

SAMS Teacb Yourself Visual Basic 6 in 24 Hours; Greg M. Perry, Sanjaya Hettihewa; SAMS Publishing; 1988
Visual Basic 2005 in a Nutsbell; Paul Lomax, Steven Roman, Ron Petrusha, Tim Patrick; O'Reilly; 2006
Beginning Visual Basic 6; Peter Vright; Wrox Press; 1998

MS Univ - Internet and Its Applications

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INTERNET AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1.5 Tower of the Internet Hardware

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

. Discuss working of web

It is a world wide interconnected system of thousands of computer nerworks, each network in

1.2.1 History of Internet

. Magazines and newspapers

The ttrr]Jilv Provides a network of interactive documents and rhe software

1.4 \TEB CLIENT S( \TEB SERVER

1.4.1 Veb Server

. Accept a client's request for information

1.4.2 Veb Client/Bro\ilser

1.5 TO\T/ER OF THE INTERNET HARD\T/ARE

Internet Client Device

Internet Access Device

Internet Communication Link

Internet Communication Network

Internal Modem External Modem

1.5.4 Cable Modem

1.6 DOMAIN NAMING SYSTEM (DNS

Figure 1.1: DNS Hierarchy

1.6.1 Non-geographical Domains

The Standard Non-Geographical Domains (Iop Domains) are:

Table 1.1: Internet Domains

com for commercial organisations yahoo.com

1.6.2 Geographical Domains

1. Define web server.

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

2. Describe the working of web.

3. Differentiate between web servers and web clients.

6. Discuss the process of registering your own domain name.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

2. Intranet is a network based on TCP/P protocols (an internet) belonging to an

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Lisa Lopuck, Web Designfor Dummies, Bk&CD-Rom edition.

2.2.3 Understanding how a Browser communicates with a Web Server

2.4.3 The Structure of an HTML Program

2.5.2 Line Breaks

2.5.9 Controlling Font Size and Colour

I z.s Linking to other Interner Services

, 2.8.1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

| 2.8.2 Gopher Service

2.0 ArMS AND OBJECTTVES

2.2 ltriEB BRO\T/SERS

2.2.1 lnformation Files Creation

2.2.2 Basic Features of Browsers

14. If you will 'Web

2.2.3 understanding how a Browser communicates with a veb Server

'Web Server may suPPort two

Protocol:/ /IP address

P r otocol: / /servername:port number

Client Issues a Rcquest and Senter Sends a Response

Thus, the request for a web page can be two-fold:

Seruer Terrninates the Connection

2.4HYPER TEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE

2.4.1 HTML Editors

o Hot Dog Express (wurp.sdusage.com) - An easy-ro-use ediror for beginners.

. HoTMetaL Pro (wzaut.sofiquad.com) - An extensive, powerful and venerated HTML editor.